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COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Z. Aliyazicioglu
ECE 4705 2
ANGLE MODULATION
To generate angle modulation, the angle of carrier signal is varied
according to the message signal.
s(t ) = Ac cos [θ i (t )]
ECE 4705 3
ANGLE MODULATION
The average frequency in Hz
θ i (t + ∆t ) − θ i (t )
f∆t (t ) =
2π ∆t
ECE 4705 4
PHASE MODULATION
In angle modulation, the angle θi(t) is varied linearly with the message
signal m(t), as shown by
θ=
i (t ) 2π fct + k pm(t )
2πfct represent the angle of unmodulated carrier, the constant kp represents
the phase sensitivity of modulation [rad/V].
m(t) PM signal
Differentiator Frequency
modulator sPM(t)
Accos(ωct)
ECE 4705 5
FREQUENCY MODULATION
In angle modulation, the instantaneous frequency fi(t) is varied linearly with
the message signal m(t), as shown by
fi (t =
) fc + k f m(t )
fc represent the frequency of unmodulated carrier, the constant kf represents
the frequency sensitivity of modulation [Hz/V].
t
FM signal
= sFM (t ) Ac cos 2π fct + 2π k f ∫ m(τ ) dτ
0
ECE 4705 6
FREQUENCY MODULATION
m(t) FM signal
Integrator Phase
modulator sFM(t)
Accos(ωct)
ECE 4705 7
FREQUENCY MODULATION
ECE 4705 8
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Property 1 : Constancy of transmitted power
The amplitude of PM and FM waves is maintained at a constant value equal to
the carrier amplitude for all time.
The average transmitted power of angle-modulated waves is a constant
1 2
Pav = Ac
2
Property 2 : Nonlinearity of the modulation process
Its nonlinear character
m(t ) = m1 (t ) + m2 (t )
s (t ) = Ac cos[2πf c t + k p (m1 (t ) + m2 (t ))]
s1 (t ) = Ac cos[2πf c t + k p m1 (t )]
s2 (t ) = Ac cos[2πf c t + k p m2 (t )]
s (t ) ≠ s1 (t ) + s2 (t )
ECE 4705 9
FREQUENCY MODULATION
ECE 4705 10
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Property 3 : Irregularity of zero-crossings
Zero-crossings are defined as the instants of time at which a waveform
changes its amplitude from a positive to negative value or the other way
around.
The irregularity of zero-crossings in angle-modulation waves is also
attributed to the nonlinear character of the modulation process.
ECE 4705 11
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Property 4 : Visualization difficulty of message waveform
The difficulty in visualizing the message waveform in angle-modulated waves is
also attributed to the nonlinear character of angle-modulated waves.
ECE 4705 12
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Example: Zero Crossing
Consider a modulating wave m(t) that increase linearly with time t, starting at t=0
at , t ≥ 0
m(t ) =
0 t<0
Where a is the slope parameter
In what follows, we study the zero-crossing of the PM and FM waves produced by
m(t) for the following set of parameter.
1
fc = Hz
4
a = 1 volt/s
ECE 4705 13
FREQUENCY MODULATION
ECE 4705 14
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Phase modulation
Phase sensitivity factor kp=π/2 radians/volt.
PM wave
Ac cos(2π f c t + k p at ), t ≥ 0
s (t ) =
Ac cos(2π f c t ) t<0
Lets tn denote the instant of time at which the PM wave experiences a zero-
crossing; this occurs whenever the angle of the PM wave is on odd multiple of π/2.
Then e set up
π
2π f c tn + k p atn =+ nπ , n =
0,1, 2,...
2
1
Solving this equation for tn +n
tn = 2
k
2 fc + p a
π
Substituting the given values if fc, a and kp. 1
tn =+ n, n =
0,1, 2,...
2 ECE 4705 15
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Frequency modulation
Frequency sensitivity factor kf=1Hz/volt.
FM wave
Ac cos(2π f c t + π k f at 2 ), t ≥ 0
s (t ) =
Ac cos(2π f c t ) t<0
Lets tn denote the instant of time at which the FM wave experiences a zero-
crossing; Definition of a zero-crossing, we may set up
π
2π f c tn + π k f atn2 = + nπ , n =
0,1, 2,...
2
As the quadratic equation. Solving this equation for positive tn
1 1
t= − f c + f c2 − ak f + n , =
n 0,1, 2,...
n
ak f 2
Substituting the given values if fc,a, and kf.
1
tn =
4
( )
−1 + 9 + 16n , n= 0,1, 2,...
ECE 4705 16
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Comparing the sero-crossing results.
ECE 4705 17
FREQUENCY MODULATION
ECE 4705 18
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Consider a sinusoidal modulating signal is
m(t ) = Am cos(ωmt )
ECE 4705 20
NARROWBAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
FM signal for single-tone modulating signal is given by
sFM (t ) Ac cos(2π fct )cos [ β sin(2π fmt )] − Ac sin(2π fct )sin [ β sin(2π fmt )]
FM signal simplifies as
sFM (t ) Ac cos(2π fc t ) − β Ac sin(2π fc t )sin(2π fm t )
ECE 4705 21
NARROWBAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
We can rewrite an FM signal.
1
sFM (t ) Ac cos(2π fct ) − β Ac {cos [ 2π (fc − fm )t ] − cos [ 2π (fc + fm )t ]}
2
ECE 4705 22
NARROWBAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
Carrier phasor is used as reference.
FM signal has approximately of the same amplitude as the carrier
Phasor will change with modulating signal
Sum of side
frequency phases
Resultant
fm fm
Lower side Upper side
frequency frequency
carrier
ECE 4705 23
WIDEBAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
FM signal for single-tone modulating signal is given by
sFM (t ) Ac cos [ 2π fct + β sin(2π fmt )]
=
Can be expressed as
sFM (t ) = Ac Re(e j 2π fct e j β sin2π fmt )
The function e j β sin2π fmt is periodic with frequency fm, the can be
expressed in a Fourier series. The Fourier coefficients are
π / ωm π
ωm 1
∫ ∫
j β sinω t − j nω t − j ( nx − β sin x )
cn = e m
e m
dt e dx
2π −π / ω m
2π −π
Ac ∞
SFM (f )
=
2
∑ J ( β ) [δ (f − f
n = −∞
n c − nfm ) + δ (f + fc + nfm )]
ECE 4705 25
WIDEBAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
ECE 4705 27
SOME PROPERTIES OF BESSEL FUNCTIONS
Jn(β) =(-1)nJ-n(β) for all n, both positive and negative
Jn ( β ) = J− n ( β ) n even
Jn ( β ) = −J− n ( β ) n odd
∑ J (β ) = 1
n = −∞
n
1 2 ∞ 2
P = Ac ∑ Jn ( β )
2 n = −∞
ECE 4705 29
WIDEBAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
In the figure Discrete amplitude spectra of
an FM signal, normalized with respect to
the carrier amplitude, for the case of
sinusoidal modulation of fixed frequency
and varying amplitude. Only the spectra
for positive frequencies are shown
ECE 4705 30
WIDEBAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
Discrete amplitude spectra of
an FM signal, normalized with
respect to the carrier
amplitude, for the case of
sinusoidal modulation of
varying frequency and fixed
amplitude. Only the spectra for
positive frequencies are shown.
ECE 4705 31
TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH FM SIGNAL
It theory, an FM signal contains an infinite number of side frequencies.
Bandwidth is close to infinite.
In practice, FM signal is effectively limited to finite number of side
frequencies. Effective bandwidth requires for transmission of an FM
1 ∆f =k f Am
BT = 2∆f + 2fm = 2∆f 1 +
β
This relation is knows as Carson’s Rule
ECE 4705 32
TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH FM SIGNAL
Alternative bandwidth calculation of an FM signal,
We may use maximum number of significant side frequency whose
amplitudes are all greater than some selected values. A convenient choice
for this values is 1 percent of unmodulated carrier amplitude
The frequency sensitivity with kf=5 has the following message signal is
∆
= =
f kf A 5(10)
= 50 ∆f 50
m β
= = = 0.5
fm 100
From the table 2nmax=4 for β=0.5
=BT 2n
=max fm 4(100)
= 400 Hz
ECE 4705 36
EXAMPLE
∞
sFM (t ) Ac ∑ J ( β )cos[2π (f
n = −∞
n c + nfm )t ]
sFM (t ) 100 {J0 ( β )cos(2π fct ) + J1( β )cos[2π (fc + fm )t ] + J−1( β )cos[2π (fc − fm )t ]
+ J2 ( β )cos[2π (fc + 2fm )t ] + J−2 ( β )cos[2π (fc + 2fm )t ] }
sFM (t )= 100 {0.9385 cos(2π 10t ) + 0.2423 cos[2π (10.1)t ] − 0.2423 cos[2π (9.9)t ]
+ 0.0306 cos[2π (10.2)t ] + 0.0306 cos[2π (9.8)t ] } KHz
46.92
46.92
SFM(f)
12.12
12.12
1.53
1.53
1.53
1.53
KHz
-9.9
9.9
-10.1
10
10
10.1
-9.8
9.8
10.2
-10.2
12.12
12.12
ECE 4705 37
EXAMPLE
The average power of an FM signal
1 2 ∞ 2
P = Ac ∑ Jn ( β )
2 n = −∞
1 2 2
=
P
2
(
Ac J0 ( β ) + J12 ( β ) + J−21( β ) + J22 ( β ) + J−22 ( β ) )
1
=P
2
(
1002 0.93852 + 0.24232 + 0.24232 + 0.03062 + 0.0306 2 )
= 4419W
ECE 4705 38
GENERATING OF FM SIGNAL
Indirect FM.
• To minimize the distortion, the maximum phase deviation or
modulation index β is kept small.
• A frequency multiplier consists of a nonlinear device followed by
band-pass filter.
Crystal t
=
Controlled OSC ∫
s(t ) Ac cos 2π fct + 2π k f m(τ )dτ
0
ECE 4705 39
GENERATING OF FM SIGNAL
Direct Method
ECE 4705 40
GENERATING OF FM SIGNAL
Direct Method
ECE 4705 41
DEMODULATION OF FM
The demodulation of an FM signal requires a circuit that yields an output
proportional to frequency deviation of the input. Such a circuit are known
as discriminators.
ECE 4705 42
DEMODULATION OF FM
Output
voltage e(t)
kd s(t) Envelope yD(t)
Differentiator Detector
1 f
fc
dφ (t )
The output of differentiator − Ac ωc +
e(t ) =
dt sin [ωct + φ (t )]
Using envelope detector to recover the message signal
dφ (t ) dφ (t ) Acωc term is
y D (t ) Ac ωc +
= ωc > − , all t
dt dt removed
dφ (t )
y D (t ) A=
= c 2π A=
c k f m(t ) k D k f m(t ) where k D = 2π Ac
dt
ECE 4705 43
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
Antenna FM signal
RF IF Envelope Audio
section Mixer
Section detector Amp.
Common Local
tuning Osc. Accos(ωct)
ECE 4705 44
FM STEREO MULTIPLEXING
It is widely used in FM radio broadcasting
ECE 4705 45
STEREO FM TRANSMITTER
+ ml (t ) + mr (t )
ml (t ) − mr (t )
+ x +
ECE 4705 46
STEREO FM RECEIVER
ml (t ) + mr (t )
+
x +
ml (t ) − mr (t )
ECE 4705 47
PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
Phase-Locked Loop
A feedback system whose operation is closely linked to frequency modulation
Three major components
Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)
Multiplier
Loop filter of a low-pass kind
ECE 4705 48
PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
• VCO has bee adjusted so that when the control signal is zero, two
conditions are satisfied
– The frequency of the VCO is set precisely at the unmodulated carrier
frequency fc of the incoming FM wave s(t)
– The VCO output has a 90◦-degree phase-shift with respect to the
unmodulated carrier wave.
When the open-loop transfer function of a linear feedback system has a large
magnitude compared with unity for all frequencies, the closed-loop transfer
function of the system is effectively determined by the inverse of the transfer
function of the feedback path.
ECE 4705 51
PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
• The inverse of this feedback path is described in the time domain by
the scaled differentiator
1 dφ2 (t )
v(t ) = (4.66)
2πkv dt
• The closed-loop time-domain behavior of the phase-locked loop is
described by the overall output v(t) produced in response to the angle
Φ1(t) in the incoming FM wave s(t)
ECE 4705 52
PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
– We may relate the overall output v(t) to the input angle Φ1(t) by
1 dφ1 (t )
v(t ) ≈ (4.67)
2πkv dt
1 d
⋅ 2πk f ∫ m(τ )dτ
t
v(t ) ≈
2πkv dt 0
kf
= m(t ) (4.68)
kv
ECE 4705 53
PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
ECE 4705 54