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Thermal-electrical analogy
Thermal systems are those that involve the storage and transfer of heat. Heat stored in a material
object is manifested as a higher temperature. For example, a hot block of metal has more heat
stored in it than an equivalent cool block. Heat flows between objects by one of three
mechanisms: conduction, convection (or mass transfer), and radiation. Conductive heat transfer
occurs when a temperature difference exists across an object. An example is the flow of heat that
occurs through the wall of a building if the temperature inside is higher (or lower) than the
temperatures outside. Convective heat transfer involves the flow of heat in a liquid or gas, as
when a fan blows cool air across a hot object; the air carries away some of the heat of the object.
Radiative heat transfer, like conductive transfer, is caused by a temperature difference between
objects, does not require a physical medium for heat flow (i.e., radiative heat can flow through a
vacuum). The Table 3.1 (system elements) gives a description of the building blocks of these
system (thermal resistance, capacitance and fluid flow).
K
(note we will generally be interested
in temperature differences.
Temperature T Since temperature differences are
equal on Kelvin and Celsius
scales, we will generally use °C
instead of K)
There are two fundamental physical elements that make up thermal systems, thermal resistances
and thermal capacitance. There are also three sources of heat, a power source, a temperature
source, and fluid flow.
A note on temperature
In practice temperature when we discuss temperature we will use degrees Celsius (°C), while SI
unit for temperature is to use Kelvins (0°K = -273.15°C). However, we will generally be
interested in temperature differences, not absolute temperatures (much as electrical circuits deal
with voltage differences). Therefore, we will generally take the ambient temperature (which we
will label Ta) to be our reference temperature, and measure all temperatures relative to this
ambient temperature. We will also assume that the ambient temperature is constant. Thus, if the
ambient temperature is =25°C, and the temperature of interest is Ti=32°C, we will say that Ti=7°
above ambient. Note: this is consistent with electrical systems in which we assign one voltage
to be ground (and assume that it is constant) and assign it the value of zero volts. We then
measure all voltages relative to ground.
Thermal resistance
Though heat transfer through via conduction and heat transfer via convection occur as a result of
very different mechanisms, the resulting mathematical relationship is identical. Therefore, we
will cover both mechanisms here.
Temperature source
Another common source used in thermal systems is a controlled temperature source that
maintains a constant temperature. An ideal temperature source maintains a given temperature
independent of the amount of power required. A refrigerator is an example of such a source.
Another such source is the ambient surroundings. We will assume that the temperature of the
ambient surroundings is constant regardless of the heat flow in or out (we will also take ambient
temperature to be our reference temperature, i.e., Ta = 0°).
Solution.
a) In this case there are no thermal capacitances or heat sources, just two know temperatures
( Ti, and Ta), one unknown temperature (Ts), and two resistances ( Ris and Rsa.)
b) Temperatures are drawn as voltage sources. Ambient temperature is taken to be zero
(i.e., a ground temperature), all other temperatures are measured with respect to this
temperature).
c) There is only one unknown temperature (at Ts), so we need only one energy balance (and,
since there is no capacitance, we don't need the heat stored term).
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑖𝑛 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑇N − 𝑇] 𝑇] − 𝑇^ 𝑇]
= =
𝑅N] 𝑅]^ 𝑅]^
Note: the first equation included Ta, but the second does not, since Ta is our reference
temperature and is taken to be zero.
d) Solving for Ts
𝑇N − 𝑇] 𝑇]
=
𝑅N] 𝑅]^
𝑇N − 𝑇] 𝑅]^ = 𝑇] 𝑅N]
𝑅]^
𝑇] = 𝑇N
𝑅N] + 𝑅]^
Note: you may recognize this result as the voltage divider equation from electrical circuits.
We can now solve numerically (we use 28°C for the internal temperature since it is 28°C
above ambient (37°-9°=28°)
𝑅]^ 2.25
𝑇] = 𝑇N = 28° = 28 0.75 = 21°
𝑅N] + 𝑅]^ 0.75 + 2.25
This says that Ts is 21°C above ambient. Since the ambient temperature is 9°C, the actual
skin temperature is 30°C.
Note: If Rsa is lowered, for example by the wind blowing, the skin gets cooler, and it feels
like it is colder. This is the mechanism responsible for the "wind chill" effect.
𝑇N 𝑥=0
𝑇# 𝑥 = 𝑥#
𝑇$ 𝑥 = 𝑥$
𝑇^ 𝑥 = 𝑥a
𝑥# − 𝑥b = 𝑙N#
, 𝑥$ − 𝑥# = 𝑙#$
, 𝑥a − 𝑥$ = 𝑙$^
𝑙N# 𝑙#$ 𝑙$^
𝑅N# =
,
𝑅#$ =
,
𝑅$^ =
𝜆N# 𝐴 𝜆#$ 𝐴 𝜆$^ 𝐴
𝑇# − 𝑇N 𝑇$ − 𝑇# 𝑇^ − 𝑇$
𝑞=− =
− =−
𝑅N# 𝑅#$ 𝑅$^
𝑇# − 𝑇N 𝑇$ − 𝑇# 𝑇^ − 𝑇$
=
=
𝑅N# 𝑅#$ 𝑅$^
1fg =
2hi
2hi =
3gk
𝑇# 𝑇N 𝑇$ 𝑇#
− − + =0
𝑅N# 𝑅N# 𝑅#$ 𝑅#$
𝑇$ 𝑇# 𝑇^ 𝑇$
− − + =0
𝑅#$ 𝑅#$ 𝑅$^ 𝑅$^
1 1 1 1
+ 𝑇# − 𝑇$ = 𝑇
𝑅N# 𝑅#$ 𝑅#$ 𝑅N# N
1 1 1 1
− 𝑇# + + 𝑇$ = 𝑇
𝑅#$ 𝑅#$ 𝑅$^ 𝑅$^ ^
1 1 1 1
+ − 𝑇
𝑅N# 𝑅#$ 𝑅#$ 𝑇# 𝑅N# N
=
1 1 1 𝑇$ 1
− + 𝑇
𝑅#$ 𝑅#$ 𝑅$^ 𝑅$^ ^
𝐴 𝑇 𝐵
𝑇 = 𝐴6# 𝐵
𝑞N^ = 𝑞# + 𝑞$ + 𝑞a
𝑇N − 𝑇^ 𝑇N − 𝑇^ 𝑇N − 𝑇^ 𝑇N − 𝑇^
− =− − −
𝑅de 𝑅# 𝑅$ 𝑅a
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅de 𝑅# 𝑅$ 𝑅a
b) To draw the electrical system we need a circuit with a node for the ambient temperature,
and a node for the temperature of the room. Heat (a current source) goes into the room.
Energy is stored (as an increased temperature) in the thermal capacitance, and heat flows
from the room to ambient through the resistor.
c) We only need to develop a single energy balance equation, and that is for the temperature
of the thermal capacitance (since there is only one unknown temperature). The heat into
the room is qi, heat leaves the room through a resistor and energy is stored (as increased
temperature) in the capacitor.
Heat in = Heat out + Heat stored
𝑇m − 𝑇^ 𝑑𝑇m
𝑞N = +𝐶
𝑅m^ 𝑑𝑡
by convention we take the ambient temperature to be zero, so we end up with a first order
differential equation for this system.
𝑇m 𝑑𝑇m
𝑞N = +𝐶
𝑅m^ 𝑑𝑡
Example: Heating a Building with One Room, but with Variable External Temperature.
Consider the room from the previous example. Repeat parts a, b, and c if the temperature
outside is no longer constant but varies. Call the external temperature Te(t) (this will be the
temperature relative to the ambient temperature). We will also change the name of the
resistance of the walls to Rre to denote the fact that the external temperature is no longer the
ambient temperature.
Solution.
The solution is much like that for the previous example. Exceptions are noted below.
a) The image is as before with the external temperature replaced by Te(t).
b) To draw the electrical system we need a circuit with a node for the external temperature
and a node for the temperature of the room. Though perhaps not obvious at first we still
need a node for the ambient temperature since all of our temperatures are measured relative
to this, and our capacitors must always have one node connected to this reference
temperature. Heat flows from the room to the external temperature through the resistor.
c) We still only need to develop a single energy balance equation, and that is for the
temperature of the thermal capacitance (since there is only one unknown temperature). The
heat into the room is qi, heat leaves the room through a resistor and energy is stored (as
increased temperature) in the capacitor.
Heat in = Heat out + Heat stored
𝑇m − 𝑇d 𝑑𝑇m
𝑞N = +𝐶
𝑅m^ 𝑑𝑡
(the ambient temperature is taken to be zero in this equation). In this case we end up with
a system with two inputs (qi and Te).
The two first order energy balance equations (for room 1 and room 2) could be combined
into a single second order differential equation and solved.
Note: the resistance between the tank and the metal block, Rmt, is not explicitly shown.
Solution.
Since there are two unknown temperatures, we need two energy balance equations.