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Unification of Newtonian Physics with Einstein Relativity Theory by using

Generalized Metrics of Complex Spacetime and application to the Motions
of Planets and Stars, eliminating...

Preprint · June 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13468.39048

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Spyridon Vossos
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
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Unification of Newtonian Physics with Einstein Relativity
Theory by using Generalized Metrics of Complex Spacetime
and application to the Motions of Planets and Stars,
eliminating Dark Matter

Elias Vossos1 and Spyridon Vossos2, 3

1
Physicist, 2Chemist, School of Science, National and Kapodistrian University of
Athens, Panepistimiopolis, GR15784 Zografos, Athens, Hellas

E-mail: spyrolia@hotmail.com (Preprint: June 30, 2018)

Keywords: 5th Euclidean postulate, complex spacetime, dark matter, Einstein

Relativity Theory, electromagnetic tensor, Euclidean closed linear transformations,
Euclidean complex relativistic mechanics, Euclidean metric, four-momentum, four-
velocity, Galaxies: kinimatics and dynamics of, Galilean transformation, general
relativity, geodesics, gravitation, human senses, isometry, linear spacetime
transformation, Lomonosov-Lavoisier Law, Lorentz boost, Lorentz matrix, Lorentz
metric, Lorentz transformation, Maxwell equations, Minkowski space, Modified
Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), Newtonian Physics, precession of Mercury’s
perihelion, proper time, real spacetime, relativistic Doppler shift, Schwarzschild
metric, Solar System: kinimatics and dynamics of, special relativity, universal rotation
curve, Vossos matrix, Vossos transformation.

PACS: 02.10.Ud, 02.40.Dr, 03.30.+p, 03.50.De, 04.20.-q, 04.50.Kd, 04.80.Cc,

95.35.+d, 96.12.De, 96.15.De, 98.20.+d

Abstract. In this paper we unify Theories of Physics (TPs) with real or infinite Universal
Speed (cI), such as Einstein Relativity Theory (ERT) and Newtonian Physics (NPs).
Generalized Special Relativity (SR) relates the frames of Relativistic Inertial observers (RIOs)
where the spacetime has the metric gI=diag(gI00, gI11, gI11, gI11). The parameter ξI=sqrt(-gI11/gI00)
is contained in the matrix (ΛI) of the Euclidean Closed Linear Transformation of complex
spacetime (ECLSTT). The elements of ΛI are complex numbers. So, the corresponding
spacetime is necessarily complex and there exists real cI=c/ξI). In addition, the complex
Cartesian Coordinates (CCs) of the theory, may be turned to the corresponding real CCs, in
order to be perceived by human senses. The new real transformation is not closed (the
corresponding real matrices ΛIR do not form a group) and the successive real transformations
produce Generalized Thomas Rotation. The specific value ξI=1 gives Vossos transformation
(VT) endowed with Lorentz metric (for gI11=1) of complex spacetime and invariant speed of
light in vacuum (uI=c), which produce the Lorentzian version of Euclidean Complex
Relativistic Mechanics (ECRMs). The corresponding real matrix (ΛIR) is the matrix of Lorentz

3
Spyridon Vossos, 39 Epidavrou Str., GR-15233 Chalandri, Athens, Hellas, e-mail: spyrolia@hotmail.com.
 Boost (ΛIR =ΛL). The specific value ξI=0 gives Galilean Transformation (GT) with invariant
time, in which any other ECLSTT is reduced, if one RIO has small velocity wrt another RIO.
Thus we unify TPs such as NPs and ERT, keeping the formalism of ERT. The generalized
definition of Proper Time (τ) gives us the possibility to compute four-velocity, four-
momentum, Relativistic Doppler Shift etc, building the whole structure of the Generalized SR
and General Relativity (GR). For instance the Generalized Relativistic Energy of Rest Mass
(m) is Erest=mc2/ξI2. In case of NPs, the annihilation energy becomes infinite. Thus the
Lomonosov-Lavoisier Law becomes clear theorem of NPs. The case of observers with variable
metric of spacetime leads to GR. Thus we produce the 1st Generalized Schwarzschild metric
(1GSM) and 2nd Generalized Schwarzschild metric (2GSM), which are in accordance with
Einstein field equations for any TPs. In case of 1GSM, we compute the corresponding
Lagrangian, geodesics, equations of motion, precession of planets’ orbits etc, resulting
formulas which are referred to any TPs. We then compare the theoretical results to the
experimental data of our Solar system. In case of 2GSM, the combination of its Galilean
version with Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), leads to MOND relativization. After,
we pass to RIOs with ordinary flat spacetime (Minkowski space), extending MOND methods
to ERT. We use Simple and Standard Interpolating Function (µ) to the Lorentzian-Einsteinian
2GSM for the explanation of Rotation Curves in Galaxies as well as the Solar system,
eliminating Dark Matter. Generally, this approach, in non rotating black hole, planetary and
star system scale, coincides to the original Schwarzschild metric, while in galactic scale, it
gives MONDian results. In universal scale, the gravitational field strength becomes negative,
producing slight antigravity.

1. Introduction
The main communication of Einstein Relativity Theory (ERT) with Newtonian Physics (NPs), is the
low velocity limit and the weak-field approximation. In this paper, we present a generalized Relativity
Theory (RT), which contains ERT and NPs, keeping the formalism of ERT. Thus the differences
between these two Theories of Physics (TPs) are limited to their different value of metric coefficients
of spacetime of the corresponding Relativistic Inertial observers (RIOs).
This generalized RT combined with Quantum Mechanics (QMs), leads to the generalized
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics (RQMs). For instance, Galilean Transformation (GT) endowed with
the corresponding metric produces Newtonian Physics (NPs), which is associated with the Newtonian
QMs, producing Schrödinger Equation. Thus, many low velocities phenomena, like the atomic spectra
without fine structure, are explained. On the other hand, Lorentz Transformation (LT) endowed with
the corresponding metric produces ERT, which is associated with the Einsteinian RQMs, producing
Klein-Gordon Equation. Thus, many high velocities phenomena and the fine structure of atomic
spectra are explained [1,2].
Special Relativity (SR) relates the frames of RIOs, through Linear Spacetime Transformations
(LSTTs) of linear spacetime. The main approach of Einsteinian SR uses real spacetime endowed with
Lorentz Metric and the frames of two RIOs with parallel spatial axes are always related using Lorentz
Boost (LB). But it is well-known that LB is not closed transformation. On the contrary, Lorentz
Transformation (LT) (combination of Euclidean Rotation with LB) is closed [3] (pp. 35, 41, eq 1.104).
Thus, if three observers O, O΄ and Ο΄΄ are related, where the frame of observer O΄ has parallel axes not
only to the axes of observer O, but also to the observer Ο΄΄ axes, then the axes of observers O and Ο΄΄
are not parallel. Thus the transitive attribute in parallelism (which is equivalent to the 5th Euclidean
postulate) is cancelled. This option leads to successful results, such as Thomas Precession which
explains the fine structure of atomic spectra. But this happens only if we take successive observers O΄
and O΄΄ with the Thomas order [2]. If we reverse the order of this sequence, it yields a result with
200% relative error.
In the referred paper [4], we have proved that there exist Euclidean Closed Linear Transformations
of Complex Spacetime endowed with the Corresponding Metrics (ECLSTTs) which correlate frames
with the corresponding spatial axes being parallel. Thus, the transitive attribute in parallelism (or
equivalently the 5th Euclidean postulate) is valid. Moreover, if we demand the transformation
respecting spacetime isometry a Generalized SR is produced. These isometric ECLSTTs of complex
spacetime (with common solution the GT), can be applied not only to the SR problems, but also to the
General Relativity (GR). This is achieved, because the production of the corresponding matrices has
become without adapting one specific metric. In addition, any complex Cartesian Coordinates (CCs)
of the theory may be turned to the corresponding real CCs, in order to be perceived by human senses.
In this way, the axes rotation that happens in case that real CCs are used (when more than two
observers are related) is only an equivalent phenomenon.
In this paper, we demand real spacetime for the unmoved observer (O) where time and space
coefficients of metric have different sign. Then, using isometric ECLSTTs for moving observers, we
prove that the four-vectors’ zeroth component (such as energy) is real, in contrast to the spatial
components that are complex, but their norm is real. It is also proved that moving (wrt O) human O΄
meters length, according to a Generalized Real Boost (GRB) which describes at the same time, not
only the LB of Einsteinian SR, but also the GT of NPs. In addition, we find Generalized Rotation
Matrix Complex-Real (RCR) that turns natural sizes’ complex components to real. The application of
theory to the Mechanics, Electromagnetism and Gravitation, gives results that describe at the same
time, not only these extracted by ERT, but also, those extracted by NPs.
The case of observers with variable metric of spacetime, leads to the corresponding GR. For being
this clear, we produce the 1st Generalized Schwarzschild metric (1GSM) and 2nd Generalized
Schwarzschild metric (2GSM), which are in accordance with any SR based on isotropic Generalized
metrics (gI) and Einstein field equations. In case of 1GSM, we compute the corresponding Lagrangian,
geodesics, equations of motion, precession of planets’ orbits etc, resulting formulas which are referred
to any TPs. We then compare the theoretical results to the experimental data of our Solar system. In
case of 2GSM, the combination of its Newtonian version with Modified Newtonian Dynamics
(MOND), leads to MOND relativization. After, we pass to RIOs with ordinary flat spacetime with
Lorentz metric (Minkowski space), extending MOND methods to ERT. We use Simple and Standard
Interpolating Function (µ) to the Lorentzian version of 2GSM, for the explanation of the Rotation
Curves in Galaxies as well as the Solar system, eliminating Dark Matter. Generally, this approach, in
non rotating black hole, planetary and star system scale, coincides to the original Schwarzschild
metric, while in galactic scale, it gives MONDian results. In universal scale, the gravitational field
strength becomes negative producing slight antigravity.
The used theory is open to any other modification as well as the Generalization can be extended to
other metrics of spacetime such as Kerr metric, producing Generalized field strength of rotating mass
systems. Besides, the theory gives us the possibility of using mathematical objects (such as µ) which
have been produced by one specific TPs (such as NPs) to be suitably transformed and then effectively
be used in another TPs (such as ERT).

2. Isometric Euclidean Closed Linear Transformations of Complex Spacetime

endowed with the Corresponding Metrics
In this paper, the metric coefficients of time and space have different signs. We remind the well-known
theorem that “any space of constant curvature is conformally flat; that is, has a metric that can be
expressed as a multiple of the Euclidean metric” [5] (p.364). Moreover 3D-space is isotropic, in case
of Isometric ECLSTTs [4]. So for RIOs, the representation of the non-degenerate inner product in
holonomic basis {ect, ex, ey, ez} of ‘flat’ spacetime is the real matrix
 1 
ξ
( 2
)
g I = diag (g I 00 , g I 11 , g I 22 , g I 33 ) = g I 11 diag − 2 , 1, 1, 1 = g I 00 diag 1, −ξ I , −ξ I , −ξ I
2 2
(1)
 I 
where
g I11
ξI = (2)
− g I 00
The index I remind us that we are referred to the spacetime of the RIOs of each specific Theory of
Physics (TPs). The corresponding SR has real Universal Speed (cI):
1
cI = c (3)
ξI
and the transformation of a contravariant four-vector is
dX΄= Λ I(ξ ,βr ) dX (4)
I

where
 1 − ξΙ β x
2
− ξΙ β y
2
− ξΙ β z 
2

 
−β i ξΙ β z − i ξΙ β y   1 − ξΙ β T 
2
Λ Ι (ξ ,βr ) = γ (ξ βr )  x
1
 = γ (ξ βr )   (5)
Ι Ι
−β − i ξΙ β z 1 i ξΙ β x Ι
− β I 3 + i ξ Ι A ( β ) 
 y 
 − β z i ξΙ β y − i ξΙ β x 1 
β x   0 βz − βy 
d xi
β = 0 ; β =  β y  ;
i
A(β)= − β z 0 βx 

(6)
dx
 β z   βy − βx 0 

and Lorentz γ-factor is
1
γ (δr ) =
r (7)
1−δ 2
For simplicity reasons, wherever it is written i, it is meant ±i. Besides the norm of the infinitesimal
position four-vector for RIOs is the following invariant quantity
 1 r 
r r
(
d S 2 = d X T g d X = g I 00 c 2 d t 2 + g I11 d x 2 = g I11  − 2 c 2 d t 2 + d x 2  = g I 00 c 2 d t 2 − ξ I d x 2
 ξ 
2
(8) )
 I 
and the typical matrix along x-axis is
 1 − ξΙ 2 β 0 0 
 
 −β 1 0 0 
Λ Ιtyp = γ (ξΙ β ) (9)
 0 0 1 i ξΙ β 
 
 0 0 − i ξΙ β 1 
The specific value ξI=0 (gI11→0, gI00≠0) gives GT with Infinite Universal Speed (cI→+∞) and the
corresponding metric of the spacetime (let us call Galilean metric)
( )
g Γ = lim diag g I 00 , g I11 , g I11 , g I11 = lim diag g I 00 , 0, 0, 0
g I 11 →0 g I 11 →0
( )
(10)
The corresponding spacetime (let us call Galilean spacetime) has infinite curvature (K→+∞) in any
orientation κex+λey+µez of the 3D space. This is the reason that time is absolute for any type of
observers as well as the Universal speed is infinite.
The specific value ξ I=1 (gI11= - gI00) gives Vossos Transformation (VT) with cI=c (the universal
speed is the speed of light in vacuum) and the corresponding metric of spacetime (let us call Vossos
metric)
g Β = g I11 diag (− 1, 1, 1, 1) = g I11 η (11)
which for gI11=1 becomes the Lorentz metric (η). Thus, we have the Lorentzian case of Euclidean
Complex Relativistic Mechanics (ECRMs) [6], which is associated with Einstein Relativity Theory
(ERT).

3. Measure of Time, Length, Velocity, Momentum, Energy and Doppler Effect

As matrix ΛI contains some elements which are imaginary numbers, we conclude that the spacetime
of one moving observer is complex. Thus, we put an index C to the complex natural sizes and the real
natural sizes have no index. We now make the option that observer O measures real spacetime where
time and space coefficients of metric have different sign. This simplifies the problem, because the
following are proven:
i) Time is real for every observer.
ii) The unmoved observer measures real velocity.
iii) Every observer measures square of velocity which is real and positive.
iv) Every observer measures Generalized Lorentz γ-factor which is real and positive, for particles with
velocity υ < cI.
v) The unmoved observer measures natural sizes that can be suitably determined to be real.
Transformation (4) may be written as
ΧC΄= ΛI(β) Χ (12)
Using vectors, the isometric ECLSTT becomes
r r r
(
r r
) r r
c t ′ = γ (ξ βr ) (c t − ξ I β ⋅ x ) ; xC′ = γ (ξ βr ) x − β c t − i ξ Iγ (ξ βr )β × x
I
2
I I
(13)

I
r r r r
(r
)
c dt΄= γ (ξ βr ) (c dt − ξ I 2 β ⋅ dx ) ; dxC′ = γ (ξ βr ) dx − βcdt − i ξ Iγ (ξ βr )β × dx
I I
r r
(14)

3.1. Properties of matrix ΛI – Inverse isometric ECLSTT

The matrix ΛI has the following properties [14]:
Λ I(0) = I (15)
Λ−I1( β ) = Λ I( − β ) (16)
det ΛI(β) = 1 (17)

3.2. Time – Proper Time

The contravariant and covariant infinitesimal four-vector correspondingly are:
 cd t ′ 
µ  1 r 
[ r
d xC′ =  r  ; dxC′ µ = d xC′ κ g κµ = g I 11 − 2 cd t ′ d xC′ T  = g I 00 cd t ′ − ξ I 2 d xC′ T
′
] (18)
d x
 C  ξ I 
So
dS΄2 = dx΄C µ · dx΄C µ = g I11 ( −
ξI
1
2
r
( r
c2dt΄ 2+ d xC′ 2 ) = g I 00 c 2 d t 2 − ξ I 2 d x 2
(19) )
which respects the isometry of spacetime: dS΄ 2 = dS 2 .
r r
Let have a particle P, moving with velocity υ P wrt observer O ( υ P′ wrt observer O΄) in spacetime.
The Proper Time (PT) maintains the same definition as ERT
1 d S ′2
dτ = (20)
c g I 00
and this is the relation to the time
d t′
t&′ =
= γ (i′ ω βr ′ ) = γ (′ξ βr ′ ) (21)
dτ I P I P

For GT where ξI=0, it emerges dτN=dt΄=dt (NPs).

In case of VT with ξI=1, we have the same result as ERT
d t′
t&′ = = γ (′βr′ ) (22)
dτ E P

3.3. Generalized Real Boost and Generalized Rotation Matrix RCR

Human perceives real spacetime, through senses. In contrast, if gI00·gI11<0, then (according to the
ECLSTT) for a moving observer, time is real, but 3D-space is complex. This conflict is solved as
following:
Let have a rod Ο΄Σ, perpendicular to x-axis moving along it, with velocity (βc, 0, 0) wrt Oxyz (Figure
1). Observer Ο projects point Σ (edge or the rod), perpendicularly to y΄ and z΄-axis. Observer Ο΄
considers as Real CCs the lengths of the resultant rods Ο΄Α και Ο΄Β. In addition, observer O perceives
the following spacetime events: Ο΄(ct , βct , 0, 0) ; Σ(ct , βct, y, z), A(ct , βct, y, 0) ; B(ct, βct, 0, z).
For observer O΄, the same events through typical isometric ECLSTT, are described using complex
CCs:
Ο΄(ct΄, 0, 0, 0) ;
Σ(ct΄, 0, γ (ξ β ) y + iξΙβ γ (ξ βr ) z, γ (ξ βr ) z - iξΙβ γ (ξ βr ) y) ;
r
I I I I

A(ct΄, 0, γ (ξ βr ) y, -iξΙβ γ (ξ βr ) y) ;
I I

B(ct΄, 0, iξΙβ γ (ξ βr ) z, γ (ξ βr ) z).

I I

For observer O, there are the following four-

r r
vectors: O′ A(0, 0, y, 0) ; O′ B(0, 0, 0, z ) . The
same four-vectors for observer O΄are complex
( )
r′
O′A (0, 0, γ (ξ βr ) y, − i ξ I βγ (ξ βr ) y ) ;
I I
Figure 1. Moving rod Ο΄Σ, perpendicular to x-
axis moving along it, with velocity (βc, 0, 0)
( )
r′
O′B (0, 0, i ξ I βγ (ξ βr )z , γ (ξ βr )z ) .
I I
wrt to Oxyz
So for observer O΄, the Real CCs of point Σ are:
( )
r ′ 2
I
2 2
I
( )
r′
y′ = O′A = γ (ξ βr ) y 2 − ξ I β 2γ (ξ βr ) y 2 = y = y ; z ′ = O′B = − ξ I β 2γ (ξ βr ) z 2 + γ (ξ βr ) z 2 = z = z
2 2
I I
2

We observe that using Real CCs, the transformation from observer O to observer Ο΄, happens
according to the typical Generalized Real Boost (GRB)
Χ΄ =ΛIRtyp(β) Χ (23)
using the Typical matrix of GRB
 γ (ξ β ) − ξ I γ (ξ I β )β 0 0
2

 I

 − γ (ξ I β )β γ (ξ I β ) 0 0
Λ IR typ ( β ) = (24)
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1
We then obtain the General matrix of GRB
 γ r − γ (ξ βr )ξ I β T 
2

 (ξI β ) I

Λ ΙR( βr ) =  γ (ξ βr ) − 1 T  (25)
− γ
 (ξIβ )
r β I 3 + I
ββ 
 βTβ 
In case that ξΙ=0, it emerges the GT.
If ξΙ=1, we have the original typical proper Lorentz Boost (LB) (see e.g. [3] p. 21, eq. 1.38)
Χ΄ =ΛLtyp(β) Χ (26)
using the typical proper Lorentz matrix
 γ (β ) − γ ( β )β 0 0
− γ β γ (β ) 0 0
Λ L typ (β ) =  ( β ) (27)
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1
The corresponding general proper Lorentz Boost (LB) (see e.g [3] p. 24, eq. 1.47) is
Χ΄ =ΛL(β) Χ (28)
using the general proper Lorentz matrix
  γ (βr ) − γ (βr )β T 
 
Λ L( βr ) =  γ (βr ) − 1 T  (29)
− γ
 (β )
r β I 3 + ββ 
 βTβ 
Here, we can make one of the following options:
i) We demand the GRB always correlating any RIOs with parallel spatial axes. This destroys the 5th
Euclidean postulate. So we adapt a Generalized Hyperbolic Geometry. This is the option made by the
most of scientists working on ERT with Lorentz Group and Lorentz Transformation.
ii) We demand the GRB correlating only the unmoved observer O with any RIO with parallel spatial
axes. This respects the 5th Euclidean postulate in complex 3D-space. So we adapt a Generalized
Euclidean Geometry. The equations (20-22) proves that the isometric ECLSTT produce a group of
elements g=(ΛI,b) with operation
g1*g2 = (ΛI2 ΛI1, ΛI2 b1+ b2) (30)
µ ν µ
where b1C is µ-CC measured by Ο΄, if observer O measures x = 0 and b 2 C is µ-CC measured by Ο΄΄,
if observer O΄ measures x′Cν = 0 [7] (pp. 35-37).
In this paper we correlate only two RIOs. So the results are in accordance with the both of options.
The transformation which turns one complex four-vector Χ΄C to the corresponding real four-vector
Χ΄ is
~
Χ΄ = R CR( β ) Χ΄C (31)
where
~
R CR( β ) = Λ IR( β ) Λ I(- β ) (32)
is the Spacetime Imaginary Rotation Matrix Complex-Real. It is proven that
~ 1 0 
R CR( β ) =   (33)
0 R CR( β ) 
where
1 − γ (ξΙ β )
R CR( β ) = γ (ξΙ β ) I3 − i ξ Ιγ (ξΙ β ) A ( β ) + ββ T (34)
β β
T

is the Spatial Imaginary Rotation Matrix Complex-Real with the following properties
detRCR(β)= 1 ; R TCR( β ) = R CR(- β ) (35)
So we also have
~ ~ ~
det R CR( β ) = 1 ; R TCR( β ) = R CR(- β ) (36)
For typical transformation along x-axis, it is
1 0  0
 
RCRtyp = 0 γ (ξ Ι β ) − i ξ Ιγ (ξ Ι β )β  (37)
0 i ξ Ιγ (ξ β )β γ (ξ Ι β ) 
 Ι

The following relation expresses the transformation of a complex vector to real

r r
x ′ = R CR ( β ) xC′ (38)
In case that ξI=0, there is no need for the above transformation, because R CR( β ) = I3 .
In case that ξI=1, the transformation (38) becomes
~
Χ΄ = R BL( β ) Χ΄C (39)
where
~
R BL( β ) = Λ L( β ) Λ B(- β ) (40)
is the Spacetime Imaginary Rotation Matrix Vossos-Lorentz
 ~ 1 0  1 0 
R BL( β ) = 0 γ I − i γ A + 1 − γ ββ T  =   (41)
 (β )
βTβ  0 R BL( β ) 
 
and
1−γ
R BL( β ) = γ I− i γ A ( β ) +ββ T (42)
βTβ
is the Spatial Imaginary Rotation Matrix Vossos-Lorentz with the following properties
detRBL(β)= 1 ; R TBL( β ) = R BL(- β ) (43)
So we also have
~ ~ ~
det R BL( β ) = 1 ; R TBL( β ) = R BL(- β ) (44)
For typical transformation, it is
1 0 0 
RBLtyp = 0 γ − i γβ  (45)
0 i γβ γ 
The following relation expresses the transformation of a complex vector to real
r r
x ′ = R BL ( β ) xC′ (46)

3.4. Complex Four-velocity

Supposing observer Ο΄ moving with velocity βc wrt O and one moving particle P, we define as
complex contravariant four-velocity measured by O΄:
µ
d x′Cµ
u′C = (47)
dτ
with µ = 0, 1, 2, 3. Thus the contravariant and covariant four-velocity are correspondingly:
µ c ′ ′µ ′ r
 1 r 
′ [ ′ r ] 2r T
′
U C′ = γ (′ξ βr ′)  r  ; U C µ = U C gκµ = g I11γ (ξ Iβ ′) − ξ 2 c υ C  = g I 00γ (ξ Iβ ′) c − ξ I υ C (48)
I
 υ′
C
 I 
and we have the property
uC′ µ ⋅ uC′ µ = g Ι 00 c 2 (49)
The relation between complex velocity and complex four-velocity:
r r
υ C′ uC′
= 0 (50)
c u′
has the same formula as ERT. The transformation of complex four-velocity at the frame Ο΄ to the
corresponding four-velocity at the frame Ο΄΄ (which has complex velocity β΄C c wrt O΄) is
U ′′ = Λ Ι ( β C′ )U ′ (51)
The cases of ξI=0 or ξI=1 (gI00=-gI11), gives correspondingly:
Relation between complex velocity and complex four-velocity:
c c
U ′ =  r  ; U C′ = γ ′  r  (52)
υ
  ′ υC′ 
The transformation of complex four-velocity at the frame Ο΄ to the corresponding four-velocity at the
frame Ο΄΄ (which has complex velocity β΄C c wrt O΄) is
U ′′ = Λ Γ (β ′ )U ′ ; U ′′ = Λ B( βC′ )U ′ (53)
The Lorentz metric (gI00=-gI11=-1) gives
uC′ µ ⋅ uC′µ = − c 2 (54)
 3.5. Complex Velocity Transformation
The complex velocity at the frame Ο (not especially the unmoved observer) is transformed to the
corresponding complex velocity at the frame Ο΄ moving with velocity βc relative to O, as following:
r r r r
r υ − β c− i ξ I β × υ
υC′ = r r c (55)
c − ξ I β ⋅υ
2

The cases of ξI=0 or ξI=1 (gI00=-gI11), gives Galilean transformation of velocities or Vossos
transformation of complex velocities correspondingly:
r r r r
r r r
υ ′ = υ − β c ; υC′ = υ − β c−r i βr × υ c
r
(56)
c − β ⋅υ

3.6. Transformation of Complex Velocity to Real Velocity - Transformation of Real

Velocities
If we derivative equation (31) wrt Proper Time, we obtain
~
U΄ = R CR( β ) U΄C (57)
This emerges that
r r
γ (ξ Iυr ′) = γ (ξ IυrC′ ) ; υ ′ = υC′ (58)
and
r r
υ ′ = R CR ( β ) υC′ (59)
The above equation and (34) give the general transformation of real velocities
 r γ (ξ βr ) − 1 r r r 
r
υ′ =
γ (ξ βr ) (
c 
c − ξ I β ⋅υ 
2
r
r r υ − γ (ξ β ) β c+ Ir 2 β ⋅υ β
)
r

( ) (60)
β
I
I
 
The typical transformation of real velocities is
υ −βc υy υz
υ ′x = x 2 c ; υ ′y = c ; υ ′z =
( ) ( )
c (61)
c- ξ I βυ x γ (ξI β ) c- ξ I βυ x γ (ξ I β ) c- ξ I βυ x
2 2

r
In addition, the Generalized Lorentz γ-factor of a particle P, moving with velocity β P wrt O (not
r
especially the unmoved observer) is transformed to the frame O΄ (moving with velocity β wrt O),
according to the formula
I P I
2
r r
γ′(ξ βr′ ) = γ (ξ βr ) ⋅ γ (ξ βr ) 1 − ξ I β ⋅ β P
I P
( )
(62)
The case of ξI=1 (gI00=-gI11) gives
~
U΄ = R BL( β ) U΄C (63)
r r
γ (υr ′) = γ (υrC′ ) = γ′ ; υ ′ = υC′ (64)
r r
υ′ = R BL ( β ) υ C′ (65)
 r γ − 1 r r r 
r
υ′ =
(
c  r
r r υ − γβ c+ r 2 β ⋅υ β
γ c− β ⋅υ  ) 
( ) (66)
β
 
The typical transformation of real velocities is
υ −βc υy υz
υ x′ = x c ; υ ′y = c ; υ z′ = c (67)
c- βυ x γ (c- βυ x ) γ (c- βυ x )
We observe that we have obtained the formula of Lorentz velocities transformation (see e.g. [3] p.
161, eq. 6.14). Besides (62) becomes
r r
γ (′βr′ ) = γ ( βr ) ⋅ γ ( βr ) 1 − β ⋅ β P
P P
( ) (68)
which the same formula as ERT (see e.g. [3] p. 162, eq. 6.15).

3.7. Four-momentum – Relativistic Force - Relativistic Energy – Universal speed

particle – Relativistic Doppler Shift
Supposing one observer Ο΄ moving with velocity βc wrt O and one Particle (P) with real mass m
r r
moving with complex velocity υ C′ = β P′ C c wrt O΄, we define as complex four-momentum measured by
O΄:
pC′ µ = muC′ µ ; pC′ µ = muC′ µ (69)
with µ = 0, 1, 2, 3. Thus the contravariant and covariant four- momentum are correspondingly:

′ µ
′
PC = mγ (ξ β ′ )  r  ;
r C µ I11 ′
(ξ I β P )

C

 c  P′ = g mγ ′ r  − 1 c υr ′ T  = g mγ ′ r c − ξ 2υr ′ T
I 00 (ξ I β P′ ) I C [ ] (70)
 ξ I
2
I P
υC′  
which have the same properties as CR (see e.g. [3] pp. 267-71). The spatial part of the contravariant
four- momentum is defined as the complex Generalized relativistic momentum of one particle
r r r
pC′ = mγ (′ξ βr ′ )υC′ = m c γ (′ξ βr ′ ) β P′ (71)
I P I P

The definition of the complex Generalized relativistic force, is the same as ERT (see e.g. [3] p. 325,
eq. 11.1)
d pC′
i

FC′i = (72)
d t′
The work of the Generalized relativistic force which accelerates one ReMaP from initial velocity υ΄=0
r
to final velocity υ C′ (in other words the Generalized relativistic kinetic energy) is calculated
d pC′ r r γ (′ξ I βrP′ ) − 1 2
r′ υ′

∫
K ′ = W ′ = d xi′ ⋅ FC′i =
r0′
∫
0
r υ′ dυ′ =
dυ′ ξI2
mc (73)

We also define the Generalized relativistic energy

γ (′ξ βr ′ )
E′ = I P
m c2 (74)
ξI 2

and the Generalized energy of Rest mass

1
Erest = m c2 (75)
ξI2
The zeroth coordinate of the contravariant four- momentum is relevant to the Generalized relativistic
energy of one particle:
2 E′
p′ 0 = ξ I (76)
c
Hence the contravariant and covariant four- momentum can be written as
 2 E′   E′ r   2 E′ 2r 
ξ
PC =  I c  ; PC′ µ = g I11 − c pC′  = g I 00 ξ I c − ξ I pC′ 
µ
′ (77)
 pr ′     
 C 
Combining the above equations with (57), we obtain the property
1 1 r 2
E ′ 2 = 4 m 2 c 4 + 2 p′ c 2 (78)
ξI ξI
Below we shall produce Generalized Maxwell equations which are covariant under isometric
ECLSTT. The corresponding electromagnetic waves are propaganding in vacuum with velocity equal
to the universal speed (cI). For any monochromatic electromagnetic wave with frequency f΄ wrt O΄, we
define a corresponding particle without mass (m = 0) moving also with the universal speed (cI) and
total Relativistic energy E΄ = h f΄. Thus the above equation gives
r E′
p′ = ξ I (79)
c
The ECLSTT of one four-momentum at the frame Ο΄ to that of Ο΄΄, which has complex velocity β΄C c,
wrt O΄:
PC′′ = Λ I( β C′ ) PC′ (80)
The complex relativistic momentum of one particle is transformed to real, by using
r r
p′ = R CR ( β ) pC′ (81)
The transformation of real contravariant four-momentum is
P′ = Λ I R (β ′ ) P (82)
In case that ξI→0 and particle with finite velocity, the above equations become
r
P′ = m  r  ; Pµ′ = m[g I 00 c υ ′]
µ c
(83)
υ ′ 
r r r
(Newtonian momentum) p′N = mυ ′ = m c β P′ (84)
d p′N i
dυ′ i
(Newton’s 2nd Law) F N′i = =m = ma′i (85)
dt ′ dt ′
1 r 2 2 1 r2
(Newtonian kinetic energy) K N′ = β P′ m c = m υ ′ (86)
2 2
′
γ (ξ β ′ )
r
(Newtonian Relativistic energy) E N′ = lim I 2P m c 2 = +∞ (87)
ξ I →0 ξI
1
(Newtonian energy of Rest mass) Erest N = lim m c 2 = +∞ (88)
ξ I →0 ξ 2
I
Thus the annihilation energy of particle at rest (m≠0) becomes infinite and Lomonosov-Lavoisier Law
of ‘total mass conservation’ becomes clear theorem of NPs. For a particle without mass (m = 0), the
rest energy is finite. The GT of one four-momentum at the frame Ο΄ to that at Ο΄΄(which has velocity
β΄ c wrt O΄) is
P′′ = Λ Γ ( β ′ ) P′ (89)
In case that ξI=1 and particle with sub-luminous velocity, the Generalized equations become
r
PC′ = mγ (′βr′ )  r  ; PC′ µ = g I11mγ (′β P′ ) [− c υ C′ ]
µ c r
(90)
P
υ C′ 
r r r
(Einsteinian relativistic momentum) pC′ = mγ (′βr ′ )υC′ = m c γ (′βr ′ ) β P′ (91)
P P

d pC′
i
d γ (′βr ′ ) d υ C′
i

(Vossos Complex relativistic force) FC′i = =m P

υC′ i + mγ (′βr ′ ) (92)
d t′ d t′ P d t′
(
(Einsteinian relativistic kinetic energy) K E′ = γ (′βr ′ ) − 1 m c 2
P
) (93)
(Einsteinian relativistic energy) EE′ = γ (′βr ′ ) m c 2 (94)
P

(Einsteinian energy of Rest mass) Erest E = m c 2 (95)

EE′
p′E =
0
(96)
c
  E′   E′ r 
PC′ =  c  ; PC′ µ =  − c pC′ 
µ
(97)
 pr ′ 
 C
r 2
EE′ = m 2 c 4 + pE′ c 2
2
(98)
For a photon (m = 0, E΄ = h f΄), we also have
r E′
p′E = E (99)
c
The transformation of one four-momentum at the frame Ο΄ to that of Ο΄΄, which has complex velocity
β΄C c, wrt O΄:
PC′′ = Λ B( β C′ ) PC′ (100)
The complex relativistic momentum of one particle is transformed to real, by using
r r
p′E = R BL ( β ) pC′ (101)
Besides the transformation of real contravariant four-momentum becomes
P′ = Λ L ( β ′ ) P (102)
Thus we obtain the original Einsteinian relativistic force (see e.g. [3] p. 329, eq. 11.17)
d pE′i d γ (′βr′ ) i d υ ′i
FE′i = =m P
υ P′ + mγ (′βr′ ) P (103)
d t′ d t′ P d t′

3.8. Relativistic Doppler Shift (General Case) by using isometric ECLSTT

Let have an unmoved source O which emits monochromatic Generalized electromagnetic beams
having frequency f or equivalently the corresponding particles without mass (m = 0) and total
r
Relativistic energy E΄ = h f΄. Supposing the frame Ο΄xyz moving with velocity υ = ( βc, 0, 0) wrt O,
we will find the frequency f΄ that is measured by an observer which is placed on a point A on y΄-axis.
At the moment of measurement, the angle (OO΄,
OA) = φ (Figure 2). Then it is
PC′ = Λ Ityp P (104)
Using equations (9), (77) and (79), we obtain the
formula of the Generalized Relativistic Doppler
Shift
f ′ = fγ (ξ β ) (1 − ξ I β cos φ )
I
(105)
The typical case of φ = 0 gives
Figure 2. Relativistic Doppler Shift (General 1 − ξI β
f′= f (106)
Case). The unmoved gun O emits 1 + ξIβ
monochromatic electromagnetic beams having
In addition, the complex relativistic momentum is
frequency f. The moving observer A has
transformed to real, by using equations (37) and
velocity (βc, 0, 0) wrt to Oxyz.
(81). Thus we obtain
h f 
 c γ (ξ I β ) (−ξ I β + ξ I cos φ )
2

r  hf 
p′ =  ξI sin φ  (107)
 c 
 0 
 
The same result would emerge, if we used (82) directly.
The cases where ξI→0 or ξI=1, give correspondingly
f N′ = f ; f E′ = fγ (1 − β cos φ ) (108)
 h f 
 c γ (− β + cos φ )
r r  hf 
p′N = 0 ; pE′ =  sin φ  (109)
 c 
 0 
 
The typical case of φ = 0 gives
1− β
f N′ = f ; f E′ = f (110)
1+ β
The first equations are Newtonian and the second equations are the corresponding of ERT [7] (pp.
80-81).

4. Electromagnetism
We apply the isometric ECLSTT to electromagnetism. This demands the production of Generalized
Maxwell equations which are covariant under isometric ECLSTT:
r ρ
∇⋅E = (111)
ε0
r
r ξ I ∂E
2 r
= ξ I µ0 J
2
∇× B − 2 (112)
c ∂t
r
∇⋅B = 0 (113)
r
r ∂B
∇× E + =0 (114)
∂t
We observe that only Ampere’s Law needs generalization. The contravariant Generalized
electromagnetic tensor is expressed by the matrix
 0 ξI 2 Ex ξI 2 E y ξI2 Ez 
 
 − Ex 0 c Bz − c B y 
F = (115)
− E y − c Bz 0 c Bx 
 
 − E z c B y − c Bx 0 
which is also covariant under isometric ECLSTT. This is a second order tensor, so it is transformed by
using isometric ECLSTT as
FC΄=ΛΙ(β) F ΛΙ(β)T (116)
The corresponding real transformation is
F΄=ΛΙR(β) F ΛΙR(β)T (117)
The Generalized Maxwell equations give the generalized electromagnetic waves in vacuum
r r
r ξI 2 ∂ 2 E r ξ I 2 ∂E r r ξ r 1 r
∇ E− 2
2
= 0 ; ∇ × B − = ξ I
2
µ 0 J ; B = I E= E (118)
c ∂t 2 c 2 ∂t c cI
Thus the corresponding electromagnetic waves are propaganding in vacuum with velocity equal to the
universal speed (cI=c/ξΙ). In this way every classic physical law keeps its form as well as a Generalized
RQMs can be produced.
In case that ξI→0+ (Galilean metric) we have the Galilean form of Maxwell equations
r
r ρ r r r ∂B
∇⋅E = ; ∇× B = 0 ; ∇⋅ B = 0 ; ∇× E + =0 (119)
ε0 ∂t
which are covariant under GT. The Galilean version of contravariant Generalized electromagnetic
tensor is expressed by the matrix
  0 0 0 0 
− E 0 c Bz − c B y 
F =
x
(120)
 − E y − c Bz 0 c Bx 
 
 − E z c B y − c Bx 0 
which is also covariant under GT. So it is transformed using GT as
F΄=ΛΓ(β) F ΛΓ(β)T (121)
r r
′
This emerges B = B . Besides the corresponding electromagnetic waves are reduced to electric waves,
propaganding in vacuum with infinite velocity (cI→+∞).
In case that ξI→1 (Vossos metric) we obtain the original Maxwell equations (see e.g. [3] p. 412)
r r
r ρ r 1 ∂E r r r ∂B
∇⋅E = ; ∇× B − 2 = µ0 J ; ∇ ⋅ B = 0 ; ∇ × E + =0 (122)
ε0 c ∂t ∂t
which are covariant under VT and LT. We also obtain the original contravariant electromagnetic
tensor (see e.g [7] p. 62), expressed by the anti-symmetric matrix
 0 Ex Ey Ez 
− E 0 c Bz − c B y 
F=  x
(123)
 − E y − c Bz 0 c Bx 
 
 − E z c B y − c Bx 0 
which is covariant under VT and LT. So, it is transformed respectively
FC΄=ΛΒ(β) F ΛΒ(β)T ; F΄=ΛL(β) F ΛL(β)T (124)
Besides we obtain the usual electromagnetic waves in vacuum
r r
r 1 ∂2E r 1 ∂2B r 1 r
∇ E− 2 2 =0 ; ∇ B− 2 2 =0 ; B = E
2 2
(125)
c ∂t c ∂t c
which are propaganding in vacuum with velocity cI=c (see e.g. [3] p. 421).

5. Generalized Schwarzschild metric and Combination with MOND

We define a new relativistic potential Φ around a center of gravity (let us call Modified Generalized
Schwarzschild potential [8] p.13) as
 
1 − f ( r ) ξ I rS 
2
c2
Φ = h( r ) ln  (126)
2ξ I
2
 r 
where
2G M
rS = (127)
c2
is Schwarzschild radius and h(r) ; f(r) are unspecified functions. The corresponding metric may be
obtain, by using Einstein field equations in vacuum [5] (pp. 303, 396):
1 8 πG
Rµν − Rg µν + Λg µν = 4 Tµν ; Λ=0 ; Τµν=0 ; R= gµνRµν (128)
2 c
which are reduced to the single tensor equation
Rµν = 0 ; R= 0 (129)
in accordance with any TPs.

5.1. 1st Generalized Schwarzschild metric, Relativistic potential, Field strength

Lagrangian, geodesics, equations of motion and precession of planets’ orbits
In case that h(r)=1 ; f(r)=1, (126) gives the 1st Generalized Schwarzschild Relativistic potential
(1GSRP) [8] (p.11):
 c2  ξ I 2 rS  2
Φ= ln 1 −  = − c rS + ... = − G M + ... (130)
2ξ I  r 
2
2 r r
st
Besides (129) emerges the 1 Generalized Schwarzschild metric (1GSM):
 2 r  g I 11
d S 2 = g I 00 1 − ξ I S  c 2 d t 2 + d r 2 + g I 11r 2 d θ 2 + g I 11r 2 sin 2 θ d φ 2 (131)
 r 2 rS
1 − ξI
r
The field strength (g) is radial:
r dΦ dΦ dr
g = g I 11 rˆ = g I 11 rˆ (132)
dl dr dl
where l is the radial ruler distance. So
1
−
r GM  2 r  2
g = − 2 1 − ξ I s  rˆ (133)
r  r
The usual definition of Lagrangian of the gravitational system (M, m) [5] (p.205) is
L = mx& µ g µν x&ν (134)
st
For orbit on the ‘plane’ θ=π/2, we obtain the 1 Generalized Schwarzschild Lagrangian (1GSL):
 2 r  mg I 11 2 . d
L = mg I 00 1 − ξ I S  c 2 t&2 + r& + mg I 11r 2φ& 2 ; = (135)
 r 1 − ξI S
2 r dτ
r
or equivalently
 
 2 rS  2 2 ξ 2
 . d
L = mg I 00 1 − ξ I r& − ξ I r φ&  ; =
2
 c t& − I 2 2 2
(136)
 r r
 dτ
1 − ξI S
2

 r 
The well-known Euler-Lagrange equations
d  ∂L  ∂L
 − = 0 ; µ=0, 1, 3 (137)
dτ  ∂x& µ  ∂x µ
give us
2 . d
 2 r  mc
E = 1 − ξ I S  2 t& ; = (138)
 r  ξI dτ
•
     
 2r&   r   
 − − S2 c 2 t&2 + ∂  1 . d
 r& 2 + 2rφ& 2  = 0 ; = (139)
 1 − ξ 2 rS   r ∂r  1 − ξ 2 rS   dτ
   
r   
I I
  r 
. d
J = mr 2φ& ; = (140)
dτ
where E is the total energy of the system, J is the total angular momentum of the system (the integrals
of motion). The solutions of the above equations of motion satisfies the condition
L = mg I 00 c 2 (141)
So, they can also be used for the practical determination of geodesics [5] (p. 205).
Now, we study the motion of particle P around the center of gravity. The case of circular motion
is obtained by putting r=R=constant to (139). This gives Uniform Circular Motion (UCM) with the
same angular velocity for any TPs
dφ GM υ2
ω= = ; g = = ω2R (142)
dt R3 R
The orbit of non-circular motion comes with similar way to the original Schwarzschild space [5] (pp.
238-45). Thus the exact differential equation of motion is
d2 u GM 2 GM 2 1 . d
+ u = 2 + 3ξ I u ; u= ; h = r 2φ& ; = (143)
dφ 2
h c 2
r dτ
where h=J/m is the angular momentum per mass unit.
In case of small velocities relative to cI (υ<<c/ξI), we replace the solution of the simplified
differential equation
d2 u GM GM GM 1
+ u = 2 ; u = 2 (1 + e cos φ ) ; = (144)
dφ 2
h h h 2
a 1 − e2 ( )
to the last term of the exact differential equation of motion (e is the eccentricity of the conic section, α
is the semimajor axis in case of ellipse). Thus we have the approximate differential equation of motion
(which also validates UCM):
d2 u GM 3
2 G M
3
1 . d
+ u = + 3ξ (1 + e cos φ )2 ; u = ; h = r 2φ& ; = (145)
dτ
I
dφ 2
h 2 2 4
c h r
with exact and approximate solution, correspondingly
GM  2
2 G M
2
 1 . d
u = 2 1 + e cos φ + 3ξ I eφ sin φ  ; u = ; h = r 2φ& ; = ; GM =
1
(146)
h  2 2
c h  r dt h 2
a (1 − e 2 )
  
1 + e cos 1 − 3ξ 2 G M φ   ; 0 < 6πξ I G M << 1
2 2 2 2 2
GM
u ≈  (147)
 c 2 h 2   
I
h2   c2 h2
Hence the orbit can be regarded as an ellipse that rotates (‘precesses’) about one of its foci by an
amount
2π 6πξ I G 2 M 2 6πξ I G M
2 2
dφ dφ &
∆= − π ≈ = ; h = r 2φ& ; φ& = =
( )
2 t (148)
G 2
M 2
c 2 2
h a 1 − e 2
c 2
dτ d t
1 − 3ξ I
2

c2 h2
per revolution.
Accordingly to the mainstream approach in textbooks, the further study is based on the
superposition principle. This emerges relation of time to the proper time. Replacing this to (138), they
obtain the final formula of the total relativistic energy. Finally, the generalized potential energy is
calculated, by reducing the kinetic energy (which is considered equal to this of SR) from the total
relativistic energy. But Schwarzschild metric is a static and stationary metric of non-rotating mass. So,
there is no gravitomagnetism and we expect that the gravitational force is independent from the
velocity of the particle. Thus we adapt the following approach which gives simple central potential
which describes Gravitoelectric Effect (GE).
The isometry of spacetime relieves us the relation of time to the proper time:
 r  g I 11 π
d S 2 = g I 00 c 2 d τ 2 = g I 00 1 − ξ I 2 S  c 2 d t 2 + d r 2 + g I 11r 2 d θ 2 + g I 11r 2 sin 2 θ d φ 2 ; θ = (149)
 r 2 r 2
1 − ξI S
r
or
 2 r  ξI2 π
d τ 2 = 1 − ξ I S  d t 2 − β Pr 2 d t 2 − ξ I 2 β Pφ 2 d t 2 ; θ = (150)
 r  r 2
1 − ξI
2 S
r
This gives
 1
−
   2
  
dt 2 r 1 π
t& = = 1 − ξ I  S + β Pr 2 + β Pφ 2  ≥ 1 ; θ = (151)
dτ   r 1−ξ 2 Sr  2
 
 
I
r 
The same result emerges from the combination of (136) with (141). Besides, for a particle or planet at
the perihelion or aphelion of an ellipse or in UCM, the above equation becomes
1
−
dt  2 r 2  2
t& = = 1 − ξ I  S + β Pφ  ≥1 (152)
dτ  r 
Replacing (151) to (138), we obtain the final formula of the total relativistic energy
2 rS
1 − ξI
r m c2 (153)
E= ≥0
 ξI
2

r 1 
1 − ξI  S + β Pr 2 + β Pφ 2 
2

 r 1 − ξ 2 rS 
 I 
 r 
We observe the different contribution of the radial and orbital velocity to the total energy! Now we
r
( )
demand zero kinetic energy (K=0), in case that the particle is static β P = 0 . Then E(βr = 0 ) = Erest + U ,
P

where U is the potential energy. Replacing (75) and (153) to the above equation, we have
 2 r  m c2
U =  1 − ξ I S − 1 2 ≤ 0 (154)
 r  ξI
 2 r  c2
V =  1 − ξ I S − 1 2 ≤ 0 (155)
 r  ξI
where V is the 1st Generalized Schwarzschild potential (1GSP). This is a central potential:
1
−
r dV GM  2 r  2
g=− rˆ = − 2 1 − ξ I s  rˆ (156)
dr r  r
We observe that the result is the same as (133). The generalized Relativistic Kinetic energy is defined
as Kg=E-Erest-U. So
 
 
 
 2 rS

 1 − ξI  m c2
2 r (157)
Kg =  r − 1 − ξI S  2 ≥ 0
   r  ξI
 r 1  
 1 − ξI2  S + β Pr 2 + β Pφ 2  
  r 1 − ξ 2 rS  
  I  
  r  
We observe that if r→+∞, the above equation becomes the corresponding of Generalized SR: (73).
Moreover it is Kg-U≥0. Finally the Relativistic mechanic energy Em=E-Erest=Kg+U is
  
 
 
 2 rS

 1 − ξI 
m c2 (158)
Em =  r − 1 2
    ξI
 r 1  
 1 − ξI2  S + β Pr 2 + β Pφ 2  
  r 1 − ξ 2 rS  
  I  
  r  

Alternatively, we may define a new 1st Generalized Schwarzschild Lagrangian (n1GSL):

1  L 
L1 = 
2 
+ m c 2  (159)
2ξ I  − g I 00 
If we replace (141) to the above equation, then it emerges that L1=0 except for the case of ξI=0, where
it is proven that L1N=0/0= KN-UN≥0. Besides the combination of (159) with (136) gives
 
1  ξ  .
2
  2 rS  2 2 m & + mc  ; = d ; θ = π
L1 = − m 1 − ξ  c & +
t I
&
r 2
+ ξ 2
mr 2
φ 2 2
(160)
2ξ I 
2

I
r 2 rS
I
 dτ 2
 1 − ξI 
 r 
or equivalently
 
m  c 2  1 rS  2 &2 1  . d
; θ=
π
L1 = −  2 − c t + r& + r φ  ; =
2 2 &2 (161)
2  ξI  ξI
2
r 2 rS  dτ 2
 1 − ξI 
 r 
In case that ξI→0+ (Galilean metric), (151) gives t& = 1 . Thus we obtain the Newtonian results:
 − 2ξ I rS 
c 2  1  ξ r2
  c 2 1  c 2 rS GM
ΦN = lim Φ = lim  2 ln1 − I S  = lim  r =− =− (162)
ξ I →0 2 I  ξ I 
ξ → 0 r  4 I  ξ Iξ → 0 ξ I rS 
2
2 r r
 1 − r 
d S N = g I 00 c 2 d t 2 + 0 d r 2 + 0r 2 d θ 2 + 0r 2 sin 2 θ d φ 2
2
(163)
r GM
g N = − 2 rˆ (164)
r
GM . d π
LN = mg I 00 c ; EN = +∞ ; &r& + 2 − rφ& = 0 ; J Ν = mr 2φ& ; =
2 2
; θ= (165)
r dt 2
The Newtonian differential equation of motion and the corresponding solution are
d2 uN GM 1 . d
+ uN = ; u N = G M2 (1 + eN cos φ ) ; u = ; hN = r 2φ& ; = (166)
dφ 2
hN
2
hN r dt
2
2 EmN hN G Mm
eN = 1+ 2 2
; EmN = − (167)
G M m 2a N
where αN is the semimajor axis of Newtonian ellipse which do not rotate (∆N=0). Besides
G Mm GM 1 r 2 1 r2 1 r2 GM
UN = − ; VN = − ; K N = β P m c2 = mυ EmN = m υ − (168)
r r 2 2 2 r
Finally, the Galilean version of n1GSL is
m  r c2  G Mm 1 r 2 . d π
L1N =  S + r& 2 + r 2φ& 2  = + m υ = K N − VN ; = ; θ= (169)
2 r  r 2 dt 2
which is the original Newtonian Lagrangian!
 In case that ξ I=1 (gI11= - gI00) (Vossos metric), it emerges the well-known results of the original
Schwarzschild metric in ERT (see e.g. [5] pp. 228-45):
c2  r 
ΦE = ln1 − S  (170)
2  r
 
 r  1 
d r 2 − r 2 d θ 2 − r 2 sin 2 θ d φ 2 
2
d S Ε = g I 00 1 − S  c 2 d t 2 − (171)
r
 r 1− S 
 r 
1
−
r GM  r  2
g Ε = − 2 1 − s  rˆ (172)
r  r
 
 rS  2 2 1   r  . d π
LΕ = mg I 00 1 −  c t& − r& − r φ  ; EΕ = 1 − S m c 2 t& ; =
2 2 & 2
; θ= (173)
 r  1− S
r
  r  d τ Ε 2
 r 
•
     
 2r&   r ∂  1   .
  − − S2 c 2 t&2 +  r& 2 + 2rφ& 2  = 0 ; J Ε = mr 2φ& ; = d (174)
 1 − rS   r ∂r  1 − rS   dτ Ε
   
 r    r  
The differential equation of non-UCMs of the original Schwarzschild metric has come from (143):
d2 u GM GM 1 . d
+ u = 2 + 3 2 u2 ; u = ; hΕ = r 2φ& ; = (175)
dφ 2
hΕ c r dτ Ε
The corresponding ERT approximate differential equation of motion (which also validates UCM) is:
d2 u GM G3 M 3 1 . d
+ 3 2 4 (1 + e cos φ ) ; u = ; hΕ = r φ& ; =
2 2
+u = (176)
dφ 2
hΕ
2
c hΕ r d τΕ
with exact and approximate solution, correspondingly
GM  G2 M 2  GM 1
u = 2 1 + eΕ cos φ + 3 2 2 eΕφ sin φ  ; =
( )
2 2
(177)
hΕ  c hΕ  hΕ aΕ 1 − eΕ
  
1 + e cos 1 − 3 G M φ   ; 0 < 6π G M << 1
2 2 2 2
GM
u ≈ 
(178)
c 2 hΕ   
Ε
hΕ
2 
2
c 2 hΕ
2

Hence the ERT orbit can be regarded as an Einsteinian ellipse (with αE semimajor axis) which rotates
(‘precesses) about one of its foci by an amount
2π 6π G 2 M 2 6π G M dφ dφ &
∆Ε = − π ≈ = ; hΕ = r 2φ& ; φ& = =
( )
2 tΕ (179)
2
G M 2 2
c hΕ
2 2
aΕ 1 − eΕ c 2
dτ Ε d t
1− 3 2 2
c hΕ
per revolution. Accordingly to our non-mainstream approach
1
−
   2
rS
d t   rS 1  1−
t&Ε = = 1 −  + β Pr 2 + β Pφ 2  ≥ 1 ; EΕ = r m c2 ≥ 0 (180)
d τ   r 1 − rS   
  r 
  r  1
1−  + β Pr + β Pφ 
S 2 2

 r 1 − rS 
 
 r 
  
 
 
 r   r   
U Ε =  1 − S − 1m c 2 ≤ 0 ; VΕ =  1 − S − 1 c 2 ≤ 0 ; 
r

(181)
 r   r  1− S
    KgΕ =  r r
− 1− S m c 2 ≥ 0
   r 
   
 1 −  rS + 1 β 2 + β 2  
Pφ
 r r Pr  
  1− S  
  r  

 
 
 
 rS 
 1− 
Em Ε = r − 1 m c 2
(182)
   
 r 1  
 1−  S + β Pr + β Pφ  
2 2

  r 1 − rS  
   
  r  
Finally, the Lorentzian-Einsteinian version of n1GSL is
 
m  2  rS  2 &2 1 
2 &2  ;
. d
; θ=
π
L1Ε = c − 1 −  c t + r& + r φ
2
= (183)
2  r r  d τ 2
 1− S  Ε
 r 

5.2. 2nd Generalized Schwarzschild metric, Relativistic potential & Field strength and
Combination with MOND
In case that only f(r)=1, (126) gives the 2nd Generalized Schwarzschild Relativistic potential (2GSRP)
[8] (p.13):
c2  ξ I 2 rS 
Φ = h( r ) ln 1 −  (184)
2ξ I
2  r 

We demand the 2GSRP having value equal to the corresponding of the 1GSRP at the distance of the
1st Generalized Schwarzschild radius (rSI=ξΙ2rS). Thus, we have the condition
h( rSI) = h(ξ 2r ) = 1 (185)
I S

Besides (129) emerges the 2nd Generalized Schwarzschild Metric (2GSM) [8] (p.15)
h( r )
 ξ 2r  g I 11
d S = g I 00 1 − I S 
2
c 2d t 2 h( r )
d r 2 + g I 11r 2 d θ 2 + g I 11r 2 sin 2 θ d φ 2 (186)
 r   ξ I rS  2
1 − 
 r 
 
So, we obtain the corresponding radial 2nd Generalized Schwarzschild Field Strength (2GSFS)
h( r ) h( r )
−1
GM  ξ 2r  2 c 2 d h  ξ I rS  2  ξ I rS 
2 2
g = 2 h( r ) 1 − I S  + 1 − ln 1 − (187)
r  r  2ξ I d r 
2
r   r 
 
where the positive value of field strength means gravity, while negative value means antigravity.
Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) is using suitable Interpolating Function (µ) in Milgrom’s
Law [9]. In case of a spherical or cylindrical distribution of mass, the Modified Newtonian field
strength is
GM 1
g= 2 (188)
r µ
Two common choices are the Simple and Standard interpolating function, correspondingly
 1 2 1 2 GM
µ= = ; µ= = ; r0 = (189)
a0 2 2 4a0
1+ r a  1 r 
4
g 1 + 1 +   1 +  0  1 + 1 +  
 r0   g  4  r0 
where r0 is called Milgrom radius [8] (p. 3) and a0 ≈ 1.2 × 10−10 ms −2 [9] (p. 1) is a new fundamental
physical constant. Both the Interpolating functions give the same velocity at infinite distance from the
center of gravity
υ ∞ 2 = GMa0 (190)
The combination of Galilean version of 2GSFS (187) with MOND (188) emerges
1 dh
= h( r ) − r (191)
µ(r ) dr
or equivalently
dr r 1 r r
h( r ) = − r ∫r 2
µ(r )
=−
r0 ∫ r  2
d  = − I
 r0  r0
(192)
  µ ( r )
 r0 
The integrals of Simple and Standard interpolating function are correspondingly
1  1 1 1 + x2  1  1 1 + x2 
I Simpl = ∫ 2x 1 + 1 + x 2  d x =  − − + ArcSinh x  = − − + ln  x + 1 + x 2   (193)
2
  2 x x  2 x x  
   
1
 x4 4
 1+ + 1  1

1    1 1 5 1  (194)
4 4 3 4 4
1 x   x    x4  
I Stand = ∫ 2x2
1+ 1+
4
dx=
2 1


−1 + 2 1− 1+
4
 4 
2 F1 , ; ;
4 4 4 2
1+
4
+1 

 x 4  
4     
 1+ −1   
 4 
 
The above solution contains Gauss hypergeometric function. We then extend the above Newtonian
solutions to other TPs, by according the integration constant with condition (185). Thus we have
 2 
−1   ξ I 2 rS  ξ I 2 rS  ξ I 2 rS   (195)
C Simpl = − + +   −  
2   r 
1 1 ArcSinh
2rSξ I   r  r0
 0   0 
 
1
 4 4
 1  ξ I rS  
2

 1 +  
+ 1  1

1
4  r0    3 4 4   4   (196)
  − 1 + 2 4 1 − 1 + 1  ξ I rS     ξ  
2 2
−r 
= 20 −  + 1 
1 1 5 1 1 r
 2 F1  , ; ;  1 + 
I S 
CStand 1  
ξ I rS 2  4  r0   4 4 4 2 4  r0   
 4  4       
 
1 ξ I rS 
2
 
 1 +  − 1  
4 r 
  0  
 
In case of ERT (ξI=1), the Combination of 2GSM with MOND Simple interpolating function gives
 2 2 
1 r r r  rS  r r r  rS   (197)
h( r ) = + 1 + 1 +   − 1 +   − ArcSinh   + ArcSinh  
2  rS r 
 0 rS r 
 0 r0 r  r
 0 0
 r 
 0 
 
while the MOND Standard interpolating function gives more complicated solution:
  1

 4 4 
 
 1+   +1 
1 r   
 
1

 4  r0    3 4 4   4  
   − 1 + 2 4 1 − 1 + 1  r   F  1 , 1 ; 5 ; 1  1 + 1  r  + 1   
 2 1  
 1 
 4  r0   4 4 4 2
 4  r0   
 4 4      
  1 + 1  r  − 1    (198)
  4  r0  
 
r r   
h( r ) = −  1 
rS 2r0  
 4 4
  1  rS   
  1 +   + 1    1
 
r   4 4     
   4  0  3
 1  rS   1 1 5 1 1  rS 
4

  − 1 + 2 1 − 1 +    2 F1  , ; ;  1 +   + 1  
− 1 
4

  4   4  r0   4 4 4 2 4  r0  
  1  rS 
4
      

  1 +   − 1 
  4  r0   
   

6. Experimental Validation

6.1. The Precession of Mercury’s Perihelion according to the 1st Generalized

Schwarzschild metric
1GSM contains only one free parameter: ξI. Besides the precession of Mercury’s perihelion was one of
the first confirmations of ERT. Thus they can be combined in order to find a set of valid values of ξI in
our Solar system. The precession of Mercury’s perihelion is stated as [10] (p.1):
2π (2 − β + 2γ ) G M
∆=
a 1 − e2 c2 ( ) (199)

per revolution, where β is a measure of the nonlinearity of superposition for gravity and γ is a measure
of the curvature of space due to unit rest mass. This combined to (148) gives
2 − β + 2γ 3 + (1 − β ) + 2(γ − 1)
ξI2 = ; ξI = (200)
3 3
We replace (1-β)=(2.7±3.9) ×10-5 from the processing MESSENGER ranging data (Nordtvedt effect)
and (γ-1)=(2.1±2.3) ×10-5 from the Cassini mission (Shapiro delay experiment). Thus we obtain
ξ I = 1.0000115(75) (201)
Another way of finding a set of valid values of ξI in our Solar system is the direct replacement of all
the experimental data to (148). It is ∆=42.9799±0.0009 [10] (p.6), G=6.67428(67)×10−11m3kg−1s−2 and
c=299792458 ms−1 (exact) [11] (pp 1-1,14-2), M=1,988,500×1024 kg [12], α= 0.38709893 AU and e=
0.20563069 [13]. Thus we also have
ξ I = 0.9999754(105) (202)
Finally, we obtain the mean value
ξ I = 0.9999934(91) ; ξ I ∈ (0.9999843, 1.0000025) (confidence level 68%) (203)
This represents a slight curvature of the spacetime even for RIOs:
ξ −1
∆ξ I r = I = −0.000066(91)% (204)
1

6.2. The Combination of Lorentzian version of 2nd Generalized Schwarzschild metric

with MOND Simple & Standard Interpolating Function in Galaxy NGC 3198 & the
Solar System
The effect of 2GSM modification was examined at large mass and size systems, such as Galaxy NGC
3198 (data from [14] (p. 2), results from [8] (pp. 21-24)) and medium mass and size systems, such as
our Solar System (data from [11] (p. 14-3), results from [8] (pp. 24-27)). The corresponding Rotation
Curves are shown in Figures 3 & 4 and the Plots of function h(r) are shown in Figures 5 & 6,
respectively.

Figure 3. Universal Rotation Curves in Galaxy NGC 3198. Rotational Velocities [experimental
(Vexp), calculated by Schwarzschild or Newtonian field strength (Vd) and the Combination of
Lorentzian version of 2nd Generalized Schwarzschild metric with MOND Simple or Standard
Interpolating Function (Vsimp, Vstand)] wrt the distance (r) from the center of Galaxy NGC 3198.

Figure 4. Rotation Curves in the Solar System. Rotational Velocities [calculated by

Schwarzschild or Newtonian field strength (Vd) and the Combination of Lorentzian version of 2nd
Generalized Schwarzschild metric with MOND Simple or Standard Interpolating Function (Vsimp,
Vstand)] wrt the distance (r) from the Sun (ua=astronomical unit).
Figure 5. Plot of function h(r) wrt the distance (r) from the center of Galaxy NGC 3198 for the
Combination of Lorentzian version of 2nd Generalized Schwarzschild metric with MOND Simple
or Standard Interpolating Function.

Figure 6. Plot of function h(r) wrt the distance of the planet (r) from the Sun for the
Combination of Lorentzian version of 2nd Generalized Schwarzschild metric with MOND Simple
or Standard Interpolating Function.

We observe that in scale of black hole, planetary and star system, the Combination of Lorentzian
version of 2GSM metric with MOND coincides to the original Schwarzschild metric (h≈1), while in
galactic scale, it gives MONDian results. In universal scale, the gravitational field strength (187)
becomes negative producing slight antigravity.
 7. Conclusion
Einstein Relativity Theory (ERT) with Relativistic Inertial Observers (RIOs) in Minkowski Space was
generalized to a Relativity Theory (RT) where the RIOs have metric gI=diag(gI00, gI11, gI11, gI11). Thus
Newtonian Physics (NPs) has Galilean metric gI=diag(gI00, 0, 0, 0), keeping the formalism of ERT.
Besides infinite number of Theories of Physics (TPs) was produced where the critical parameter is
ξI=sqrt(-gI11/gI00) and the universal speed is cI=c/ξI. Maxwell equations were also generalized in order
to have electromagnetic waves which are propaganding with cI. Thus a Generalized Quantum
Mechanics can also be developed. The generalization is extended to General Relativity, by producing
the 1st Generalized Schwarzschild metric (1GSM) and 2nd Generalized Schwarzschild metric (2GSM),
which are in accordance with Einstein field equations for any TPs. In case of 1GSM, the
corresponding Lagrangian, geodesics, equations of motion, precession of planets’ orbits etc was found,
resulting formulas which are referred to any TPs. The theoretical results were combined with
experimental data of our Solar system, producing a set of valid values of ξI. In case of 2GSM, the
combination of its Galilean version of 2GSM with Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), leads to
MOND relativization. Moreover, we extended MOND methods to ERT. The combination of Simple
and Standard Interpolating Function (µ) with the Lorentzian version of 2GSM, leads to the
explanation of Rotation Curves in Galaxies as well as the Solar system, eliminating Dark Matter.
Generally, this approach, in non rotating black hole, planetary and star system scale, coincides to the
original Schwarzschild metric, while in galactic scale, it gives MONDian results. In universal scale, it
emerges slight antigravity, improving the aspects for elimination of dark energy, too.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Nikolaos Veronikiatis (Physicist MSc, Department of Physics, School
of Applied Mathematics and Physical Science, National Technical University of Athens) for the
calculation (194).

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