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Advances in Pedology

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DOI: 10.1080/02571862.2010.10639965

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South African Journal of Plant and Soil

ISSN: 0257-1862 (Print) 2167-034X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjps20

Advances in pedology in South Africa

P.A.L. le Roux , M. Hensley & C.W. van Huyssteen

To cite this article: P.A.L. le Roux , M. Hensley & C.W. van Huyssteen (2010) Advances
in pedology in South Africa, South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 27:1, 1-8, DOI:
10.1080/02571862.2010.10639965

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S. Afr. J. Plant & Soil, 27(1): 25th Anniversary Edition 1983-2008 1

Advances in pedology in South Africa

P.A.L. le Roux*, M. Hensley and C.W. van Huyssteen


Department of Soil, Crop and Climate Sciences, University of the Free State,
P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300

The ability of soil to serve as a unique buffer of water, organic carbon, nutrients, pH, redox and temperature is
recognised in environmental research. A detailed study on hardpan carbonate and dorbank horizons in the com-
monly occurring ‘heuweltjies’ of the arid Namaqualand coastal region revealed a ‘sepiolitic’ hardpan carbonate
centre through ‘sepiolitic’ / ‘petrosepiolitic’ (hardened) to the dorbank horizon on the edges. Footprints of ferrol-
ysis manifests in various properties of duplex and plinthic soils of the semi-arid eastern Free State as (1) acidity,
(2) colour, (3) Fe-Mn, (4) mottles and concretions, (5) CEC and (6) abrupt textural differentiation. Soils with mel-
anic A horizons cover 2% of South Africa and are confined to regions with annual rainfall between 550 and 800
mm (aridity index of 0.2-0.5). The understanding of soil formation is applied to divide a land type into soilscapes
with a more homogeneous soil distribution pattern. The quantification of the water regime of South African soils
showed that ‘freely drained’ soils may have significant periods of drainable water.

Keywords: ferrolysis, melanic, predictive mapping, sepiolite, soil series

*To
whom correspondence should be addressed: (E-mail: lerouxpa.sci@ufs.ac.za)
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Introduction doing soil surveys and using the data to create order. Soil
Although soil science started in the 19th century as a natural classification has been an important tool in this process of
science with an impact on the environment, the rapid increase creating order based on the understanding of pedologists
in the number of agriculture related publications in the years (C.N. MacVicar, personal communication, 2002, Hilton). Soil
that followed is proof that the scene soon changed. During surveys have therefore served as a means of data capture and
most of the last century, soil science focused on food produc- storage.
tion because it was important in world politics. The soil clas- The interpretation of soil data to produce useful, user
sification systems of the world were designed with improved friendly information became important. The description of
food production as driving force. This bias was conveyed into soils using qualitative parameters such as soil colour and
the data generated by soil surveys, even those called “natural” quantitative parameters like pH, and naming the soils accord-
or “pedological”. This trend probably started with the First ingly, was a daunting task. Soil classification systems have
World War, continued through the Second World War and the frequently been developed with intuitive knowledge and rela-
Cold War. Towards the end of the 20th century the thrust for tively little data on some common soil properties. The rela-
increased food production slowed down because of overpro- tively simple interpretations of soil qualities required by crop
duction. Global soil degradation and increased awareness of production systems were generally regionally constrained and
the sensitive nature of components in the global ecosystem, empirical. Lately, huge databases are used to quantify soil
like water, coincided with this change of focus. The focus in classification criteria. For example, some recent research has
pedology and other sub-disciplines of soil science moved been done on, or supported by, data from the Land Type Data-
from agriculture to a natural science relevant to all environ- base (Land Type Survey Staff, 2002).
mental issues.
Increased awareness of the role of soil variation in agri- Research paradigm
culture and the environment and increasing cost of soil sur- Pedology has developed several sub-disciplines in basic and
veys, stimulated improved basic and applied research in applied research. The former area includes: improved under-
pedology. This included soil survey techniques and data cap- standing of soil formation; data collection (including soil sur-
turing, re-interpretation of existing data, improved correlation veys); development of databases and the collection of other
for value adding and a new evaluation of the role soils play in soil data (e.g. long term water contents). The term soil survey
the environment. Environmental topics increasingly used soil as used here includes the identification of soil properties, soil
survey data and information in ecology (soil as part of the analyses, soil classification and soil mapping. Interpretation
ecological system), pollution (soil as a sink for wastes) and of this information is needed to improve the user friendliness
hydrology (soil as a regulator of water supplies – both surface of soil data. This is addressed by the correlation of data that
and ground water). enhances the understanding of soils. This step converts data
Pedology has traditionally served other sub-disciplines in into information useful to scientists and some non-scientists.
soil science and agronomy. Application of pedology outside The information gained by studies on soil formation makes
agriculture has been limited. Pedology is, however, currently the interpretation of qualities and suitabilities of soils possi-
becoming increasingly important in environmental sciences, ble. A typical response of a soil to treatment is predictable
hydrology and geohydrology. Research for the sake of dis- only after a level of understanding of the relevant typical
covering the secrets about natural soils has always been qualities has been established. An example is the conversion
important. This goal was served by capturing data while of soil properties (pH and nutrient status) to a soil quality
2 S. Afr. J. Plant & Soil, 27(1): 25th Anniversary Edition 1983-2008

(fertility) and determining the suitability of a soil for crop coupled with the decrease in HCO3- and increase in Mg2+ due
production. The last step in the research chain is the evalua- to sepiolite precipitation, allowed for the precipitation of the
tion of soils and important components of ecotypes and the ‘sepiolitic’ zone on the outer perimeter of the calcrete, leav-
role it plays in a specific field of research. This is applied ing the precipitation of silica to occur on the periphery.
research. It aims at a specific field of research interest or land
use. The correlation of soil properties with the factors of soil Semi-arid climate
formation and understanding the invisible processes of soil
formation makes this possible. Soil genesis in the eastern Free State (Macheli, 2008)
The spatially intertwined distribution pattern of duplex and
Soil formation
plinthic soils of semi-arid and sub-humid climates of South
Africa predicts a genetic relationship between them. How-
Arid climate: soil formation in the Namaqualand coastal ever, formation of duplex and plinthic soils is generally
plain (Francis, 2008)
linked to luviation of silicate clay and redistribution of iron,
The regolith in the Namaqualand coastal region, often 10 or respectively. Footprints of ferrolysis, both the initiation of the
more meters deep, comprises successive late tertiary marine process of recurring cycles of pH and Eh changes, redistribu-
packages, each deposited during sea level regression, overlain tion of Fe-Mn and the breakdown of silicate clay occur in
by surface soil horizons formed from aeolian parent material. these soils in the eastern Free State landscape.
The relatively low CaCO3 content in the aeolian sands has The impact of redox activity on plinthic and duplex soil
dictated the pedogenic pathway in these deposits, leading to profiles manifests in various morphological, physical and
clay-rich apedal horizons that show a stronger structure with chemical properties, indicating the active role of ferrolysis in
depth. Similar horizons are present in paleosols under a dune- their genesis. The chronological sequence of indicators from
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field dated to the Last Glacial Maximum. These apedal hori- the youngest to the oldest is as follows: (1) acidity, (2) colour,
zons either rest directly on marine sands via a subtle (3) contents of Fe-Mn and other associated elements in soil,
discontinuity that suggests pedogenesis continues into the clay and concretions, (4) mottles and concretions, (5) CEC as
underlying marine deposits, or rest on a calcrete horizon, an indicator of silicate clay mineralogy and (6) abrupt textural
often via a stoneline of rounded pebbles. Lower in the profile differentiation between soil horizons.
indurated light-coloured non-calcareous to mildly calcareous
Although the oldest indicators may be relics of paleo con-
horizons that resemble calcrete occur. A detailed investiga-
ditions, the most recent indicator, namely subsoil acidifica-
tion of these horizons revealed that they are sepiolitic in
tion, is active. This implies that current conditions are similar
nature.
to past conditions of soil formation and that the formation of
The hypothesis is that the permeable upper horizons in associated duplex and plinthic soils is possible under a broad
these Namaqualand soils constitute a shallow ephemeral spectrum of soil forming factors occurring in South Africa.
aquifer, which can be considered as the pedogenic analogue
Although natural topsoil acidification is present in these
of the saline lake environments in which sepiolite typically
soils, subsoil acidification in the subsoils (soft plinthic B hori-
forms. Evidence of pH control on sepiolite saturation is that
zon of the Westleigh, Longlands and Avalon soils and E hori-
sepiolite is only associated with calcareous horizons. Sepio-
zons of the Kroonstad and Estcourt soils) can only be caused
lite precipitation is therefore more likely to be triggered when
by active ferrolysis. The impact of ferrolysis brings the pHwa-
a solution encounters a pH barrier than by the concentration
of ions through evaporation. It is therefore suggested that ter in all these soils to between 5.0 and 5.5, except for the
saprolite of the Westleigh, which is nearly 4.0. The trends in
after sepiolite precipitation is initiated by a geochemical pH-
pHKCl follow similar patterns as pHwater, with very low val-
barrier, rising Mg concentration thus causing an increased
ues occurring in the subsoils of the Westleigh, Kroonstad and
(Mg+Si)/Al ratio, favouring sepiolite precipitation. This sug-
Estcourt soils. The improved understanding of the relation-
gests that once sepiolite has begun to precipitate, the subse-
ship between plinthic and duplex soils accentuates subsoil
quent salinity, with its accompanying increased Mg
acidification. Under dryland crop production soils are gener-
concentration, makes substantial palygorskite formation
unlikely to follow. ally wetter and increased subsoil acidification may result.
A detailed study was also made of hardpan carbonate and
dorbank horizons in the commonly occurring ‘heuweltjies’ Soils of the Free State Province (Hensley et al., 2007)
(mounds) of the region. They usually grade from a ‘sepiolitic’ The distribution of the soils of the Free State Province relates
hardpan carbonate in the centre through ‘sepiolitic’ / ‘petrose- to present day climate and indicates that plinthic soils of the
piolitic’ (hardened) to the dorbank horizon on the edges. The western and eastern Free State are of different origins. The
hardpans in the mound are formed by enrichment of cations western Free State plinthic soils formed in windblown sand
(Ca&Mg) in the centre caused by termite foraging resulting in overlying an impermeable clay layer of weathered Karoo
calcite and clay authigenesis in the centre of the mound. The mudstone/shale. In contrast, the plinthic soils of the wetter
decaying organic matter concentrated in the centre of the north-eastern region probably formed by intense weathering
mound by the termites has evidently been sufficient to supply of Beaufort shale and mudstone, or inherited sand of the Cla-
the components for calcite precipitation in the centre of the rens sandstone, overlying weathered clay from the Beaufort
mound. Following this organic matter triggered calcite pre- lithology. Red soils, often with calcareous subsoils, dominate
cipitation the pH becomes suitable for sepiolite precipitation. in the drier southwest while well developed plinthite horizons
The movement of the Mg&Si-enriched water downslope, and yellow-brown apedal soils dominate the north-west.
S. Afr. J. Plant & Soil, 27(1): 25th Anniversary Edition 1983-2008 3

Soils with melanic A horizons (Van der Merwe et al., 2002a) zons. It is also capable of quantitative determination of mottle
The soil properties of melanic A horizons that are transitional colours, diagnostic for soft plinthic B horizons and diagnostic
between vertic A, humic A and organic O horizons, are signs of wetness (Van Huyssteen et al., 2006b). The proce-
reflected in its diagnostic criteria (Soil Classification Working dure showed great promise, but still requires substantial user
Group, 1991). These interrelationships are expressed in the input.
way that melanic A horizons are associated in certain land- Several contributions to “Soil Classification – A taxo-
scapes with highly weathered humic A and orthic A horizons nomic system for South Africa” (Soil Classification Working
of high rainfall areas with kaolinite dominated silicate clay Group, 1991) have been made. Two contributions at soil form
fractions. They also occur in vertic A horizon environments level and two at soil family level were acknowledged by the
with smectites dominating the silicate clay fraction. Of the Soil Classification Working Group. The proposed definition
reported occurrences of melanic A horizons in South Africa of the Lichtenburg form (orthic A/red apedal B/hard plinthic
the clay fractions are dominated in 50% by smectite and in B horizon) and more anthropogenic (human made) soil forms
32% by kaolinite, with the remainder consisting of a mixed were approved. The arguments for the approval of the Lich-
silicate clay mineral suite. The following implications are tenburg form are: the soils have a wide geographical distribu-
suggested by these observations. Firstly, melanic soils are tion in South Africa; it makes a significant contribution to the
often (37% of cases) found in association with vertic A hori- agricultural economy; it is ecologically important; it has char-
zons. As the parent material of the latter soils is generally acteristic properties and behaviour; the occurrences reported
mafic in nature, it seems probable that this kind of parent are in phase with current pedogenesis and are therefore easy
material is also important in the genesis of melanic A hori- to interpret (Le Roux, et al., 2005; Le Roux & Du Preez,
zons. It is also known that mafic parent material strongly 2006).
influences soil formation in combination with topography. Anthropogenic soils and materials are of environmental
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Secondly, the contribution of smectite from sedimentary rock importance and have therefore tended to be neglected by soil
has been underestimated. classification in the past. Many of these anthropogenic soils
Melanic A soils cover only about 2% of the area of South are under non-agricultural use with a huge impact on the
Africa. Their occurrence is governed mainly by annual rain- environment (P.W. van Deventer, personal communication,
fall. They occur only between 550 and 800 mm, with an arid- 2008, Potchefstroom). Ongoing urbanisation and expansion
ity index of 0.2-0.5. This indicates that a lower rainfall of mining activities and the impact these have on natural soil
precludes their formation and the production of the organic properties warrant an improved classification. The aim is to
matter required for the formation of dark colours. In contrast, define additional soil forms to distinguish between various
a rainfall >800 mm per annum results in an advanced degree kinds of alterations and new soils. Several anthropogenic
of weathering, resulting in structureless and low base status soils are irreversibly disturbed natural soils, while others have
soils. It seems that as rainfall increases between 750 and 800 developed in material like mine spoils and it is therefore not
mm, melanic soils are more common on clayey, smectite-rich satisfactory to classify them on their original properties.
parent material with a low permeability. At family level, the Soil Classification Working Group
has recognised slickensides and dystrophic character as crite-
General aspects ria to define new families for soil forms with pedo- and pris-
The compilation of the land type database by the Agricultural macutanic B horizons. The widespread occurrence of
Research Council’s Institute for Soil Climate and Water slickensides in prismacutanic and pedocutanic B horizons of
(ARC-ISCW; Land Type Survey Staff, 2002) played a major soils has been observed (M. Hensley, personal communica-
role in the soil correlation process, making an important con- tion, 1990, Bloemfontein). This observation is supported by
tribution towards improved understanding of South African numerous reports in the Land Type Database (Land Type Sur-
soils. Supplementary contributions were those of Le Roux vey Staff, 2002). The expected impact of the shrink-swell
(1996), Turner (2000), Van der Merwe et al. (2002a; 2002b) behaviour in these soils on the construction industry and on
and Hensley et al. (2007) with regard to correlating soil prop- their soil water characteristics in relation to crop production
erties and factors of soil formation. has justified the additions. In research related to salinisation
of irrigated land along the Lower Vaal River, salt accumulated
Soil survey due to swelling of an Arcadia soil (Le Roux et al., 2007). The
The impact of new knowledge on a discipline is greatest if application of a dystrophic criterion is justified by the impact
knowledge is gained on the most basic aspects of the disci- on land use and geographical distribution.
pline. In pedology understanding the nature, properties and From the outset, user friendliness has been a basic aim of
behaviour of soils serves this goal. For example, the role of soil classification in South Africa (C.N. MacVicar, personal
soil science in groundwater studies has revealed that soil communication, 2002, Hilton). This aim was well achieved in
maps give insight into subsoil/saprolite/rock hydrological the first edition. Besides reflecting both clearly defined quali-
behaviour. tative and tacit knowledge of South African soils, the classifi-
The often criticised description of soil colour was cation system needed to promote its use by soil scientists,
improved by a quantification procedure, using spatial analysis agronomists, environmental scientists, engineers, forestry sci-
and digital images (Van Huyssteen et al., 2006a). The proce- entists, hydrologists, agricultural extension officers and pro-
dure differentiates between red, yellow and grey colours as gressive farmers. The most useful level needed for practical
defined by the Soil Classification Working Group (1991) for applications by most of these people is the soil series. It is
diagnostic red apedal B, yellow-brown apedal B and E hori- only in this level of classification that soil classification actu-
4 S. Afr. J. Plant & Soil, 27(1): 25th Anniversary Edition 1983-2008

ally “comes to earth”, i.e. where the conceptual becomes tan- mapable at a scale of 1:50000 in such a way that it facilitates
gible in the form of a soil profile at a specified location within the identification of potentially arable land’ (Tekle, 2004).
a reasonable homogeneous portion of a landscape. Although For other land related studies, e.g. in hydropedology, a soil-
the series level is not defined in the second addition, the aim scape is defined in a slightly different way. The salient point
to include this level in future editions is clearly stated: ‘... the is, however, that a soilscape is a convenient subdivision of a
way has been cleared for defining, in the course of time, soil land type. In another predictive mapping exercise the soils-
series of a more comprehensive kind than those in the first cape survey technique was improved using a digital elevation
addition’ (Soil Classification Working Group, 1991). There is model and an aerial image to analyse the terrain morphology
still a need to define soil series: ‘the sooner they are defined, (Hensley et al., 2007). The relationship between the soil dis-
the sooner will they focus the attention of soil physicists, tribution pattern and terrain parameters was successfully used
chemists, mineralogists, biologists and technologists on to predict the distribution of soils suitable for infield rainwa-
issues that need to be addressed’ (Lambrechts & MacVicar, ter harvesting, a specialised crop production technique, in a
2004). particular soilscape.
The definition of soil series depends on the practical iden- Predictive mapping increased the quality of a soil and
tification of its boundaries in the landscape (Turner, 2000; hillslope survey of a research catchment in Wartburg, Kwa-
Lambrechts & MacVicar, 2004). These ideals are hampering Zulu-Natal (Lorentz, 2007). The success of predictive soil
progress in soil classification in South Africa. This is borne surveying depends largely on the availability of local tacit
out by the experiences of various field workers and by the
knowledge. Advanced soil survey techniques using similar
work of Turner (2003), who studied 4000 soil profiles in
principles are currently being investigated in the Western
KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga. Clear soil transitions that
Cape (Lambrechts & MacVicar, 2004).
are predictably repeated in the landscape are not common. A
more realistic objective will therefore promote more rapid
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progress towards the definition of soil series for South Africa. Nature of soils
With the current emphasis on the carbon cycle and global
Mapping warming, the distribution of organic carbon (OC) in soil types
The strong relationship between terrain morphology and soil is of interest (Lambrechts & MacVicar, 2004). This motivated
distribution pattern can be exploited by using models analys- the survey of OC in the soils of the Weatherley catchment in
ing terrain morphology. That is made possible by new tech- the Eastern Cape Province. Freely drained soils (i.e. soils of
nology, e.g. computers, GPS, satellite imagery and digital the Hutton and Clovelly forms) have larger amounts of OC in
photography, and has resulted in improved mapping tech- both the topsoil and subsoil than moderately or poorly
niques. The procedure is called digital soil mapping or predic- drained soils (Table 1). The next highest amounts of OC
tive soil survey. Milne (1936) first described the strong occurred in the poorly drained soils (i.e. soils of the Katspruit
relationship between terrain and soil distribution pattern in and Kroonstad forms). Moderately drained soils (i.e. soils of
detail in Central Africa. This relationship also served as the the Bloemdal, Pinedene and Tukulu forms) had lower OC
scientific basis for the land type survey of South Africa. contents (Figure 1; Le Roux et al., 2005). The biomass pro-
Using predictive mapping, land types were digitally sub- duction of veld grass, > four tons ha-1 a-1 followed the same
divided into soilscapes. For a particular study, a soilscape was trend, i.e. freely and poorly drained soils produced more than
defined as ‘a mapping unit consisting of a portion of land the moderately drained group (Table 1).

Table 1 Organic carbon contents and biomass production of the soils of Weatherley, Eastern Cape (after Le Roux et al., 2005)
OC of the topsoil OC content of the subsoil Biomass production
(0-300 mm) (300-1200 mm) under veld grass
Soil types Mg ha-1 Mg ha-1 (kg ha-1 a-1)

A: Freely drained 53 58 4070

B: Moderately drained 43 43 2750

C: Poorly drained 46 51 4020

Total nitrogen accumulates in the subsoils of the poorly


drained soils. Whereas the C:N ratios in the subsoils of the
other groups ranged between 10.2 and 11.5, the value in sub-
soils of the poorly drained group was 8.7. The OC evidently
accumulated due to the long periods of anaerobic conditions
in the hydromorphic subsoils.
S. Afr. J. Plant & Soil, 27(1): 25th Anniversary Edition 1983-2008 5
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Figure 1 Distribution of organic carbon with depth in different groups of Weatherley soils (after Le Roux et al., 2005).
6 S. Afr. J. Plant & Soil, 27(1): 25th Anniversary Edition 1983-2008
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Figure 2 Horizontal bar graph showing ADs>0.7 at four measuring depths for a) a freely drained Tukulu,
b) moderately drained Pinedene, c) poorly drained Longlands and d) very poorly drained Katspruit soil at
Weatherley (after Van Huyssteen et al., 2005)
S. Afr. J. Plant & Soil, 27(1): 25th Anniversary Edition 1983-2008 7

The fact that a soil type has a typical soil water regime must ties resulted in soils being stripped of most of their clay and
have been in the minds of the pioneers in soil classification. organic matter, leaving saline sandy “tailings” as replacement
However, in spite of the importance of characterising the soil for the original soil. This has caused the loss of certain pedo-
water regime of soil types, it has received relatively little logical characteristics that may be of critical importance to
attention. Although some research has been undertaken in the the soil qualities supporting the successful functioning of the
past (Donkin & Fey, 1991; Van Huyssteen, 1995; Le Roux, arid ecosystem. Examples of these are termite ‘heuweltjies’,
1996), considerable advances have followed recently (Van small dune systems, variation in the depth of hardpans and the
Huyssteen, 2004; Van Huyssteen et al., 2005). The relation- hydrophobic nature of the surface layer. The latter two fea-
ship between long-term soil water content and soil morphol- tures are important components of a soil water distillation
ogy was elucidated with water content measurements for the process that is essential for plant growth in this arid area.
diagnostic horizons of 28 soils in the Weatherley catchment.
The very dry conditions in neocutanic B horizons and sur- The way forward
prising long duration of wet conditions in some red apedal B
horizons are striking. The ‘annual duration of degree of water The most important new role of pedology is its contribution
saturation above 0.7 of porosity’ (ADs>0.7) was defined as a to the management of environmental issues including carbon
soil water regime parameter representing the onset of reduc- sequestration and hydrology. This places a new emphasis on
ing and drainable water conditions. The duration of wet con- soil classification, especially the classification of soil series.
ditions increase down the red apedal B horizons. The ADs>0.7 The division of soil families into hydrological soil units was a
values (± standard error) for the diagnostic horizons are as bold step in the right direction (Schulze, 1995). However, all
follows: G (331 ± 10 d yr1), unspecified material with signs land uses are in need of a series level of classification for
of wetness (248 ± 37 d yr1), E (202 ± 45 d yr1), soft plinthic B South Africa.
(182 ± 25 d yr1), orthic A (148 ± 19 d yr1), red apedal B (80 ±
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Soil forms and their families define naturally occurring


58 d yr1), yellow brown apedal B (75 ± 25 d yr1) and neocu- soil bodies in South Africa reasonably well. In each province
tanic B horizons (37 ± 24 d yr1). of South Africa soil scientists and others have come to recog-
The ADs>0.7 values of the profile measurements (Van nise the characteristics and performance/behaviour/response
Huyssteen et al., 2005) accentuated the difference in the of particular soils. A start should be made by defining these
hydrology of soil types. Typical bar charts of freely, moder- well-known soils as series, each one in its appropriate family.
ately, poorly and very poorly drained soil types describe the This procedure requires a modal profile description together
differences (Figure 2). with its analytical data and coordinates. Land type survey
The 70% of porosity threshold value (ADs>0.7) was data can play a major role in this process. Prominent exam-
improved with laboratory studies showing that onset of ples of soil series are the modal profiles of the land type sur-
reduction occur at 78% of porosity (Jennings, 2007). Good vey of South Africa. These profiles represent the result of a
correlations between degree of water saturation and pe (R2 = careful selection process by soil scientists who saw many soil
0.95), Mn2+ concentration (R2 = 0.91) and Fe2+ concentration profiles in each land type during their fieldwork. More exam-
(R2 = 0.92) were confirmed. Redox depletions and accumula- ples are the modal profiles selected during every soil survey
tions formed as mottles in a saturated, disturbed and repacked
that has been diligently conducted in the past, including the
soil sample in this study after 12 months.
hundreds identified during soil surveys for irrigable land and
The role of the soil water regime in crop production is also profile descriptions made at the sites of agronomic field
well known, but it also influences the environment. Its impact experiments. The geographical distribution of the soils is well
on hydrology was quantified using hydrographs for the
documented in the land type survey database and the produc-
Weatherley and Cathedral Peak VI catchments. The differ-
tivity and agronomic behaviour by local advisors in agricul-
ence in soil types was responsible for a difference in total out-
ture.
flow of 2.73 mm for Weatherley (larger area of poorly and
very poorly drained soils) and 76.6 mm for Cathedral Peak Defining soil series will require the establishment of a
VI. The orthic A, E, yellow brown apedal B and neocutanic B strict registration procedure by a central organisation such as
horizons of hillslope soils make important contributions to the ARC-ISCW. Placing the focus on a modal soil profile to
interflow, while orthic A, E and G horizons of footslope soils represent a particular soil series eliminates the problem inher-
contribute to overland flow, i.e. in this case saturation excess ent in natural entities separated by gradual transitions, which
flow, a condition where overland flow occurs due to soil satu- present an inevitable classification challenge in natural sci-
ration. In a Weatherley hillslope, the first group of soils ence (Kok et al., 1987). Furthermore, in soil survey most
responded rapidly to rainfall events, while the latter remained cases of gradual transitions between entities in a landscape is
close to saturation throughout the observation period (Zere, a mapping problem rather than a conceptual classification
2005). problem as the concepts are clear but mapping is problematic.
The next step in hydropedology is to define the hydrology
Anthropogenic impact on soil qualities of South African soil forms, families and preferably series.
The pedosphere of rehabilitated land exhibits a relatively low The contribution of hydropedology to hydrology is well
degree of diversity compared to the natural pedosphere (Prin- established, but its role in dryland and irrigation agriculture is
sloo, 2005). Strip mining for diamonds and heavy metals at underestimated. The interaction between soil and water or, in
Brand-se-Baai has resulted in damage to large areas of this other words hydropedology, dominates the variation in yields
region, which has a rich natural biodiversity. Mining activi- recorded from year to year in dryland precision agriculture.
8 S. Afr. J. Plant & Soil, 27(1): 25th Anniversary Edition 1983-2008

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