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Carbohydrates
The Germans first and foremost introduced the word ‘kohlenhydrates’ which
was later on coined to carbohydrates. The name obviously suggests that these
compounds are essentially the hydrates of carbon
• Carbohydrates, were defined as a group of compounds composed of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in which the latter two elements are in
the same proportion as in water and were expressed by a formula
(CH2O)n, that is, hydrates of carbon.
• All organic compounds containing hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportion found in water are not carbohydrates.
• For example, formaldehyde HCHO for the present purpose can be written
as C(H2O); acetic acid CH3COOH written as C3(H2O)2; and lactic acid
CH3CHOHCOOH written as C3(H2O)3 are not carbohydrates.
• Also, a large number of carbohydrates such as rhamnose (C6H12O5),
cymarose (C7H14O4), digitoxose (C6H12O4), etc., are known which do
not contain the usual proportions of hydrogen to oxygen.
• From the discussion, it can be concluded that the definitions described is
not correct; however, carbohydrates are now defined chemically as
Polyhydroxy aldehyde or Polyhydroxy ketones or compound that on
hydrolyses produce either of the above.
• Carbohydrates are among the first products that are form as a result of
photosynthesis.
• They constitute a large proportion of the plant biomass and are
responsible, as cellulose, for the rigid cellular framework and, as starch,
for providing an important food reserve.
• Of special pharmacognostic importance is the fact that sugars unites with
a wide variety of other compounds to form glycosides and secondary
metabolites.
• Mucilage act as water-retaining vehicles, where as gums and mucilage,
which are similar in composition and properties, are formed in the plant
by injury or stress and usually appear as solidified exudates; both are
typically composed of uronic acid and sugar units.
• Low molecular weight carbohydrates are crystalline, soluble in water and
sweet in taste, for example, glucose, fructose, sucrose, etc.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
CLASSIFICATION
Monosaccharides
• The term ‘monosaccharides’ is employed for such sugars that on
hydrolysis yield no further, lower sugars.
• The monosaccharides are subdivided as bioses, trioses, tetroses, pentoses,
hexoses, heptoses, depending upon the number of carbon atoms they
possess.
Bioses
• They contain two carbon atoms. They do not occur free in nature.
Trioses
• They contain three carbon atoms ,for example, glyceraldehydes.
Tetroses
• They contain four carbon atoms, for example, erythrose, threose, etc.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Pentoses
• They are very common in plants and are the products of hydrolysis of
polysaccharides like hamicelluloses, mucilages and gums, for example,
ribose, arabinose and xylose.
Hexoses
• They are monosaccharides containing six carbon atoms and are
abundantly available carbohydrates of plant kingdom. They are further
divided into two types: aldoses and ketoses. They may be obtained by
hydrolysis of
• Aldoses : Glucose, galactose
• Ketoses : Fructose and sorbose
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
• Heptoses
They contain seven carbon atoms, vitally important in the photosynthesis
of plant and glucose metabolism of animals and are rarely found accumulated in
plants, for example, glucoheptose and manoheptose.
Disaccharides:
• Carbohydrates, which upon hydrolysis yield two molecules of
monosaccharides, are called as disaccharides.
• Sucrose Hydrolysis Glucose + fructose (sugarcane), Maltose Hydrolysis
Glucose + Glucose (malt sugar), Lactose Hydrolysis Glucose + Galactose
(cow’s milk).
Trisaccharides:
• These liberate three molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
• Raffinose Hydrolysis Glucose + fructose + galactose (in beet)
(sugarcane),
Gentianose Hydrolysis Glucose + Glucose + fructose (gentian roots).
Tetra-saccharides
• Stachyose, a tetrasaccharide, yields on hydrolysis, four molecules of
monosaccharide, found in manna.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Polysaccharides:
• On hydrolysis they give an indefinite number of monosaccharides.
• By condensation, with the elimination of water, polysaccharides are
produced from monosaccharides.
• Depending upon the type of product of hydrolysis these are further
classified as Pentosans and Hexosans.
• Xylan is pentosan, whereas starch, insulin and cellulose are the examples
of hexosans.
• Cellulose is composed of glucose units joined by β-1, 4 linkages, whereas
starch contains glucose units connected with α- 1, 4 and α- 1, 6 units.
• Polyuronides, gums and mucilages are the other pharmaceutically
important polysaccharide derivatives.
SUCROSE:
It is called table sugar.
It is formed by combination of 2 units of monosaccharide Fructose &
Glucose.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
SUGAR CANE:
Common names:
Sugar cane, noble cane (English), sarkara (Sanskrit), paunda (Hindi).
Botanical name:
Saccharum officinarum L.
Family:
Poaceae (grass family)
Part used:
Thick, joined fibrous stalks.
Habitat
Hot humid tropics, in moist soils.
Brazil is the largest producer of Sugar cane in world. It is also cultivated in
Pakistan, India, China, Thailand & Mexico.
DESCRIPTION:
Tropical, perennial grass, that form lateral shoots.
Sweet in taste , outer surface is greenish brown, while inner surface is
yellowish white.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
CULTIVATION:
It is cultivated in Tropic & Sub tropic areas with plentiful supply of water
& Sun light for continuous period of more then 6 month each year.
It grows on highly fertile soil.
It is harvested by hand or mechanically.
In hand harvesting, the field is first set on fire,
Fire burns dry leaves & kills the insects etc leaving stalks & roots harm
less & then they are Cut just above the ground level.
In mechanical harvesting, Sugar cane harvester is used.
PROCESSING:
Two stages
1. Milling, 2. Refining.
1. MILLING:
In this stage, the cane juice is extracted by different techniques.
2.REFINING
The juice is centrifuged to remove impurities.
After this the sugar solution is clarified by adding phosphoric acid and
Ca. hydroxide.
After filtering the syrup is decolorized by activated carbon.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Uses:
Used as table sugar.
Used as sweetening agent in syrups.
Used as demulcent.
Used as bacteriostatic and preservative.
Used to mask disagreeable tastes in troches and tablets.
Used to relive low B.P.
Used to treat diarrhea.
It is also used as taste enhancer and preservative in food industry.
SUGAR BEET:
Synonyms-
Spinach Beet. Sea Beet. Garden Beet. White Beet.
BOTANICAL NAME :
Beta vulgaris (Linn.)
FAMILY :
Chenopodiaceae.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZVxPkv0r7JY
DESCRIPTION :
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Dextrose:
D-glucose
D(+)-glucopyranose
Naturally present in grapes and other fruits.
Preparation
Usually obtained by hydrolysis of starch.
Heating at 45 lb presure for 35 min.
Dextrose is then crystalized,washed and dried.
99-100% pure.
Uses:
NUTRIENT ( mouth, enema, injection)
Dextrose and NaCl inj
Present in anticoagulant citrate phosphate dextrose soln (storage of
blood).
Food industry
Liquid Glucose:
Obtained by incomplete hydrolysis of starch
Composed of Dextrose, also contains Dextrin, Maltose and Water.
Preparation
Corn starch is mixed with dil HCl at 30 lb pressure for 22 min
Centrifuged and filtered
Evaporated to syrupy liquid.
Description:
Thick colourless or yellowish liquid
Odourless and sweet in taste.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Uses:
Sweetning agent in pharma industry
Substitute of sucrose in syrup
Tablet binder and coating agent.
Fructose:
D-fructose,
Levulose ,
D(-) fructopyranose,
Fruit sugar.
Description:
Colourless crystals or white crystalline powder
Odourless and sweet in taste
Soluble in water
Uses:
Food for diabetic people
Diabetic acidosis
Infant feeding formulas
Ingredient in electrolyte replinsher, given parentrally.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
HONEY:
Synonyms
Madhu, Madh, Mel, Purified Honey.
Biological Source
Honey is a viscid and sweet secretion stored in the honey comb by various
species of bees, such as Apis mellifera, Apis dorsata, Apis florea, Apis indica
belonging to family Apideae.
Geographical Source
Honey is available in abundance in Africa, India, Jamaica, Australia,
California, Chili, Great Britain and New Zealand.
HONEY
Morphology:
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Uses:
Honey shows mild laxative, bactericidal, sedative, antiseptic and
alkaline characters.
It is used for cold, cough, fever, sore eye and throat, tongue and duodenal
ulcers, liver disorders, kidney and other urinary disorders, pulmonary
tuberculosis, marasmus, rickets, scurvy and insomnia.
It is applied as a remedy on open wounds after surgery.
It is also useful in healing of carbuncles other and skin inflammation.
Honey, mixed with onion juice, is a good remedy for arteriosclerosis in
brain.
Diet rich in honey is recommended for infants, convalescents, diabetic
patients and invalids.
Honey is an important ingredient of certain lotions, cosmetics, soaps and
creams.
Honey is used as an ingredient in various cough preparations.
It is also used to treat asthma.
Adulterant and Substitutes:
Due to the relatively high price of pure honey, it is invariably adulterated
ether with artificial invert sugar or simply with cane-sugar syrup.
These adulterants or cheaper substituents not only alter the optical
property of honey but also its natural aroma and fragrance.
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STARCH:
Synonyms
Amylum.
Biological Source
Starch consists of polysaccharide granules obtained from the grains of
Maize (Zea mays Linn.);
Rice (Oryza sativa Linn.)
Wheat (Triticum aestivum Linn.); belonging to family Gramineae .
Potato (Solanum tuberosum Linn.), family Solanaceae.
Geographical Source
Most of tropical, as well as, sub-tropical countries prepare starch
commercially.
Preparation of Starch
Potato Starch:
The potatoes are washed to remove the earthy matter.
They are crushed or cut and converted into slurry.
Slurry is filtered to remove the cellular matter.
After filtration, the milky slurry containing starch is purified by
centrifugation and washing.
Then, it is dried and sent to the market.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Rice Starch :
The broken pieces of rice resulted during the polishing are used for
processing.
The pieces of rice are soaked in water with dilute sodium hydroxide
solution (0.5%), which causes softening and dissolution of the gluten
(general name for wheat or rice protein).
The soaked rice pieces are crushed and starch prepared as preceeded in
potato.
Corn starch:
Maize grains are washed thoroughly with water to remove the adhered
organic matter.
They are softened by keeping in warm water for 2–3 days.
Sufficient sulphur dioxide is passed to the medium to prevent
fermentation.( Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar
to acids, gases, or alcohol. Endosperm is a tissue produced inside the
seeds of most of the flowering plants following fertilization. It surrounds
the embryo and provides nutrition in the form of starch, though it can
also contain oils and protein)
The swollen kernels are passed through attrition mill to break the grains,
so as to separate the endosperm and outermost coating.
The starchy material contains gluten; most of this is removed by simple
sieving and then by washing several times with cold water.
Then centrifuged or filter-pressed and finally, dried in flash dryers on a
moving belt dryer to get starch.
Wheat Starch:
The wheat flour is converted into dough(Dough= Flour mixed with
water) and kept for a while.
The gluten in the dough swells and the masses are taken to grooved
rollers, wherein water is added with constant shaking.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Microscopic Characters:
Rice Starch:
The granules are simple or compound.
Simple granules are polyhedral while compound granules are ovoid.
Rice starch
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Wheat Starch:
Wheat starch
Maize Starch:
Granules are polyhedral or rounded, with distinct cavity in the centre or
two to five rays cleft.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Potato Starch:
Generally, found in the form of simple granules, which are sub-
spherical, somewhat flattened irregularly ovoid in shape.
Hilum is present near the narrower end with well-marked.
Chemical Constituents:
Chemically starch contains two different polysaccharides,
Amylose (β-amylose) and
Amylopectin (α-amylose).
Amylose is water soluble and amylopectin is water insoluble, but swells
in water and is responsible for the gelatinizing (Starch gelatinization is a
process of breaking down the intermolecular bonds of starch molecules
in the presence of water and heat ) property of the starch.
Amylose gives blue colour with iodine, while amylopectin yields bluish
black colouration.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Identification Tests:
1. 1 g of starch is boiled with 15 ml of water and cool. The translucent
viscous jelly is produced.
2. The jelly turns deep blue by the addition of solution of iodine.
Uses:
As a nutritive, demulcent, protective and as an absorbent.
In the preparation of dusting talcum powder for application over the
skin.
As antidote in iodine poisoning.
As a disintegrating agent in tablets
As diluent in dry extracts of crude drug and is a diagnostic aid in the
identification of crude drugs.
As a starting material for the commercial manufacture of liquid glucose,
dextrose and dextrin(Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight
carbohydrates produced by the hydrolysis of starch or glycogen).
Cellulose:
Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a long-chain polysaccharide carbohydrate, of beta-
glucose.
It forms the primary structural component of plants and is not digestible
by humans
Structure of Cellulose
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
History:
Being found as the principal component of cell walls in higher plants
where it provides the main structural feature. Therefore,
Cellulose is considered as the most abundant naturally occurring organic
substance on earth.
It was first noted as such in 1838 by Anselm Payen.
It occurs in almost pure form in cotton fibre at 98% in combination with
lignin and hemicellulose.
Cellulose is the most abundant form of living terrestrial biomass.
Applications:
Cellulose is processed to make cellophane and rayon.
Cellophane has several applications in pharmaceutical packaging due to
its suitable characteristics such as good compatibility, durability,
transparency and elasticity.
Cellulose is also used within the laboratory as a solid-state substrate for
thin layer chromatography.
Cellulose is a major constituent of paper.
Derivatives:
The hydroxyl groups of cellulose can be partially or fully reacted with
various chemicals to provide derivatives with useful properties.
They have the general formula
Cellulose-O-R
Cellulose esters and cellulose ethers are the most important commercial
materials.
Among the esters are cellulose acetate and triacetate, which are used in
cosmetics.
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Uses of Cellulose:
Anticake agents
Emulsifier
Stabiliser
Dispersing agent
Thickener
Gelling agent
Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is the most known cellulose which
extensively used in pharmaceutical industries. MCC grades are
multifunctional pharmaceutical excipients which can be used as
compressibility enhancer,
binder in wet and dry granulation processes,
thickener and viscosity builder in liquid dosage forms
and free-flowing agents in solid dosage forms.
Application in bioadhesive and mucoadhesive drug delivery systems.
Bioadhesives are considered as novel drug delivery systems. These
dosage forms are formulated to use on the skin and mucus membranes
of gastrointestinal, ear, nose, eye, rectum and vagina.
The main excipients of these formulations are adhesive and film-former
polymer(s).
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
Ethyl cellulose
Aqueous dispersions of ethyl cellulose or its organic solutions can be
used for coating of extended release formulations. After ingestion of
these formulations, an insoluble viscose gel is forming around the tablet
which doesn’t allow to drug to freely release from dosage form.
Because of water insolubility of EC, it is often used in conjunction with
water soluble polymers such as MC
It is the lightest and most expensive of the cellulosics.
Methyl cellulose
It is used in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.
Is non toxic, non-allargic and is a weak adhesive.
Methylcellulose is used as
a tablet and capsule disintegrant,
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2.CARBOHYDRATES NOTES BY BILAL MALIK
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