CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents the review of literature related to the study. The review has been organized
into the categories of Risk Perception, Perception of Driving Tasks, Traffic Rules, Personal
Responsibility, Road Safety and Risky Driving Behaviour.

2.1 Risk Perception

Drivers’ risk perception affects road accidents. Risk perception is result of disposition, social-
cultural, economic and demographic factors. Literature review related to drivers’ risk perception
is as follows:

According to Brown and Groeger (1988) risk perception refers to the drivers’ experience of risk
in potential traffic hazards. Risk perception is determined by information of the potential hazards
in traffic environment, and on the ability of driver to perceive potential hazards resulting into
actual accidents. Inexperienced drivers overestimate their driving skills and underestimate the
risks in traffic.

Renge (1998) has described that excessive speed and low perception of risk are significantly
associated with road accidents. Young and inexperienced drivers have low risk perception
regarding inappropriate speeding as compared to experienced drivers. Rajalin (1994) has
identified that there is significant difference between young female and male drivers adopting
high speed. Speed affects the risk perception of drivers.

Kouabenan (2002) has shown that there is significant relationship between the knowledge of risk
perception and road accidents. Experienced drivers have high risk perception as compared to less
experienced drivers. Ma et al. (2008) have found that risk perception significantly indirectly
affects risky driving behavior. There is significant effect of risk perception and risk taking
attitude on risky driving behaviour.

Nordfjaern et al. (2011) have identified that Indian drivers have low risk perception towards road
accidents. Most of road accidents occur in low income countries.

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Ponnaluri (2011) analyzed that there is negative relationship between risk perception and risk
taking behaviour. Rosenbloom et al. (2008) have described that high level of risk perception is
perceived by drivers after the training as compared to before training. Female and adult drivers
have high level of risk perception as compared to male and novice drivers. There is insignificant
effect of age and driving experience on perceived risk.

Moen et al. (2006) have shown that there is significant difference between risk perception of
male and female drivers. Female drivers are more worried and concerned about the risk as
compared to male drivers. Risk perception and risk taking behaviour have been significantly
influenced by age. Low risk perception has been found in young drivers than old drivers.

Parker et al. (1998) have pointed that there is significant association between driving behaviour
and risk perception. Cohn et al. (1995) have discussed that there is negative correlation between
risk perception and risk taking behaviour. Drivers having high risk perception show lower
probability of risk taking. Mayhew and Simpson (1995) have demonstrated that novice drivers
have inferior skill performance as compared to experienced drivers. Novice drivers possess low
skills of hazard perception, attention control, timesharing and regulation.

Hoare (2007) has described that driving behaviour is affected by different variables such as
optimism bias, age differences, cross-cultural difference gender differences, driving experience,
exposure, and seatbelt usage. It is also identified that dimensions of risk perception is
significantly influenced by driving behaviour, optimism bias, age differences, driving experience
and exposure.

Deery (1999) has described that novice drivers are unable to identify the risk situations as
compared to experienced drivers. Novice drivers have low risk perception in comparison to
experienced drivers. Novice driver perceives high risks in specific risk situation than experienced
drivers. There is significant difference between novice and experienced drivers regarding risk
perception. Hesketh and Godley (2002) have identified that speed perception is an important
ability for safe driving. Road accidents depend on perception of speed, distance and making a cut
in front incoming vehicle. Hakes and Viscusi (1997) have found that individual risk perception is
affected by education, income, health status and gender.

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2.2 Driving Tasks

Drivers’ perception of driving tasks is related to road accidents. Road accidents are result of
three factors of driving tasks such as human, vehicle and environment. Available literature on
driving tasks is as follows:

Deery and Love (1996) have identified that there is significant difference between drivers’ age
regarding driving style and driving skill. Driving training improves driving skills but many
deficiencies have been found in driving training. Driving skill is concerned with driving task
such as use of steering wheel and time taken to respond in traffic hazards. Driving style is
concerned with decision making such as over time, driving speed and tailgating. Driving style
and driving skill significantly affect drivers’ safety level.

Naing et al. (2008) have observed that there are three level of driving tasks such as human,
vehicle and environment. At human level, there are many factors which are associated with
driving task such as loss of consciousness, acute medical condition, falling asleep, inattention,
distraction, cell phone use, emotion, careless, mood and aggressive driving. The vehicle level
includes high frequency driving tasks such as speed, acute technical failure and tire burst. The
environment level driving tasks includes traffic density, traffic flow, slippery road conditions,
temporary problems and adverse weather conditions. It is found that 64.6 per cent road accidents
occur due to lack of vigilance.

Hauer (1999) has explained that drivers’ attention decreases in stable driving situations such as
driving on a straight road and going around a bend, and intersections when drivers change
directions or overtake. Barkley (2004) has described that 72.9 percent distractions occur in
stabilized traffic situations. 11.1 percentage road accidents occur while changing direction of
vehicle and 6.7 per cent occur while overtaking the vehicle. Road accidents occur when, simple
driving situations allow driver to get distracted and perform another task at the same time.

Keskinen et al. (1998) have described that male drivers are more inattentive in accident situation
as compared to female drivers. It is also found that road travelers are more likely to be involved
in road accidents due to inattention in age group of less than 25 years and between 45 and 64
years. Bailly and Chapon (2006) have found that there is significant association between

21
inattention and driving experience regarding road accidents. It is seen that inexperienced drivers
are more sensitive to occurrence of road accidents.

Sagberg and Bjornskau (2006) have described that there is a significant difference between
novice male drivers and general drivers regarding hazard perception of driving tasks. Fuller
(2005) identified that speed influences the driving tasks condition and play an important role in
driving behaviour. Most of drivers follow high speed at turning point due to overestimating their
steering skills.

2.3 Traffic Rules

Traffic rules play an important role in reduces road accidents. Traffic rules have been
implemented by government for saving life of road users. Road accidents can be minimized by
strictly enforcement of law.

Tahir et al. (2012) have described that 25 percent of road traffic accidents cases occur due to
carelessness and 22 percent due to driving vehicle on wrong side. 45 percent cases of road traffic
accident occur with motorcycle, 34 percent with cars, and 2 percent with trucks and 1percent
with bus. Zegeer et al. (2012) have analyzed that most of road accidents occur due to poor traffic
law of enforcement. O.G. et al. (2009) have found that road accidents occur due to old age;
overtaking, and poor maintenance of vehicles. Driving after drinking and breaking the speed
limits are causes of road accidents. Sundstrom et al. (2012) have analyzed that there is significant
difference among ambulance drivers’ performance regarding overtaking. Bener et al. (2005)
have identified that most of drivers do not follow the traffic rules while driving.

Banik et al. (2011) have shown that drivers’ behaviour is responsible for increase in number of
road accidents due to exceeding the capability of driving and overtaking. Hassen et al. (2011)
have identified that 66 per cent of road traffic accidents occur due to overtaking and overloading.
Afukaar et al. (2003), Vanlaar and Yannis (2006) and Brookland et al. (2010) have observed that
speeding is responsible to increase 50 per cent of road traffic injuries. Yao and Wu (2011) have
identified that driving vehicle on wrong side is associated with road accidents.

Sabbour and Ibrahim (2010) have observed that driving styles, excessive speed, ignoring road
signs, driving opposite direction, non use of safety belt, risky conditions and fast driving are

22
significantly associated with male drivers. Parker et al. (1995) have described that road accidents
are the result of rules violation rather than errors. Bone and Mowen (2006) have described that
there is a significant relationship between leniency in regulation and road accidents. Highly
educated drivers show the negative attitude towards road safety as compared to less educated
drivers.

Clarke et al. (2002) have found that drivers’ higher education is not panacea to reduce road
accidents. Poor driving skills and lack of knowledge of traffic laws are identified as the causes of
fatal accidents. Rebellious attitudes and decision-making skills of young drivers’ are contributory
factors of road accidents.

Beirness (1993) has observed that seat belts significantly reduce the risk of drivers’ injury or
fatality while driving. Gibbons et al. (2006) has identified that 35 percent of road accidents occur
to drivers who do not use seat belt while driving.

Jorgensen and Polak (1993) have demonstrated that driving speed of drivers depends on
characteristics, attitude and ability of risk perception, knowledge of information regarding the
speed limit, probability of detection by law enforcement, severity of traffic penalties, and the
potential of time saving or loss. Low skilled drivers overestimate their abilities and drive fast.

Goodwin et al. (2006) have observed that positive driving behaviour is necessary rather than
encouraging drivers to obey traffic signals. It is estimated that 20 percent of road accidents
injuries can be reduced by camera enforcement. Reason et al. (1990) have described that drivers’
attitudes have been classified on the basis of errors and violations of rules.

Parker et al. (1995) examined that there is significant relationship among errors, violations, and
forgetfulness. Young and male drivers violate traffic rules that results into financial loss and loss
of life. It is also found that most of road accidents occur due to rules violation as compared to
error. Parker and Stradling (1998) described that there is a significant difference between male
and female drivers regarding violation of traffic rules. 40 percent of male drivers more violate
the traffic rules as compared to female drivers who violate traffic rules in 20 percent cases.
Different variables included in traffic rules violation are red lights crossing, tailgating, excessive
speed limit and racing.

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2.4 Road Safety

Rate of road accidents is increasing every day. It is has noted that large numbers of people are
getting killed every year in road accidents and some of them become sufferer of life threating
problems such as mental disturbance, loss of money and loss of hand or legs. India has a very
huge population of road travellers such as two wheelers and four wheelers on roads. Public must
know about road safety. It can be achieved by implementation of road safety awareness
programs.

Silas et al. (2011) have observed that poor road conditions and maintenance, and culture are
contributory factors in road accident deaths. Atubi et al. (2012) have identified that the length of
roads, presence of road safety corps and population significantly influence road traffic accidents.
Road traffic accidents significantly increase with increase in length of roads (km). Large area is
likely to be involved in greater number of accident than small area due to higher traffic volumes.
Kardara et al. (1997) have observed that most of road accidents fatalities occur with drivers than
passengers and pedestrians. Assum (1997) has described that there is significant difference
between drivers’ attitude regarding traffic safety and speeding.

2.5 Personal Responsibility

Drivers’ personal responsibility plays an important role in reducing road accidents. It is

responsibility of every driver to follow traffic rules. Literature regarding drivers’ personal
responsibility is as follows:

Sliupas (2009) has demonstrated that most of road accidents occur due to vehicle breakdown.
The lengths of road section, average daily traffic and road barriers are strongly associated with
road accidents. Kircher and Andersson (2013) have pointed that 40 percent of trucks do not have
any seat belts installed. Most of truck drivers do not take proper rest after long drive. Tahir et al.
(2012) have described that speeding, carelessness, and wrong side driving are significantly
associated with road accidents. 25 per cent of road accidents occur due to careless driving and 22
per cent due to driving on wrong side. 45 percent cases of road accidents are associated with
motorcycle, 34 percent with cars, 2 percent with trucks, and 1 percent with buses. Lee et al.
(2011) have observed that there is significant difference between male and female drivers
regarding use of mobile phone. 36 percent of male drivers use mobile phone as compared to 30

24
percent female drivers while driving. 48 percent of young drivers use mobile phone during
driving as compared to 30 percent old drivers. Roehler et al. (2013) have observed that most of
drivers and passengers do not wear the helmet while driving. Some drivers feel uncomfortable
after wearing the helmet.

Zhao et al. (2009) have identified that male drivers are more involved in road accidents due to
driving old vehicle, without using seat belt and speeding. Male drivers take more risk during
night time on urban link. Hejar et al. (2005) have identified that there is insignificant relationship
between car drivers’ injuries and not using seat belt.

Lee et al. (2011) have found that 95 percent of road traffic deaths can be reduced by using seat
belts by drivers and passengers. Most of drivers do not use seat belt during driving. 91 percent of
car drivers wear seat belt while driving. 12 per cent of drivers feel discomfort and do not find it
necessary to wear seat belt during driving. There is significant difference between male and
female drivers to wear seat belt. 47 percent of male drivers wear seat belt as compared to 38
percent female drivers. Male drivers say that people should be free to choose whether to wear
seat belt or not as compared to female drivers. It is also identified that 67 percent of young
drivers do not wear seat belt while driving.

Rumar (1990) has identified that 50 per cent of car drivers stop vehicle at intersections marked
with a stop sign. It is also found that most of drivers stop cars too late at stop sign than at blinker.
There is insignificant difference in percentage of drivers who stop or slow down at stop sign or at
red blinker. Daily and Martin (1988) have described that many factors influence choice of travel
mode such as infrastructure or availability of public transport, economics and psychological
factors include perceptions of safety. Majority of public use public transport as compared to
private vehicle and most of students use own vehicle for travelling.

2.6 Risky Driving Behaviour

Risky driving attitude of drivers associate with road accidents. Risky driving behaviour can be
modified by enforcement of law. Literature has been reviewed related to risky driving behaviour
that is following:

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Ma et al. (2008) have described that drivers’ attitude towards rules violation and speeding
significantly affect risky driving behavior. Risky driving behavior significantly indirectly
affected by risk perception. There is insignificant difference between taxi and bus drivers
regarding risk perception, attitude and driving behavior. Aggressive behaviour and normal
behaviour significantly affect road accidents in first two years. Low level of education does not
significantly affect crash rates. Taxi and bus drivers show positive attitude towards rules
violation and speeding. Risk perception and risk taking attitude significantly affect risky driving
behavior. Less concerned drivers have positive attitude towards rules violation and speeding.

Harre et al. (2000) have described that license is a ticket of freedom for drivers. Goodwin et al.
(2006) have identified that behavioural factors are responsible to increase road accidents. These
factors reduce capabilities of drivers on long term basis such as inexperience, aging, disease,
disability and alcoholism that result into increasing road accidents.

Hassen et al. (2011) have defined that most of drivers use mobile phone while driving. There are
three elements of drivers’ attitude as feeling, thought and behaviour. Behaviour can be measured
by drivers’ reaction in certain situation. Petridou and Moustaki (2002) have identified that there
are many factors such as drowsiness, fatigue, eating, acute stress and acute alcohol, intoxication
and temporary distraction affect drivers’ performance.

McEvoy et al. (2006) have observed that risk of crash increase with use of mobile phone. Drivers
are more likely to be injured in road accidents due to using mobile phone while driving.
Mangiaracina and Palumbo (2007) have described that smoking is more likely to be the cause of
road accidents than using mobile phone while driving.

Brison (1990) has identified that there is significant difference between smokers and non-
smokers regarding car accidents. Sacks (1994) have observed that smokers are 1.5 time more
involved in road accidents than non-smokers. It is found that drivers are distracted from driving
tasks as they engage in different activities such as using mobile phone, eating, drinking,
smoking, talking with passengers, and using audio equipment.

Gulliver and Begg (2004) have described that driver’ activities of eating and drinking while
driving increase crash risk.

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Jenness et al. (2002) have identified that drivers’ performance is significantly affected by
different distraction activities like eating or operating CD player while driving. Bener et al.
(2005) have identified that careless driving is one of the most contributing factors in road traffic
accidents. 35 percent road accidents occur due to careless driving. Excessive speed is the second
factor in road accident after careless driving. May (2004) has identified that one third of fatal and
serious accidents occur due to excessive and improper speed. Banik et al. (2011) defined that
drivers are responsible for occurrence of accidents due to exceeding the capability of driving and
vehicle speed.

Laapotti and Keskinen (2004) have described that there is significant difference between male
and female drivers regarding controlling vehicle. 70 percent time, male drivers are found losing
control over vehicle. Most of male drivers show risky driving habits. Shope et al. (2001) have
found that young drivers are more likely to be involved in crashes fatality with property damage.
Young drivers’ lack of experience and maturity causes them to take more risk and overestimate
their driving skills.

Cooper et al. (1995) have shown that sixteen year old drivers are more often involved in error
fatalities. These drivers are involved in high speed crashes due to loose control or ran off road.
Gayer et al. (2000) have found that excessive speed reduces driver’s ability to negotiate curves or
objects on roadway, extends stopping distance, and increases distance a driver travels when
encountering dangerous situation. Speeding is main contributing factors in traffic crashes and
fatalities.

Miller and Taubman (2010) have observed that there is significant relationship between
speeding and crash involvement. It is also found that addition of speed increases the potential of
being involved in fatal motor vehicle accident.

Mayhew and Simpson (1995) have identified that there is significant difference between novice
drivers and experienced drivers regarding risky driving. Novice drivers show positive attitude
towards risky driving behaviour as compared to experienced drivers. The novice drivers have
low risk perception skills and do not know how to operate vehicle on road to minimize
possibility of a crash.

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Regan et al. (1998) found that novice drivers’ abilities and skills can be improved through
training. Gulian et al. (1989) have underlined that drivers who show aggressiveness are more
involved in road accidents as compared to drivers with low aggressiveness. Iversen (2004) has
found that there is positive correlation between risk-taking attitudes and risky driving behavior.
Risk taking attitude predicts risky driving behaviour. There are many dimensions included in risk
taking attitude such as rule violations and speeding, careless driving, and drinking and driving.

Forester et al. (1984) have explained that speed is affected by drivers’ income, vehicle mileage,
age, motorcycle registration, and speed limit. Speed is positively related to income, mileage, age
and price of fuel; but negatively related to motorcycle registration and speed limits. Speed is
significantly and positively related to total motor vehicle fatalities. Francis et al. (2004) have
observed that driving behavior is significantly associated with safety attitudes and risk
perception. There is significant correlation between road traffic safety attitude and aggressive
driving behaviors and fast driving.

Bamberg et al. (2003) have described that risk perception is negatively correlated with risk-
taking behaviors. High risk perception of drivers shows low probability of taking part in that
behavior. Ying et al. (2010) have found that novice and inexperienced drivers are involved in
risky driving and talking on a cellular phone in some situations. Cellular phone tasks
significantly decrease driving performance for both novice and experienced drivers. Experienced
drivers are more benefitted from training as compared to novice drivers.

Klauer et al. (2006) have observed that 22 percent of crashes occur due to tasks distractions.
Dialing a hand-held cellular phone increases the risk of crash or near crash by 2.8 times, and
talking on a handheld device increases risk by 1.3 times. Sabey and Taylor (1980) described that
human factors contribute 95 percent in road accidents. Driving behavior is the most important
human factor in road accident. Driver, vehicle and environment factors play an important role in
road accidents.

Lawton et al. (1997) identified that most of road accident occur due to fault of drivers. It is also
observed that experienced drivers’ skills performance is better as compared to novice drivers’
performance. Novice drivers have low skills ability as their fail to identify hazard situation and
distraction while driving.

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Hall (1997) has identified that risk-taking does not violate traffic laws but increases the risk of
being involved in a crash. Three dimensions of risk perception are emotion-based risk
perception, cognition risk perception and concern risk perception. Ulleberg and Rundmo (2003)
suggested that there is minor affect of risk perception on risky behaviour. It implies that risk
perception is significantly related to risky driving behavior and risk-taking attitudes. It is also
found that speeding attitudes significantly contribute in risky driving behavior.

Hijar et al. (2003) has described that male drivers are 2.6 times more likely to suffer from road
traffic injury than female drivers. Drivers in age groups 21 to 25 years take more risk while
driving. Mayhew and Simpson (1995) have described that proportion of old drivers are more
involved in road accident at intersections when entering traffic or crossing a main road.

Preusser et al. (1984) have found that novice drivers’ crash involvement can be minimized
through legal restrictions such as night driving curfews, minimum licensing age and alcohol
purchase age. Reimer et al. (2008) found that there is significant difference in preference for
cellular phone keeping by old age drivers and young drivers while driving.

Sarkar and Andreas (2004) have shown that driving training decreases errors and increases
vehicle control. Caird et al. (2008) have identified that use of a hand free device and any cellular
phone while driving is significantly associated with drivers’ distraction and unsafe driving
behaviour. It is also found that road user behaviour as drivers, pedestrian, cyclist, and passenger
is significantly affected by traffic rules and regulations. Drivers are involved in traffic crashes
due to physiological or mental states. The probability of road accidents increase when distracted
driving combines with bad road conditions and non-enforcement of traffic laws. It is described
that most of road accidents are occurred by drivers due to using unmaintained vehicle.

Teye-Kwadjo (2011) has found that road drivers’ behaviour and motor vehicles are influenced
by key factors such as physical and social environments. Poor roadway lighting affects visibility
of pedestrians. Weather conditions such as winter/snow make roads challenging. The values,
culture and religious beliefs in the social environment affect road user behaviour. Road accidents
are considered just punishments of God. It is also found that drivers’ characteristics and
environmental/situational factors increase road accidents. Different factors included in drivers’
characteristics are poor traffic risk perception, fatalism, aggressive driving, feelings of

29
invulnerability, inadequate driver training, and risk-taking tendency. The situational factors such
as bad road infrastructure and equipment, nature and bad condition of passenger-carrying
vehicles, and ineffective traffic law enforcement increase road accidents.

Stanton and Salmon (2009) have discussed that inadequate road infrastructure or poor
environmental conditions significantly affect road user behaviour and their performance. Factors
included in inadequate conditions are confusing layout, misleading signage, poor road surface
related conditions, weather conditions, lighting conditions, time of day, misleading or
inappropriate rules, and regulations.

Naing et al. (2008) have highlighted that lack of attention increases road accidents. Three types
of attention are identified such as inattention, distraction and competition for attention. Variables
included in inattention are lost in thought, distraction due to using mobile phone and third is
related to focusing on driving task like searching for road signs.

Waylen and McKenna (2002) have identified that there is significant difference between male
and female drivers regarding distraction. Male drivers are more likely to be involved in road
accident on turning point, during night and overtaking as compared to female drivers. It is also
found that female drivers are more involved in road accidents at intersection as compared to
male drivers.

McKenna and Farrand (1999) have found that there is significant difference between experienced
and inexperienced drivers regarding suffering considerable interference to hazard perception
skills in presence of a secondary driving task. Drummond (2000) has shown significant
difference between experienced drivers and novice drivers regarding detecting hazard situation.
It is found that poor hazard perception is significantly associated with risk of fatal or serious
crashes but not minor crashes.

Van and Landstrom (2006) have found that sleepiness or tiredness is a serious problem for road
accidents. Most of road accidents occur by drivers’ tiredness. One-third drivers occasionally
have to fight sleepiness while driving and 8 percent drivers occasionally feel head dozing while
driving. It is also found that one-fifth of drivers stop vehicle due to sleepiness.

30
De et al. (2008) have described that there is a positive correlation between traffic density and
road accident. Road accidents increase as traffic density increase. It is also found that heavy
traffic create problems and decrease safety as it blocks vision and reduces drivers’ ability to
change lanes.

Gullone and Moore (2000) have indicated that there is significant difference between old and
young drivers to be involved in crashes. It is found that experienced and inexperienced drivers
have significant difference regarding to be involved in road accidents. Factors included in road
accident are speeding, reckless driving, and alcohol. Risky driving behaviour such as close
following, dangerous overtaking, and failing to allow sufficient time to merge traffic lanes are
responsible for road accidents.

Hartos et al. (2001) have found that less driving experience increases risky driving behaviours
and road accidents among youths. Road traffic accident rates for newly licensed youngsters
remains high for the first few years. It is found that the rate of road traffic accidents is higher for
adolescents who begin to drive at young ages. Inexperience and immature drivers have higher
probability of being involved in road accident as compared to experience and old drivers.
Williams (1995) has described that youngsters are more likely to drive at night than older adults,
which increases risk of being involved in a road traffic accident and related injuries.

Harre et al. (2000) have described that young drivers are involved in road traffic accidents as
compared to old drivers. Young drivers take more risk during driving. It is found that youngsters
are more likely to engage in variation of unsafe driving behaviours such as tailgating, violating
traffic signs and signals, allowing too little time to merge, and speeding than older drivers.
Waylen and McKenna (2008) have found that there is significant difference between adolescent
male and female drivers regarding risky attitudes in reference to speeding and tailgating.

Wilson and Stimpson (2010) have identified that young drivers are more likely to be involved in
road accidents due to distracted driving than older drivers. Distracted driving behaviour is found
in young drivers. Drivers who engage in distracted driving are more likely to be involved in risky
driving behaviour. Bianchi and Summala (2002) have described four categories of risky driving
behaviour such as aggressive driving, substance use and driving, distracted driving and

31
committing moving violations while driving. Errors and misjudgments are not considered in risk
categories.

Elvik et al. (2004) have identified that excess or inappropriate speed is the main contributing
factors in serious vehicle accidents. It is found that there is positive correlation between speed
and risk. Elliot et al. (2005) have found that age and experience of drivers significantly affect
road accidents. Inappropriate speed on bad road condition is the strongest predictor of severe
crashes irrespective of the age and experience of drivers.

Lajunen et al. (2003) have described that most of road accidents are committed by young drivers
due to excessive speed of vehicle. Young drivers do not have the fear of loss of life. Most of road
accidents occur under the 25 years age. Excessive and inappropriate speeds have been identified
as the greatest contributing factor in single vehicle accident for young drivers.

Campbell and Stradling (2003) have found that the highest proportion of drivers in age groups of
21 to 29 years violate speed limit. Male drivers in the age groups of 16 to 25 years have been
identified to drive at very high speed. Speeding is common behaviour in young drivers. Fildes
and Leening (1991) found that speed choice is influenced by road width and number of lanes.
Drivers prefer high speeds on wide roads, multiple lanes, and clear road markers.

Warren (1982) has identified that different characteristics of road such as distance of visibility,
surface condition and aggregate, slope and bend, and cut influence drivers’ speed preference
under different environmental conditions. The aggregate and surface stability of roads
significantly affect crash rates.

Goldenbeld and Van (2007) have found that drivers are unable to identify road conditions or
hazards situation during speeding, and loose control on vehicle that result into road accidents. It
is also found that drivers have to take road condition problems to adjust vehicle speed in
different road environment.

Patton et al. (1995) has described that risk of crash increase two times when speed of vehicle
increase above 5km/hour of the speed limit. It is found that there is significant correlation
between excess speed limit and road accidents. Groeger (2006) has described that low driving
experience significantly affects a drivers’ ability to identify and control vehicle. Drivers’ age also

32
influence road accidents. Most of vehicle accidents occur with young drivers. Problematic tasks
for researcher that drivers experience increase with age and it is difficult to distinguish the
influence of experience on driving behaviour distinct from age.

Horswill et al. (2008) have found that drivers’ inability to judge road conditions increase risk of
crash involvement. There is significant relationship between poor road conditions and hazards,
and not making appropriate adjustments in driving behaviour. Most of road accidents are result
of low drivers’ experience and lack of perceptual training in hazard detection.

Braitman et al. (2008) have found that young and inexperienced drivers are more likely to be
involved in accidents as they fail to identify other vehicles at intersections. Renge (1998) has
described that driving experience significantly influences hazard awareness and perceived speed
low risk. It is also found that driving experience strongly influences on hazard detection ability,
and speed preference between newly licensed, novice and experienced drivers, and driving
instructors.

Young et al. (2008) described that aged drivers are more likely to be injured than younger drivers
in a road accident. Higher crash rate occurs with aged drivers due to poor visual, tiredness and
poor body activeness. Beck et al. (2002) have found that young drivers are more likely to be
involved in road accident as compared to older drivers. Young drivers are more involved in
crashes from fatality to property damage. They have limited driving experience and immaturity
and take more risk and overestimate their driving skill.

Blatt and Furman (1998) have found that there are many factors involved in road accidents such
as road design, limited sight distance due to hills and curves, mostly two-lane roads, and two-
way traffic. Accident rate increases due to high speed, less seat belt use, and delays in discovery
and arrival of emergency support.

Grantham (2000) has identified that drivers’ performance is affected by excessive speed.
Speeding reduces drivers’ ability to negotiate curves or objects at the road, extends the stopping
distance, and increases the distance a driver travels when encountering a dangerous situation.
Speeding is the most dominant contributing factors in road accident and fatalities. It is found that
speed limit is main technique to control vehicle operating speed but speed limits are not effective
in all driving situations. Many factors are involved in road accidents such as road design,

33
infrastructure, intelligent-vehicle and road related technologies, drivers’ behaviour particularly
old and new drivers.

Forester et al. (1984) described that speed is positively related to income, vehicle mileage, age,
and speed limit but negatively related to vehicle registration and speed limits. It is seen that age
and speed are significantly related to road traffic accidents.

Prabhakar et al. (1996) have identified that male drivers show greater risky driving behaviour
and involvement in road accidents as compared to female drivers. McCartt (2003) identified that
male drivers are significantly more likely to engage in speeding, drink-driving, and violating
traffic rules as compared to female drivers. Moore (1995) has observed that male drivers are
more likely to be involved in speeding and tailgating as compared to female drivers.

Begg and Langley (2001) have described that there is significant difference between young and
older drivers regarding risky diving behaviour. Dobbeleer et al. (2009) have explained that
drivers’ behaviour play an important role in road accidents. There are many factors such as over
speed, right of way offences, drunken driving, red light offences, traffic in opposite side of the
road, distraction and fatigue and illegal overtaking. It is also found that distraction and fatigue
affect driving skill and behaviour.

Home and Reyner (2000) found that 20 percent of road accidents occur due to drivers’ tiredness.
It is found that a large numbers of road accidents fatalities occur each year due to drivers’
sleepiness while at the wheel. Bone and Mowen (2006) have identified that road accidents occur
due to different factors such as health of a person, lack of attention and public, not following the
road rules, unsafe conditions on road area, unexpected acts of road users, failure of vehicles, and
poor maintenance of vehicle.

Boufous et al. (2010) have described that concentration and free from distraction reduce the road
accidents. Most of road accidents occur due to distraction problem of drivers. It is observed that
drivers’ concentration is districted by passengers. Dunbar et al. (2002) have found that most of
road accident occurs due to violation of traffic rules. Bike drivers mostly violate traffic rules as
compared to others motors vehicle drivers. If driver provides proper space to others drivers who
are overtaking, accidents can be avoided easily. Drivers can prevent road accidents by
concentrating more on the potential hazards.

34
Williams (2003) have described that there is significant relationship between tailgating and road
accidents. Responsibility of drivers to maintain a safe distance can avoid road accidents.
Tailgating increases irritation and anxiety of drivers. Sacks and Nelson (1994) have found that
poor road light conditions play an important role in increasing accidents at night. Visibility of
drivers in case of poor road light condition decrease concentration of drivers in night. It is also
found that road accident is not only reduced by supply of proper lighting condition but also by
introducing speed limit.

Evans and Wasielewski (1983) have described that most of drivers engage in discussion with
passenger or conductor while driving. Drivers’ conversation with passenger or conductor affects
drivers’ performance that result into road accidents. Summala et al. (1996) have described that
most of bus drivers face problem when they turn vehicle in high speed and create problem to
passenger and others. A large numbers of drivers take short cut and overtake others vehicle to
reach destination.

Wood (2002) has found that most of road accidents occur due to fault of drivers. Drivers are
unable to recognize hazard situation such as flooded roads and hanging wires on road. Transport
department (2010) has described that many factors have been included in road safety to minimize
the risk, such as handling of vehicle, adequate training and education for safe driving and
maintenance of the vehicle.

Salthouse (2005) have identified that there are many factors responsible to increase road
accidents such as drivers’ health problem, distraction and violating traffic rules, road condition
and vehicle problem and low risk perception drivers.

Lawton et al. (1997) have described that there is significant difference between ordinary and
deliberate violations. Ordinary violation consists of behaviours such as violate speed limit and
red lights, and deliberate violations focus on aggressive behaviours such as volume of horn or
aggressively following another vehicle.

Juhnke (1995) has discussed that drivers’ attitude influence risk taking behaviour regarding rule
violations and speeding. Low risk perception is related to road accident. It is found that there is
significant difference between male and female drivers regarding risky driving behaviour. Yagil
(1998) has identified that there is a significant difference in drivers’ attitude regarding traffic law

35
and traffic violation on the basis of gender and age. Young and male drivers violate traffic laws
as compared to female and older drivers. Assum (1997) and Yagil (1998) have described that
male drivers and young drivers have positive attitude towards violation and risky driving.
Drivers who take more risk while driving have low risk perception.

Cohn et al. (1995) have described that drivers’ risk perception is negatively correlated with risk
taking behaviour. Finn and Bragg (1986) have identified that there is significant difference
between young male drivers’ in age group 18 to 24 years and old male drivers in age group 38 to
50 years regarding risk perception. Young drivers have low risk perception as compared to old
drivers. Different habits of young drivers such as tailgating, driving at night, speeding, and
driving after drinking play an important role in road accidents.

According to Assum (1997), drivers’ attitudes is divided into two groups such as general
attitudes towards traffic safety and special attitudes towards speed, drinking and driving,
consideration for other road users and responsibility. It is also noticed that drivers’ attitude affect
road accident risk. Ulleberg and Rundmo (2003) have found that there is significant relationship
between drivers’ risk perception and driving behaviour regarding controlling attitudes.

2.7 Research Gap

The extensive literature review has been done to highlight drivers’ behaviour towards road
accidents. The study is designed to fill the research gap. But it was hard to find studies based on
drivers’ behaviour. After literature review, it is found that most of studies are based on secondary
data. A single study has not been found related to drivers’ behaviour in India. Adequate numbers
of studies are not available related to drivers’ perception of risk and driving tasks. Many
programs regarding road safety are organized by government to aware public but these programs
have failed due to low education of public and poor enforcement of law. No study has been
found that establish relationship between drivers’ perception of risk and driving tasks and safety
attitude. To fill that gap in literature the presents entitled “A study of road safety behaviour in
Haryana” is conducted.

36
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