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O R I GI N A L A R T IC L E
Received: 15 November 2002 / Accepted: 13 March 2003 / Published online: 19 December 2003
Ó Springer-Verlag London Limited 2003
Abstract This paper is devoted to a finite element pre- Numerical simulations are widely used in industries
diction of material damage distribution within the to optimise sheet metal forming processes such as
workpiece during wiping die bending processes. The stamping, bending, and hydro-forming. However, in
damage mechanics approach has been used in this order to have confidence in the results of such simula-
investigation in order to describe the progressive damage tions, an accurate material model is required. The
evolution within the sheet. A comparative study between accuracy of a material model is affected by the constit-
the results obtained by the simulations using the utive equations and the values of the material parame-
Lemaitre and Gurson damage models is presented and ters.
discussed. The elastoplastic constitutive laws are inte- To describe the sheet behaviour in a realistic way as
grated by means of an incremental formulation which the operation is carried out, various parameters must be
has been implemented in the finite element code used, such as the material state of hardening and dam-
ABAQUS. The punch load, influenced by the friction age, the metallurgical morphology (which concerns the
coefficient, is investigated for different cases of die ra- shape and size of the grains), the crystallographic tex-
dius. The springback angle, which depends on the elastic ture, and the intergranular structures as they evolve
properties of the material, is computed for all cases. during the operation.
Both models give similar results in the modelling of All the aforementioned physical parameters affect the
bending operations. The Gurson one is shown to have geometrical quality and the mechanical state of the
more flexibility for applications. workpiece. Especially, the states of hardening and
damage conditions of the components have a measur-
Keywords Damage Æ Bending Æ Springback Æ Gurson Æ able effect upon the fatigue life of its future use.
Lemaitre The plastic deformations are localized in the fold and,
generally, more important at surfaces, which leads to
strengthening the part in this zone and may be the cause
of initiation and propagation of cracks as illustrated by
1 Introduction Fig. 1.
In order to accurately simulate sheet metal bending
Sheet metal wiping die bending processes are widely processes, the numerical prediction of the damage evo-
used for mass production. The design of bending pro- lution, crack initiation, and propagation can be de-
cesses is connected with time-consuming and costly scribed by means of a continuum damage approach such
experiments. Therefore, the finite element simulation of as those described by the Lemaitre and Gurson damage
the process could be a helpful tool for the designer and models.
for the quality assurance of the products. In general, the deformation localization and ductile
fracture in metals involve a considerable amount of
texture evolution [1]. The distribution of the crystallo-
graphic texture of a sheet is not homogeneous and the
A. Mkaddem (&) Æ A. Potiron
Ensam/CER, Angers-LPMI-ERT,
plastic deformation and mechanical properties of the
2 Boulevard du Ronceray, BP3525–49035 Angers, France material depend on the evolution of the preferred grain
E-mail: ali.mkaddem@angers.ensam.fr orientation.
R. Hambli
Spherical (Fig. 2a) or elliptical (Fig. 2b) holes, having
Istia-Lasquo, 62 Avenue Notre Dame du Lac, an arbitrary orientational distribution as observed by
49000 Angers, France Tsukrov et al. [2], are one of the main factors governing
452
The model allows for the damage prediction of porous element (F.E.) mesh, including element splitting, sepa-
materials. The normality assumption ensures that plastic rating of nodes, element deletion, and stiffness F.E.
dilation can occur if both the mean stress and damage decreasing. This last technique has been used in this
values are non-zero. The first invariant of the plastic work in order to simulate crack propagation. During the
strain rate tensor Tr e_Pl is the main variable of the analysis, the initiation of a crack is assumed to occur at
damage evolution (Eq. 39). any point in the structure where the damage reaches its
In the past few years several different approaches critical value Dc. The crack propagation is simulated by
were developed and applied to the analysis of ductile the propagation of a completely damaged area. From a
fracture, commonly known as the coupled damage numerical point of view, the damage value is abruptly set
approach, incorporating the accumulation of damage in to the value DR (DR1). This method leads to a decrease
the constitutive equations. The first attempts in this field in the stiffness of the concerned elements.
of research were made by Gurson who developed a
ductile damage macroscopic constitutive law based on
micro-void growth and by Tvergaard [28] who improved 5 Simulation of wiping die bending operation
Gursons model by including some coalescence effects.
These initial investigations and other subsequent devel- The bent part characteristics are affected by several
opments enabled the development of a continuous factors. In this study, only the influence of the die shape
damage mechanics model for ductile fracture by is treated. The material parameters obtained by tensile
Lemaı̂tre. The main advantage of the coupled damage tests are recapitulated in Table 3.
approach is that it allows the yield surface of the The meshing of the part is carried out by using tri-
material to be modified by the density changes and void angular and quadrangular node continuum elements.
growth induced by the accumulation of damage. 1192 elements are used for the mesh. The tool (punch,
The finite element model, using Gursons yield crite- die, and blank holder) is modelled by adopting analyti-
rion, allows for the prediction of the damage evolution cal rigid bodies. The mesh region and the bending
during the plastic loading of structures. The model geometry are shown in Fig. 4.
assumes that throughout the process, the matrix mate- The data used in the numerical modelling are
rial work hardens according to the power law given in reported in Table 4. All parameters remain constant
Eq. 34. The Gurson model assumes that the total vol- except for the die radius.
ume of voids grows, consequently weakening the mate- Rp and Rd are the punch and the die radius, respec-
rial. However, one should be aware of the fact that the tively. J is the clearance between die and punch, C is the
work hardening rate may change at larger strains punch stroke according to lower springback angles in
beyond the start of necking. The model simulates a industrial press machines, a is the bending angle, and t is
weakening of the material due to the propagation of the sheet thickness.
damage but does not include a further failure (cracking)
of the blank material.
The literature values for the model parameters (q1, q2, Table 3 Elastic and hardening parameters
q3, eN, sN, fN, r0) for typical metals were used. These
E0 ry ~k n m0 HG
values showed sufficient similarity between the simulated
GPa MPa MPa – – –
and the actual results from the tensile test [31].
It has to be remarked that in the constitutive frame- 200 560 800 0.745 0.28 0.4
work proposed by Lemaitre, damage affects internal
associated variables, such as strain, the yield condition,
and Youngs modulus. According to this approach,
when damage reaches its critical value, the material
stiffness is reduced to zero. Contrary to the Gurson
approach, the Lemaitre approach allows for the simu-
lation of crack initiation and propagation within the
workpiece.
When the critical Lemaitre damage value is satisfied
within an element, the element fractures and cracks
occur. The direction of crack propagation and the crack
tip position are then determined by the value contour of
the fracture or damage value at each element of the
mesh.
For the simulation of processes where rupture is to be
considered, it is necessary to develop and apply methods
using mechanical fracture models where a material sep-
aration must be predicted. There are at least four pos-
sible methods to simulate a crack propagation in a finite Fig. 4 Mesh used for the fold zone
457
Table 4 Process parameters for numerical model The bending force curve versus punch penetration is
affected by the damage of the sheet. The results show
RP Rd t J C a
mm mm mm mm mm (°) that the curves are superimposed until a punch pene-
tration of about 7 mm, and there is a significant differ-
4 2-3-4-5-6 4 4 29 90 ence between both evolutions for higher punch
penetration.
In Fig. 6a it can be observed that the punch load
Table 5 Friction coefficient for the contact modelling [32] increases sharply, especially for low values of the die
radius, reaching a maximum value, and then the force
Surfaces Punch Die Blank holder
decreases rapidly and similarly. The curves fit well to-
Blank top 0.09 – 0.15 gether with a higher maximum force without damage
Blank bot – 0.15 – influence simulations.
Figure 7 shows the evolution of maximum bending
force versus the die corner radius obtained by the dif-
The contact model is simulated by the coulomb fric- ferent simulations; without damage influence and, also,
tion law. In industrial processes, lubrication is mostly using Gurson and Lemaitre models. The punch pene-
used in order to reduce the tools wear and friction. For tration corresponding to the maximum force values for
this reason, relative sliding between punch and blank is each configuration is also reported in Fig. 7.
modelled by adopting a low friction coefficient [32]. The It can be observed that the predicted maximum
l-coefficients used for numerical modelling are reported bending force decreases with an increasing corner die
in Table 5. radius. The curves have the same trend; nevertheless,
The computation results, corresponding to different there is a significant difference between curves with and
displacement steps of the punch penetration are pre- without damage, especially for low values of the die
sented in Fig. 5. It can be seen that the springback radii.
takes place when the punch is removed from the sim- Figure 7 shows that the damage affects the maximum
ulation. bending force especially for a small value of the die
radius. As observed, the difference between Lemaitre
and Gurson models does not reach 2.5%.
6 Simulation results
The punch load is investigated during the bending Corrections for springback are essential during die de-
operation. The numerical calculation using the Lemaitre sign in order to obtain specified final shapes.
and Gurson models are superimposed as shown in Figure 8 shows the effects of the die radius on the
Fig. 6. springback angle obtained by simulation with and
Figure 6a describes the load evolution of the bending without damage influence. When damage is accounted
process with various die radii obtained by finite element for, it can be observed that the springback is lower as a
simulation. At the initial stage of the bending process, consequence of the material parameters variation,
material first flows at the fold zone. With the punch especially the elastic modulus and the strain within the
force, the blank comes into contact with the punch and fibres. The difference between the curves decreases with
is drawn into the die. Although a large displacement the increase of the die radius. The decrease is attributed
occurs in the corner, the large deformation is located in to the damage reduction within the sheet for higher die
this zone. A severe gradient of stress exists in this part radius values.
when tensile strain outside the fold is excessive [33]. The springback angle increases rapidly against the die
Excessive tensile strain will causes a high damage dis- radius. The simulation results computed by both models
tribution due to the growth and nucleation of micro give similar results with a deviation less then 4%.
defects. However, the nucleation of voids is rather large
in comparison to the growth of voids as can be seen in
Fig. 6b. 6.3 Damage evolution
can be noted that for low values of the die radius, the
Fig. 7 Maximum load versus punch penetration for different springback error between the Lemaitre model and the
values of the die radius Gurson one increases sharply, whereas it decreases for
bending force. For high values of the die radius, the
maximum value is essentially due to the choice of bending force evolves similarly for both models. The
damage parameters for modelling. difference in springback angle becomes considerable,
In order to evaluate the reliability of each method, reaches a maximum, and falls slightly as can be observed
Lemaitre and Gurson, error is quantified using the fol- in Fig. 10.
lowing relations: In spite of the difference, which is essentially due to
the choice of problem parameters particularly for the
jhLem hGur j Gurson simulation, it can be concluded that the two
vh ð%Þ ¼
hLem models give similar results. The maximum error reached
Punch is 3.7%.
F Punch
Lem FGur
vF punch ð%Þ ¼ Punch
FLem
7 Discussion and comparison
vh is the error associated with the spring back angle
obtained by means of the two models and vF Punch is the The comparative study of numerical computation using
error associated with the punch load during bending. It Gurson and Lemaitre models shows that finite element
8 Conclusion
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