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Culture Documents
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All rights reserved.
First Edition
On the cover: The Summer Palace in Beijing, China, is a UNESCO World Heritage site. ©
www.istockphoto.com/Robert Churchill
On page 12: The entrance to a pavilion in the Forbidden City in Beijing, China, in 1973.
Keystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
On page 18: A man communes with Daoist gods by spitting rice wine into the air while
using a large snake whip during the Full Moon Festival in Sanshia, China. Eightfish/The
Image Bank/Getty Images
26
COntEnts
Introduction 12
Chapter 1: People 19
Selected Ethnic Groups 19
Bai 21
Daur 21
Dong 22
Hani 22
Hui 23
Lahu 24
Lisu 24
Manchu 25
Miao 27
Mongol 28
Population Distribution 29 38
Lifestyle and Livelihood 29
Rise of the Mongol Empire 29
Dissolution of the Mongol Empire 30
Formation of Inner and Outer Mongolia 31
Naxi 31
She 32
Tibetan 32
Tujia 33
Uighur 33
Wa 34
Yi 35
Zhuang 36
Cultural Institutions, Festivals,
and Sports in Daily Life 36
Lunar New Year 37
Tai Chi Chuan 38
44
Chapter 2: Chinese Cuisine 40
Emergence of a Cuisine 41
Common Foods and Traditions 41
Great Chinese Schools 42
Beijing 42
Sichuan 43
Zhejiang and Jiangsu 43
Fujian 43
Guangdong 44
46
Chapter 4: Confucianism 63
Thought of Confucius 65
Historical Context 65
Analects 67
Formation of the Classical Confucian Tradition 71
Mencius: The Paradigmatic 66
Confucian Intellectual 72
Xunzi: The Transmitter of
Confucian Scholarship 74
The Confucianization of Politics 75
Dong Zhongshu: The Confucian Visionary 76
The Five Classics 77
Confucian Ethics in the Daoist
and Buddhist Context 79
Confucian Revival 81
Song Masters 81
98
Chapter 5: Daoism 90
Laozi and the Daodejing 91
Interpretation of Zhuangzi 93
Basic Concepts of Daoism 94
Cosmology 94
Microcosm-Macrocosm Concept 95
Return to the Dao 97
Change and Transformation 97
Concepts of the Human in Society 98
Wuwei 98
Social Ideal of Primitivism 99 109
Ideas of Knowledge and Language 99
Identity of Life and Death 100
Religious Goals of the Individual 101
Symbolism and Mythology 102
Early Eclectic Contributions: Yin-Yang,
Qi, and Other Ideas 103
Yin and Yang 103
Qi 103
Wuxing 103
Yang Zhu and the Liezi 104
Guanzi and Huainanzi 104
Daoism in Chinese Culture 104
Daoist Contributions to Chinese Science 106
Daoist Imagery 107
Influence on Secular Literature 107
Influence on the Visual Arts 108
Daoism in the Modern Era 110 114
History 227
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) 228
Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) 228
Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) 228
Qing Dynasty (1644–1911/12) 229
Chinese Lacquerwork 230
Glossary 291
For Further Reading 293
Index 294
285
IntRODuCtIOn
Introduction | 13
of balance—hot and cold, grains and veg- not technically a religion, its emphases
etables with meat—that reached its height on personal virtue and on ethical action
in the Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12). within human society continue to influ-
China is also one of the great centres ence Chinese spiritual life.
of world religious thought, as this book The other great Chinese tradition
demonstrates. Confucianism, Daoism, that has its roots in pre-Han dynasty
and Buddhism have formed the basis China is Daoism. Like Confucianism,
of Chinese society and governance for Daoism emerged as a vision for stopping
centuries. social decline and promoting good gov-
The ideas of Confucius and his fol- ernment. It took a different track. Instead
lowers have guided the lives of China’s of a particular dao of a group of histori-
people and leaders for about two millen- cal leaders or group of political leaders,
nia. Confucius was born in 551 BCE, and pre-Han Daoist thinkers stressed the
though he received little recognition dur- Dao that generated the cosmos as the
ing his lifetime, he may be said to have appropriate model for human action.
become China’s most famous philoso- The Daodejing, a philosophical and spiri-
pher and teacher. His teachings, compiled tual text attributed to the mythical sage
mainly in a text known as the Lunyu, or Laozi, emphasized wuwei, or nonaction;
Analects, inspired a rich tradition—known however, this meant that people, and par-
in the West as “Confucianism”—of phi- ticularly the rulers, should take no action
losophers, scholars, political leaders, and that is contrary to nature but should
occasional religious figures that helped to instead cultivate attunement with the
shape not only Chinese culture but that of natural fluctuation of the cosmos. In later
Korea, Japan, and Vietnam as well. centuries, this more naturalistic spiritual
Confucius lived at a time in which sense of attunement with the universe
society was highly fragmented into com- became increasingly religious, and Laozi
peting principalities. He believed that became revered as a deity, especially
in order to stem the tide of social decay after Buddhism, which was founded in
and to promote a flourishing and humane India, transformed Chinese culture.
society as had existed in antiquity, the Buddhism arrived in China probably
dao, or the way, of the ancient sage-kings by way of Central Asian trade routes in
needed to be revived. To accomplish this, about the 1st century CE. The most com-
Confucius advocated the institution of a mon form of Buddhism practiced there
meritocracy of cultured, virtuous scholar- is Mahayana Buddhism in China and
officials who would advise kings to rule Vajrayana in Tibet. According to legend,
justly. Yet his social vision did not apply Buddhism came to China after the Han
only to the ruling class; Confucius’s emperor Mingdi (reigned 57–75) had a
stress on moral character influenced dream about a flying golden god that was
every level of Chinese society. While it is interpreted as a vision of the Buddha.
Introduction | 15
language flow directly and naturally from 305 songs that are dated from the 10th
their brushstrokes. Connoisseurs prize to the 7th centuries BCE. In 1345 schol-
the personality and rhythmic elegance ars created the Songshi (“Song History”),
shown by the artists of different schools, a book of 496 chapters, 17 of which are
from the controlled “seal” school to the devoted solely to music.
free, loose “grass” schools of calligraphy, China also has distinct theatrical tra-
using words like balance, vitality, energy, ditions, including Chinese opera. Over
wind, and strength to describe the beau- the centuries, two main schools have
ties of different styles. According to developed—quiet, refined kunqu, which
legend, Cangjie, the inventor of Chinese started as a folk art, but which later
writing, got his ideas from observing ani- became famed for being sophisticated
mal footprints in the sand. and refined, and energetic jingxi (Peking)
China’s musical tradition is at least opera, so called because it is closely
5,000 years old, one of the oldest and associated with China’s capital city of
most highly developed of all known musi- Beijing (formerly spelled Peking). Unlike
cal systems. Not only do written records kunqu, which is poetic and accompa-
confirm China’s long musical history, nied by flutes and stringed instruments,
but archaeologists uncovered a number jingxi is lively, less refined, and popu-
of ancient instruments, including such lar. It features clappers and cymbals to
objects as bronze bells and stone chimes. make emotional points and energetic
These and other instruments were clas- acrobatics during battle scenes. Yet, both
sified in early times according to the styles are highly stylized and rely on the
material used in their construction: stone, audience to understand a full range of
earth (pottery), bamboo, metal, skin, silk, symbols. A black flag carried across the
wood, and gourd. stage, for example, signifies to knowl-
Today the musical instruments most edgeable operagoers that a storm has
associated with China include stringed blown in. As in China’s visual arts, con-
instruments such as the four-string pipa ventional morality is a strong theme, and
lute and the 25-string se zither as well as the importance of doing good and avoid-
drums such as the dagu, used in China ing evil is strongly emphasized.
to accompany a narrative. Other note- But jingxi and kunqu are not the only
worthy instruments include the sheng, a forms of Chinese opera. Today more than
mouth organ with 17 pipes attached in a 300 kinds of opera are found around the
basin, and the fangxiang, made up of 16 nation, each type performed according
iron slabs suspended in a wooden frame. to local musical styles and in regional
Chinese scholars have devoted much languages.
attention to musical principles as well. The ideals that have defined China’s art-
The Shijing (“Classic of Poetry”), com- work and performing artists have inspired
piled by Confucius, contains the texts of its finest architectural achievements as
Introduction | 17
well. Today the skylines of many Chinese Architecture had become highly styl-
cities reflect contemporary trends else- ized by the time of the Song dynasty, so
where in the world. Skyscrapers and that certain elements showed which build-
bold designs, however, give no hint of ings had greater and lesser importance.
China’s long tradition of achievement All those elements can be easily identified
in the field of architecture. Although in one of China’s greatest architectural
many of China’s oldest buildings have achievements: the Forbidden City. Located
disappeared—some falling victim to within the inner city of Beijing, this palace
modernization efforts, others to the compound—the world’s largest—was used
enemies of wood construction—the time- by 24 emperors during the Ming (1368–
less principles of traditional Chinese 1644) and Qing (1644–1911/12) dynasties.
architecture are still evident. One of The Forbidden City has 800 buildings
the most distinctive features of Chinese that have a total of about 9,000 rooms.
architecture is the use of beautiful slop- Today it has been listed by UNESCO
ing and gabled roofs, such as those seen as the largest collection of preserved
in the country’s Buddhist pagodas with ancient wooden structures in the world.
their several storied towers. The first It was declared a World Heritage Site in
curved roof appeared in China around 1987 and is now a public museum.
500 CE. Great care is also given to where For the 2008 Beijing Summer
buildings are placed and what they Olympics, China invited acclaimed inter-
are facing, according to the geoman- national architects to design many of the
tic principles of feng shui. The system games’ signature structures, including
of feng shui (meaning literally “wind the Bird’s Nest. These structures connect
water”) was developed during the Five China to the contemporary world cul-
Dynasties (907–960) or Ten Kingdoms ture, to be sure, but they give little hint of
period, and its purpose was to harmo- the complexity and richness of China’s
nize a site or structure with cosmic vast contribution to the world. We hope
principles or spiritual forces) and thus this volume serves to unveil China’s cul-
to ensure good fortune. tural wealth.
ChaPtER 1
People
promoted their national languages and estimated to number nearly two million,
cultures, and raised their literacy levels, about half of whom lived on the fertile
as well as introduced a written language plain between the Cang Mountains and
where none existed previously. It must be the lake.
noted, however, that some minorities (e.g., Since the establishment of the
Tibetans) have been subject to varying People’s Republic of China, the Bai, in
degrees of repression. Still, of the 50-odd accordance with the Communist Party’s
minority languages, only 20 had written policy toward non-Chinese peoples, have
forms before the coming of the commu- been given status as a national minority.
nist regime in 1949; and only relatively Their principal city, Dali, was from the
few written languages—e.g., Mongolian, 6th to the 9th century the capital of the
Tibetan, Uighur, Kazakh (Hasake), Dai, kingdom of Nanzhao. The Bai probably
and Korean (Chaoxian)—were in every- already formed the bulk of the population
day use. Other written languages were of the locality at that time.
used chiefly for religious purposes and by Most of the Bai are cultivators of
a limited number of people. Educational wet rice, along with various vegetables
institutions for national minorities are and fruits. Those in the hills grow barley,
a feature of many large cities, notably buckwheat, oats, and beans. The lake is
Beijing, Wuhan, Chengdu, and Lanzhou. heavily fished.
This chapter includes a sampling of They have their own social and kin-
minority groups. ship organization, based on the village
and the extended family (parents, mar-
Bai ried sons and their families). Their
religion differs little from that of the
The Bai (Bo) people live in northwestern Chinese; they venerate local deities and
Yunnan province, southwest China. ancestral spirits as well as Buddhist and
Minjia is the Chinese (Pinyin) name for Daoist gods.
them; they call themselves Bai or Bo in
their own language, which has been clas- Daur
sified as a Tibeto-Burman language. Until
recently their language was not written. It Another ethnic minority of China, the
contains many words borrowed from Daur (Daghor, Daghur, or Dagur) people
Chinese but is itself a non-Chinese, tonal, are of Mongol descent. They live mainly
polysyllabic language with a markedly in the eastern portion of Inner Mongolia
different grammatical structure. autonomous region and western
Occupying a triangular area from Heilongjiang province of China and were
Shigu on the upper Yangtze River down estimated in the early 21st century to
to Dali (Xiaguan) at the foot of Lake Er, number more than 132,000. Their lan-
the Bai in the early 21st century were guage, which varies widely enough from
22 | The Culture of China
other Mongolian languages to once have populated Guizhou, they share the area
been thought to be Tungusic or a mixture with the Buyei, another official ethnic
of Mongolian and Tungus, is now known minority.
to be an archaic Mongolian dialect that Most Dong are lowland farmers with
preserves features found in 13th-century glutinous rice as their primary crop. They
documents. have also long produced cotton and cot-
Russian settlers in the 17th century ton cloth for sale. The Dong are known as
found the Daur well established in east- fish breeders, raising fish in specially
ern Transbaikalia and the Amur region, constructed ponds as well as in some
and the Orthodox church sent mis- flooded paddy fields. Before 1949 they
sionaries to them in 1682. The Chinese were integrated into the periodic market
government, not wishing the Daur to fall system of southern China and since the
under Russian sway, resettled them. By opening of China have increasingly
the early 20th century many Daur lived shifted to production for the market.
in Heilongjiang, around the city of Hailar, Like related minority peoples, but,
and in the Nen River valley near the city unlike the Han Chinese, they live in large
of Qiqihar. Their chief occupations are houses built on pilings. They are known
agriculture, logging, hunting, stock rais- for pagoda-like wooden drum towers that
ing, and horse breeding. The clan system can be as tall as 30 metres (100 feet).
prevails. Their religion is shamanistic, These towers and distinctive covered
although some are adherents of Tibetan bridges, together with revived festivals,
Buddhism. particularly those involving water-buf-
falo fights—once associated with animal
Dong sacrifices in traditional Dong religion—
have made some Dong villages attractive
The Dong (Dongjia, Dongren) are found for tourists.
in southeastern Guizhou province and in According to data from the 1982 and
neighbouring Zhuang Autonomous 1990 censuses, the Dong had the highest
Region of Guangxi and Hunan province. birth rate of any ethnic group in China.
According to most linguists the Dong In the early 21st century they numbered
speak a Kam-Sui language that is closely nearly three million.
related to the Tai languages, and they call
themselves Kam. Hani
The Dong first appeared in China
during the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE), The Hani (Woni, Houni) live mainly on
moving southwest in a series of migra- the high southwestern plateau of Yunnan
tions, possibly forced by the advancing province, China, specifically concen-
Mongols. Concentrated today in sparsely trated in the southwestern corner. There
People | 23
are also several thousands of Hani or nor Mongolian) who have intermingled
related peoples in northern Thailand, with the Han Chinese throughout China
Laos, and Vietnam and in eastern but are relatively concentrated in western
Myanmar (Burma). Altogether they num- China—in the provinces or autonomous
bered some two million in the early 21st regions of Xinjiang, Ningxia, Gansu,
century. Qinghai, Henan, Hebei, Shandong, and
Thirteen subgroups of this official Yunnan. Considerable numbers also live
classification call themselves by other in Anhui, Liaoning, and Beijing. The Hui
names, but they speak mutually intel- are also found on the frontier between
ligible Tibeto-Burman languages of the China and Myanmar (Burma) and in
Sino-Tibetan language family. Classified Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan,
as tribes of the larger Yi ethnic group, the in Central Asia. They speak Mandarin as
Hani are believed to be a branch of the a first language.
ancient Qiang from the north, appearing The Hui are distinguished as Hui
in the Dadu River region in Han times. only in the area of their heaviest con-
They were slightly infiltrated by Thai who centration, the Hui Autonomous Region
were fleeing the Mongols. Contemporary of Ningxia. Other Hui communities
Hani are mostly farmers who produce are organized as autonomous prefec-
two excellent types of tea and are also tures (zizhizhou) in Xinjiang and as
known for their remarkable terraced rice autonomous counties (zizhixian) in
paddies. Qinghai, Hebei, Guizhou, and Yunnan.
A distinct subgroup of the Hani Increasingly, the Hui have been moving
known as the Akha live in China, as well from their scattered settlements into the
as parts of Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, area of major concentration, possibly in
Laos, and Cambodia. They are believed to order to facilitate intermarriage with
be of Chinese origin, though, for a variety other Muslims.
of reasons, they have lived a wandering The ancestors of the Hui were mer-
life. A notable feature of female dress is chants, soldiers, handicraftsmen, and
an elaborate headdress made with silver scholars who came to China from Islamic
or white beads and silver coins. This and Persia and Central Asia from the 7th to
other features of the Akha culture are the 13th century. After these ancestors
dissipating under pressure of both mis- settled in China, they intermarried with
sionary work and other outside forces. the Han Chinese, Uighur, and Mongolian
nationalities and came to speak Chinese
Hui languages, or dialects (while often retain-
ing Arabic, too). Eventually their
The nearly 10 million Hui (Hwei, Huihui) appearance and other cultural character-
are Chinese Muslims (i.e., neither Turkic istics became thoroughly Chinese. They
24 | The Culture of China
frequently shifted fields worked mainly China. The kingdom was annihilated by
with hoes. Their houses are of wood and the Mongols in 1234, and the surviving
bamboo. Crossbows, poisoned arrows, Juchen were driven back into northeast-
and dogs are used for hunting. They ern Manchuria. Three centuries later the
have a clan organization, and marriage is descendants of these Juchen again came
always between members of two different into prominence, but before long they
clans. Their religion combines ancestor dropped the name Juchen for Manchu.
veneration with animism and includes They regained control of Manchuria,
gods of earth and sky, wind, lightning, moved south, and conquered Beijing
and forest. (1644); and by 1680 the Manchu had
established complete control over all
Manchu sections of China under the name of the
Qing dynasty. The Manchu managed to
The Manchu (Man) people have lived maintain a brilliant and powerful govern-
for many centuries mainly in Manchuria ment until about 1800, after which they
(now the Northeast) and adjacent areas rapidly lost energy and ability. It was
of China. In the 17th century they con- not, however, until 1911/12 that the Qing
quered China and ruled for more than dynasty was overthrown.
250 years. The term Manchu dates from Modern research shows that the
the 16th century, but it is certain that the Juchen-Manchu speak a language belong-
Manchu are descended from a group of ing to the sparse but geographically
peoples collectively called the Tungus widespread Manchu-Tungus subfam-
(the Even and Evenk are also descended ily of the Altaic languages. At an early
from that group). The Manchu, under date, probably about the 1st century CE,
other names, had lived in northeastern various Manchu-Tungus-speaking tribes
Manchuria in prehistoric times. In early moved from their homeland in or near
Chinese records they were known as northeastern Manchuria to the north
the Donghui, or “Eastern Barbarians”; and west and eventually occupied most
in the 3rd century BCE they were given of Siberia between the Yenisey River and
the name Sushen, or Yilou; in the 4th the Pacific Ocean. The Manchu became
to 7th centuries CE Chinese historians established in the south, while the Even,
spoke of them as Wuji, or Momo; and in Evenk, and other peoples predominated
the 10th century CE as Juchen (Nüzhen in the north and west.
in Pinyin). These Juchen established From the Chinese records it is evi-
a kingdom of some extent and impor- dent that the Yilou, the Tungus ancestors
tance in Manchuria, and by 1115 CE their of the Manchu, were essentially hunters,
dynasty (called Jin in Chinese records) fishers, and food gatherers, though in
had secured control over northeastern later times they and their descendants,
26 | The Culture of China
People | 27
the Juchen and Manchu, developed a to preserve cultural and ethnic segrega-
primitive form of agriculture and animal tion gradually broke down. The Manchu
husbandry. The Juchen-Manchu were began to adopt the Chinese customs
accustomed to braid their hair into a and language and to intermarry with the
queue, or pigtail. When the Manchu con- Chinese. Few, if any, spoke the Manchu
quered China they forced the Chinese language in the early 21st century.
to adopt this custom as a sign of loyalty China’s government, however, contin-
to the new dynasty. Apart from this, the ues to identify the Manchu as a separate
Manchu made no attempt to impose ethnic group (numbering more than
their manners and customs upon the 10.5 million in the early 21st century).
Chinese. After the conquest of China, The Manchu live mainly in Liaoning,
the greater part of the Manchu migrated Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Hebei provinces,
there and kept their ancestral estates in Beijing, and in the Inner Mongolia
only as hunting lodges. Eventually these Autonomous Region.
estates were broken up and sold to or
occupied by Chinese (Han) immigrant Miao
farmers. By 1900 even in Manchuria the
new Chinese settlers greatly outnum- The Miao are mountain-dwelling peoples
bered the Manchu. of China, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and
The Manchu emperors—despite Thailand, who speak languages of the
their splendid patronage of Chinese art, Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) family.
scholarship, and culture over the centu- Miao is the official Chinese term for
ries—made strenuous efforts to prevent four distinct groups of people who are
the Manchu from being absorbed by only distantly related through language
the Chinese. The Manchu were urged or culture: the Hmu people of southeast
to retain the Manchu language and to Guizhou, the Qo Xiong people of west
give their children a Manchu education. Hunan, the A-Hmao people of Yunnan,
Attempts were made to prevent the inter- and the Hmong people of Guizhou,
marriage of Manchu and Chinese, so as Sichuan, Guangxi, and Yunnan. There
to keep the Manchu strain ethnically are some nine million Miao in China, of
“pure.” Social intercourse between the whom the Hmong constitute probably
two peoples was frowned upon. All these one-third, according to the French scholar
efforts proved fruitless. During the 19th Jacques Lemoine, writing in the Hmong
century, as the dynasty decayed, efforts Studies Journal in 2005. The Miao are
This photo from 1920 shows two Manchu women in their national dress. J. Thompson/Hulton
Archive/Getty Images
28 | The Culture of China
related in language and some other cul- exorcise malevolent spirits or recall the
tural features to the Yao; among these soul of a sick patient, and animal sacri-
peoples the two groups with the closest fice is widespread. However, a complete
degree of relatedness are the Hmong lack of religious faith is common among
(Miao) and the Iu Mien (Yao). educated Miao in China, while signifi-
The customs and histories of the four cant proportions of the A-Hmao in China
Miao groups are quite different, and they and the Hmong in Southeast Asia have
speak mutually unintelligible languages. become Christian.
Closest linguistically to the Hmong are Young people are permitted to select
the A-Hmao, but the two groups still can- their own mates and premarital sex is
not understand each others’ languages. tolerated, although sexual regimes are
Of all the Miao peoples, only the Hmong stricter in China, as are controls on repro-
have migrated out of China. duction. One form of institutionalized
Agriculture is the chief means of courtship involves antiphonal singing;
subsistence for all the groups, who in the another is the throwing back and forth of
past practiced the shifting cultivation of a ball between groups of boys and girls
rice and corn (maize), together with the from different villages, at the New Year.
opium poppy. Opium was sold in lowland Polygyny is traditional but in practice
markets and brought in silver, which was has been limited to the well-to-do. The
used as bridewealth payments. Shifting household is usually made up of several
cultivation and opium production have generations, including married sons and
now largely ceased, and in Thailand the their families. The youngest son usu-
Hmong have turned to the permanent ally stays with the parents and inherits
field cultivation of market garden veg- the house, while elder sons may move
etables, fruit, corn, and flowers. out with their own families to form new
Traditionally, the Miao had little households.
political organization above the village
level, and the highest position was that Mongol
of village leader. In China the Miao have
come under the political organization The Mongol people are a Central Asian
common to the whole of China; where ethnographic group of closely related
minority populations are dense, they live tribal peoples who live on the Mongolian
in autonomous counties, townships, or Plateau and share a common language
prefectures, where a certain amount of and nomadic tradition. Their homeland
self-representation is allowed. is now divided into the independent
In religion, most Miao practice ances- country of Mongolia (Outer Mongolia)
tor worship and believe in a wide variety and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous
of spirits. They have shamans who may Region of China. Owing to wars and
People | 29
migrations, Mongols are found through- showed very little change over many
out Central Asia. centuries. They were basically nomadic
pastoralists who were superb horsemen
Population Distribution and traveled with their flocks of sheep,
goats, cattle, and horses over the immense
Mongols form the bulk of the population grasslands of the steppes of Central Asia.
of independent Mongolia, and they con- Traditional Mongol society was
stitute about one-sixth of the population based on the family, the clan, and the
in China’s Inner Mongolia Autonomous tribe, with clan names derived from those
Region. Elsewhere in China there are of common male ancestors. As clans
enclaves of Mongols in Qinghai province merged, the tribal name was taken from
and the autonomous regions of Xinjiang that of the strongest clan. In the tribe,
and Tibet and in the Northeast (Manchuria; weaker clans retained their own headmen
Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang prov- and livestock but were subordinate to the
inces), and there are groups in Russia’s strongest clan. In periods of tribal unity,
Siberia. All of these populations speak khans (Mongol monarchs) assigned com-
dialects of the Mongol languages. manders to territories from which troops
Present-day Mongol peoples include and revenues were gathered. Mongol his-
the Khalkha, who constitute almost tory alternated between periods of tribal
four-fifths of the population of indepen- conflict and tribal consolidation.
dent Mongolia; the descendants of the
Oyrat, or western Mongols, who include Rise of the Mongol Empire
the Dorbet (or Derbet), Olöt, Torgut,
and Buzawa and live in southwestern Among the tribes that held power in
Russia, western China, and independent Mongolia were the Xiongnu, a confeder-
Mongolia; the Chahar, Urat, Karchin, and ated empire that warred with the young
Ordos Mongols of the Inner Mongolian Chinese state for centuries before dis-
region of China; the Bargut and Daur solving in 48 CE. The Khitan ruled in
Mongols of Manchuria; the Monguors of Manchuria and North China, where they
the Chinese province of Gansu; and the established the Liao dynasty (907–1125)
Buryat of Russia, who are concentrated in and formed an alliance with a little-known
Buryatia and in an autonomous district in tribal confederacy known as All the
the vicinity of Lake Baikal. Mongols. After the fall of the Liao, the
Tatars—a Mongol people but not mem-
Lifestyle and Livelihood bers of the league—appeared as allies of
the Juchen, the Khitan’s successors.
With a few exceptions, Mongol social During this time Genghis (Chinggis)
structure, economy, culture, and language Khan (1162–1227) came to power within
30 | The Culture of China
the All the Mongols league and was pro- (1215–94) became great khan in 1260,
claimed khan in 1206. He skillfully gained and Mongol power reached its zenith
control over the Mongols outside the during his rule. The Mongols destroyed
league. Between 1207 and 1227 he under- the Southern Song dynasty and reuni-
took military campaigns that extended fied China under the Yuan, or Mongol,
Mongol domains as far west as European dynasty (1206–1368).
Russia and as far east as northern China,
taking Beijing in 1215. He died on cam- Dissolution of
paign against the Xi Xia in northwest the Mongol Empire
China. By this time the Mongol empire
stretched over an immense swath of Asia Mongol khans relied on their subjects
between the Caspian Sea (west) and the and on foreigners to administer their
China Sea (east), and Siberia (north) and empire. Over time, power shifted from the
the Pamirs, Tibet, and central China Mongols to their bureaucrats, and this,
(south). The amazing military achieve- added to the continual feuding among
ments of the Mongols under Genghis the different khanates, led to the empire’s
Khan and his successors were largely due decline. In 1368 the Mongols lost China
to their armies of mounted archers, who to the native Ming dynasty. In the same
possessed great speed and mobility. period, the Il-Khanid dynasty of Persia
After Genghis Khan’s death the disintegrated, and the western Golden
Mongol empire passed to his four sons, Horde was defeated by a Muscovy-led
with overall leadership going to Ögödei. alliance in 1380. Soon the empire was
Jochi received the west extending to reduced to the Mongol homeland and
Russia; Chagatai obtained northern Iran scattered khanates. Eventually Ming
and southern Xinjiang; Ögödei inherited incursions into Mongolia effectively
northern Xinjiang and western Mongolia; ended Mongol unity.
and Tolui was awarded eastern Mongolia. In the 15th and 16th centuries
Ögödei dominated his brothers and supremacy passed from tribe to tribe.
undertook further conquests. In the west Military gains were made but never held,
the Golden Horde under Jochi’s succes- and politically all that was achieved was a
sor, Batu, controlled Russia and terrorized loose confederation. First were the west-
eastern Europe; in the east advances were ern Mongolian Oyrat, who penetrated
made into China. With Ögödei’s death into Tibet and Xinjiang, where the Ming
in 1241 the branches fell into war and were weak. Next the Ordos in the Huang
intrigue among one another for leader- He (Yellow River) region challenged the
ship. Tolui’s son Möngke became great Oyrat and warred successfully against
khan in 1248 and continued an expan- the Ming. Finally power came to the
sionist policy. Möngke’s brother Kublai Chahar in the north, but tribal defections
People | 31
and the rise of the Manchu led to the By the 20th century there was wide-
end of the confederation under Ligdan spread dissatisfaction in both Mongolias,
Khan (1603–34). This period also saw compounded by Russian and Japanese
the widespread introduction of Tibetan intrigue in the region. After the 1911
Buddhism into Mongolia as a means of Chinese Revolution, Outer Mongolia
unifying the people. declared its independence, but the situ-
ation was unsettled until 1921, when
Formation of a Mongol-Russian force captured
Inner and Outer Mongolia Ulaanbaatar and formed the Mongolian
People’s Republic from Outer Mongolia.
The Manchu finally conquered Mongolia Efforts to unite Inner and Outer Mongolia
in two stages that led to its division into failed, and Inner Mongolia remained a
Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia. In part of China while Outer Mongolia (now
invading China, the Manchu employed Mongolia) maintained its independence,
the eastern Mongolian Khalkha, and though it was a client state of the Soviet
by 1691 the Manchu officially occupied Union until the early 1990s.
southern and eastern Mongolia, which
became Inner Mongolia. Though the Naxi
western Mongolian Oyrat attempted to
unite the Mongols under their leader- The Naxi (Nakhi, Nasi) of China live
ship against the Manchu, the Khalkha mainly in Yunnan and Sichuan prov-
joined the Manchu in a savage campaign inces; some live in Tibet. They speak a
that resulted in the conquest of Outer Tibeto-Burman language that is closely
Mongolia in 1759 and in the near extermi- related to that of the Yi and were esti-
nation of the Oyrat. The Manchu victory mated in the early 21st century to number
ended Mongol tribal warfare. It also more than 300,000. The Naxi have two
caused the dispersal of many tribes into indigenous writing systems: Dongba, an
neighbouring regions and the division of early script created with components of
Mongolia into two political units. Chinese characters, and Geba, a syllabic
Under Manchu rule there was stag- script. A third, alphabetic script based on
nation. Chinese colonists controlled the the Latin alphabet was created in 1957.
trade and barter systems, cultivated the Most of the Naxi engage in agricul-
pastures of Inner Mongolia, and in Inner ture and grow rice, corn (maize), wheat,
Mongolia outnumbered the Mongolian potatoes, beans, hemp, and cotton. Their
natives. Cultural differences developed indigenous religion, called Dongba, is a
between the two regions, with Inner form of shamanism influenced by Tibetan
Mongolia becoming more nearly Chinese Buddhism. Matriarchal family structure
in character and population. predominated among the Naxi until the
32 | The Culture of China
mid-20th century, and remnants of it can about 4.6 million, with perhaps an addi-
still be observed. tional 2 million in the Tibetan ethnic areas
of Bhutan, India, northern Nepal, and the
She Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir.
Prior to the Chinese annexation of
The She people live in the mountainous Tibet in 1959, social classes among the
areas of Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Anhui, Tibetans could be defined in terms of
and Guangdong provinces of South opposition: cleric versus lay, noble ver-
China. Their language (which is classified sus peasant, merchant versus labourer,
as either Hmong-Mien [Miao-Yao] or agriculturalist versus nomad, and trader
Sino-Tibetan) appears to be related to that versus townsman. The agriculturalists tra-
of the Yao, though most She are now thor- ditionally formed the peasantry of Tibet,
oughly Sinicized and speak Chinese even most of them working as tenants or hired
among themselves. Most She are farmers labourers on land owned by the monas-
engaged in wet-rice cultivation, and they teries or the nobility. The herdsmen and
are also well known as tea producers. shepherds pastured their flocks on the
Their bamboo handicrafts are highly high steppes; some of them remained
esteemed in the region. Their religion in the lowlands during the winter and
contains elements of both animism and migrated upward in summer. Before 1959
ancestor worship. In the early 21st century it was estimated that about one-quarter
the She numbered more than 700,000. of the population belonged to the cleri-
cal order. The monasteries were the main
Tibetan seats of learning. Tibetan Buddhism is an
admixture of Buddhist teachings and the
The Tibetan people inhabit Tibet or pre-Buddhist religion, Bon.
nearby regions and speak Tibetan. All Most marriages are monogamous,
Tibetans share the same language. It is although both polygyny and polyandry
highly stylized, with an honorific and an have been practiced under certain cir-
ordinary word for most terms of refer- cumstances, usually in order to keep an
ence. The honorific expression is used estate intact and within the paternal line
when speaking to equals or superiors and of descent. Thus, the eldest son of a noble
the ordinary word when addressing infe- family would take a bride; and, if any of
riors or referring to oneself. There is an his younger brothers so desired, they
additional set of higher honorifics to be were included in the marriage contract as
used when addressing the highest lamas junior husbands.
and nobles. Dwellings are commonly one- or two-
In the late 21st century the number of story buildings with walls of stone or
Tibetans in Tibet proper (and other areas brick and flat clay roofs. The nomadic
in western China) was estimated to be pastoralists live in tents of yak hair,
People | 33
rectangular in shape and ranging from 3.5 and sell tung oil and medicinal herbs.
to 15 metres (12 to 50 feet) in length. Most They are noted for their handicrafts, par-
of the noble families traditionally main- ticularly weaving and embroidery, and
tained town houses in the capital city, for several traditional dances, especially
Lhasa. These were built of stone around a a hand dance in which some 70 hand ges-
rectangular courtyard, on three sides of tures are used to describe daily life. The
which were stables and storehouses. On Tujia are known to have been a distinct
the fourth side, opposite the gate, was the group as early as the 10th century CE.
mansion itself, usually three stories high.
The staple diet of most Tibetans is Uighur
barley flour, yak meat, mutton, cheese,
and tea. These basic items may be sup- The Uighur (Uygur, Uyghur, Weiwu’er)
plemented by rice, fruit, vegetables, people are a Turkic-speaking people of
chicken, and sometimes fish. The main interior Asia. They live for the most part
beverage is a tangy tea mixed with yak in northwestern China, in the Uygur
butter and salt. Autonomous Region of Xinjiang; a small
number live in the Central Asian repub-
Tujia lics. There were nearly 9,000,000 Uighurs
in China and about 300,000 in Uzbekistan,
The Tujia people, who refer to themselves Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan in the early
as Bizika, are distributed throughout 21st century.
western Hunan and southwestern Hubei The Uighur language is part of
provinces in China. They numbered the Turkic group of Altaic languages,
more than eight million in the early 21st and the Uighurs are among the old-
century. Their language, which remains est Turkic-speaking peoples of Central
unwritten and is spoken by only a few Asia. They are mentioned in Chinese
hundred thousand of the total popu- records from the 3rd century CE. They
lation, belongs to the Tibeto-Burman first rose to prominence in the 8th cen-
group of Sino-Tibetan languages, and, tury, when they established a kingdom
two dialects, northern and southern, are along the Orhon River in what is now
often distinguished. Most Tujia, however, north-central Mongolia. In 840 this state
speak and write Chinese, and, many also was overrun by the Kyrgyz, however, and
understand the language of the neigh- the Uighurs migrated southwestward
bouring Miao people, to whom they are to the area around the Tien Shan
related. Like the Miao, the Tujia grow (“Celestial Mountains”). There the
corn (maize) on small terraced fields in Uighurs formed another independent
the foothills and narrow valleys of their kingdom in the Turfan region, but
homeland. They also cultivate beets, this was overthrown by the expanding
ramie, cotton, tea oil, tea, and tung oil, Mongols in the 13th century.
34 | The Culture of China
Yi
Bones. The subjugation of the White Bones The Zhuang have nevertheless
and the Jianu was ended by the Chinese retained several cultural characteristics
government in the 1950s. The White that distinguish them from the Han. Most
Bones have spread over the highlands of Zhuang prefer to settle on valley lands
Yunnan and Guizhou, while the heartland adjacent to streams, to cultivate wet rice
of the Black Bones lies in the great and with the use of buffalo or oxen, and to
lesser Liang Mountains southwest of the build their houses on pilings rather than
Sichuan Basin. on the ground. Most also allow young
people to contract marriages without the
Zhuang intervention of middlemen; brides remain
with their natal family from marriage
The Zhuang people form the largest until the birth of their first child, as that
ethnic minority of South China, chiefly birth is regarded as the consummation of
occupying the Zhuang Autonomous the marriage. Magical rites, sorcery with
Region of Guangxi (created 1958) and human figurines, and ancestor veneration
Wenshan in Yunnan province. They num- are additional elements that distinguish
bered some 16 million in the early 21st Zhuang culture. In the late 20th century
century. The Zhuang speak two closely and continuing into the 21st, customs
related Tai dialects, one classified as associated with the use of bronze drums
Northern and the other as Central Tai, were revived as tourist attractions.
with Chinese as their second language.
The culture ancestral to that of mod- Cultural Institutions,
ern Tai speakers, including the Zhuang, Festivals, and Sports
appears to have developed in the regions in Daily Life
of Sichuan and the lower Yangtze River
valley; its maximum geographic distri- Beijing remains China’s cultural centre,
bution occurred about 2,500 years ago, home to the Chinese Academy of Sciences
during the period of its earliest contact and numerous major research institutes.
with Han Chinese culture. The advance Notable repositories there include the
of the empire controlled by the Han National Library of China (housed in the
dynasty pushed the Tai-speaking peo- Beijing Library), the Central Archives of
ples southward. Other cultural heirs of China, and the libraries of the academy and
these early peoples include the Thai of of the city’s three major universities; librar-
Thailand, the Lao of Laos, the Shan of ies in Nanjing, Shanghai, and Changsha
Myanmar (Burma), the Tai of Yunnan, in Hunan province also have important
and the Buyei of Guizhou. Of these, the collections. Paramount among China’s
Zhuang and Buyei have become the most museums is the Palace Museum, which
assimilated into contemporary China’s occupies the former imperial palaces of
predominantly Han culture. the Forbidden City in central Beijing.
People | 37
Chinese art and artifacts have found Since the 1950s, new archaeological
their way into various collections around discoveries have filled China’s provin-
the world. The most important collec- cial and local museums with fabulous
tion of fine arts is in the National Palace treasures, and new facilities have
Museum in Taipei, Taiwan, the bulk of been constructed to study and display
the superb traditional palace collection these artifacts. Especially notable is
having been ferried across the Taiwan the renowned Qin tomb near Xi’an, in
Strait when the Nationalists abandoned Shaanxi province, which preserves the
the mainland in 1948–49. (Excellent life-size terra-cotta army of the first Qin
collections of Chinese painting, cal- emperor, Shihuangdi. The army, com-
ligraphy, and bronzes are also found plete with soldiers, horses, and chariots,
in such museums as the Freer Gallery was discovered in 1974. Since then much
of Art of the Smithsonian Institution of the site has been excavated, and many
in Washington, D.C., and the Museum of its figures have been painstakingly
of Fine Arts, Boston.) Significant col- removed and placed on public display.
lections remain in major museums in China observes a number of national
Beijing, Shanghai, Nanjing, and Wuhan. holidays, including New Year’s Day, the
38 | The Culture of China
Spring Festival (Lunar New Year), Youth hugely popular, drawing millions of
Day (May 4), and National Day (October participants and spectators. Of China’s
1). Notable festivals are the Lantern indigenous forms of sport, the martial
Festival (late winter), Tomb Sweep Day arts have the longest history by far. Their
(April 4 or 5), and the Mid-Autumn origin dates to at least two thousand years
Festival (October). Scores of local fes- ago, to a period in which contending
tivals are also held at various times warlords, bandits, and foreign invaders
throughout the country. controlled large portions of China and
Physical exercise is a staple of forbade the populace to own weapons.
Chinese culture. Millions gather daily at China has become one of the domi-
dawn to practice martial arts (notably tai nant countries in international sports
chi chuan [taijiquan]), wield swords in competitions since it began participating
a graceful ballet, or perform a synchro- regularly in the Olympic Games, at the
nized dance of pliés and turns. Acrobatics 1980 Winter Games. Since then the coun-
are especially popular and have enjoyed a try’s finest Olympic moment came at the
new surge of interest since 1950, when the 2004 Summer Games. Chinese athletes
China Acrobatic Troupe was organized took a total of 63 medals, dominating
in Beijing; from it have grown satellite the badminton, diving, table tennis, and
companies in Shanghai, Chongqing, weightlifting events and making strong
Shenyang, Wuhan, and Dalien (Lüda). showings in a variety of others, including
Imported sports such as basketball, base- shooting and women’s judo. Beijing was
ball, and football (soccer) have become hosted the 2008 Summer Games.
ChaPtER 2
Chinese Cuisine
Like all other forms of haute cuisine, clas- The theory of balancing fan (grains and
sic Chinese cooking is the product of an rice) with cai (vegetables and meat) is
affluent society. By the 2nd century CE the one of the factors that distinguishes
Chinese court had achieved great splen- Chinese gastronomy from that of all
dour, and the complaint was heard that other nations. This refined proportion of
idle noblemen were lounging about all harmony and symmetry of ingredients
day, feasting on smoked meats and roasts. was practiced whenever possible in
By the 10th or 11th century a distinc- households throughout the ages and is
tive cuisine had begun to emerge, one not limited to formal or high cuisine or to
that was developed with great attention to meals served on special occasions.
detail. It was to reach its zenith in the Qing In addition to taste that pleases (a
dynasty (1644–1911/12). This cuisine was a most elemental requirement in China),
unique blend of simplicity and elegance. astrological, geographical, and personal
42 | The Culture of China
characteristics had to satisfy the complex Zhejiang-Jiangsu. The two other regions
system of the yin-yang balance of hot and are Fujian and Guangdong, whose cui-
cold, the Daoist perception of the cosmic sine is less known outside of China.
equilibrium. According to this theory,
every foodstuff possesses an inherent Beijing
humour; thus, consuming foods and bev-
erages at proper and complementary Beijing is the land of fried bean curd and
temperatures can adjust the possible water chestnuts. Among foods tradition-
deviation of the normal state of the two ally sold by street vendors are steamed
intertwining forces. bread and watermelon seeds. Vendors
Certain foods and culinary tradi- also dispensed buns called baoze that
tions are prevalent throughout most of were stuffed with pork and pork fat, and
the country. Rice is the staple except in the jiaoze, or crescents, cylindrical rolls filled
north, where wheat flour takes its place. with garlic, cabbage, pork, and scallions.
Fish is extremely important in all regions. Wheat cakes wrapped around a filling of
Pork, chicken, and duck are widely con- scallions and garlic, and noodles with
sumed, as well as large quantities of minced pork sauce are also traditional
such vegetables as mushrooms, bamboo Beijing specialties. But the greatest of all
shoots, water chestnuts, and bean sprouts. delicacies of this region is of course the
The Chinese traditionally seasoned their Peking duck.
dishes with monosodium glutamate and Peking duck, so named because the
soybean sauce, rather than salt. Another classic dish called for a specific breed of
distinctive feature of Chinese cooking duck (the Imperial Peking), is an elabo-
is the varied and highly imaginative use rate, world-renowned dish that requires
of fat, which is prepared in many differ- lengthy preparation and is served in
ent ways and achieves the quality of a three separate courses. In its preparation,
true delicacy in the hands of a talented the skin is first puffed out from the duck
Chinese cook. The Chinese take tea with by introducing air between the skin and
their meals, whether green or fermented. the flesh. The duck is then hung out to
Jasmine tea is served with flowers and dry for at least 24 hours, preferably in a
leaves in small-handled cups. stiff, cold breeze. This pulls the skin away
from the meat. Then the duck is roasted
Great Chinese Schools until the skin is crisp and brown. The skin
is removed, painted with hoisin sauce (a
Traditionally, China is divided into five sweet, spicy sauce made of soybeans),
gastronomic regions, three of which are and served inside the folds of a bun as the
characterized by the great schools of first course. The duck meat is carved from
Chinese cooking, Beijing, Sichuan, and the bones and carefully cut into slivers.
Chinese Cuisine | 43
Sichuan
Food is part of many holidays in China. Here, survivors of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake
feast in celebration of the Lunar New Year, hoping for better times ahead. China Photos/
Getty Images
sInO-tIBEtan
This Buddhist temple wall in Beijing shows traditional Chinese characters. Bambu
Productions/Iconica/Getty Images
is spoken in the Sichuan Basin and in southern Anhui, forms an enclave within
adjoining parts of southwestern China. the southern Mandarin area.
The third is the southern variant, also Less intelligible to Mandarin speak-
known as the Nanjing or Lower Yangtze ers are the dialects of the southeast
variant, which is spoken in northern coastal region, stretching from Shanghai
Jiangsu and in southern and central to Guangzhou (Canton). The most impor-
Anhui. Some authorities also recognize tant of these is the Wu language, spoken
a fourth variant, northwestern, which in southern Jiangsu and in Zhejiang. This
is used in most of northwestern China. is followed, to the south, by the Fuzhou, or
Related to Mandarin are the Hunan, or Northern Min, language of northern and
Xiang, language, spoken by people in central Fujian and by the Xiamen-Shantou
central and southern Hunan, and the Gan (Amoy-Swatow), or Southern Min, lan-
dialect. The Huizhou language, spoken in guage of southern Fujian and easternmost
Chinese Languages and Writing System | 47
one set of semivowels, and, in some, gem- verbs. Verbs can occur in a series (concat-
ination (doubling) or clustering of vowels enation) with irreversible order (e.g., the
occurs. The languages also employ a sys- verbs “take” and “come” placed next to
tem of tones (pitch and contour), with one another denote the concept “bring”).
or without concomitant glottal features, Nouns are collective in nature, and only
and occasionally stress. For the most classifiers can be counted and referred
part, tones are lexical (i.e., they distin- to singly. Specific particles are used to
guish otherwise similar words); in some indicate the relationship of nominals
languages tones also carry grammatical (e.g., nouns and noun phrases) to verbs,
meaning. Nontonal grammatical units such as transitive verb–object, agent–pas-
(i.e., affixes) may be smaller than syl- sive verb; in some of the languages this
lables, but usually the meaningful units system forms a sentence construction
consist of one or more syllables. Words called ergative, in which all nominals are
can consist of one syllable, of two or marked for their function and the verb
more syllables each carrying an element stays unchanged. Final sentence particles
of meaning, or of two or more syllables convey a variety of meanings (defining
that individually carry no meaning. For either the whole sentence or the predi-
example, Modern Standard Chinese tian cate) that indicate “question, command,
“sky, heaven, day” is a one-syllable word; surprise, or new situation.” The general
ritou “sun” is composed of ri “sun, day,” a word order of subject–verb–object and
word element that cannot occur alone as complement and modifier–modified is
a word, and the noun suffix tou; and hudie the same in all the languages, but the use
“butterfly” consists of two syllables, each of the preposed particles and verbs in a
having no meaning in itself (this is a series varies considerably. Grammatical
rare type of word formation). The south- elements of equal or closely related val-
ern languages have more monosyllabic ues in various languages are very often
words and word elements than the north- not related in sounds.
ern ones. The Sinitic languages fall into a north-
The Sinitic languages distinguish ern and a southern group. The northern
nouns and verbs with some overlapping, languages (Mandarin dialects) are more
as do Sino-Tibetan languages in general. similar to each other than are the southern
There are noun suffixes that form dif- (Wu, Xiang, Gan, Hakka, Yue, Min).
ferent kinds of nouns (concrete nouns,
diminutives, abstract nouns, and so on), Modern Standard
particles placed after nouns indicat- Chinese (Mandarin)
ing relationships in time and space, and
verb particles for modes and aspects. The pronunciation of Modern Standard
Adjectives act as one of several kinds of Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect,
50 | The Culture of China
Pinyin is used in the following dis- the word order subject (or topic)–verb–
cussion of Modern Standard Chinese object (or complement)—e.g., wo chifan
grammar. “I eat rice,” wo zhu zai Beijing “I live in
The most common suffixes that indi- Beijing.” The preposed object takes the
cate nouns are -zi (as in fangzi “house”), particle ba (wo da ta “I beat him,” wo ba
and -tou (as in mutou “wood”). A set of ta dale yidun “I gave him a beating”), and
postposed noun particles express space the agent of a passive construction takes
and time relationships (-li “inside,” -hou bei (wo bei ta dale yidun “I was given a
“after”). An example of a verbal affix is beating by him”).
-jian in kanjian “see” and tingjian “hear.”
Important verb particles are -le (com- Standard Cantonese
pleted action), -guo (past action), and -zhe
(action in progress). The directional ver- The most important representative of the
bal particles -lai “toward speaker” and -qu Yue languages is Standard Cantonese of
“away from speaker” and some verbal suf- Canton, Hong Kong, and Macau. It has
fixes can be combined with the potential fewer initial consonants than Modern
particles de “can” and bu “cannot”—e.g., Standard Chinese (p, t, ts, k and the cor-
na chulai “take out,” na bu chulai “cannot responding aspirated sounds ph, th, tsh,
take out”; tingjian “hear,” ting de jian “can kh; m, n, ; f, s, h; l, y), only one medial
hear.” The particle de indicates subordi- semivowel (w), more vowels than Modern
nation and also gives nominal value to Standard Chinese, six final consonants
forms for other parts of speech (e.g., wo “I,” (p, t, k, m, n, ), and two final semivowels
wode “mine,” wo de shu “my book,” lai “to (y and w). The nasals m and occur as syl-
come,” lai de ren “a person who comes”). lables without a vowel.
The most important sentence particle is There are three tones (high, mid, low)
le, indicating “new situation” (e.g., xiayu in syllables ending in -p, -t, and -k; six
le “now it is raining,” bu lai le “now there tones occur in other types of syllables
is no longer any chance that he will be (mid level, low level, high falling, low fall-
coming”). Ge is the most common noun ing, high rising, low rising). Two tones are
classifier (i “one,” yi ge ren “one person”); used to modify the meaning of words
others are suo (yi suo fangzi “one house”) (high level °, and low-to-high rising *), as
and ben (liang ben shu “two books”). in yin° “tobacco” from yin “smoke,” and
Adjectives can be defined as qualita- nöy* “daughter” from nöy “woman.” Some
tive verbs (hao “to be good”) or stative special grammatical words also have the
verbs (bing “to be sick”). There are equa- tone °. There is no neutral tone and little
tional sentences with the word order tonal sandhi (modification).
subject–predicate—e.g., wo shi Beijing ren There are more than 2,200 differ-
“I am a Beijing-person (i.e., a native of ent syllables in Standard Cantonese,
Beijing)”—and narrative sentences with or almost twice as many as in Modern
52 | The Culture of China
Standard Chinese. The word classes are so that the phonetic manifestation of a
the same as in Modern Standard Chinese. syllable depends entirely on interaction
The grammatical words, although pho- with the surroundings. There are three
netically unrelated, generally have the initial labial sounds (p, ph, m), five dental
same semantic value (e.g., the subordinat- sounds (t, th, s, l, n), three palatal sounds
ing and nominalizing particle kε, Modern (tś, tśh, ń), and five velars (k, kh, h, , and ).
Standard Chinese de; mo “not,” Modern Syllables can end in -k, - , (glottal stop), a
Standard Chinese bu; the verbal particle semivowel, or a vowel. The tones fall into
for “completed action” and the sentence two classes: a comparatively high class
particle for “new situation,” both le in comprising high, mid, high falling, and
Modern Standard Chinese, are Standard high rising (only in sandhi forms) and a
Cantonese ts and l , respectively). A rather low one, comprising low rising and
classifier preceding a noun in subject low rising-falling (circumflex). Certain
position (before the verb) functions as a vowels and diphthongs occur only with
definite article (e.g., tsek sün “the boat”). the high class, others occur only with the
low class, and the vowel a occurs with
Min Languages both classes. Sandhi rules can cause tone
to change from low class to high class, in
The most important Min language is which case the vowel also changes.
Amoy (Xiamen) from the Southern
branch of Min. The initial consonants are Other Sinitic Languages
the same as in Standard Cantonese with or Dialects: Hakka, Wu
the addition of two voiced stops (b and d) (Suzhou and Shanghai),
and one voiced affricate (dz), developed and Xiang
from original nasals. There are two semi-
vowels (y, w), six vowels and several vowel Of the different Hakka dialects, Hakka
clusters, plus the syllabic nasal sounds m of Meizhou (formerly Meixian) in
and functioning as vowels, the same Guangdong is best known. It has the same
finals as in Standard Cantonese, and, in initial consonants, final consonants, and
addition, a glottal stop ( ) and a meaning- syllabic nasals as Standard Cantonese;
bearing feature of nasalization, as well as the vowels are similar to those of Modern
a combination of the last two features. Standard Chinese. Medial and final semi-
There are two tones in syllables ending in vowels are y and w. There are two tones in
a stop, five in other syllables. Tonal san- syllables with final stops, four in the other
dhi operates in many combinations. syllabic types.
Fuzhou is the most important lan- Wu consists of a variety of Chinese
guage of the Northern branch of Min. The dialects spoken in Shanghai, in south-
very extensive sandhi affects not only eastern Jiangsu province, and in Zhejiang
tones but also consonants and vowels, province by more than 8 percent of the
Chinese Languages and Writing System | 53
population of China (some 85 million there are also 10 vowels and 4 syllabic
people) at the turn of the 21st century. consonants (l, m, n, ); -n and - occur in
Major cities in which Wu is spoken final position, as do the glottal stop and
include Hangzhou, Shanghai, Suzhou, nasalization.
Ningpo, and Wenzhou. The Shanghai dialect belongs to Wu.
The Wu language originally spread The use of only two tones or registers
from Suzhou, a cultural centre since (high and low) is prevalent; these are
the 5th century BCE, and gained great related in an automatic way to the initial
importance at least as early as the period consonant type (voiceless and voiced).
of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), when The Xiang languages, spoken only in
Shanghai became an important metro- Hunan, are divided into New Xiang, which
politan area. Wu differs from Modern is under heavy influence from Mandarin
Standard Chinese in preserving the ini- and includes the language of the capital
tial voiced stops (sounds formed with Changsha, and Old Xiang, more simi-
complete closure in the vocal tract) and lar to the Wu languages, as spoken for
in using seven or eight tones to distin- instance in Shuangfeng. Old Xiang has
guish meanings between words or word 28 initial consonants, the highest num-
elements that have the same series of con- ber for any major Sinitic language, and
sonants and vowels. (Modern Standard 11 vowels, plus the syllabic consonants m
Chinese uses only four tones for such a and n. It also uses five tones, final -n and -
purpose.) Like Modern Standard Chinese , and nasalization, but no final stops.
and the Mandarin language of northern
China, the Wu language has lost most of Historical Survey
the Ancient Chinese final consonants. of Chinese
Suzhou vernacular is usually quoted
as representative of the Wu languages. It For reconstructing the pronunciation of
is rich in initial consonants, with a con- older stages of Sinitic, the Chinese writ-
trast of voiced and voiceless stops as ing system offers much less help than the
well as palatalized and nonpalatalized alphabetic systems of such languages as
dental affricates, making 26 consonants Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit within Indo-
in all. (Palatalized sounds are formed European or Tibetan and Burmese within
from nonpalatal sounds by simultaneous Sino-Tibetan. Therefore, the starting
movement of the tongue toward the hard point must be a comparison of the mod-
palate. Dental affricates are sounds pro- ern Sinitic languages, with the view of
duced with the tongue tip at first touching recovering for each major language
the teeth and then drawing slightly away group the original common form, such as
to allow air to pass through, producing a Proto-Mandarin for the northern lan-
hissing sound.) Medial semivowels are as guages and Proto-Wu and others for the
in Modern Standard Chinese. In addition, languages south of the Yangtze River.
54 | The Culture of China
hyphen, as in pa-), and ru, or even, rising, renderings of Indo-Aryan (Indic) words.
falling, and entering (“checked”) tones. Voiced stops are recovered through Wu,
The entering tone comprised those syl- Xiang, and Go-on (e.g., Modern Standard
lables that ended in a stop (-p, -t, -k). The Chinese tian “field,” Wu and Xiang di,
rising and falling tones may have Go-on den, Qieyundhien), final stops
retained traces of the phonetic condi- especially through Yue and Japanese
tioning factor of their origin, voiced and (e.g., Modern Standard Chinese mu
voiceless glottal or laryngeal features, “wood,” Yue muk, Go-on mok [moku],
respectively. The even tone probably was Qieyunmuk), and retroflex initial sounds
negatively defined as possessing no final from Northern Chinese (e.g., Modern
stop and no tonal contour. Standard Chinese sheng “to live,” Qieyun
Next, the dictionary is divided accord- s· [the s· is a retroflex]).
ing to rhymes, of which there are 61, and, Early Archaic Chinese is the old stage
finally, according to initial consonants. for which the most information is known
Inside each rhyme an interlocking spell- about the pronunciation of characters.
ing system known as fanqie was used to The very system of borrowing characters
subdivide the rhymes. There were 32 ini- to write phonetically related words gives
tial consonants and 136 finals. The important clues, and the rhymes and
number of vowels is not certain, perhaps alliteration of the Shijing furnish a wealth
six plus i and u, which served also as of details. Even though scholars cannot
medial semivowels. The dictionary con- always be sure that prefixes and infixes
tained probably more vowels than either are correctly recovered, and though the
Archaic Chinese or Modern Standard order in which recoverable features were
Chinese, another indication that the pronounced in the syllable is not always
development of the Northern Chinese certain (rk- or kr-, -wk or -kw, and so on),
phonology did not pass the stage repre- enough details can be obtained to deter-
sented by Qieyun. mine the typology of Old Chinese and
to undertake comparative work with the
Additional Sources Tibeto-Burman and Karenic languages.
The method employed in this part of the
There are additional sources for recon- reconstruction of Chinese has been pre-
structing the Qieyun language: Chinese dominantly internal reconstruction, the
loanwords in Vietnamese, Korean, and use of variation of word forms within a
Japanese (Japan has two different tradi- language to construct an older form. As
tions—Go-on, slightly older than Qieyun knowledge of the old layer of modern lan-
but representing a southern language guages and dialects increases, however,
type like Qieyun, and Kan-on, contem- the comparative method, which draws
porary with Qieyun but more similar on similarities in several related tongues,
to the northern tradition) and Chinese gains importance. Through further
56 | The Culture of China
a Wu speaker and Mao Zedong a Xiang with concepts intimately connected with
speaker). Influence from English and the owner). No other kind of written
Russian (in word formation and syntax) Chinese until the post-Classical period
has been increasingly felt. possessed a nominative of the third-per-
son pronoun, but the old form survived in
Pre-Classical Chinese Cantonese (khöy) and is probably also
found in Tai (Modern Thai khăw).
The history of the Chinese language can Middle Archaic Chinese is the lan-
be divided into three periods, pre-Classi- guage of some of the earliest writings of
cal (c. 1500 BCE–c. 200 CE), Classical (c. the Confucian school. Important linguis-
200–c. 1920), and post-Classical Chinese tic changes that had occurred between
(with important forerunners as far back the Early and Middle phases became
as the Tang dynasty). still more pronounced in Late Archaic,
The pre-Classical period is further the language of the two major Confucian
divided into Oracular Chinese (Shang and Daoist writers, Mencius (Mengzi)
dynasty [c. 1600–1046 BCE]), Archaic and Zhuangzi, as well as of other impor-
Chinese (Zhou and Qin dynasties [1046– tant philosophers. The grammar by then
207 BCE]), and Han Chinese (Han dynasty had become more explicit in the writing
[206 BCE–220 CE]). system, with a number of well-defined
Oracular Chinese is known only from grammatical particles, and it can also
rather brief oracle inscriptions on bones be assumed that the use of grammati-
and tortoise shells. Archaic Chinese falls cal affixes had similarly declined. The
into Early, Middle (c. 800–c. 400 BCE), process used in verb formation and
and Late Archaic. Early Archaic is repre- verb inflection that later appeared as
sented by bronze inscriptions, parts of tonal differences may at this stage have
the Shujing (“Classic of History”), and been manifested as final consonants or
parts of the Shijing (“Classic of Poetry”). as suprasegmental features, such as dif-
From this period on, many important fea- ferent types of laryngeal phonation. The
tures of the pronunciation of the Chinese word classes included nouns, verbs, and
characters have been reconstructed. The pronouns (each with several subclasses),
grammar depended to a certain extent on and particles. The use of a consistent
unwritten affixes. The writing system system of grammatical particles to form
kept apart forms with or without medial noun modifiers, verb modifiers, and
consonants, which in some cases were several types of embedded sentences
meaningful infixes. Early Archaic (i.e., sentences that are made to become
Chinese possessed a third-person per- parts of another independent sen-
sonal pronoun in three cases (nominative tence) became blurred in Han Chinese
and genitive gyəg, accusative tyəg, and and was gone from written Chinese
another special genitive kywat, used only until the emergence of post-Classical
58 | The Culture of China
Chinese. In Modern Standard Chinese It has sometimes been denied the status
the subordinating particle de combines of a real language, but it was certainly
the functions of several Late Archaic one of the most successful means of com-
Chinese particles, and the verb particle munication in human history. It was the
le and the homophonous sentence par- medium in which the poets Li Bai (701–
ticle le have taken over for other Late 762) and Du Fu (712–770) and the prose
Archaic forms. writer Han Yu (768–824) created some of
the greatest masterpieces of all times and
Han and Classical Chinese was the language of Neo-Confucianist
philosophy (especially of Zhu Xi [1130–
Han Chinese developed more polysyl- 1200]), which was to influence the West
labic words and more specific verbal deeply. Classical Chinese was also the
and nominal (noun) categories of words. language in which the Italian Jesuit mis-
Most traces of verb formation and verb sionary Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) wrote
conjugation began to disappear. An in his attempt to convert the Chinese
independent southern tradition (on the empire to Christianity.
Yangtze River), simultaneous with Late
Archaic Chinese, developed a special Post-Classical Chinese
style, used in the poetry Chuci (“Elegies
of Chu”), which was the main source Post-Classical Chinese, based on dialects
for the refined fu (prose poetry). Late very similar to the language now spoken
Han Chinese developed into Classical in North China, probably owes its origin
Chinese, which as a written idiom under- to the Buddhist storytelling tradition; the
went few changes during the long span tales appeared in translations from
of time it was used. It was an artificial Sanskrit during the Tang dynasty (618–
construct, which for different styles and 907). During the Song dynasty (960–1279)
occasions borrowed freely and heavily this vernacular language was used by
from any period of pre-Classical Chinese both Buddhists and Confucianists for
but in numerous cases without real polemic writings; it also appeared in
understanding for the meaning and func- indigenous Chinese novels based on
tion of the words borrowed. popular storytelling. During and after the
At the same time the spoken lan- Yuan dynasty (1206–1368) the vernacular
guage changed continually, as did the was used also in the theatre.
conventions for pronouncing the writ- Modern Standard Chinese has a
ten characters. Soon Classical Chinese threefold origin: the written post-Clas-
made little sense when read aloud. It sical language, the spoken standard
depended heavily on fixed word order of Imperial times (Mandarin), and the
and on rhythmical and parallel passages. vernacular language of Beijing. These
Chinese Languages and Writing System | 59
Matteo Ricci (left), Jesuit missionary to China, is shown with his first convert. Hulton
Archive/Getty Images
60 | The Culture of China
with ram’s horns on top). The exact many words came to be written as one
meaning of the word is rarely deducible and the same character. In imitation of
from even a clearly recognizable picture, the characters that already consisted
because the connotations are either too of several components an element was
broad or too narrow for the word’s precise added for each meaning of a character to
meaning. For example, the picture “rela- distinguish words from each other. Thus
tionship of mother to child” includes more “red” was no longer written with a single
facets than “love,” a concept that, of course, component but acquired an additional
is not restricted to the mother-child rela- component that added the element “silk”
tion, and a man adorned with ram’s horns on the left; “river” acquired an additional
undoubtedly had other functions than that component of “water.” The original part of
of being handsome to look at, whereas the character is referred to as its phonetic
the concept “beautiful” is applicable also and the added element as its radical.
to men in other situations, as well as to
women. Abstract nouns are indicated by Qin Dynasty Standardization
means of concrete associations. The char-
acter for “peace, tranquility” consists of a During the Qin dynasty (221–207 BCE)
somewhat stylized form of the elements the first government standardization of
“roof,” “heart,” and “(wine) cup.” Abstract the characters took place, carried out by
symbols have been used to indicate num- the statesman Li Si. A new, somewhat for-
bers and local relationships. malized style known as seals was
Related words with similar pronuncia- introduced—a form that generally has
tions were usually written by one and the survived until now, with only such minor
same character (the character for “to love, modifications as were necessitated by the
to consider someone good” is a deriva- introduction of the writing brush about
tive of a similarly written word “to be the beginning of the 1st century CE and
good”). This gave rise to the most impor- printing about 600 CE. As times pro-
tant invention in the development of the gressed, other styles of writing appeared,
Chinese script—that of writing a word such as the regular handwritten form kai
by means of another one with the same (as opposed to the formal or scribe style
or similar pronunciation. A picture of a li), the running hand xing, and the cur-
carpenter’s square was primarily used for sive hand cao, all of which in their various
writing “work, craftsman; to work” and was degrees of blurredness are explicable only
pronounced ku ; secondarily it was used in terms of the seal characters.
to write ku - (the hyphen stands for an The Qin dynasty standardization
element that was perhaps s) “to present,” comprised more than 3,000 characters.
gu “red,” ku “rainbow,” and kru “river.” In addition to archaeological finds, the
During the Archaic period this practice most important source for the early his-
was developed to such a degree that too tory of Chinese characters is the huge
62 | The Culture of China
Asia as Confucius’s birthday. It is an offi- other things, ritual and music. His
cial holiday, “Teachers’ Day,” in Taiwan. mastery of the six arts—ritual, music,
Confucius was born in Qufu in the archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and
small feudal state of Lu in what is now arithmetic—and his familiarity with the
Shandong province, which was noted for classical traditions, notably poetry and
its preservation of the traditions of ritual history, enabled him to start a brilliant
and music of the Zhou civilization. His teaching career in his 30s.
family name was Kong and his personal Confucius is known as the first
name Qiu, but he is referred to as either teacher in China who wanted to make
Kongzi or Kongfuzi (Master Kong) education broadly available and who was
throughout Chinese history. The adjecti- instrumental in establishing the art of
val “Confucian,” derived from the teaching as a vocation, indeed as a way of
Latinized Confucius , is not a meaningful life. Before Confucius, aristocratic fami-
term in Chinese, nor is the term lies had hired tutors to educate their sons
Confucianism, which was coined in in specific arts, and government officials
Europe as recently as the 18th century. had instructed their subordinates in the
Confucius’s ancestors were probably necessary techniques, but he was the first
members of the aristocracy who had person to devote his whole life to learn-
become virtual poverty-stricken com- ing and teaching for the purpose of
moners by the time of his birth. His father transforming and improving society. He
died when Confucius was only three believed that all human beings could
years old. Instructed first by his mother, benefit from self-cultivation. He inaugu-
Confucius then distinguished himself as rated a humanities program for potential
an indefatigable learner in his teens. He leaders, opened the doors of education to
recalled toward the end of his life that at all, and defined learning not merely as
age 15 his heart was set upon learning. A the acquisition of knowledge but also as
historical account notes that, even though character building.
he was already known as an informed For Confucius the primary function
young scholar, he felt it appropriate to of education was to provide the proper
inquire about everything while visiting way of training exemplary persons
the Grand Temple. (junzi), a process that involved constant
Confucius had served in minor gov- self-improvement and continuous social
ernment posts managing stables and interaction. Although he emphatically
keeping books for granaries before noted that learning was “for the sake of
he married a woman of similar back- the self” (the end of which was self-knowl-
ground when he was 19. It is not known edge and self-realization), he found
who Confucius’s teachers were, but public service integral to true education.
he made a conscientious effort to find Confucius confronted learned hermits
the right masters to teach him, among who challenged the validity of his desire
Confucianism | 65
to serve the world; he resisted the tempta- best he could. At the age of 67 he returned
tion to “herd with birds and animals,” to home to teach and to preserve his cher-
live apart from the human community, ished classical traditions by writing and
and opted to try to transform the world editing. He died in 479 BCE, at the age of
from within. For decades Confucius tried 73. According to the Records of the
to be actively involved in politics, wish- Historian, 72 of his students mastered the
ing to put his humanist ideas into practice “six arts,” and those who claimed to be his
through governmental channels. followers numbered 3,000.
In his late 40s and early 50s Confucius
served first as a magistrate, then as an Thought of Confucius
assistant minister of public works, and
eventually as minister of justice in the Confucius proposed revitalizing the
state of Lu. It is likely that he accompa- meaning of the past by advocating a ritu-
nied King Lu as his chief minister on one alized life. His love of antiquity was
of the diplomatic missions. Confucius’s motivated by his strong desire to under-
political career was, however, short-lived. stand why certain life forms and
His loyalty to the king alienated him from institutions, such as reverence for ances-
the power holders of the time, the large Ji tors, human-centred religious practices,
families, and his moral rectitude did not and mourning ceremonies, had survived
sit well with the king’s inner circle, who for centuries. His journey into the past
enraptured the king with sensuous was a search for roots, which he perceived
delight. At 56, when he realized that his as grounded in humanity’s deepest needs
superiors were uninterested in his poli- for belonging and communicating. He
cies, Confucius left the country in an had faith in the cumulative power of cul-
attempt to find another feudal state to ture. The fact that traditional ways had
which he could render his service. Despite lost vitality did not, for him, diminish
his political frustration he was accompa- their potential for regeneration in the
nied by an expanding circle of students future. In fact, Confucius’s sense of his-
during this self-imposed exile of almost tory was so strong that he saw himself as
12 years. His reputation as a man of vision a conservationist responsible for the con-
and mission spread. A guardian of a bor- tinuity of the cultural values and the
der post once characterized him as the social norms that had worked so well for
“wooden tongue for a bell” of the age, the idealized civilization of the Western
sounding heaven’s prophetic note to Zhou dynasty.
awaken the people (Analects, 3:24).
Indeed, Confucius was perceived as the Historical Context
heroic conscience who knew realistically
that he might not succeed but, fired by a The scholarly tradition envisioned by
righteous passion, continuously did the Confucius can be traced to the sage-kings
66 | The Culture of China
learn, nor encourage anyone who is not self-image. Confucius, however, made
anxious to put his ideas into words (7:8). it explicit that he was far from attaining
The community that Confucius cre- sagehood and that all he really excelled
ated was a scholarly fellowship of in was “love of learning” (5:27). To him,
like-minded men of different ages and learning not only broadened his knowl-
different backgrounds from different edge and deepened his self-awareness
states. They were attracted to Confucius but also defined who he was. He frankly
because they shared his vision and to admitted that he was not born endowed
varying degrees took part in his mission with knowledge, nor did he belong to the
to bring moral order to an increasingly class of men who could transform society
fragmented world. This mission was dif- without knowledge. Rather, he reported
ficult and even dangerous. Confucius that he used his ears widely and followed
himself suffered from joblessness, home- what was good in what he had heard and
lessness, starvation, and occasionally used his eyes widely and retained in his
life-threatening violence. Yet his faith in mind what he had seen. His learning
the survivability of the culture that he constituted “a lower level of knowledge”
cherished and the workability of the (7:27), a practical level that was presum-
approach to teaching that he propounded ably accessible to the majority of human
was so steadfast that he convinced his fol- beings. In this sense Confucius was nei-
lowers as well as himself that heaven was ther a prophet with privileged access to
on their side. When Confucius’s life was the divine nor a philosopher who had
threatened in Kuang, he said: already seen the truth but a teacher of
humanity who was also an advanced fel-
Since the death of King Wen low traveler on the way to self-realization.
[founder of the Zhou dynasty] As a teacher of humanity Confucius
does not the mission of culture stated his ambition in terms of concern
(wen) rest here in me? If heaven for human beings: “To bring comfort to
intends this culture to be the old, to have trust in friends, and to
destroyed, those who come after cherish the young” (5:25). Confucius’s
me will not be able to have any vision of the way to develop a moral com-
part of it. If heaven does not munity began with a holistic reflection
intend this culture to be destroyed, on the human condition. Instead of dwell-
then what can the men of Kuang ing on abstract speculations such as
do to me? (9:5) man’s condition in the state of nature,
Confucius sought to understand the
This expression of self-confidence actual situation of a given time and to
informed by a powerful sense of mis- use that as his point of departure. His aim
sion may give the impression that there was to restore trust in government and to
was presumptuousness in Confucius’s transform society into a flourishing moral
70 | The Culture of China
community by cultivating a sense of that social order is the basis for political
humanity in politics and society. To stability and enduring peace.
achieve that aim, the creation of a schol- The assertion that family ethics is
arly community, the fellowship of junzi politically efficacious must be seen in the
(exemplary persons), was essential. In the context of the Confucian conception of
words of Confucius’s disciple Zengzi, politics as “rectification” (zheng). Rulers
exemplary persons should begin by rectifying their own con-
duct; that is, they are to be examples who
must be broad-minded and reso- govern by moral leadership and exem-
lute, for their burden is heavy and plary teaching rather than by force.
their road is long. They take Government’s responsibility is not only
humanity as their burden. Is that to provide food and security but also to
not heavy? Only with death does educate the people. Law and punishment
their road come to an end. Is that are the minimum requirements for order;
not long? (8:7) the higher goal of social harmony, how-
ever, can only be attained by virtue
The fellowship of junzi as moral expressed through ritual performance. To
vanguards of society, however, did not perform rituals, then, is to take part in a
seek to establish a radically different communal act to promote mutual
order. Its mission was to redefine and understanding.
revitalize those institutions that for cen- One of the fundamental Confucian
turies were believed to have maintained values that ensures the integrity of ritual
social solidarity and enabled people to performance is xiao (filial piety). Indeed,
live in harmony and prosperity. An obvi- Confucius saw filial piety as the first step
ous example of such an institution was toward moral excellence, which he
the family. believed lay in the attainment of the car-
It is related in the Analects that dinal virtue, ren (humanity). To learn to
Confucius, when asked why he did not embody the family in the mind and heart
take part in government, responded by is to become able to move beyond self-
citing a passage from the ancient Shujing centredness or, to borrow from modern
(“Classic of History”), “Simply by being a psychology, to transform the enclosed
good son and friendly to his brothers a private ego into an open self. Filial piety,
man can exert an influence upon govern- however, does not demand unconditional
ment!” to show that what a person does in submissiveness to parental authority but
the confines of his home is politically sig- recognition of and reverence for the
nificant (2:21). This maxim is based on source of life. The purpose of filial piety,
the Confucian conviction that cultivation as the ancient Greeks expressed it, is to
of the self is the root of social order and enable both parent and child to flourish.
Confucianism | 71
feudal ritual system and the rise of was vital to the well-being of the state.
powerful hegemonic states reveal that In his sophisticated argument against
wealth and power spoke the loudest. The the physiocrats (those who advocated
hermits (the early Daoists), who left the the supremacy of agriculture), he intel-
world to create a sanctuary in nature in ligently employed the idea of the
order to lead a contemplative life, and division of labour to defend those who
the realists (proto-Legalists), who played labour with their minds, observing that
the dangerous game of assisting ambi- service is as important as productiv-
tious kings to gain wealth and power ity. To him Confucians served the vital
so that they could influence the politi- interests of the state as scholars not by
cal process, were actually determining becoming bureaucratic functionaries
the intellectual agenda. The Confucians but by assuming the responsibility of
refused to be identified with the inter- teaching the ruling minority humane
ests of the ruling minority because their government (renzheng) and the kingly
social consciousness impelled them to way (wangdao). In dealing with feudal
serve as the conscience of the people. lords, Mencius conducted himself not
They were in a dilemma. Although they merely as a political adviser but also
wanted to be actively involved in poli- as a teacher of kings. Mencius made it
tics, they could not accept the status quo explicit that a true person cannot be cor-
as the legitimate arena in which to exer- rupted by wealth, subdued by power, or
cise authority and power. In short, they affected by poverty.
were in the world but not of it; they could To articulate the relationship between
not leave the world, nor could they effec- Confucian moral idealism and the con-
tively change it. crete social and political realities of his
time, Mencius began by exposing as
Mencius: The Paradigmatic impractical the prevailing ideologies of
Confucian Intellectual Mozi’s collectivism and Yang Zhu’s indi-
vidualism. Mozi’s collectivism rested on
Mencius is known as the self-styled the advocacy of loving everyone. Mencius
transmitter of the Confucian Way. contended, however, that the result of the
Educated first by his mother and then Mohist admonition to treat a stranger as
allegedly by a student of Confucius’s intimately as one’s own father would be
grandson, Mencius brilliantly performed to treat one’s own father as indifferently
his role as a social critic, a moral philoso- as one would treat a stranger. Yang Zhu,
pher, and a political activist. He argued on the other hand, advocated the pri-
that cultivating a class of scholar-offi- macy of the self. Mencius contended,
cials who would not be directly involved however, that excessive attention to self-
in agriculture, industry, and commerce interest would lead to political disorder.
Confucianism | 73
Furthermore, Mencius asserted that if the limitations of virtually all the major
people fully realize the potential of their currents of thought propounded by his
hearts, they will understand their nature; fellow thinkers helped to establish the
by understanding their nature, they will Confucian school as a dominant political
know heaven. Learning to be fully human, and social force. His principal adversary,
in this Mencian perspective, entails the however, was Mencius, and he vigorously
cultivation of human sensitivity to attacked Mencius’s view that human
embody the whole cosmos as one’s lived nature is good as naive moral optimism.
experience: True to the Confucian and, for that
matter, Mencian spirit, Xunzi under-
All myriad things are here in me. scored the centrality of self-cultivation.
There is no greater joy for me than He defined the process of Confucian edu-
to find, on self-examination, that I cation, from exemplary person (junzi) to
am true to myself. Try your best to sage, as a ceaseless endeavour to accu-
treat others as you would wish to mulate knowledge, skills, insight, and
be treated yourself, and you will wisdom. In contrast to Mencius, Xunzi
find that this is the shortest way to stressed that human nature is evil.
humanity. (VIIA:4) Because he saw human beings as prone
by nature to pursue the gratification of
Xunzi: The Transmitter their passions, he firmly believed in the
of Confucian Scholarship need for clearly articulated social con-
straints. Without constraints, social
If Mencius brought Confucian moral solidarity, the precondition for human
idealism to fruition, Xunzi (c. 300–c. well-being, would be undermined. The
230 BCE) conscientiously transformed most serious flaw he perceived in the
Confucianism into a realistic and sys- Mencian commitment to the goodness of
tematic inquiry on the human condition, human nature was the practical conse-
with special reference to ritual and quence of neglecting the necessity of
authority. Widely acknowledged as the ritual and authority for the well-being of
most eminent of the notable scholars society. For Xunzi, as for Confucius before
who congregated in Jixia, the capital him, becoming moral is hard work.
of the wealthy and powerful Qi state in Xunzi singled out the cognitive
the mid-3rd century BCE, Xunzi distin- function of the heart-and-mind (xin), or
guished himself in erudition and by the human rationality, as the basis for moral-
quality of his argumentation. His cri- ity. People become moral by voluntarily
tique of the so-called 12 philosophers harnessing their desires and passions to
gave an overview of the intellectual life act in accordance with society’s norms.
of his time. His penetrating insight into Although this is alien to human nature,
Confucianism | 75
chapter in the Liji entitled the “Great Learning” specifies, “From the son of heaven to the com-
moner, all must regard self-cultivation as the root.” This pervasive consciousness of duty features
prominently in all Confucian literature on ritual.
The historical vision, presented in the Chunqiu (“Spring and Autumn Annals”), emphasizes
the significance of collective memory for communal self-identification. Historical consciousness
is a defining characteristic of Confucian thought. By defining himself as a lover of antiquity and
a transmitter of its values, Confucius made it explicit that a sense of history is not only desir-
able but is necessary for self-knowledge. Confucius’s emphasis on the importance of history was
in a way his reappropriation of the ancient Sinitic wisdom that reanimating the old is the best
way to attain the new. Confucius may not have been the author of the Chunqiu, but it seems
likely that he applied moral judgment to political events in China proper from the 8th to the 5th
century BCE. In this unprecedented procedure he assumed a godlike role in evaluating politics
by assigning ultimate historical praise and blame to the most powerful and influential political
actors of the period. Not only did this practice inspire the innovative style of the grand historian
Sima Qian (c. 145–c. 87 BCE) but it was also widely employed by others writing dynastic histo-
ries in imperial China.
from the moral fabric of Chinese society. An examination system was established
Confucius continued to be universally based on literary competence. This sys-
honoured as the paradigmatic sage. tem made the mastery of Confucian
The outstanding Daoist thinker Wang Classics a prerequisite for political suc-
Bi (226–249) argued that Confucius, cess and was, therefore, perhaps the
by not speculating on the nature of the single most important institutional
dao, had an experiential understanding innovation in defining elite culture in
of it superior to Laozi’s. The Confucian Confucian terms.
Classics remained the foundation of all The Tang dynasty, nevertheless, was
literate culture, and sophisticated com- dominated by Buddhism and, to a lesser
mentaries were produced throughout degree, by Daoism. The philosophical
the age. Confucian values continued to originality of the dynasty was mainly
dominate in such political institutions as represented by monk-scholars such as
the central bureaucracy, the recruitment Jizang (549–623), Xuanzang (602–664),
of officials, and local governance. The and Zhiyi (538–597). An unintended
political forms of life also were distinc- consequence in the development of
tively Confucian. When a barbarian state Confucian thought in this context was
adopted a sinicization policy, notably the the prominent rise of the metaphysi-
case of the Northern Wei (386–534/535), cally significant Confucian texts, notably
it was by and large Confucian in char- Zhongyong (“Doctrine of the Mean”) and
acter. In the south systematic attempts Yizhuan (“The Great Commentary of the
were made to strengthen family ties Classic of Changes”), which appealed
by establishing clan rules, genealogi- to some Buddhist and Daoist thinkers.
cal trees, and ancestral rituals based on A sign of a possible Confucian turn in
Confucian ethics. the Tang was Li Ao’s (d. c. 844) essay on
The reunification of China by the “Returning to Nature” that foreshadowed
Sui (581–618) and the restoration of last- features of Song (960–1279) Confucian
ing peace and prosperity by the Tang thought. The most influential precursor
(618–907) gave a powerful stimulus to of a Confucian revival, however, was Han
the revival of Confucian learning. The Yu (768–824). He attacked Buddhism from
publication of a definitive, official edition the perspectives of social ethics and cul-
of the Wujing with elaborate commen- tural identity and provoked interest in the
taries and subcommentaries and the question of what actually constitutes the
implementation of Confucian rituals Confucian Way. The issue of Daotong, the
at all levels of governmental practice, transmission of the Way or the authentic
including the compilation of the famous method to repossess the Way, has stimu-
Tang legal code, were two outstanding lated much discussion in the Confucian
examples of Confucianism in practice. tradition since the 11th century.
Confucianism | 81
be traced through a line of Neo-Confucian father and Earth is my mother, and even
thinkers from Zhou Dunyi (1017–73) by such a small being as I finds a central
way of Shao Yong (1011–77), Zhang Zai abode in their midst. Therefore that
(1020–77), the brothers Cheng Hao (1032– which fills the cosmos I regard as my
85) and Cheng Yi (1033–1107), and the body and that which directs the cosmos I
great synthesizer Zhu Xi (1130–1200). consider as my nature. All people are my
These men developed a comprehensive brothers and sisters, and all things are my
humanist vision in which cultivation of companions.”
the self was integrated with social ethics This theme of mutuality between
and moral metaphysics. In the eyes of the heaven and human beings, consanguin-
Song literati this new philosophy faith- ity between man and man, and harmony
fully restored the classical Confucian between man and nature was brought to
insights and successfully applied them to fruition in Cheng Hao’s definition of
the concerns of their own age. humanity as “forming one body with all
Zhou Dunyi ingeniously articulated things.” To him the presence of tianli
the relationship between the “great trans- (“heavenly principle”) in all things as well
formation” of the cosmos and the moral as in human nature enables the human
development of human beings. In his mind to purify itself in a spirit of rever-
metaphysics, humanity, as the recipient ence. Cheng Yi, following his brother’s
of the highest excellence from heaven, is lead, formulated the famous dictum, “self-
itself a centre of cosmic creativity. He cultivation requires reverence; the
developed this all-embracing humanism extension of knowledge consists in the
by a thought-provoking interpretation of investigation of things.” By making spe-
the Daoist diagram of Taiji (“Great cial reference to gewu (“investigation of
Ultimate”). Shao Yong elaborated on the things”), he raised doubts about the
metaphysical basis of human affairs, appropriateness of focusing exclusively
insisting that a disinterested numerolog- on the illumination of the mind in self-
ical mode of analysis is most appropriate cultivation, as his brother seems to have
for understanding the “supreme princi- done. The learning of the mind as advo-
ples governing the world.” Zhang Zai, on cated by Cheng Hao and the learning of
the other hand, focused on the omnipres- the principle as advocated by Cheng Yi
ence of qi (“vital energy”). He also became two distinct modes of thought in
advocated the oneness of li (“principle”; Song Confucianism.
comparable to the idea of Natural Law) Zhu Xi, clearly following Cheng
and the multiplicity of its manifestations, Yi’s School of Principle and implicitly
which is created as the principle expresses rejecting Cheng Hao’s School of Mind,
itself through the “vital energy.” As an developed a method of interpreting and
article of faith he pronounced in the transmitting the Confucian Way that for
“Western Inscription”: “Heaven is my centuries defined Confucianism not only
Confucianism | 83
for the Chinese but for the Koreans and which early Song masters belonged to
the Japanese as well. If, as quite a few the lineage of Confucius and Mencius.
scholars have advocated, Confucianism His judgment, later widely accepted by
represents a distinct form of East Asian governments in East Asia, was based
spirituality, it is the Confucianism shaped principally on philosophical insight.
by Zhu Xi. Zhu Xi virtually reconstituted Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, and the Cheng
the Confucian tradition, giving it new brothers, the select four, were Zhu Xi’s
structure, new texture, and new mean- cultural heroes. Shao Yong and Sima
ing. He was more than a synthesizer; Guang were originally on his list, but Zhu
through conscientious appropriation Xi apparently changed his mind, perhaps
and systematic interpretation he gave because of Shao’s excessive metaphysical
rise to a new Confucianism, known as speculation and Sima’s obsession with
Neo-Confucianism in the West but often historical facts.
referred to as lixue (“Learning of the Up until Zhu Xi’s time the Confucian
Principle”) in modern China. thinking of the Song masters was char-
The “Doctrine of the Mean” and the acterized by a few fruitfully ambiguous
“Great Learning,” two chapters in the Liji, concepts, notably the Great Ultimate,
had become independent treatises and, principle, vital energy, nature, mind, and
together with the Analects and Mencius, humanity. Zhu Xi defined the process
had been included in the core curriculum of the investigation of things as a rigor-
of Confucian education for centuries ous discipline of the mind to probe the
before Zhu Xi’s birth. But by putting them principle in things. He recommended a
into a particular sequence, the “Great twofold method of study: to cultivate a
Learning,” the Analects, Mencius, and the sense of reverence and to pursue knowl-
“Doctrine of the Mean,” synthesizing edge. This combination of morality and
their commentaries, interpreting them as wisdom made his pedagogy an inclu-
a coherent humanistic vision, and calling sive approach to humanist education.
them the Four Books (Sishu), Zhu Xi fun- Reading, sitting quietly, ritual practice,
damentally restructured the Confucian physical exercise, calligraphy, arithme-
scriptural tradition. The Four Books, tic, and empirical observation all had a
placed above the Five Classics, became place in his pedagogical program. Zhu Xi
the central texts for both primary educa- reestablished the White Deer Grotto in
tion and civil service examinations in present Jiangxi province as an academy.
traditional China from the 14th century. It became the intellectual centre of his
Thus they have exerted far greater influ- age and provided an instructional model
ence on Chinese life and thought in the for all schools in East Asia for genera-
past 600 years than any other work. tions to come.
As an interpreter and transmitter of Zhu Xi was considered the preemi-
the Confucian Way, Zhu Xi identified nent Confucian scholar in Song China,
84 | The Culture of China
scholarship rather than his insights on and social ethics. In fact, Buddhist monks
political reform that inspired the 18th- were often messengers of Confucian val-
century evidential scholars. Dai Zhen, ues, and the coexistence of Confucianism
the most philosophically-minded philol- with Daoism, shamanism, and Shintōism
ogist among them, couched his brilliant actually characterized the syncretic East
critique of Song learning in his commen- Asian religious life. The impact of the
tary on “The Meanings of Terms in the West, however, so fundamentally chal-
Book of Mencius.” Dai Zhen was one of lenged the Confucian roots in East Asia
the scholars appointed by the Qianlong that for some time it was widely debated
emperor in 1773 to compile an imperial whether or not Confucianism could
manuscript library. This massive schol- remain a viable tradition in modern times.
arly attempt, The Complete Library of Beginning in the 19th century,
the Four Treasures, is symbolic of the Chinese intellectuals’ faith in the abil-
grandiose intent of the Manchu court ity of Confucian culture to withstand the
to give an account of all the important impact of the West became gradually
works of the four branches of learning— eroded. This loss of faith may be perceived
the Classics, history, philosophy, and in Lin Zexu’s (1785–1850) moral indigna-
literature—in Confucian culture. The tion against the British, followed by Zeng
project comprised more than 36,000 vol- Guofan’s (1811–72) pragmatic acceptance
umes with comments on about 10,230 of the superiority of Western technology,
titles, employed as many as 15,000 copy- Kang Youwei’s (1858–1927) sweeping rec-
ists, and took 20 years to complete. The ommendation for political reform, and
Qianlong emperor and the scholars Zhang Zhidong’s (1837–1909) desper-
around him may have expressed their ate, eclectic attempt to save the essence
cultural heritage in a definitive form, of Confucian learning, which, however,
but the Confucian tradition was yet to eventually led to the anti-Confucian
encounter its most serious threat. iconoclasm of the so-called May Fourth
Movement in 1919. The triumph of
Modern Transformation Marxism-Leninism as the official ideol-
ogy of the People’s Republic of China
At the time of the first Opium War in 1949 relegated Confucian rhetoric to
(1839–42) East Asian societies had been the background. The modern Chinese
Confucianized for centuries. The con- intelligentsia, however, maintained unac-
tinuous growth of Mahayana Buddhism knowledged, sometimes unconscious,
throughout Asia and the presence of continuities with the Confucian tradi-
Daoism in China, shamanism in Korea, tion at every level of life—behaviour,
and Shintōism in Japan did not under- attitude, belief, and commitment. Indeed,
mine the power of Confucianism in Confucianism remains an integral part
government, education, family rituals, of the psycho-cultural construct of the
88 | The Culture of China
This statue of Chinese philosopher Confucius stands in front of the Confucius Temple in
Beijing. Liu Jin/AFP/Getty Images
Confucianism | 89
religion, the Daoist tradition—often serv- archivist at the Zhou court. He is said to
ing as a link between the Confucian have instructed Confucius on points of
tradition and folk tradition—has generally ceremony. Observing the decline of the
been more popular and spontaneous than Zhou dynasty, Laozi left the court and
the official (Confucian) state cult and less headed west. At the request of Yin Xi, the
diffuse and shapeless than folk religion. guardian of the frontier pass, he wrote
his treatise on the Dao in two scrolls. He
LaOzI anD thE DaODEjInG then left China behind, and what became
of him is not known. The historian quotes
The first mention of Laozi is found in variant accounts, including one that
another early classic of Daoist specula- attributed to Laozi an exceptional lon-
tion, the Zhuangzi (4th–3rd century BCE), gevity; the narrative terminates with the
so called after the name of its author. In genealogy of eight generations of Laozi’s
this work Laozi is described as being one supposed descendants. With passing
of Zhuangzi’s own teachers, and the same references in other early texts, this consti-
book contains many of the Master’s tutes the body of information on the life
(Laozi’s) discourses, generally introduced of the sage as of the 2nd century BCE; it
by the questions of a disciple. The is presumably legendary.
Zhuangzi also presents seven versions of Modern scholarship has little to add
a meeting of Laozi and Confucius. Laozi to the Shiji account, and the Daodejing,
is portrayed as the elder and his Daoist regarded by many scholars as a compila-
teachings confound his celebrated inter- tion that reached its final form only in the
locutor. The Zhuangzi also gives the only 3rd century BCE, rather than the work of
account of Laozi’s death. Thus, in this a single author, stands alone, with all its
early source, Laozi appears as a senior attractions and enigmas, as the funda-
contemporary of Confucius (6th–5th cen- mental text of both philosophical and
tury BCE) and a renowned Daoist master, religious Daoism.
a curator of the archives at the court of The work’s 81 brief sections contain
the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE), and, only about 5,000 characters in all, from
finally, a mere mortal. which fact derives still another of its
The first consistent biographical titles, Laozi’s Five Thousand Words. The
account of Laozi is found in the “Records text itself appears in equal measure to
of the Historian” (Shiji)—China’s first uni- express a profound quietism and anar-
versal history (2nd century BCE)—of Sima chistic views on government. It is
Qian. This concise résumé has served as consequently between the extremes of
the classical source on the philosopher’s meditative introspection and political
life. Laozi’s family name was Li, his given application that its many and widely
name Er; and he occupied the post of divergent interpreters have veered.
92 | The Culture of China
The Daodejing was meant as a hand- conquered in battle is received with rites
book for the ruler. He should be a sage of mourning.”
whose actions pass so unnoticed that The book shares certain constants
his very existence remains unknown. He of classical Chinese thought but clothes
imposes no restrictions or prohibitions them in an imagery of its own. The
on his subjects; “so long as I love qui- sacred aura surrounding kingship is here
etude, the people will of themselves go rationalized and expressed as “inaction”
straight. So long as I act only by inactiv- (wuwei), demanding of the sovereign
ity, the people will of themselves become no more than right cosmological ori-
prosperous.” His simplicity makes the entation at the centre of an obedient
Ten Thousand Things passionless and universe. Survivals of archaic notions
still, and peace follows naturally. He concerning the compelling effect of
does not teach them discrimination, vir- renunciation—which the Confucians
tue, or ambition because “when intellect sanctified as ritual “deference” (rang)—
emerges, the great artifices begin. When are echoed in the recommendation to
discord is rife in families, ‘dutiful sons’ “hold to the role of the female,” with an
appear. When the State falls into anarchy, eye to the ultimate mastery that comes
‘loyal subjects’ appear.” Thus, it is better of passivity.
to banish wisdom, righteousness, and It is more particularly in the func-
ingenuity, and the people will benefit a tion attributed to the Dao, or Way, that
hundredfold. this little tract stands apart. The term
“dao” was employed by all schools of
Therefore the Sage rules by empty- thought. The universe has its dao; there
ing their hearts (minds) and filling is a dao of the sovereign, his royal mode
their bellies, weakening their wills of being, while the dao of man com-
and strengthening their bones, prises continuity through procreation.
ever striving to make the people Each of the schools, too, had its own
knowledgeless and desireless. dao, its way or doctrine. But in the
Daodejing, the ultimate unity of the uni-
The word “people” in this passage versal Dao itself, is proposed as a social
more likely refers not to the common ideal. It is this idealistic peculiarity that
people but to those nobles and intellectu- seems to justify later historians and bib-
als who incite the ruler’s ambition and liographers in their assignment of the
aggressiveness. term Daoist to the Daodejing and its
War is condemned but not entirely successors.
excluded: “Arms are ill-omened instru- From a literary point of view, the
ments,” and the sage uses them only Daodejing is distinguished for its highly
when he cannot do otherwise. He does compressed style. Unlike the dialec-
not glory in victory; “he that has tic or anecdotal composition of other
Daoism | 93
contemporary treatises, it articulates its others; many of his writings strike the
cryptic subject matter in short, concise reader as metaphorical illustrations of
statements. More than half of these are the terse sayings of the “Old Master.”
in rhyme, and close parallelism recurs Whereas Laozi in his book as well as
throughout the text. No proper name in his life (in legend) was concerned with
occurs anywhere. Although its historical Daoist rule, Zhuangzi, some generations
enigmas are apparently insoluble, there later, rejected all participation in society.
is abundant testimony to the vast influ- He compared the servant of state to the
ence exercised by the book since the well-fed decorated ox being led to sacri-
earliest times and in surprisingly varied fice in the temple and himself to the
social contexts. Among the classics of untended piglet blissfully frolicking in
speculative Daoism, it alone holds the the mire.
distinction of having become a scripture Here there is none of the Daodejing’s
of the esoteric Daoist movements, which studied density. The rambling Zhuangzi
developed their own interpretations of opens with a sprightly fable, illustrating
its ambiguities and transmitted it as a the incomprehension of small wildfowl of
sacred text. the majestic splendour of a gigantic bird.
Other such parables demonstrate the rel-
Interpretation ativity of all values: the sliding scales of
of Zhuangzi size, utility, beauty, and perfection. There
is a colloquy between the Lord of the
Pseudohistorical knowledge of the sage Yellow River and the God of the Eastern
Zhuangzi is even less well defined than Ocean, in which the complacent self-sat-
that of Laozi. Most of Sima Qian’s brief isfaction of the lesser spirit is shaken by
portrait of the man is transparently drawn his unexpected meeting with inconceiv-
from anecdotes in the Zhuangzi itself and able vastness. Humble artisans are
as such has no necessary basis in fact. The depicted, who, through the perfect mas-
Zhuangzi, however, is valuable as a mon- tery of their craft, exemplify for their
ument of Chinese literature and because social superiors the art of mastering life.
it contains considerable documentary Life and death are equated, and the dying
material, describing numerous specula- are seen to welcome their approaching
tive trends and spiritual practices of the transformation as a fusion with the Dao.
Warring States period (475–221 BCE). A succession of acquiescent cripples
Whereas the Daodejing is addressed exclaims in rapture on the strange forms
to the sage-king, the Zhuangzi is the ear- in which it has pleased heaven to shape
liest surviving Chinese text to present a them. Those involved in state ritual are
philosophy for private life, a wisdom for brought onstage only to be mocked, and
the individual. Zhuangzi is said to have the propositions of contemporary logic-
preferred the doctrine of Laozi over all choppers are drawn into the unending
94 | The Culture of China
whirl of paradox, spun out to their conclu- qualities in their own persons, and in
sions, and so abolished. Such are a few time Zhuangzi’s unfettered paragons of
aspects of this wild kaleidoscope of liberty were to see themselves classified
unconventional thought, a landmark in according to kind and degree in a hierar-
Chinese literature. Its concluding chap- chy of the heavenly hosts.
ter is a systematic account of the
preeminent thinkers of the time, and the Basic Concepts of Daoism
note of mock despair on which it closes
typifies the Zhuangzi’s position regard- Certain concepts of ancient agrarian reli-
ing the more formal, straitlaced ideologies gion have dominated Chinese thought
that it parodies. uninterruptedly from before the forma-
Among the strange figures that tion of the philosophic schools until the
people the pages of Zhuangzi are a first radical break with tradition and the
very special class of spiritualized being. overthrow of dynastic rule at the begin-
Dwelling far apart from the turbulent ning of the 20th century, and they are
world of men, dining on air and sip- thus not specifically Daoist. The most
ping the dew, they share none of the important of these concepts are (1) the
anxieties of ordinary folk and have the continuity between nature and human
smooth, untroubled faces of children. beings, or the interaction between the
These “supreme persons,” or “perfect world and human society; (2) the rhythm
persons,” are immune to the effects of the of constant flux and transformation in the
elements, untouched by heat and cold. universe and the return or reversion of all
They possess the power of flight and are things to the Dao from which they
described as mounting upward with a emerged; and (3) the worship of ances-
fluttering motion. Their effortless exis- tors, the cult of heaven, and the divine
tence was the ultimate in autonomy, the nature of the sovereign.
natural spontaneity that Zhuangzi cease-
lessly applauds. These striking portraits Cosmology
may have been intended to be allegori-
cal, but whatever their original meaning, What Laozi calls the “constant Dao” in
these Immortals (xian), as they came to reality is nameless. The name (ming) in
be called, were to become the centre of ancient Chinese thought implied an eval-
great interest. Purely literary descrip- uation assigning an object its place in a
tions of their freedom, their breathtaking hierarchical universe. The Dao is outside
mobility, and their agelessness were these categories.
construed as practical objectives by
later generations. By a variety of prac- It is something formlessly fash-
tices, people attempted to attain these ioned, that existed before heaven
Daoism | 95
and earth . . . Its name (ming) we governs the cosmos: “The ways of heaven
do not know; Dao is the byname are conditioned by those of the Dao, and
that we give it. Were I forced the ways of Dao by the Self-so.”
to say to what class of things it This is the way of the sage who does
belongs I should call it Immense. not intervene but possesses the total
power of spontaneous realization that is
Dao is the “imperceptible, indis- at work in the cosmos; of proper order
cernible,” about which nothing can be in the world, “everyone, throughout the
predicated but that latently contains the country, says ‘It happened of its own
forms, entities, and forces of all particular accord’ (ziran).”
phenomena: “It was from the Nameless
that heaven and earth sprang; the Microcosm-Macrocosm
Named is the mother that rears the Ten Concept
Thousand Things, each after its kind.”
The Nameless (wuming) and the Named The conception of the cosmos common
(youming), Nothing (wu) and Something to all Chinese philosophy is neither
(you), are interdependent and “grow out materialistic nor animistic (a belief sys-
of one another.” tem centring on soul substances); it can
Nothing (wu) and Dao are not identical; be called magical or even alchemical.
wu and you are two aspects of the constant The universe is viewed as a hierarchi-
Dao: “in its mode of being Unseen, we will cally organized organism in which every
see its mysteries; in the mode of the Seen, part reproduces the whole. The human
we will see its boundaries.” being is a microcosm (small world) cor-
Nothing does not mean “Nothingness” responding rigorously to this macrocosm
but rather indeterminacy, the absence of (large world); the body reproduces the
perceptible qualities; in Laozi’s view it is plan of the cosmos. Between humans and
superior to Something. It is the Void (that the world there exists a system of corre-
is, empty incipience) that harbours in spondences and participations that the
itself all potentialities and without which ritualists, philosophers, alchemists, and
even Something lacks its efficacy. physicians have described but certainly
Emptiness realized in the mind of not invented. This originally magical
the Daoist who has freed himself from feeling of the integral unity of mankind
all obstructing notions and distracting and the natural order has always char-
passions makes the Dao act through him acterized the Chinese mentality, and the
without obstacle. An essential character- Daoists especially have elaborated upon
istic that governs the Dao is spontaneity it. The five organs of the body and its ori-
(ziran), the what-is-so-of-itself, the self- fices and the dispositions, features, and
so, the unconditioned. The Dao, in turn, passions of humans correspond to the
96 | The Culture of China
Fishing in a Mountain Stream, detail of an ink drawing on silk by Xu Daoning, 11th century.
The drawing suggests the Daoist concept of harmony of the universe and the relative role of
humankind in the universal order; in the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri.
Courtesy of the Nelson Gallery-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, Missouri (Nelson Fund)
five directions, the five holy mountains, rivers carry water and that the body has
the sections of the sky, the seasons, and 360 articulations because the ritual year
the Five Phases (wuxing), which in China has 360 days. In religious Daoism the inte-
are not material but are more like five rior of the body is inhabited by the same
fundamental phases of any process in gods as those of the macrocosm. Adepts
space-time. Whoever understands the often search for their divine teacher in all
human experience thus understands the the holy mountains of China until they
structure of the cosmos. The physiolo- finally discover him in one of the “pal-
gist knows that blood circulates because aces” inside their heads.
Daoism | 97
COnCEPts OF
thE huMan In sOCIEty
Wuwei
later turn into the opposite of what was age are “dull and unwitting, they have no
intended and will result in failure. desire; this is called uncarved simplicity.
Those sages who practice wuwei live In uncarved simplicity the people attain
out of their original nature before it was their true nature.”
tampered with by knowledge and Zhuangzi liked to oppose the heaven-
restricted by morality; they have reverted made and the man-made; that is, nature
to infancy (that is, the undiminished and society. He wanted humans to
vitality of the newborn state); they have renounce all artificial “cunning contriv-
“returned to the state of the Uncarved ances” that facilitate their work but lead
Block (pu).” Pu is uncut and unpainted to “cunning hearts” and agitated souls
wood, simplicity. Society carves this in which the Dao will not dwell. Man
wood into specific shapes for its own use should equally renounce all concepts of
and thus robs the individual piece of its measure, law, and virtue. “Fashion pecks
original totality. “Once the uncarved and bushels for people to measure by and
block is carved, it forms utensils (that is, they will steal by peck and bushel.” He
instruments of government); but when blamed not only the culture heroes and
the Sages use it, they would be fit to inventors praised by the Confucians but
become Chiefs of all Ministers. This is also the sages who shaped the rites and
why the great craftsman (ruler) does not rules of society.
carve (rule).”
That the unwrought substance
Social Ideal of Primitivism was blighted in order to fashion
implements—this was the crime of
Any willful human intervention is the artisan. That the Way (Dao)
believed to be able to ruin the harmony and its Virtue (de) were destroyed
of the natural transformation process. in order to create benevolence
The spontaneous rhythm of the primitive and righteousness—this was the
agrarian community and its un-self- fault of the sage.
conscious symbiosis with nature’s cycles
is thus the Daoist ideal of society. Even “coveting knowledge” is
In the ideal society there are no condemned because it engenders compe-
books; the Laozi (Daodejing) itself tition and “fight to the death over profit.”
would not have been written but for the
entreaty of Yin Xi, the guardian of the Ideas of Knowledge
pass, who asked the “Old Master” to and Language
write down his thoughts. In the Golden
Age, past or future, knotted cords are the Characteristic of Zhuangzi are his ideas
only form of records. The people of this of knowledge and language developed
100 | The Culture of China
under the stimulus of his friend and the speaker and the affirmation, destroys
opponent, the philosopher Hui Shi. it. Those who speak about the Dao (like
Because, in the Daoist view, all Zhuangzi himself) are “wholly wrong. For
beings and everything are fundamentally he who knows does not speak; he who
one, opposing opinions can arise only speaks does not know.” Zhuangzi was
when people lose sight of the Whole and aware of the fact that, in speaking about
regard their partial truths as absolute. it, he could do no more than hint at the
They are then like the frog at the bottom way toward the all-embracing and intui-
of the well who takes the bit of brightness tive knowledge.
he sees for the whole sky. The closed
systems—i.e., the passions and prejudices Identity of
into which petty minds shut themselves— Life and Death
hide the Dao, the “Supreme Master” who
resides inside themselves and is superior Mystic realization does away with the
to all distinctions. distinction between the self and the
Thus, Zhuangzi’s authentic persons world. This idea also governs Zhuangzi’s
fully recognize the relativity of notions attitude toward death. Life and death are
such as “good and evil” and “true and but one of the pairs of cyclical phases,
false.” They are neutral and open to the such as day and night or summer and
extent that they offer no active resistance winter. “Since life and death are each oth-
to any would-be opponent, whether it be er’s companions, why worry about them?
a person or an idea. “When you argue, All things are one.” Life and death are
there are some things you are failing not in opposition but merely two aspects
to see. In the greatest Dao nothing is of the same reality, arrested moments
named; in the greatest disputation, noth- out of the flux of the ongoing mutations
ing is said.” of everything into everything. Human
The person who wants to know the beings are no exception: “They go back
Dao is told: “Do not meditate, do not into the great weaving machine: thus all
cogitate . . . Follow no school, follow no things issue from the Loom and return to
way, and then you will attain the Dao”; the Loom.”
discard knowledge, forget distinctions, Viewed from the single reality expe-
reach no-knowledge. “Forget” indicates rienced in ecstasy, it is just as difficult to
that distinctions had to be known first. distinguish life from death as it is to dis-
The original ignorance of the child is dis- tinguish the waking Zhuangzi from the
tinguished from the no-knowledge of the dreaming butterfly. Death is natural, and
sage who can “sit in forgetfulness.” men ought neither to fear nor to desire it.
The mystic does not speak because Zhuangzi’s attitude thus is one of serene
declaring unity, by creating the duality of acceptance.
Daoism | 101
invariably poetic. Perfect persons have in society, and whatever applies to the
identified their life rhythms so com- Dao applies to them.
pletely with the rhythm of the forces of
nature that they have become indistin- Symbolism and Mythology
guishable from them and share their
immortality and infinity, which is above Daoists prefer to convey their ecstatic
the cycle of ordinary life and death. They insights in images and parables. The Dao
are “pure spirit. They feel neither the heat is low and receiving as a valley, soft and
of the brushlands afire nor the cold of the life-giving as water, and it is the “mysteri-
waters in flood”; nothing can startle or ous female,” the source of all life, the
frighten them. They are not magically Mother of the Ten Thousand Things.
invulnerable (as the adepts of physical Human beings should become weak and
immortality would have it), but they are yielding as water that overcomes the hard
“so cautious in shunning and approach- and the strong and always takes the low
ing, that nothing can do them injury.” ground; they should develop their male
“Persons like this ride the clouds as and female sides but “prefer femininity,”
their carriages and the sun and moon as “feed on the mother,” and find within
their steeds.” The theme of the spiritual themselves the well that never runs dry.
wandering (yuanyou), which can be Dao is also the axis, the ridgepole, the
traced back to the shamanistic soul jour- pivot, and the empty centre of the hub.
ney, crops up wherever Zhuangzi speaks The sage is the “useless tree” or the huge
of the perfect persons. gourd too large to be fashioned into
implements. A frequent metaphor for the
Those who let themselves be working of the Dao is the incommunica-
borne away by the unadulterated ble ability to be skillful at a craft. Skilled
energies of heaven and earth and artisans do not ponder their actions, but,
can harness the six composite in union with the dao of their subjects,
energies to roam through the lim- they do their work reflexively and without
itless, whatever need they conscious intent.
henceforth depend on? Much ancient Chinese mythology
has been preserved by the Daoists, who
These wanderings are journeys within drew on it to illustrate their views. A chaos
oneself; they are roamings through the (hundun) myth is recorded as a metaphor
Infinite in ecstasy. Transcending the ordi- for the undifferentiated primal unity; the
nary distinctions of things and one with mythical emperors (Huangdi and oth-
the Dao, “the Perfect Person has no self, ers) are extolled for wise Daoist rule or
the Holy Person has no merit, the Sage blamed for introducing harmful civiliza-
has no fame.” They lives inconspicuously tion. Dreams of mythical paradises and
Daoism | 103
journeys on clouds and flying dragons “Primordial Breath” (yuanqi) split into the
are metaphors for the wanderings of the light ethereal yang breath, which formed
soul, the attainment of the Dao, and the heaven; and the heavier, cruder yin
identity of dream and reality. breath, which formed earth. The diversi-
Daoists have transformed and fications and interactions of yin and yang
adapted some ancient myths to their produced the Ten Thousand Things.
beliefs. Thus, the Queen Mother of the
West (Xiwangmu), who was a mountain The warm breath of yang accumu-
spirit, pestilence goddess, and tigress, lated to produce fire, the essence
became a high deity—the Fairy Queen of of which formed the sun. The cold
all Immortals. breath of yin accumulated to pro-
duce water, the essence of which
Early Eclectic became the moon.
Contributions: Yin-Yang,
Qi, and Other Ideas Qi
Yin and yang literally mean “dark side” Yin and yang are often referred to as two
and “sunny side” of a hill. They are men- “breaths” (qi). Qi means air, breath, or
tioned for the first time in the Xice, or vapour—originally the vapour arising
“Appended Explanations” (c. 4th century from cooking cereals. It also came to
BCE), an appendix to the Yijing (Book of mean a cosmic energy. The Primordial
Changes): “A succession of yin and yang Breath is a name of the chaos (state of
is called the Dao.” Unity) in which the original life force is
not yet diversified into the phases that
Yin and Yang the concepts yin and yang describe.
All persons have a portion of this pri-
Yin and yang are two complementary, mordial life force allotted to them at birth,
interdependent phases alternating in and their task is not to dissipate it through
space and time; they are emblems evok- the activity of the senses but to strengthen,
ing the harmonious interplay of all pairs control, and increase it in order to live out
of opposites in the cosmos. the full span of their lives.
First conceived by musicians, astron-
omers, or diviners and then propagated Wuxing
by a school that came to be named after
them, yin and yang became the com- Another important set of notions associ-
mon stock of all Chinese philosophy. ated with the same school of yin-yang are
The Daoist treatise Huainanzi (book of the “Five Phases” (wuxing) or “powers”
“Master Huainan”) describes how the one (wude): water, fire, wood, metal, earth. They
104 | The Culture of China
are also “breaths” (i.e., active energies), of the spiritual traveler. The text named
the idea of which enabled the philoso- after him (of uncertain date) presents a
phers to construct a coherent system of philosophy that views natural changes
correspondences and participations link- as a pattern that can serve as a model for
ing all phenomena of the macrocosm and human activities.
the microcosm. Associated with spatial
directions, seasons of the year, colours, Guanzi and Huainanzi
musical notes, animals, and other aspects
of nature, they also correspond, in the In the several Daoist chapters of the
human body, to the five inner organs. Guanzi (book of “Master Guan”), another
The Daoist techniques of longevity are text of uncertain date, emphasis is placed
grounded in these correspondences. on “the art of the heart (mind)”; the heart
The idea behind such techniques was governs the body as the chief governs the
that of nourishing the inner organs with state. If the organs and senses submit to
the essences corresponding to their it, the heart can achieve a desirelessness
respective phases and during the season and emptiness that make it a pure recep-
dominated by the latter. tacle of the “heart inside the heart,” a new
soul that is the indwelling Dao.
Yang Zhu and the Liezi The Huainanzi is a compilation of
essays written by different learned magi-
Yang Zhu (c. 400 BCE) is representative cians (fangshi) at the court of their patron,
of the early pre-Daoist recluses, “those the prince of Huainan. Although lacking
who hid themselves” (yinshi), who, in the in unity, it is a compendium of the knowl-
Analects of Confucius, ridiculed edge of the time that had been neglected
Confucius’s zeal to improve society. Yang by the less speculative scholars of the
Zhu held that each individual should new state Confucianism. The Huainanzi
value his own life above all else, despise discusses the most elaborate cosmology
wealth and power, and not agree to sacri- up to that time, the position of human
fice even a single hair of his head to beings in the macrocosm, the proper
benefit the whole world. The scattered ordering of society, and the ideal of per-
sayings of Yang Zhu in pre-Han texts are sonal sagehood.
much less hedonistic than his doctrine as
it is presented in the Liezi (book of Daoism in Chinese Culture
“Master Lie”).
Liezi was a legendary Daoist mas- Unlike Confucianism, which is con-
ter whom Zhuangzi described as being cerned with human society and the
able to “ride the wind and go soaring social responsibilities of its members,
around with cool and breezy skill.” In Daoism emphasizes nature and what is
many old legends Liezi is the paragon natural and spontaneous in the human
Daoism | 105
experience. The two traditions, “within Buddhist state of bliss). A joint sacrifice
society” and “beyond society,” balance to Laozi and the Buddha was performed
and complement each other. by the Han emperor in 166 CE. During
This classic definition is gener- this period occurred the first reference
ally correct concerning orthodox Han to the notion that Laozi, after vanishing
Confucianism; it neglects some aspects into the west, became the Buddha. This
of Confucian thought, such as the specu- theory enjoyed a long and varied history.
lations on the Yijing, that are considered It claimed that Buddhism was a debased
to be among the Confucian Classics and form of Daoism, designed by Laozi as a
the prophetic occult (chanwei) commen- curb on the violent natures and vicious
taries to the classics. As far as Daoism habits of the “western barbarians,” and as
is concerned, this definition neglects such was entirely unsuitable for Chinese
the social thought of the Daoist philoso- consumption. A variant theory even sug-
phers and the political aspects of Daoist gested that, by imposing celibacy on
religion. Chinese Buddhism has been Buddhist monks, Laozi intended the for-
viewed not as a Sinicized Indian religion eigners’ extinction. In approximately 300
but as flowers on the tree of Chinese CE, the Daoist scholar Wang Fou com-
religions that blossomed under Indian posed a “Classic of the Conversion of
stimulus and that basically maintained the Barbarians” (Huahujing), which was
their Chinese character. altered and expanded in subsequent cen-
The first mention of Buddhism in turies to encompass new developments
China (65 CE) occurs in a Daoist context, in the continuing debate. Although there
at the court of a member of the imperial is no evidence that the earliest Daoist
family known for his devotion to the doc- organization, literature, or ceremonies
trines of Huang-Lao. The Indian religion were in any way indebted to Buddhism,
was at first regarded as a foreign variety by the 4th century there was a distinct
of Daoism; the particular Buddhist texts Buddhist influence upon the literary
chosen to be translated during the Han form of Daoist scriptures and the philo-
period reveal the Daoist preoccupation sophical expression of the most eminent
of the earliest converts with rules of con- Daoist masters.
duct and techniques of meditation. Early The process of interaction, however,
translators employed Daoist expressions was a mutual one, Daoism participat-
as equivalents for Buddhist technical ing in the widening of thought because
terms. Thus, the Buddha, in achieving of the influence of a foreign religion
enlightenment (bodhi), was described as and Buddhism undergoing a partial
having “obtained the Dao”; the Buddhist “Daoicization” as part of its adaptation to
saints (arhat) become perfected Chinese conditions. The Buddhist con-
Immortals (zhenren); and “non-action” tribution is particularly noticeable in the
(wuwei) was used to render nirvana (the developing conceptions of the afterlife;
106 | The Culture of China
Buddhist ideas of purgatory had a most Daoist masters of those periods transmit-
striking effect not only on Daoism but ted neidan and other techniques of inner
especially on Chinese popular religion. cultivation to their disciples while at the
On a more profound level the ultimate same time preaching the moralism of
synthesis of Daoism and Buddhism was the “Three Religions” to outsiders.
realized in the Chan (Japanese Zen) tradi-
tion (from the 7th century on), into which Daoist Contributions
the paradoxes of the ancient Daoist mys- to Chinese Science
tics were integrated. Likewise, the goal of
illumination in a single lifetime, rather Daoist physiological techniques have, in
than at the end of an indefinite succession themselves, no devotional character.
of future existences, was analogous to the They have the same preoccupations as
religious Daoist’s objective of immortal- physicians: to preserve health and to pro-
ity as the culmination of his present life. long physical life. Medicine developed
Chan Buddhism deeply influenced independently from about the 1st century
Neo-Confucianism, the renaissance of CE, but many Daoist faith healers and
Confucian philosophy in Song times hygienists added to medical knowledge.
(960–1279), which in Chinese is called The earliest surviving medical book,
“Learning of the Way” (daoxue). In this the Huangdineijing, or “The Yellow
movement Confucianism acquired a uni- Emperor’s Esoteric Classic” (3rd century
versal dimension beyond a concern for BCE?), presents itself as the teachings of
society. Neo-Confucian thought often a legendary Celestial Master addressed
seems as Daoist as the so-called neo- to the Yellow Emperor.
Daoist philosophy and literature seem Experiments with minerals, plants,
Confucian. and animal substances, inspired to some
As early as the Tang dynasty, there extent by Daoist dietetics and by the
are traces of the syncretism of the “Three search for the elixir of life, resulted in
Religions” (sanjiao), which became a the 52 chapters of pharmacopoeia called
popular movement in Song and Ming Bencaogangmu, or “Great Pharmacopoeia”
China. A mixture of Confucian ethics, the (16th century).
Daoist system of merits, and the Buddhist This interest in science is considered
concept of reincarnation produced a reflection of the Daoist emphasis on
such “books on goodness” (shanshu) direct observation and experience of the
as the Ganyingpian (“Tract on Actions nature of things, as opposed to Confucian
and Retributions”). The school of the reliance on the authority of tradition.
“Three Religions” was rejected by most Zhuangzi declared that tradition tells
Confucians and Buddhists but received what was good for a bygone age but not
wide support in Daoist circles. Many what is good for the present.
Daoism | 107
The Daoist secret of efficacy is to fol- the infant’s closeness to the Dao in its
low the nature of things; this does not freedom from outside impressions, and
imply scientific experimentation but Zhuangzi describes the spiritual beings
rather a sensitivity and skill obtained nurtured on primal substances, air and
by “minute concentration on the Dao dew, as having the faces of children.
running through natural objects of all Thus many of the spirits, both indwell-
kinds.” This knowledge and skill cannot ing and celestial, in the esoteric system
be handed down but is that which the are described as resembling newborn
men of old took with them when they babes, while the Immortals who appear in
died (Zhuangzi). The image for it is the visions, though hundreds of years old, are
skill of the artisan admired by the Daoists at most adolescent in appearance. Other
in their numerous parables on wheel- persistent images are those of mountain
wrights, meatcutters, sword makers, and cavern. Present in the older texts, they
carvers, animal tamers, and musicians. are carried over, with particular connota-
Though extolling the intuitive com- tions, into the later works. The mountain
prehension and skillful handling of as a meeting place of heaven and earth,
matter, the Daoists did not observe nature gods and men, and master and disciple
in the Western sense and rejected tech- (as already in Zhuangzi), takes on a vast
nology out of their aversion to the downward extension. Beneath the moun-
artificial. Any new idea or discovery in tains are the great “cavern-heavens”
China was phrased as “what the old mas- (dongtian) of esoteric Daoism, a hier-
ters really meant.” This ideology of archy staffed by numerous Immortals.
rediscovery makes it hard to study the Thus, for example, while Maoshan is only
evolution of scientific thought. Some some 400 metres (1,300 feet) high to the
progress over the ages (for example, in gaze of the profane, the initiate knows
alchemy) can be seen, but the Daoist con- that its luminous grottoes plunge thou-
tribution to Chinese science might be sands of metres into the earth. And light
smaller than it has been assumed. is everywhere in Daoist revelation: spirits
and paradises alike gleam with brilliance
Daoist Imagery unknown in the world of men.
and patent imitations were frequent, and influences increases, scholars are faced
citations from Daodejing and Zhuangzi with the intriguing question of the pos-
abound throughout later Chinese litera- sible religious origins of whole genres of
ture, as do reminiscences of both their Chinese literature.
style and their content. Esoteric Daoist
writings, too, held great fascination for Influence on the Visual Arts
men of letters. Their response might
vary from a mere mention of the most A number of early Chinese books of spiri-
celebrated Immortals to whole works tual interest claim to have been inspired
inspired directly by specific Daoist texts by pictures seen on the walls of local
and practices. Many a poet recorded temples. A similar tradition attaches to
his search, real or metaphorical, for the Lives of the Immortals, which is said
Immortals or transcendent herbs or to derive from a pictorial work called
described his attempts at compounding Portraits of the Immortals. As has been
an elixir. A certain number of technical noted, the Immortals were depicted on
terms became touchstones of poetic dic- Han mirrors. Other illustrative materi-
tion. The revealed literature of Maoshan als were in close relation to the earliest
came to have the greatest effect on sec- esoteric Daoist literature. Graphic guides
ular writings. As works of great literary existed from early times to aid in the
refinement, the Lives of the Perfected identification of sacred minerals and
directly inspired a very famous tale, the plants, particularly mushrooms. A later
Intimate Life of Emperor Wu of Han (Han specimen of such a work is to be found in
Wudi neizhuan; late 6th century), which the Daoist Canon. This practical aspect
in highly polished terms describes the of Daoist influence resulted in the excep-
visit to the emperor of a goddess, the tionally high technical level of botanical
Queen Mother of the West. This work, in and mineralogical drawing that China
turn, made a decisive contribution to the soon attained. In calligraphy, too, Daoists
development of Tang romantic fiction. soon set the highest standard. One of the
Literary accounts of fantastic marvels greatest of all calligraphers, Wang Xizhi
also drew heavily on the wonders of (c. 303–361), was an adherent of the Way
Maoshan hagiography and topography. of the Celestial Master, and one of his
The Maoshan influence on Tang poetry most renowned works was a transcription
was no less important. Precise refer- of the Book of the Yellow Court. The effi-
ences to the literature of the sect abound cacy of talismans, in particular, depended
in the poems of the time, while many of on the precision of the strokes from which
the greatest poets, such as Li Bai, were they were created. Figure painting was
formally initiated into the Maoshan another field in which Daoists excelled.
organization. As awareness of these China’s celebrated painter Gu Kaizhi, a
Daoism | 109
Daoist nuns and monks pray for world peace in Hong Kong on March 21, 2009, as part of
a festival marking the birthday of Laozi, believed to be Daoism’s father. Ted Aljibe/AFP/
Getty Images
efforts of these painters are embodied in On Taiwan, Daoism may still be observed
those magnificent landscapes that have in its traditional setting, distinct from the
come to be thought of as most character- manifestations of popular religion that
istically Chinese. surround it. Hereditary Daoist priests
(Taiwanese saigong), called “blackheads”
Daoism in (wutou) from their headgear, are clearly
the Modern Era set off from the exorcists (fashi) or “red-
heads” (hongtou) of the ecstatic cults.
The principal refuge of Daoism in the Their lengthy rites are still held, now
20th and 21st centuries was on Taiwan. Its known under the term jiao (“offering”),
establishment on the island is doubtless rather than the medieval jai (“retreat”).
contemporary with the great emigration The liturgy chanted, in expanded Song
from the opposite mainland province form, still embodies elements that can be
of Fujian in the 17th and 18th centuries. traced back to Zhang Daoling’s sect. The
The religion, however, has received new religion has enjoyed a renaissance since
impetus since the 63rd celestial master, the 1960s, with great activity being carried
Zhang Enbu, took refuge there in 1949. on in temple building and restoration.
ChaPtER 6
Buddhism
LIFE OF thE BuDDha both “one who has thus come” and “one
who has thus gone.” Traditional sources
The teacher known as the Buddha lived on the date of his death—or, in the lan-
in northern India sometime between the guage of the tradition, his “passage into
mid-6th and the mid-4th centuries before nirvana”—range from 2420 to 290 BCE.
the Common Era. In ancient India the Scholarship in the 20th century limited
title buddha referred to an enlightened this range considerably, with opinion
being who has awakened from the sleep generally divided between those who
of ignorance and achieved freedom from believed he lived from about 563 to 483
suffering. According to the various tradi- BCE and those who believed he lived
tions of Buddhism, buddhas have existed about a century later.
in the past and will exist in the future. Information about his life derives
Some Buddhists believe that there is only largely from Buddhist texts, the earliest
one buddha for each historical age, oth- of which were produced shortly before
ers that all beings will become buddhas the beginning of the Common Era and
because they possess the buddha nature thus several centuries after his death.
(tathagatagarbha). According to the traditional accounts,
The historical figure referred to as however, the Buddha was born into the
the Buddha (whose life is known largely ruling Shakya clan and was a member
through legend) was born on the north- of the Kshatriya, or warrior, caste. His
ern edge of the Ganges River basin, an mother, Maha Maya, dreamt one night
area on the periphery of the ancient civi- that an elephant entered her womb, and
lization of North India, in what is today 10 lunar months later, while she was
southern Nepal. He is said to have lived strolling in the garden of Lumbini, her
for 80 years. His family name was son emerged from under her right arm.
Gautama (in Sanskrit) or Gotama (in His early life was one of luxury and com-
Pali), and his given name was Siddhartha fort, and his father protected him from
(Sanskrit: “he who achieves his aim”) or exposure to the ills of the world, includ-
Siddhatta (in Pali). He is frequently called ing old age, sickness, and death. At age
Shakyamuni, “the sage of the Shakya 16 he married the princess Yashodhara,
clan.” In Buddhist texts he is most com- who would eventually bear him a son. At
monly addressed as Bhagavat (often 29, however, the prince had a profound
translated as “Lord”), and he refers to experience when he first observed the
himself as the Tathagata, which can mean suffering of the world while on chariot
Buddhist guardian deity, three-colour painted ceramic sculpture from Zhongbaocun, near
Xi’an, Shaanxi province, China, 8th century, Tang dynasty; in the Shaanxi Provincial
Museum, Xi’an, China. Wang Lu/ChinaStock Photo Library
116 | The Culture of China
called samsara (literally “wandering”), is Although the Buddha did not leave
regarded as a domain of suffering, and any written works, various versions of his
the Buddhist’s ultimate goal is to escape teachings were preserved orally by his
from that suffering. The means of escape disciples. In the centuries following his
remains unknown until, over the course death, hundreds of texts (called sutras)
of millions of lifetimes, a person perfects were attributed to him and would subse-
himself, ultimately gaining the power to quently be translated into the languages
discover the path out of samsara and then of Asia.
revealing that path to the world.
A person who has set out to discover Spread to Central
the path to freedom from suffering and Asia and China
then to teach it to others is called a bodhi-
sattva. A person who has discovered that The spread of Buddhism into Central
path, followed it to its end, and taught it Asia is still not completely understood.
to the world is called a buddha. Buddhas However murky the details may be, it is
are not reborn after they die but enter a clear that the trade routes that ran from
state beyond suffering called nirvana (lit- northwestern India to northern China
erally “passing away”). Because buddhas facilitated both the introduction of
appear so rarely over the course of time Buddhism to Central Asia and the main-
and because only they reveal the path to tenance, for many centuries, of a
liberation from suffering, the appearance flourishing Buddhist culture there.
of a buddha in the world is considered a By the beginning of the Common
momentous event. Era, Buddhism had probably been intro-
The story of a particular buddha duced into Eastern Turkistan. According
begins before his birth and extends to tradition, a son of Asoka founded the
beyond his death. It encompasses the kingdom of Khotan around 240 BCE.
millions of lives spent on the path toward The grandson of this king supposedly
enlightenment and Buddhahood and the introduced Buddhism to Khotan, where
persistence of the buddha through his it became the state religion. Other
teachings and his relics after he has accounts indicate that the Indo-Scythian
passed into nirvana. The historical king Kaniska of the Kushan (Kusana)
Buddha is regarded as neither the first dynasty, which ruled in northern India,
nor the last buddha to appear in the world. Afghanistan, and parts of Central Asia in
According to some traditions he is the 7th the 1st to 2nd century CE, encouraged the
buddha, according to another he is the spread of Buddhism into Central Asia.
25th, and according to yet another he is Kaniska purportedly called an impor-
the 4th. The next buddha, Maitreya, will tant Buddhist council and patronized the
appear after Shakyamuni’s teachings and Gandhara school of Buddhist art, which
relics have disappeared from the world. introduced Greek and Persian elements
118 | The Culture of China
and Buddhism, and both religions advo- After the Han period, Buddhist
cated similar ascetic practices as a monks were often used by non-Chinese
means of attaining immortality. It was emperors in the north of China for their
widely believed that Laozi, the founder of political-military counsel and their skill
Daoism, had been reborn in India as the in magic. At the same time, in the south
Buddha. Many Chinese emperors wor- Buddhism penetrated the philosophical
shiped Laozi and the Buddha on the same and literary circles of the gentry. One of
altar. The first translations of Buddhist the most important contributions to the
sutras into Chinese—namely, those deal- growth of Buddhism in China during this
ing with topics such as breath control period was the work of translation. The
and mystical concentration—utilized a greatest of the early translators was the
Daoist vocabulary to make them intelli- learned monk Kumarajiva, who had stud-
gible to the Chinese. ied the Hindu Vedas, the occult sciences,
These statues are located in the Longmen caves Buddhist shrine in Luoyang, Henan prov-
ince, China. Andrea Pistolesi/The Image Bank/Getty Images
120 | The Culture of China
and astronomy, as well as the Hinayana and spiritual and intellectual inspiration
and Mahayana sutras before he was taken that greatly enriched Buddhism in China.
to the Chinese court in 401 CE. Buddhism was never able to replace
During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, Daoism and Confucianism, however, and
Buddhist schools from India were estab- in 845 the emperor Wuzong began a major
lished in China, and new, specifically persecution. According to records, 4,600
Chinese schools were formed. Buddhism Buddhist temples and 40,000 shrines
was a powerful intellectual force in were destroyed, and 260,500 monks and
China; monastic establishments prolifer- nuns were forced to return to lay life.
ated; and Buddhism became established
among the peasantry. Thus, it is not Buddhism After the Tang
surprising that, when the Sui dynasty
(581–618) established its rule over a reuni- Buddhism in China never recovered com-
fied China, Buddhism flourished as a pletely from the great persecution of 845.
state religion. It did maintain much of its heritage, how-
ever, and it continued to play a significant
Developments During role in the religious life of China. On one
the Tang Dynasty (618–907) hand, Buddhism retained its identity as
Buddhism and generated new forms of
The golden age of Buddhism in China expression. These included texts such as
occurred during the Tang dynasty. the you lu (“recorded sayings”) of famous
Although the Tang emperors were usu- teachers, which were oriented primarily
ally Daoists themselves, they favoured toward monks, as well as more literary
Buddhism, which had become extremely creations such as the Journey to the West
popular. Under the Tang the government (written in the 16th century) and Dream
extended its control over the monaster- of the Red Chamber (18th century). On
ies and the ordination and legal status the other hand, Buddhism coalesced with
of monks. From this time forward, the the Confucian, Neo-Confucian, and
Chinese monk styled himself simply Daoist traditions to form a complex mul-
chen (“subject”). tireligious ethos within which all three
During this period several Chinese traditions were more or less comfortably
schools developed their own distinctive encompassed.
approaches and systematized the vast The various schools that retained the
body of Buddhist texts and teachings. greatest vitality in China were the Chan
There was a great expansion in the number school (better known in the West by its
of Buddhist monasteries and the amount Japanese name, Zen), which was noted
of land they owned. It was also during for its emphasis on meditation, and the
this period that many scholars made pil- Pure Land tradition, which emphasized
grimages to India and returned with texts Buddhist devotion. The former school
Buddhism | 121
was most influential among the cultured Sangha, society, and state
elite, especially through the arts. Chan
artists during the Song dynasty (960– Buddhists have always recognized the
1279) had a decisive impact on Chinese importance of community life, and over
landscape painting. Artists used images the centuries there has developed a dis-
of flowers, rivers, and trees, executed tinctive symbiotic relationship between
with sudden, deft strokes, to evoke an monks (and in some cases nuns) and the
insight into the flux and emptiness of lay community. The relationship between
all reality. The Pure Land tradition was the monastics and the laity has differed
most influential among the population from place to place and from time to time,
as a whole and was sometimes associated but throughout most of Buddhist history
with secret societies and peasant upris- both groups have played an essential role
ings. But the two seemingly disparate in the process of constituting and recon-
traditions were often very closely linked. stituting the Buddhist world. Moreover,
In addition, they were mixed with other both the monastics and the laity have
Buddhist elements such as the so-called engaged in a variety of common and
“masses for the dead” that had originally complementary religious practices that
been popularized by the practitioners of have expressed Buddhist orientations
Esoteric Buddhism. and values, structured Buddhist societies,
A reform movement aimed at revital- and addressed the soteriological and
izing the Chinese Buddhist tradition and practical concerns of individuals.
adapting its teachings and institutions to
modern conditions took shape during the Monastic Institutions
early 20th century. However, the disrup-
tions caused by the Sino-Japanese War The sangha is the assembly of Buddhist
(1937–45) and the subsequent establish- monks (and in some contexts nuns)
ment of a communist government in that has, from the origins of Buddhism,
China (1949) were not helpful to the authoritatively studied, taught, and pre-
Buddhist cause. During the Cultural served the teachings of the Buddha. In
Revolution (especially 1966–69), Buddhist their communities monastics have been
temples and monasteries suffered mas- responsible for providing an example of
sive destruction, and the Buddhist the ideal mode of Buddhist life, for teach-
community was the victim of severe ing Buddhist principles and practices to
repression. After 1976 the Chinese gov- the laity, for generating and participat-
ernment pursued a more tolerant policy, ing in basic ritual activities, for offering
and Buddhism began to show new life. “fields of merit” that enable lay members
The extent and depth of continuing of the community to improve their spiri-
Buddhist vitality, however, is difficult to tual condition, for providing protection
determine. against evil forces (particularly though
122 | The Culture of China
Sanghas
According to scholars of
early Buddhism, at the
time of the Buddha there
were numerous mendi-
cants in northeastern
India who wandered
and begged individu-
ally or in groups. They
had forsaken the life
of a householder and
the involvement with
Young Tai pupils studying in a Buddhist monastery. S.E. Hedin/ worldly affairs that this
Ostman Agency entails in order to seek
a pattern of belief and
not exclusively supernatural forces), practice that would meaningfully explain
and for maintaining a variety of other life and offer salvation. When such a
services that have varied over time and seeker met someone who seemed to offer
place. In exchange for their contributions, such a salvific message, he would accept
the monastics have received veneration him as a teacher (guru) and wander with
and support from the laity, who thereby him. The situation of these mendicants
earn merit, advance their own well-being, is summed up in the greeting with which
and contribute to the well-being of others they met other religious wanderers. This
(including, in many cases, the ancestors greeting asked, “Under whose guidance
of the living). have you accepted religious mendicancy?
Besides serving as the centre of Who is your master (sattha)? Whose
Buddhist learning, meditation, ritual dhamma is agreeable to you?”
activity, and teaching, the monastery According to early Buddhist texts,
offers the monk or nun an opportunity to the Buddha established an order of
Buddhism | 123
male monastics early on in his ministry One group retained the wandering mode
and outlined the rules and procedures of existence. The other, much larger, group
for governing their common life. These gave up the forest life and settled in per-
texts also report that later in his career manent monastic settlements (viharas);
he reluctantly agreed to a proposal made it is the earliest truly cenobitic monastic
by his aunt Mahapajapati and supported by group about which any knowledge exists.
his favourite disciple, Ananda, to establish There appear to be two major rea-
an order of nuns. The Buddha then set sons for the change in the mode of
down rules and procedures for the order of living of most Buddhist monks. First, the
the nuns and for the relationship between Buddha’s followers were able, through
the order of nuns and the order of monks. their common loyalty to the Buddha and
(In the discussion that follows, the empha- his teachings, to build up a certain coher-
sis will be on the order of monks.) ent organization. Second, as acts of piety,
The various mendicant groups inter- the laity gave gifts of land and raised
rupted their wanderings during the rainy buildings in which the followers of the
season (vassa) from July through August. Buddha might live permanently, assured
At this time they gathered at various rain of a supply of the staples of life and also
retreats (vassavasa), usually situated able to fulfill the Buddha’s directive to
near villages, where they would beg for minister to the laity. In this manner small
their daily needs and continue their spiri- viharas were established in northeast-
tual quest. The Buddha and his followers ern India and adjoining areas into which
may well have been the first group to Buddhism spread.
found such a yearly rain retreat. In all Buddhist countries monasteries
After the Buddha’s death his followers served as centres of teaching, learning,
did not separate but continued to wan- and outreach. Different types of monastic
der and enjoy the rain retreat together. establishments developed in particular
In their retreats the Buddha’s followers areas and in particular contexts. In several
probably built their own huts and lived regions there were at least two types of
separately, but their sense of community institutions. There were a few large pub-
with other Buddhists led them to gather lic monasteries that usually functioned
at the time of the full and new moons in greater or lesser accord with classical
to recite the patimokkha, a declaration Buddhist norms. There were also many
of their steadfastness in observing the smaller monasteries, often located in
monastic discipline. This occasion, in rural areas, that were much more loosely
which the laity also participated, was regulated. Often these were hereditary
called the uposatha. institutions in which the rights and privi-
Within several centuries of the leges of the abbot were passed on to an
Buddha’s death, the sangha came to adopted disciple. In areas where clerical
include two different monastic groups. marriage was practiced—for example, in
124 | The Culture of China
medieval Sri Lanka, in certain Tibetan Buddha’s teaching, was adopted by the
areas, and in post-Heian Japan—a tradi- early sangha. When an issue arose, all
tion of blood inheritance developed. the monks of the monastery assembled.
The issue was put before the body of
Internal Organization monks and discussed. If any solution was
of the Sangha forthcoming, it had to be read three times,
with silence signifying acceptance. If
The transformation of the sangha from there was debate, a vote might be taken
a group of wandering mendicants, or the issue referred to committee or to
loosely bound together by their commit- arbitration by the elders of a neighbour-
ment to the Buddha and his teachings, ing monastery. As the sangha developed,
to monks living closely together in a a certain division of labour and hierar-
permanent monastery necessitated the chical administration was adopted. The
development of rules and a degree of abbot became the head of this administra-
hierarchical organization. It appears that tive hierarchy and was vested with power
the earliest organization within Indian over monastic affairs. In many countries
monasteries was democratic in nature. there developed state-controlled hier-
This democratic character arose from archies, which enabled kings and other
two important historical factors. First, political authorities to exert a significant
the Buddha did not, as was the custom amount of control over the monks and
among the teachers of his time, designate their activities.
a human successor. Instead, the Buddha The antiauthoritarian character of
taught that each monk should strive to Buddhism, however, continued to assert
follow the path that he had preached. itself. In China, for instance, the abbot
This decision placed every monk on the referred all important questions to the
same footing. There could be no abso- assembled monks, who had elected him
lute authority vested in one person, for their leader. Similarly, in Southeast Asian
the authority was the dhamma that the countries there has traditionally been a
Buddha had taught. Second, the region popular distaste for hierarchy, which makes
in which Buddhism arose was noted for it difficult to enforce rules in the numerous
a system of tribal democracy, or republi- almost-independent monasteries.
canism, that had existed in the past and As the Buddhist sangha developed,
was preserved by some groups during specific rules and rites were enacted that
the Buddha’s lifetime. Within this tradi- differ very little in Buddhist monaster-
tion each polity had an elected assembly ies even today. The rules by which the
that decided important issues. monks are judged and the punishments
This tradition, which was consonant that should be assessed are found in the
with the antiauthoritarian nature of the vinaya texts (vinaya literally means “that
Buddhism | 125
which leads”). The Vinaya Pitaka of the the end of this period, the aspirant had to
Theravada canon contains precepts that pass a test, which included the recitation
were supposedly given by the Buddha as of part of a well-known sutra—the length
he judged a particular situation. While in depending upon whether the applicant
many cases the Buddha’s authorship may was male or female—and a discussion
be doubted, the attempt is made to refer of various doctrinal questions. In China
all authority to the Buddha and not to one usually only those who were of excep-
of his disciples. The heart of the vinaya tional character or who were affiliated
texts is the patimokkha, which became a with the government progressed beyond
list of monastic rules. the novice stage.
Ideally, the patimokkha is recited by According to vinaya rules, entry
the assembled monks every fortnight, into the sangha is an individual affair
with a pause after each one so that any that depends on the wishes of the indi-
monk who has transgressed this rule vidual and his family. In some Buddhist
may confess and receive his punishment. countries, however, ordination was often
While the number of rules in the pati- under the control of the state, which con-
mokkha differs in the various schools, ducted the examinations to determine
with 227, 250, and 253, respectively, in the entry or advancement in the sangha.
Pali, Chinese, and Tibetan canons, the In certain situations ordination could
rules are essentially the same. The first be obtained through the favour of high
part of the patimokkha deals with the officials or through the purchase of an
four gravest sins, which necessarily lead ordination certificate from the govern-
to expulsion from the monastery. They ment. At times the government engaged
are sexual intercourse, theft, murder, and in the selling of ordination certificates in
exaggeration of one’s miraculous powers. order to fill its treasury.
The other rules, in seven sections, deal The life of a Buddhist monk originally
with transgressions of a lesser nature, involved wandering, poverty, begging,
such as drinking or lying. and strict sexual abstinence. The monks
In China, which follows the Mahayana were supposed to live only on alms, to
and Vajrayana traditions of Buddhism, wear clothes made from cloth taken from
there was traditionally a stage of one rubbish heaps, and to possess only three
year before the aspirant could become a robes, one girdle, an alms bowl, a razor,
novice. This was a year of probation, dur- a needle, and a water strainer for filter-
ing which the aspirant did not receive ing insects from drinking water (so as
tonsure and remained subject to gov- not to kill or imbibe them). In all schools,
ernmental taxation and service while however, begging has become merely a
receiving instructions and performing symbolic gesture used to teach humility
menial tasks within the monastery. At or compassion or to raise funds for special
126 | The Culture of China
purposes. Also, the growth of large mon- virtues such as self-giving, compassion,
asteries has often led to compromises and evenhandedness; and the fulfillment
on the rule of poverty. While the monk of responsibilities to parents, teachers,
might technically give up his property rulers, and so on. Moreover, Buddhists
before entering the monastery—though have formulated various notions of cos-
even this rule is sometimes relaxed— mogony, cosmology, and soteriology that
the community of monks might inherit have provided legitimacy for the social
wealth and receive lavish gifts of land. hierarchies and political orders with
The acquisition of wealth has often led to which they have been associated. For the
the attainment of temporal power. This most part, Buddhism has played a conser-
factor, in addition to the self-governing vative, moderating role in the social and
nature of Buddhist monasteries and the political organization of various Asian
early Buddhist connection with Indian societies, but the tradition has also given
kingship, has influenced the interaction rise to more radical and revolutionary
of the sangha and the state. movements.
Over the course of Buddhism’s long
Society and State history, the relationship between the
Buddhist community and state author-
Buddhism is sometimes inaccurately ity has taken many forms. The early
described as a purely monastic, other- Buddhist sangha in India appears to
worldly religion. In the earliest phases have been treated by Indian rulers as a
of the tradition, the Buddha was pic- self-governing unit not subject to their
tured as a teacher who addressed not power unless it proved subversive or
only renouncers but lay householders. was threatened by internal or external
Moreover, although he is not depicted disruption.
in the early texts as a social reformer, In China, Buddhism has been seen
the Buddha does address issues of social as a foreign religion, as a potential com-
order and responsibility. Perhaps the petitor with the state, and as a drain on
most famous early text on this topic is the national resources of men and wealth.
Sigalovada Sutta, which has been called These perceptions have led to sharp
the “householder’s vinaya.” persecutions of Buddhism and to rules
Throughout their history Buddhists curbing its influence. Some of the
have put forth varying forms of social rules attempted to limit the number of
ethics based on notions of karmic jus- monks and to guarantee governmental
tice (the “law” that good deeds will influence in ordination through state
be rewarded with happy results while examinations and the granting of ordi-
evil deeds will entail suffering for the nation certificates. At other times, such
one who does them); the cultivation of as during the early centuries of the
Buddhism | 127
zhenyan
During the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries, Indian Esoteric Buddhism spread to Southeast Asia and
East Asia. In East Asia, especially China, Esoteric Buddhism became established in the Zhenyan
(“True Word”) school.
According to the Zhenyan tradition, Esoteric Buddhism was taken from India to China by three
missionary monks who translated the basic Zhenyan texts. The first monk, Shubhakarasimha, arrived
in China in 716, and he translated the Mahavairocana-sutra and a closely related ritual compendium,
the Susiddhikara, into Chinese. The other two monks, Vajrabodhi and his disciple Amoghavajra,
arrived in 720 and produced two abridged translations of the Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha
(“Symposium of Truth of All the Buddhas”), also known as the Tattvasamgraha.
Between the arrival of Shubhakarasimha and the great persecution of 845, the Zhenyan
school enjoyed amazing success. The tradition of Shubhakarasimha and the Mahavairocana-
sutra merged with that of Vajrabodhi and the Tattvasamgraha. The Chinese disciples of this new
tradition, such as Huiguo, contributed to an emerging Zhenyan synthesis. The combination of
sophisticated doctrinal instruction and miracle-working powers supposedly conferred by the
Esoteric rituals enabled Zhenyan leaders to gain the confidence of the court, especially of
Emperor Daizong (762–779), who rejected Daoism in favour of Zhenyan Buddhism.
Although Zhenyan lost its position of prominence in China after the persecution of 845, it
maintained spiritual vitality and communal visibility through the Song dynasty (960–1279).
Moreover, the Zhenyan school contributed a great deal that has endured in the larger fabric of
Chinese religion.
superseding earlier texts. In this litera- as there are creatures to be saved from
ture the teaching is thought to operate on suffering.
various levels, each adapted to the intel- Beginning with the vow to become a
lectual capacity and karmic propensities buddha, the career of a bodhisattva, accord-
of those who hear it. ing to some texts, traverses 10 stages
or spiritual levels (bhumi) and achieves
Bodhisattva Ideal purification through the practice of the 10
perfections (paramitas). These levels ele-
The purpose of the bodhisattva is to vate the bodhisattva to Buddhahood. The
achieve enlightenment and to fulfill the first six levels are preliminary, represent-
vow to become a buddha. The bodhisat- ing the true practice of the six perfections
tva also foregoes entrance into nirvana (generosity, morality, patience, vigour,
in order to remain in the world as long concentration, and wisdom). Even though
Buddhism | 129
people the path to liberation. The enjoy- and other buddhas. The teaching is
ment (or bliss) body (sambhoga-kaya) is expounded uninterruptedly in the uni-
the celestial body of the Buddha to which verse because worlds and paradises are
contemplation can ascend. In the heav- infinite and all buddhas are consubstan-
enly regions, or Pure Lands, the enjoyment tial with the essential body. They speak to
body teaches the bodhisattva doctrines assemblies of shravakas (disciples), bod-
that are unintelligible to those who are hisattvas, gods, and demons. The authors
unenlightened. The unmanifested body of the new doctrines revealed their reli-
of the law (dharma-kaya) already appears gious enthusiasm in various highly
in the Saddharmapundarika, or Lotus expressive ways, filling their works with
Sutra, a transitional text of great impor- phantasmagoria of celestial choruses,
tance to Mahayana devotional schools. In fabulous visions in which shine flashes of
many Mahayana texts buddhas are infi- new speculations, and trains of thought
nite and share an identical nature—the influenced by Indian speculative and
dharma-kaya. mystical traditions. The texts, from which
As anticipated in ancient schools, new trends spring, overflow with repeti-
the Buddha is the law (dharma) and tions and modulate the same arguments
is identified with an eternal dharma, with a variety of readings.
enlightenment (bodhi), and nirvana. In Mahayana thinkers faced the daunt-
later schools real existence is opposed ing challenge of producing a completely
to the mere appearance of existence, and logical arrangement of this prolix lit-
voidness, the “thingness of things,” an erature, some of which had legendary
undefinable condition, present and immu- origins. The Prajnaparamita (“Perfection
table within the Buddhas, is stressed. All of Wisdom”) and the Avatamsaka-sutras
is in the dharma-kaya, the third body and (“Flower Ornament Sutra”), for instance,
expression of ultimate reality; nothing are said to have been concealed by the
is outside it, just as nothing is outside nagas, demigods that live in miraculous
space; transcendence and immanence palaces in an underground kingdom.
come together. Other schools posit a There are various Prajnaparamita
presence that is innate within all human texts, ranging from 100,000 verses
beings, even if it is not perceived. It is like (the Shatasahasrika) to only a few
a gem hidden in dross, which shines in lines (the Prajnaparamitahrdaya-
its purity as soon as the veil of ignorance sutra, famous in English as the Heart
has been removed. Sutra). The fundamental assumption
of the Prajnaparamita is expounded
New Revelations in a famous verse: “like light, a mirage,
a lamp, an illusion, a drop of water, a
New revelations are made on earth and dream, a lightning flash; thus must all
in heavenly paradises by Shakyamuni compounded things be considered.” Not
Buddhism | 131
only is there no “self,” but all things lack Nagarjuna is the presumed author of the
a real nature (svabhava) of their own. voluminous Mahaprajnaparamita-shastra
The Prajnaparamita-sutras announce (“The Great Treatise on the Perfection
that the world as it appears to us does of Wisdom”), preserved in its Chinese
not exist, that reality is the indefin- translation (402–405) by Kumarajia, and
able “thingness of things” (tathata; the Mulamadhyamakakarika (more com-
dharmanam dharmata), that voidness monly known as Madhyamika Karika;
(shunyata) is an absolute “without signs “Fundamentals of the Middle Way”),
or characteristics” (animitta). which is considered by many to be the
Madhyamika work par excellence. The
Mahayana Schools main work of Aryadeva, the Catuhshataka,
and Their Texts criticizes other forms of Buddhism and the
classical Sanskrit philosophical systems.
The Mahayana tradition encompasses Nagarjuna and his followers sought
a great many different schools, includ- a middle position, devoid of name
ing the Madhyamika; the Yogacara and character and beyond all thought
or Vijnanavada (Vijnaptamatrata); and words. They used rigorous logic
the Avatamsaka school, which recog- to demonstrate the absurdity of vari-
nized the special importance of the ous philosophical positions, including
Avatamsaka Sutra; a number of differ- those of Hindus and other Buddhists.
ent schools that recognized the special Assuming that contradiction is proof
authority of the Saddharmapundarika of error, Nagarjuna took any point of
(Lotus Sutra); various Pure Land devo- view that would reveal the error of his
tional schools; and several Dhyana opponents. He did not, however, accept
(“Meditation”) schools. the opposing point of view but used it
only as a means to expose the relativity
Madhyamika (Sanlun/Sanron) of the system he was attacking. Because
he was willing to refute his first position,
The Madhyamika (“Doctrine of the Middle he could claim adherence to no doc-
Way”) system, also known as Shunyavada trine. Moreover, Nagarjuna attempted to
(“Theory of Negativity or Relativity”), prove that all worldly thought is empty
held both subject and object to be unreal (shunya) or relative and that the true
and systematized the doctrine of shun- path is that of the middle, the path that
yata (“cosmic emptiness”) contained in is between or, more correctly, above
the Prajnaparamita literature. extremes. This belief has been called
Along with his disciple Aryadeva, the the doctrine of emptiness of all things,
Indian philosopher Nagarjuna (c. 150–250 which posits that all things lack essential
CE) is recognized as the founder and prin- characteristics and exist only in relation
cipal exponent of the Madhyamika system. to conditions surrounding them.
132 | The Culture of China
Nagarjuna presented this middle By following this path, one can be saved.
path above extremes in his statement of Thus, Nagarjuna taught that through the
the Eightfold Path of Buddhism: middle path of Madhyamika, which is
identified as the Buddha’s true teachings,
Nothing comes into being, nor one is guided to an experience beyond
does anything disappear. Nothing affirmation and negation, being and non-
is eternal, nor has anything an being. Madhyamika is a philosophy that
end. Nothing is identical, nor is can rightly be called a doctrine of salva-
anything differentiated. Nothing tion, for it claims to present humans with
moves here, nor does anything a system that leads to rescue from their
move there. situation.
The Madhyamika school divided
In presenting these pairs of oppo- into two subtraditions in the 5th and 6th
sites, Nagarjuna taught that anything that centuries. The Prasangika school, which
can be conceptualized or put into words emphasized a more negative form of argu-
is relative. This led to the Madhyamika mentation, was founded by Buddhapalita
identification of nirvana and samsara, (c. 470–540), who wrote many works,
which are empty concepts with the truth including a commentary on Nagarjuna’s
lying somewhere beyond. Madhyamika Karika. The school was
After the world’s emptiness or relativ- continued by Candrakirti, a famous
ity has been proved, the question arises logician of the 7th century and author
of how one is to go beyond this position. of a commentary on the Madhyamika
Nagarjuna answered with the doctrine of Karika, and by Shantideva (c. 650–750),
the two truths, explaining that humans whose Shiksa-samuccaya (“Summary of
can gain salvation and are not irreconcil- Training”) and Bodhicaryavatara (“The
ably caught in this world, which can be Coming of the Bodhisattva Way of Life”)
used as a ladder leading to the absolute. are among the most popular Mahayana
In his doctrine the relative truth is of this literary works.
existence. This leads first to the realiza- The Svatantrika school, which uti-
tion that all things are empty of subhava lized a syllogistic mode of argumentation,
(“own being”) and then to the intuition of was founded by Bhavaviveka, a con-
an absolute truth beyond all conceptions. temporary of Buddhapalita and author
The link between these two truths—the of a commentary on the Madhyamika
relative and the absolute—is the Buddha. Karika. Santiraksita, a great scholar who
He experienced the absolute truth, wrote the Tattvasamgraha (“Summary of
which is nisprapanca—i.e., inexplicable Essentials”) and the Madhyamikalankara
in speech and unrealizable in ordinary Karika (“Verses on the Ornament of the
thought—and yet he returned to point Madhyamika Teaching”), continued the
to this truth in the phenomenal world. school. Both the Svatantrika tradition
Buddhism | 133
and the Prasangika tradition strongly include doctrines that were to be influ-
influenced Buddhist philosophy in Tibet. enced by Yogacara teaching.
The missionary translator Kumarajiva The special characteristics of
took the Madhyamika school to China Yogacara are its emphasis on medi-
from India in the 5th century. Three of tation and a broadly psychological
the texts that he translated from Sanskrit analysis, which contrasts with the other
into Chinese—the Madhyamika Karika great Mahayana system, Madhyamika,
and the Dvadashamukha-shastra or where the emphasis is on logical analysis
Dvadasha-dvara-shastra (“The Twelve and dialectic. Its central doctrine, however,
Topics or Gates Treatise”) of Nagarjuna is that only consciousness (vijnanamatra;
and the Shata-shastra (“One Hundred hence the name Vijnanavada) is real and
Verses Treatise”) of Aryadeva—became that eternal things do not exist. Thought
the basic texts of the Chinese Sanlun or mind is the ultimate reality, and noth-
(Japanese: Sanron), or “Three Treatise,” ing exists outside the mind, according to
school of Madhyamika. Although this this school. The common view that exter-
school was challenged by the Silun, nal things exist is due to an error that can
or “Four Treatise,” school, which also be removed by a meditative or yogic pro-
accepted the Mahaprajnaparamita- cess that brings an inner concentration
shastra as a basic text, Sanlun regained and tranquility and a complete withdrawal
preeminence as a result of the teachings or “revulsion” from fictitious externalities.
of Sengzhao, Kumarajiva’s disciple, and Alaya-vijnana (“store” or “storehouse
later of Jizang. Both of these Chinese consciousness”) is postulated as the
Madhyamika masters commented on receptacle of the imprint of thoughts and
Nagarjuna’s thesis in numerous influen- deeds, the vasana (literally, “dwelling”) of
tial works. various karmic seeds (bijas). The “seeds”
develop into touch, mental activity, feel-
Yogacara/Vijnanavada ing, perception, and will, corresponding
(Faxiang/Hossō) to the five skandhas (“aggregates”; parts
of an individual personality). This is fol-
The Yogacara (or Vijnanavada) school lowed first by the emergence of ideation
was founded, according to tradition, by (manas), which sets off the self or mind
the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu from the world, and then by the realiza-
(4th/5th century CE) and by Sthiramati tion that objects exist only through the
(6th century), who systematized doc- sense perceptions and thought of subject.
trines found in the Lankavatara-sutra and The store consciousness must be purged
the Mahayana-shraddhotpada-shastra of its subject-object duality and restored
(attributed to Ashvaghosa but probably to its pure state. This pure state is equiva-
written in Central Asia or in China). lent to the absolute “suchness” (tathata),
Later Mahayana and Esoteric Buddhism to Buddhahood, to the undifferentiated.
134 | The Culture of China
influence in Japanese Buddhism that has facts harmonized; and a world of factual
continued to the present day. realities interwoven and mutually iden-
The school’s most significant doc- tified. The first three aspects are the
trine is the theory of causation by particular emphases of other Buddhist
dharma-dhatu (“totality” or “universal schools. The fourth aspect—emphasizing
principle”), according to which all ele- the harmonious whole—is the distinc-
ments arise simultaneously, the whole tive doctrine that represents the perfect
of things creates itself, ultimate prin- knowledge that was attained by the bud-
ciples and concrete manifestations are dha Vairocana and is communicated in
interfused, and the manifestations are the Avatamsaka-sutra.
mutually identical. Thus, in Fazang’s
Essay on the Golden Lion, written for the Tiantai/Tendai
empress Wu Hou, gold is the essential
nature or principle (Chinese: li), and lion The school known as Tiantai in China
is the particular manifestation or form and Tendai in Japan is one of the most
(Chinese: shi). Moreover, as gold, each important schools in Chinese and
part or particle expresses the whole lion Japanese Buddhism. It is significant for
and is identical with every other part or its doctrines, which in many respects
particle. This model suggests that all phe- are similar to those of the Huayan/
nomena in the universe are expressions of Kegon school, and for its influence on
the ultimate suchness or voidness while devotion. The school’s doctrines and
at the same time retaining their phenom- practices are focused on the Indian or
enal character; each phenomenon is both Central Asian Saddharmapundarika-
“all” and “one.” All the constituents of the sutra (“Lotus of the True Law Sutra”)
world (the dharmas) are interdependent as well as on the Mahaparinirvana and
and possess a sixfold nature: universality, Mahaprajnaparamita-sutras.
speciality, similarity, diversity, integra- Sometimes called Lotus (Fahua in
tion, and differentiation. Chinese; Hokke in Japanese), this school,
The ideal expressed in this doctrine which apparently had no separate devel-
is a harmonious totality of things lead- opment in India, took its name from the
ing to the perfectly enlightened buddha. mountain in southeastern China where
The buddha nature is present potentially the basic interpretation of the Lotus Sutra
in all things. There are an infinite number was first propounded in the 6th century.
of buddhas and buddha realms. There are The origins of the school, however, are to
myriads of buddhas in every grain of sand be found in the early 5th century when
and a buddha realm at the tip of a hair. the original text of the Sanskrit sutra was
The universe is fourfold: a world of translated into Chinese by Kumarajiva
factual, practical reality; a world of prin- and was then taught in North China by
ciple or theory; a world of principle and the monks and first patriarchs, Huiwen
Buddhism | 137
and Huisi. The latter’s student Zhiyi, are believed to accrue religious merit.
who established a famous monastery on In the Lotus the three ways of salva-
Mount Tiantai (“Heavenly Terrace”), is tion supposedly preached by the Buddha
regarded as the true founder of the school are adjusted to the level and situation of
because he propounded the systematic the hearers: shravakayana, the way of
interpretation of Lotus doctrines that the disciples (shravakas), appropriate for
came to be widely accepted. His inter- becoming an arhat; pratyeka-buddhay-
pretation spread to Japan in the early ana, the way of those who aim at salvation
9th century, where Saichō (known post- for themselves alone; and bodhisattvay-
humously as Dengyō Daishi), a Buddhist ana, the way of those (the bodhisattvas)
priest who studied the teachings first who, on the point of attaining salvation,
in Japan and then on Mount Tiantai, give it up to work for the salvation of all
founded a Japanese Tendai school. He other beings. All are forms of the one way,
also founded a monastery on Mount Hiei the buddhayana, and the aim for all is to
that became one of Japan’s greatest cen- become a buddha.
tres of Buddhist learning. The Tiantai/Tendai tradition divides
Along with the Esoteric Buddhist the Buddha’s teachings into five peri-
school of Shingon, with which it was ods. The first immediately followed the
closely connected, Tendai became one Buddha’s enlightenment, when, without
of the most important influences on success, he preached the Avatamsaka-
Japanese religious culture. Tendai has sutra (or Huayan/Kegon Sutra). The
been markedly syncretistic, incorporat- second is the so-called Deer Park period,
ing the teachings of various Buddhist when he preached the Agamas (Hinayana
schools and those of Shintō, the indige- scriptures) to those with ordinary human
nous Japanese religion, into its traditions. capacities. In the third or Fangdeng
The Lotus Sutra, which is recog- (“broad and equal”) period, he preached
nized by Tiantai and Tendai as the locus the Vaipulya or early Mahayana teach-
of the most exalted Buddhist teaching, ings, which were intended for all persons.
emphasizes the notion of the one way (or During the fourth period he preached the
“vehicle” or “career”) for attaining salva- Mahaprajnaparamita, or Ta-pan-jo-po-
tion (Buddhahood). It claims to be the lo-mi-to, doctrines concerning absolute
definitive and complete teaching of the voidness and the falsity of all distinctions.
Buddha, who is depicted as a transcen- Finally, in the Saddharmapundarika and
dent eternal being, preaching to arhats, Mahaparinirvana (“Wisdom”) period, he
gods, bodhisattvas, and other figures, taught the identity of contrasts, the unity
using all sorts of sermons, lectures, imag- of the three “vehicles,” and the ultimate
inative parables, and miracles. The Lotus authority of the Lotus Sutra.
is an object of devotion in this school, Central to Tiantai/Tendai doctrine is
and those who preach, recite, or hear it the threefold truth principle (following
138 | The Culture of China
Buddha at the moment of death, then one Amitabha, a practice based on the 18th
will be reborn in the Pure Land. vow of Dharmakara. Furthermore, in
Dharmakara, it is believed, attained Pure Land Buddhism the attainment of
Buddhahood and is known as the bud- nirvana is not the most prominent goal;
dha Amitabha (Sanskrit: “Infinite Light”; it is rather to become reborn in the Pure
Chinese: Emituofo; Japanese: Amida) Land of Amitabha.
or the buddha Amitayus (Sanskrit: These doctrines and the practice of
“Infinite Lifespan”). He is flanked in the invoking the name Amitabha—called
Pure Land he created in fulfillment of nembutsu in Japanese and nianfo in
his vows by Avalokitesvara (Chinese: Chinese—became popular in China and
Guanyin; Japanese: Kannon) on his left Japan, where it was believed that the
and Mahasthamaprapta on his right, who world had reached the decadent age,
assist Amitabha in bringing the faithful the so-called “latter days of the law” in
to salvation. which Buddhist doctrines were unclear
By the 3rd century CE, the Amitabhist and humans lacked the purity of heart or
doctrine had spread from India to China, determination to attain salvation by their
where a school based on it gradu- efforts. Therefore, the only hope was to
ally became the most popular form of be saved by the grace of Amitabha. This
Buddhism. Followers of the Tendai school doctrine of grace became more and more
took Amitabhist teachings to Japan, radical, until individual actions were said
where they attempted to weld the many by some to play no part in the attainment
sects of Buddhism into one system. By of salvation.
the 13th century CE, the Pure Land sect Tanluan and the other 6th–7th-
had separated from the Tendai school century Chinese Pure Land patriarchs,
and spread among the common people of Daochuo and Shandao, were among
Japan through the work of two outstand- those who rejected the role of works
ing figures, Hōnen and Shinran. in salvation. Originally a follower of
The basic doctrines of the Pure Land Daoism, Tanluan, while searching for the
schools emphasize the importance of elixir of immortality, was converted to the
devotion. Pure Land leaders teach that Pure Land doctrine by an Indian monk.
a person reaches salvation not by indi- Dedicating his life to the spread of this
vidual effort or the accumulation of doctrine, Tanluan preached the invoca-
merit but through faith in the grace of tion of the name Amitabha and declared
the buddha Amitabha. The main prac- that even evil persons were eligible for
tice of those who follow the Pure Land the Pure Land if they sincerely uttered
teachings is not the study of the texts the nembutsu. He warned, however, that
or meditation on the Buddha but rather the lowest hell awaited those who reviled
the constant invocation of the name the Buddhist dharma.
140 | The Culture of China
Falun Gong
The controversial Chinese spiritual movement called Falun Gong (Falungong, Falundafa) was
founded by Li Hongzhi in 1992. Its name means “the Practice of the Wheel of Dharma,” and its
adherents exercise ritually to obtain mental and spiritual renewal. The teachings of Falun Gong
draw from the Asian religious traditions of Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism, and Chinese folk-
lore as well as those of Western New Age movements. The movement’s sudden emergence in the
1990s was a great concern to the Chinese government, which viewed Falun Gong as a cult.
The origins of the movement are found both in long-standing Chinese practices and in recent
events. Qi Gong (Chinese: “Energy Working”), the use of meditation techniques and physical
exercise to achieve both good health and peace of mind, has a long history in Chinese culture and
religion; however, practitioners in modern China present these techniques as purely secular in an
effort to escape official restrictions against independent religious activity. Nevertheless, in the
late 20th century new masters appeared who taught forms of Qi Gong more clearly rooted in reli-
gion. The most influential of these masters, Li Hongzhi (born in 1951, according to followers, or in
1952, according to critics, who contend that Li “adjusted” his birthdate to lend it Buddhist spiri-
tual significance), worked in law enforcement and corporate security before becoming the
full-time spiritual leader of Falun Gong in 1992.
While in traditional Chinese Buddhism falun means the “wheel of law” or “wheel of dharma,”
Li used the word to indicate the centre of spiritual energy, which he located in the lower abdomen
and believed could be awakened through a set of exercises called Xiu Lian (“Cultivating and
Practicing”). Unlike other Qi Gong groups, Falun Gong insists that its founder is the only authori-
tative source for determining the correct exercises and that a spiritual discipline, the “cultivation
of the Xinxing” (“Mind-Nature”), is essential to the success of the exercises. On a more esoteric
level, Li also taught that demonic space aliens seek to destroy humanity and, since their arrival
in 1900, have manipulated scientists and world leaders. Critics of the movement not only ridicule
such claims but regard its reliance on Xiu Lian as an alternative to official medicine as hazard-
ous to the members’ health. Indeed, the Chinese government claims that 1,400 Falun Gong
devotees have died as a result of this alleged rejection of modern medicine.
After gathering a large following in China (100 million, according to Falun Gong, or
between 2 and 3 million, according to the Chinese government), Li took his movement abroad
in the mid-1990s, settling permanently in New York City in 1998. The next year, a massive cam-
paign was launched by the medical establishment (including both practitioners and academics)
and the Chinese government to denounce Falun Gong as a xiejiao (“teaching of falsehood,” or
“cult”). Unlike other Chinese organizations, Falun Gong responded strongly, staging an unau-
thorized demonstration of more than 10,000 followers in Beijing on April 25, 1999, which
prompted an even greater government response. In October the enforcement of a new anticult
law led to the arrest of 100 Falun Gong leaders ( joining 1,000 members who had been arrested
earlier). Public trials began in November and continued into the 21st century, with many
144 | The Culture of China
defendants receiving prison sentences of up to 12 years. While the Chinese government gained
the cooperation of some Western “anticult” groups in its domestic and international campaign
to expose Falun Gong as a “cult,” it was also criticized by human rights organizations who
denounced inter alia the suspicious deaths, allegedly by accident, of some Falun Gong mem-
bers detained in Chinese jails.
The government’s actions were rooted in concerns about the recent revival of independent
religious activities in China and fears of the revolutionary nature of religious movements in
Chinese history (e.g, the Taiping Rebellion).
of other buddhas and bodhisattvas came rites and the performance of particular
to supplement or replace the veneration rituals. Already within the first two centu-
of the Buddha Gautama. In the course of ries of the Buddha’s death, pilgrimage had
Buddhist history, the forms have become become an important component in the
diverse, but the practice of honouring and life of the Buddhist community. It retains
even worshiping the Buddha or Buddha that significance to this day.
figure has remained a central component
in all Buddhist traditions. Anniversaries
The second basic practice is the
exchange that takes place between The three major events of the Buddha’s life—
monks and laypersons. Like the Buddha his birth, enlightenment, and entrance into
himself, the monks embody or represent final nirvana—are commemorated in all
the higher levels of spiritual achievement, Buddhist countries but not everywhere on
which they make available in various the same day. In Theravada countries the
ways to the laity. The laity improve their three events are all observed together on
soteriological condition by giving the Vesak, the full moon day of the sixth lunar
monks material gifts that function as sac- month (Vesakha), which usually occurs in
rificial offerings. Although the exchange May. In Japan and other Mahayana coun-
is structured differently in each Buddhist tries, however, the three anniversaries of
tradition, it has remained until recently the Buddha are observed on separate days
a component in virtually all forms of (in some countries the birth date is April
Buddhist community life. 8, the enlightenment date is December 8,
Both of these practices appear inde- and the death date is February 15). Festival
pendently within the tradition. The days honouring other buddhas and bod-
veneration of the Buddha or Buddha fig- hisattvas of the Mahayana and Vajrayana
ure is a common ritual often practiced traditions are also observed, and consider-
independently of other rituals. Both of able emphasis is placed on anniversaries
these practices, however, are embedded connected with the patriarchs of certain
in one way or another in virtually all other schools. Padmasambhava’s anniversary,
Buddhist rituals, including calendric ritu- for example, is especially observed by
als, pilgrimage rituals, rites of passage, the Rnying-ma-pa sect in Tibet, and the
and protective rites. birthday of Nichiren is celebrated by his
followers in Japan.
Calendric Rites and
Pilgrimage All Souls Festival
The Buddhist calendar contains a number The importance of the virtues of filial
of holy days, anniversaries, and festivals, piety and the reverence of ancestors
each dedicated to the observance of certain in China and Japan have established
146 | The Culture of China
Ullambana, or All Souls Day, as one of the One of the most remarkable examples
major Buddhist festivals in those coun- of the absorption of a local New Year’s
tries. In China worshipers in Buddhist celebration in Buddhist practice was the
temples make fachuan (“boats of the Smonlam festival in Tibet, celebrated on
law”) out of paper, some very large, which a large scale in Lhasa until the beginning
are then burned in the evening. The pur- of Chinese communist rule in 1959. The
pose of the celebration is twofold: to festival was instituted in 1408 by Tsong-
remember the dead and to free those who kha-pa, the founder of the Dge-lugs-pa
are suffering as pretas, or hell beings, so sect, who transformed an old custom into
that they may ascend to heaven. Under a Buddhist festivity. Smonlam took place
the guidance of Buddhist temples, soci- at the beginning of the winter thaw, when
eties (hui, Youlanhui) are formed to carry caravans began to set out once again
out the necessary ceremonies—lanterns and the hunting season was resumed.
are lit, monks are invited to recite sacred The observances included exorcistic cer-
verses, and offerings of fruit are made. An emonies performed privately within each
8th-century Indian monk, Amoghavajra, family to remove evil forces lying in wait
is said to have introduced the ceremony for individuals as well as for the com-
into China, from where it was transmitted munity as a whole. They also included
to Japan. During the Japanese festival propitiatory rites performed to ward off
of Bon, two altars are constructed, one evil such as droughts, epidemics, or hail
to make offerings to the spirits of dead during the coming year. During the more
ancestors and the other to make offer- public propitiatory rites, the sangha
ings to the souls of those dead who have cooperated with the laity by invoking
no peace. Odorinembutsu (the chanting the merciful forces that watch over good
of invocations accompanied by dancing order, and processions, fireworks, and var-
and singing) and invocations to Amida ious amusements created an atmosphere
are features of the Bon celebrations. of hopefulness. Through the collabora-
tion of the monastic community and the
New Year’s and Harvest Festivals laity, a general reserve of good karma
was accumulated to see everyone through
New Year’s festivals demonstrate the dangerous moment of passage from the
Buddhism’s ability to co-opt preexist- old year to the new.
ing local traditions. On the occasion of Harvest festivals also provide
the New Year, images of the Buddha in Buddhism an opportunity to adopt local
some countries are taken in procession customs and adapt them to the Buddhist
through the streets. Worshipers visit calendar. The harvest festival celebrated
Buddhist sanctuaries and circumam- in the Tibetan villages during the eighth
bulate a stupa or a sacred image, and lunar month was quite different from the
monks are given food and other gifts. New Year ceremonies. Most commonly,
Buddhism | 147
offerings of thanks were made to local have become sacred sites that draw pil-
deities in rites that were only externally grims from both near and far. In China,
Buddhist. The same interplay between for example, four such mountain sites are
Buddhism and folk tradition is observ- especially important: Emei, Wutai, Putuo,
able elsewhere. An integral part of the and Jiuhua. Each is devoted to a different
harvest celebrations in many Buddhist bodhisattva whose temples and monas-
countries is the sacred performance of an teries are located on the mountainside. In
episode in the life of a buddha or a bod- many Buddhist regions there are pilgrim-
hisattva. In Tibet, for instance, troupes ages that include stops at a whole series
of actors specialize in performances of of sacred places. One of the most inter-
Buddhist legends. esting of these is the Shikoku pilgrimage
in Japan, which involves visits to 88 tem-
Buddhist Pilgrimage ples located along a route that extends
for more than 1,130 km (700 miles).
Throughout early Buddhist history Buddhist pilgrimages, like those in
there were at least four major pilgrim- other religions, are undertaken for a wide
age centres—the place of the Buddha’s range of reasons. For some Buddhists
birth at Lumbini, the place of his enlight- pilgrimage is a discipline that fosters
enment at Bodh Gaya, the Deer Park in spiritual development; for others it is the
Varanasi (Benares), where he supposedly fulfillment of a vow made, for example,
preached his first sermon, and the village to facilitate recovery from an illness; and
of Kusinara, which was recognized as the for others it is simply an occasion for
place of his Parinirvana (final nirvana or travel and enjoyment. Whatever its moti-
final death). vations, pilgrimage remains one of the
During the post-Asokan period, four most important Buddhist practices.
other sites in northeastern India became
preeminent pilgrimage sites. In addi- Rites of Passage and
tion to these eight primary sites in the Protective Rites
Buddhist “homeland,” major pilgrimage
centres have emerged in every region Buddhists practice three major types of
or country where Buddhism has been rites: initiation rites, funeral rites, and
established. Many local temples have protective rites.
their own festivals associated with a relic
enshrined there or an event in the life of Initiation Rites
a sacred figure. Some of these, such as
the display of the tooth relic at Kandy, Sri Admission to the sangha involves two
Lanka, are occasions for great celebra- distinct acts: pabbajja (lower ordination),
tions attracting many pilgrims. In many which consists of renunciation of secular
Buddhist countries famous mountains life and acceptance of monastic life as a
148 | The Culture of China
novice, and upasampada (higher ordina- initiate meditates on the vajra (Sanskrit:
tion), official consecration as a monk. The “thunderbolt”) as a symbol of Vajrasattva
evolution of the procedure is not entirely Buddha (the Adamantine Being), on the
clear; in early times the two acts probably bell as a symbol of the void, and on the
occurred at the same time. Subsequently, mudra (ritual gesture) as “seal.” The intent
the Vinaya established that upasampada, of the initiation ceremony is to produce an
or full acceptance into the monastic com- experience that anticipates the moment of
munity, should not occur before the age of death. The candidate emerges reborn as a
20, which, if the pabbajja ceremony took new being, a state marked by his receipt of
place as early as the age of 8, would mean a new name.
after 12 years of training. Ordination could
not occur without the permission of the Funeral Rites
aspirant’s parents. The initial Pali formula
was “Ehi bhikkhu,” “Come, O monk!” The origin of Buddhist funeral obser-
In Mahayana Buddhism new rituals vances can be traced back to Indian
were added to the ceremony of ordina- customs. The cremation of the body of
tion prescribed by the Pali Vinaya. The the Buddha and the subsequent distribu-
declaration of the Triple Refuge is as cen- tion of his ashes are told in the
tral an assertion as ever, but special Mahaparinibbana Sutta (“Sutta on the
emphasis is placed on the candidate’s Great Final Deliverance”). Early Chinese
intention to achieve enlightenment and travelers such as Faxian described crema-
his undertaking of the vow to become a tions of venerable monks. After cremation
bodhisattva. Five monks are required for the ashes and bones of the monk were
the ordination: the head monk, one who collected and a stupa built over them.
guards the ceremony, a master of secrets That this custom was widely observed is
(the esoteric teachings, such as mantras), evident from the large number of stupas
and two assisting officiants. found near monasteries.
The esoteric content of Vajrayana With less pomp, cremation is also
tradition requires a more complex con- used for ordinary monks and laymen,
secration ceremony. Along with other though not universally. In Sri Lanka, for
ordination rites, preparatory study, and example, burial is also common, and in
training in yoga, the Tantric neophyte Tibet, because of the scarcity of wood,
receives abhiseka (Sanskrit: “sprinkling” of cremation is rare. The bodies of great
water). This initiation takes several forms, lamas, such as the Dalai and Panchen
each of which has its own corresponding lamas, are placed in rich stupas in atti-
vidya (Sanskrit: “wisdom”), rituals, and eso- tudes of meditation, while lay corpses are
teric formulas and is associated with one of exposed in remote places to be devoured
the five Celestial or Dhyani Buddhas. The by vultures and wild animals.
Buddhism | 149
Bardo thödol
Also called the Tibetan Book of the Dead, Bardo Thödol is a Tibetan Buddhist funerary text
that is recited to ease the consciousness of a recently deceased person through death and assist
it into a favourable rebirth. Its Tibetan name means “Liberation in the Intermediate State
Through Hearing.”
A central tenet of all schools of Buddhism is that attachment to and craving for worldly
things spurs suffering and unease (dukkha), which influence actions whose accumulated effects,
or karma, bind individuals to the process of death and rebirth (samsara). Those who have attained
enlightenment (bodhi) are thereby released from this process, attaining liberation (moksha).
Those who remain unenlightened are drawn by karma, whether good or bad, into a new life in one
of six modes of existence: as a sufferer in hell (enduring horrible torture), as a wandering ghost
(driven by insatiable craving), as an animal (ruled by instinct), as a demigod (lustful for power),
as a human being (balanced in instinct and reason), or as a god (deluded by a long life into
believing in one’s own immortality).
The Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism that emerged in Central Asia and particularly in Tibet
developed the concept of the bardos, the intermediate or transitional states that mark an indi-
vidual’s life from birth to death and rebirth. The period between death and rebirth lasts 49 days
and involves three bardos. The first is the moment of death itself. The consciousness of the newly
deceased becomes aware of and accepts the fact that it has recently died, and it reflects upon
its past life. In the second bardo, it encounters frightening apparitions. Without an understand-
ing that these apparitions are unreal, the consciousness becomes confused and, depending
upon its karma, may be drawn into a rebirth that impedes its liberation. The third bardo is the
transition into a new body.
While in the bardo between life and death, the consciousness of the deceased can still
apprehend words and prayers spoken on its behalf, which can help it to navigate through
its confusion and be reborn into a new existence that offers a greater chance of attaining
enlightenment. Reciting of the Bardo Thödol, usually performed by a lama (religious teacher),
begins shortly before death (if possible) and continues throughout the 49-day period leading
to rebirth.
Although tradition attributes the Bardo Thödol to Padmasambhava, the Indian Tantric
guru (spiritual guide) who is credited with introducing Buddhism to Tibet in the 7th century,
the book was likely composed in the 14th century. Since the early 20th century it has been trans-
lated into English and other Western languages many times. The first English-language
translation was made by Walter Evans-Wentz (1927), who titled the work The Tibetan Book of
the Dead because of certain similarities he claimed to detect between it and the Egyptian Book
of the Dead—for example, the existence of stages through which the deceased must travel
before rebirth.
150 | The Culture of China
Buddhists generally agree that the against various kinds of danger and to
thoughts held by a person at the moment exorcise evil influences.
of death are of essential significance. For In the Mahayana and Esoteric tradi-
this reason sacred texts are sometimes tions, the role taken by protective and
read to the dying person to prepare the exorcistic rituals is great. For example,
mind for the moment of death; similarly, dharanis (short statements of doctrine
sacred texts may be read to the newly dead, that supposedly encapsulate its power)
since the conscious principle is thought to and mantras (a further reduction of the
remain in the body for about three days dharani, often to a single word) were
following death. In Tibetan, Mongolian, widely used for this purpose. Protective
and Chinese lamaseries, a lama some- and exorcistic rituals that used such
times recites the famous Bardo Thödol. dharanis and mantras were extremely
important in the process through which
Protective Rites the populations of Tibet and East Asia
were converted to Buddhism. They have
From a very early period in its develop- remained an integral part of the Buddhist
ment, Buddhism has included within traditions in these areas, reaching what
its repertoire of religious practices spe- was perhaps their fullest development
cific rituals that are intended to protect in Tibet.
ChaPtER 7
Chinese art
aRt as a REFLECtIOn
OF ChInEsE CLass stRuCtuRE
to emerge the concept of cultural prac- were denigrated and an emphasis was
tice as the product of the leisure of the placed on anonymous, proletarian-made
educated gentry, many of whom were art like that of the Tang dynasty (618–907)
amateur practitioners of the arts of and earlier.
poetry, music, calligraphy, and, eventu-
ally, painting. At this time a distinction Linearity
began to arise between the lower-class
professional and the elite amateur art- Since the 3rd century CE, calligraphy, or
ist; this distinction would have a great writing as a fine art, has been considered
influence on the character of Chinese supreme among the visual arts in China.
art in later times. Gradually one tradi- Not only does it require immense skill
tion became identified with the artists and fine judgment, but it is regarded as
and craftsmen who worked for the court uniquely revealing of the character and
or sold their work for profit. The schol- breadth of cultivation of the writer. Since
arly amateurs looked upon such people the time when inscribed oracle bones
with some contempt, and the visual arts and tortoise shells (China’s oldest extant
of the literati became a separate tradi- writing) were used for divination in the
tion that was increasingly refined and Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE), callig-
rarefied to the point that, from the Song raphy has been associated with spiritual
dynasty (960–1279) onward, an assumed communication and has been viewed in
awkwardness (zhuo) or understatement terms of the writer’s own spiritual attun-
(pingdan) in technique was admired as a ement. It is believed that the appreciation
mark of the amateur and gentleman. As a and production of calligraphy requires
medium of highly individual expression, lofty personal qualities and unusual aes-
painting and calligraphy also became thetic sensitivity. The comprehension of
important media of exchange in a social its finer points is thought to require expe-
economy where the giving of gifts was rience and sensibility of a high order.
central to the building of an interper- The Chinese painter uses essentially
sonal network. Like skill in letters, poetry, the same materials as the calligrapher—
or music, skill and expressive quality in brush, ink, and silk or paper—and the
the practice of calligraphy and painting Chinese judge his work by the same
helped establish one’s status in a society criteria they use for the calligrapher, basi-
of learned individuals. cally the vitality and expressiveness of
One effect of the revolutions of the the brush stroke itself and the harmoni-
20th century was the breaking down of ous rhythm of the whole composition.
the class barriers between amateur and Painting in China is, therefore, essentially
professional. During the Cultural Revo- a linear art. The painters of most peri-
lution of 1966–76, literati art and artists ods were not concerned with striving for
Chinese Art | 153
originality or conveying a sense of real- nature was seen as the visible manifesta-
ity and three-dimensional mass through tion of the workings of a higher power
aids such as shading and perspective; through the generative interaction of
rather, they focused on using silk or the yin-yang (female-male) dualism. As
paper to transmit, through the rhythmic it developed, the purpose of Chinese art
movement of the brush stroke, an aware- turned from propitiation and sacrifice to
ness of the inner life of things. the expression of human understanding
The aesthetics of line in calligraphy of these forces, in the form of painting of
and painting have had a significant influ- landscapes, bamboo, birds, and flowers.
ence on the other arts in China. In the This might be called the metaphysical,
motifs that adorn the ritual bronzes, in Daoist aspect of Chinese painting.
the flow of the drapery over the surface of Particularly in early times, art also
Buddhist sculpture, and in the decoration had social and moral functions. The earli-
of lacquerware, pottery, and cloisonné est wall paintings referred to in ancient
enamel (wares decorated with enamel texts depicted benevolent emperors,
of different colours separated by strips of sages, virtuous ministers, loyal generals,
metal), it is the rhythmic movement and their evil opposites as examples and
of the line, following the natural move- warnings to the living. Portrait painting
ment of the artist’s or craftsman’s hand, also had this moral function, depicting
that to a large extent determines the form not the features of the subject so much
and gives to Chinese art as a whole its as his or her character and role in soci-
remarkable harmony and unity of style. ety. Court painters were called upon to
depict auspicious and memorable events.
Characteristic This was the ethical, Confucian function
Themes and Symbols of painting. High religious art as such is
foreign to China. Popular folk religion
In early times Chinese art often served as was seldom an inspiration to great works
a means to submit to the will of heaven of art, and Buddhism, which indeed pro-
through ritual and sacrifice. Archaic duced many masterpieces of a special
bronze vessels were made for sacrifices kind, was a foreign import.
to heaven and to the spirits of clan ances- Human relationships have always
tors, who were believed to influence the been of supreme importance in China,
living for good if the rites were properly and a common theme of figure painting
and regularly performed. is that of gentlemen enjoying scholarly
Chinese society, basically agricul- pursuits together or of the poignant part-
tural, has always laid great stress on ings and infrequent reunions that were
understanding the pattern of nature and the lot of officials whose appointments
living in accordance with it. The world of took them across the country.
154 | The Culture of China
Among the typical themes of tradi- and loyalty; the winter plum, which blos-
tional Chinese art there is no place for soms even in the late winter’s snow and
war, violence, the nude, death, or mar- stands for irrepressible purity, in either
tyrdom. Nor is inanimate matter ever a revolutionary political or a spiritual
painted for art’s sake alone: the very sense; and the gnarled pine tree, which
rocks and streams are felt to be alive, vis- may represent either survival in a harsh
ible manifestations of the invisible forces political environment or the unconquer-
of the universe. For the most part, no able spirit of old age.
theme would be accepted in traditional Critical to all artistic considerations
Chinese art that was not inspiring, noble was the belief that the energy and rhythm
(either elevating or admonitory), refresh- generated in artistic practice allied the
ing to the spirit, or at least charming. Nor practitioner with the ultimate source of
is there any place in most of the Chinese that energy, drawn forth from earthly and
artistic tradition for an art of pure form heavenly sources and from the sacred
divorced from content: it is not enough Dao itself. Calligraphy and painting,
for the form to be beautiful if the sub- especially, had the capacity to rejuvenate
ject matter is unedifying. In the broadest the artist or to damage him spiritually,
sense, therefore, in a culture steeped in according to the rightness of his practice
the rhetoric of metaphor and allegory and the character of the man. As such, art
and forever turning to nature as a source was viewed in these terms (and so, too,
of reference, all traditional Chinese art is was the viewing of art), taking the art-
symbolic, for everything that is painted ist as much into account as the artistic
reflects some aspect of a totality of which subject, with regard to erudition, moral
the painter is intuitively aware. At the character, and harmonic alignment with
same time, Chinese art is full of symbols (or alienation from) the forces of nature.
of a more specific kind, some with various
possible meanings. Bamboo suggests the Major Types:
spirit of the scholar, which can be bent by Chinese Bronzes
circumstance but never broken, and jade
symbolizes purity and indestructibility. Bronzes have been cast in China for
The dragon, in remote antiquity perhaps about 3,700 years. Most bronzes of about
an alligator or rain deity, is the benevolent 1500–300 BCE, roughly the Bronze Age in
but potentially dangerous symbol of the China, may be described as ritual vessels
emperor; the crane symbolizes long life; intended for the worship of ancestors,
and paired mandarin ducks symbolize who are often named in inscriptions on
wedded fidelity. Popular among the many the bronzes. Many were specially cast to
symbols drawn from the plant world are commemorate important events in the
the orchid, a Confucian symbol of purity lives of their possessors. These ritual
Chinese Art | 155
Shang Dynasty
(c. 1600–1046 BCE)
Chinese archaeology and continued peri- early Zhou times (1046–256 BCE) of the
odically after 1949. phrase “May sons and grandsons forever
No fewer than 14 royal tombs have treasure and use it” provides evidence
been unearthed near Anyang, culminat- that most vessels were made originally
ing in the 1976 excavation of the first for use in temple sacrifices rather than
major tomb to have survived intact—that for burial, but other vessels, poorly cast
of Fu Hao, who is believed to have been a and inscribed with posthumous ances-
consort of the Shang king Wuding and a tral names of the newly deceased, were
noted military leader. The Fu Hao tomb clearly intended for the tomb.
contained more than 440 bronze vessels The right to cast or possess these
and 590 jade objects among its numerous vessels was probably confined to the
exquisite works. Remains of Bronze Age royal house itself originally but later was
settlements of the Shang period have also bestowed upon local governors set up by
been found over a large area of northern the ruler; still later, in the Zhou dynasty,
and central China. the right was claimed by rulers of the
More than any other factor, it was the feudal states and indeed by anyone who
unearthing of magnificent bronze ves- was rich and powerful enough to cast his
sels at Anyang that demonstrated the own vessels.
power and wealth of the Shang rulers. The vessel types are known today
The vessels were used in divinatory cer- either by names given them in Shang or
emonies for sacrificial offerings of meat, Zhou times that can be identified in con-
wine, and grain, primarily to the spirits temporary inscriptions, such as the li, ding,
of clan ancestors, especially those of the and xian (yan), or by names such as you,
ruler and his family. They were probably jia, and gong that were given to them by
kept in the ancestral hall of the clan, and, later Chinese scholars and antiquarians.
in some cases, they were buried with The vessels may be grouped according
their owner. to their presumed function in sacrificial
Surprisingly, perhaps, the bronze ves- rites. For cooking food, the main types
sels were not discussed in Shang oracle are the li, a round-bodied vessel with a
bone inscriptions. But by late Shang trilobed base extending into three hollow
times they themselves sometimes came legs; its cousins the ding, a hemispheric
to bear short, cast, dedicatory inscriptions vessel on three solid legs, and the fang-
providing the name of the vessel type, ding, a square vessel standing on four
the patron, and the ancestor to whom legs; and the xian, or yan, a steamer con-
the vessel was dedicated. What may sisting of a bowl placed above a li tripod,
be a clan name is also often included, with a perforated grate between the two.
enclosed within an inscribed notched For offering food, the principal vessel was
square of uncertain meaning but now the gui, a bowl placed on a ring-shaped
called a yaxing. The common addition by foot, like a modern-day wok.
Chinese Art | 157
Bronze pan, late Warring States, c. 3rd century BCE; in the Avery Brundage Collection of the
Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco,
The Center of Asian Art and Culture, The Avery Brundage Collection
The word zun embraces wine contain- with flat sides generally richly decorated,
ers of a variety of shapes. Among vessels are thought to derive from boxes, baskets,
for heating or offering wine are the you, or containers of carved wood or bone.
a covered bucket with a swing handle; Other objects connected with the rites
the jia, a round tripod or square quadru- were bronze drums and bells. Weapons
ped with a handle on the side and raised and fittings for chariots, harness, and
posts with caps rising from its rim; the other utilitarian purposes also were made
related jue, a smaller beaker on three legs, of bronze.
with an extended pouring spout in front, Bronze vessels were cast not by the
a pointed tail in the rear, a side handle, lost-wax process (using a wax mold),
and posts with caps; the he, distinguished as formerly supposed, but in sectional
by its cylindrical pouring spout; the gong, molds, quantities of which have been
resembling a covered gravy boat; and the found at Shang sites. In this complex
elegant trumpet-mouthed gu. Vessels for process, which reflects the Chinese early
ablutions include the pan, a large, shal- mastery of the ceramic medium, a clay
low bowl. The shapes of the round-bodied model of the body is built around a solid
vessels were often derived from earlier core representing the vessel’s interior;
pottery forms; the square-section vessels, clay molding is used to encase the model,
158 | The Culture of China
then sliced into sections and removed; suggestions are that it was a fertility
the model is eliminated; the mold pieces symbol like the later Chinese dragon,
are reconstructed around the core, using bestowing longevity on the ruling clan;
metal spacers to separate mold and core; that it was a fierce spirit which protected
and molten bronze is poured into the hol- the rites and the participants from harm;
low space. Legs, handles, and appended that it embodied a variety of creatures
sculpture are often cast separately and related to the ceremonial sacrifices; that
later integrated in a lock-on pour. Surface it was totemic or related to shamanic
decoration may be added to the model empowerment; or that its dual structure
surface before the mold is applied, requir- represented the inseparable forces of cre-
ing a double transfer from clay to clay to ation and destruction. Other creatures on
metal, or added in reverse to the mold the bronzes are the gui (each like half of
surface after its removal from the model, the doubled taotie), tiger, cicada, snake,
with an incised design on the mold yield- owl, ram, and ox. In later times the tiger
ing a raised design on the metal surface. represented nature’s power, the cicada
Ritual vessels range from about 15 cm (6 and snake symbolized regeneration, the
inches) to more than 130 cm (50 inches) owl was a carrier of the soul, and the ram
in height with weights up to 875 kg (1,925 and ox were chief animals of ancestral
pounds). The intricacy and sharpness of sacrifices. It is not known whether these
the decoration shows that by the end of meanings were attached to the creatures
the 2nd millennium BCE the art of bronze on Shang bronzes, for no Shang writing
casting in China was the most advanced addresses the issue, but it seems likely
in the world. that they had a more than purely deco-
While many Shang ritual bronzes rative purpose. There is no suggested
are plain or only partly ornamented, oth- environmental setting for these creatures.
ers are richly decorated with a variety of The human figure appears only rarely in
geometric and zoomorphic motifs, and a Shang bronzes, usually in the grasp of
small number take the form of a bird or these powerful zoomorphic creatures.
animal. The dominating motif is the tao- The art of the Shang bronzes began
tie, seen either as two stylized creatures as technically simple, albeit sometimes
juxtaposed face-to-face or as a single quite elegant, thinly cast vessels that were
creature with its body splayed out on clearly ceramic prototypes. It reached a
both sides of a masklike head. The term climax of sculpturesque monumental-
taotie first appeared in the late Zhou and ity at the end of the dynasty, reflecting
is perhaps related to eclipse mythology a long period of peace and stability at
and the idea of renewal. Song dynasty Anyang. In the early 1950s the scholar
antiquarians offered the unlikely inter- Max Loehr identified five phases or styles
pretation that it represented a warning in the evolution of Shang bronze sur-
against gluttony. Alternative modern face decor and casting techniques. The
Chinese Art | 159
Vessel shapes, meanwhile, had become increasingly refined: the decoration was
aggressive or heavy and sagging, and the confined within a simpler contour, and
quality of the casting was seldom as high the interlacing of the Xinzheng style
as in the late Shang. These changes, com- gave way to the fine, hooked “comma
pleted by the 8th century BCE, mark the pattern” of the vessels of the 5th and 4th
middle Zhou phase of bronze design. centuries BCE. By this time, bronze decor
The bronzes of the Eastern Zhou had come under the influence of tex-
(Dongzhou) period, after 771 BCE, show tile patterns and technique, particularly
signs of a gradual renaissance in the embroidery, as well as of lacquer decor,
craft and much regional variation, which suggesting the bronze medium’s decline
appears ever more complex as more from primacy. Bronzes decorated in this
Eastern Zhou sites are unearthed. Often
adorned with boldly modeled handles in
the form of animal heads, 8th- and 7th-
century bronzes are crude and vigorous
in shape. Typical vessels of this phase
have been found in a cemetery of the
small feudal state of Guo in Henan prov-
ince. Vessels from Xinzheng in Henan
(8th–6th century BCE) reveal a further
change to more elegant forms, often dec-
orated with an allover pattern of tightly
interlaced serpents; the vessel may be set
about with tigers and dragons modeled
in the round and topped with a flar-
ing, petaled lid. The aesthetic tendency
toward elaboration was given further
stimulus by the introduction of the lost-
wax method of production (by the late
7th century BCE), leading quickly to zeal-
ous experiments in openwork design that
are impressive technically though often
heavy in appearance and gaudy in effect.
The style of bronzes found at Liyu in
Shanxi (c. 6th–5th century BCE) is much Chinese bronze zhong, late Zhou dynasty
simpler, more compact, and unified; the (1046–256 BCE); in the Freer Gallery of
interlaced and spiral decoration is flush Art, Washington, D.C. Height 67 cm.
with the surface. Thereafter, until the end Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution,
Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
of the dynasty, the bronze style became
Chinese Art | 161
manner have been found chiefly in the In vessels from the rich finds at
Huai River valley. Jincun near Luoyang, all excrescences
Bronze bells are another form from are shorn away; the shapes have a classic
this period. Perhaps the oldest class is a purity and restraint, and the decoration
small clappered bell called ling, but the consists of geometric patterns of diago-
best known is certainly the zhong, a sus- nal bands and volutes. The taste of the
pended, clapperless bell. Zhong were cast new leisured class is shown in objects
in sets of eight or more to form a musical that were not merely useful but finely
scale, and they were probably played in fashioned and beautiful in themselves:
the company of string and wind instru- ritual and domestic vessels, weapons,
ments. The section is a flattened ellipse, chariot and furniture fittings, ceremo-
and on each side of the body appear 18 nial staff ends, bracelets, and the backs
blunt spikes, or basses, arranged in three of mirrors. Monster masks attaching ring
double rows of three. These often show handles are reminiscent of the Shang tao-
marks of filing, and it has been sug- tie, the first sign of a deliberate archaism
gested that they were devices whereby that would from time to time throughout
the bell could be tuned to the requisite history give a special flavour to Chinese
pitch by removing small quantities of decorative art.
the metal. The oldest specimen recov- The wealth and sophistication of late
ered in a closed excavation is one from Zhou culture is apparent in examples of
Pudu Cun, dating from the 9th century exquisite craftsmanship, while the cul-
BCE. A fine example is an orchestral set ture’s increasing commercial interaction
of 64 bells, probably produced in Chu and artistic fascination with the tribal
and unearthed in 1978 from a royal tomb peoples to their north is apparent in new
of the Zeng state, at Leigudun near Sui techniques, such as cast openwork, and
Xian in Hubei province. The bells were many of the works executed with inlays
mounted on wooden racks supported by of gold, silver, jade, glass, and semipre-
bronze human figurines. They are graded cious stones. Bronze garment hooks worn
in size (from about 20 to 150 cm [8 to 60 at the shoulder were often fashioned in
inches] in height) and tone (covering five the form of animals, reflecting the artis-
octaves), and each is capable of producing tic style of China’s nomadic neighbours,
two unrelated tones according to where it who through the Eastern Zhou and Han
is struck. Gold-inlaid inscriptions on each dynasties exerted pressure on its north-
bell present valuable information regard- ern frontiers and who both influenced and
ing early musical terms and performance, were influenced by Chinese culture in
while a 65th bell is dedicated by inscrip- this period. Scattered finds, chiefly in the
tion from the king of Chu to Marquis Yi Ordos (Mu Us) Desert, show that the arts
of Zeng (Zenghou Yi), the deceased, and of these huntsmen and herdsmen were
bears a date equivalent to 433 BCE. related to those of the steppe peoples of
162 | The Culture of China
Central Asia and, remotely, to those of on a dense allover pattern of hooks and
the Luristan (Lorestān) region of Persia. volutes. These mirrors are often thin,
Bronze objects consist chiefly of animal- and the execution is refined and elegant.
headed daggers and knives; cheekpieces, Mirrors from Henan (Luoyang) city are
jingles, and other harness fittings; orna- closer in style to the inlaid bronzes. The
ments; and plaques of pierced relief work decoration, often dragons and intricately
generally depicting with somewhat bar- interwoven zoomorphs whose tails turn
barous vigour an animal combat, a theme into volutes, stands out boldly against a
remote from the experience of the settled fine geometric background that suggests
farming communities of northern China. a textile pattern.
Bronze mirrors were used in ancient
China not only for toiletry but also as Qin (221–207 BCE) and Han
funerary objects, in accordance with the Dynasties (206 BCE–220 CE)
belief that a mirror was itself a source
of light and could illuminate the eter- Already by late Zhou times, the more
nal darkness of the tomb. A mirror also expensive medium of lacquer was often
was thought of as a symbolic aid to self- used in place of bronze. Nevertheless,
knowledge. Ancient Chinese mirrors some bronze vessels were still made for
were generally bronze disks polished on sacrificial rites, and other bronze objects,
the face and decorated on the back, with such as lamps and incense burners, also
a central loop handle or pierced boss to were made for household use. The “hill
hold a tassel. The early ones were small censer” (boshan xianglu) was designed
and worn at the girdle; later they became as a miniature, three-dimensional moun-
larger and were often set on a stand. A tain of the immortals, usually replete
bronze disk found in a tomb at Anyang with scenes of mythic combat between
may have been a mirror. There is less man and beasts, suggesting the power-
doubt about the small disks from an 8th- ful forces of nature that only the Daoist
century-BCE tomb at Shangcunling in adept could tame. Sacred vapours ema-
Henan province, believed to be the earli- nating from materials burned within
est mirrors yet found in China. Mirrors, were released through perforations in the
however, were not widely used until the lid (hidden behind the mountain peaks).
4th and 3rd centuries BCE. Shouzhou, Cosmic waters were depicted lapping at
in the state of Chu, was a centre for the the base of the hills, conveying the sense
manufacture of late Zhou mirrors, the of an island, and the whole was set on a
designs on which consist chiefly of narrow stem that thrust the mountain
zigzag lozenges, quatrefoil petals, scal- upward as if it were an axis of the uni-
lops, a hooked symbol resembling the verse. Such censers might have been
character for “mountain” (shan), and used in ceremonial exorcisms, in funer-
sometimes animal figures superimposed ary rites associated with the ascent of the
Chinese Art | 163
soul, or in other varieties of Daoist reli- Nowhere in the world has pottery assumed
gious practice. such importance as in China, and the
Some Han mirrors have astronomi- influence of Chinese porcelain on later
cal or astrological patterns. The most European pottery was profound.
elaborate, particularly popular during
the Xin dynasty (9–25 CE), bears the so- Stylistic and Historical
called TLV pattern. (The TLV pattern Development
is so called because it resembles those
roman letters.) These angular shapes, The earliest evidence for art in any
ranged around the main band of deco- form in ancient China consists of crude
ration between a central square zone cord-marked pottery and artifacts deco-
and the outer border band, are believed rated with geometric designs found in
to be linked to a cosmological, chess- Mesolithic sites in northern China and
like game called liubo; the decoration in the Guangdong-Guangxi regions. The
also may include creatures symbolic of dating for prehistoric culture in China is
the four directions, immortals, and other still very uncertain, but this material is
mythical beings popular in Daoist folk- probably at least 7,000 or 8,000 years old.
lore. Often the mirrors carry inscriptions,
varying from a simple expression of The Formative Period
good luck to a long dedication giving the (to c. 1600 BCE)
name of the maker and referring to the
Shangfang, the imperial office in charge The art of the Neolithic Period represents
of imperial workshops. In the Eastern a considerable advance. The Yangshao
Han the Daoist elements dominated (Painted Pottery) culture, named after
mirror design, which often includes the the first Neolithic site discovered (in
legendary Queen Mother of the West, 1920), had its centre around the eastern
Xiwangmu, and her royal eastern coun- bend of the Huang He (Yellow River), and
terpart, Dongwanggong. The coming of it is now known to have extended across
Buddhism at the end of the Han dynasty northern China and up into Gansu prov-
caused a decline in the use of cosmologi- ince. Yangshao pottery consists chiefly
cal mirrors. Mirror making, however, was of full-bodied funerary storage jars made
revived in the Tang dynasty (618–907). by the coiling, or ring, method. They are
decorated, generally on the upper half
Major Types: only, with a rich variety of geometric
Chinese Pottery designs, whorls, volutes (spirals), and
sawtooth patterns executed in black
Objects made in China of clay and hard- and red pigment with sweeping, rhyth-
ened by heat—earthenware, stoneware, mic brushwork that foreshadows the
and porcelain—are pottery or ceramics. free brush painting of historical periods.
164 | The Culture of China
Some of the pottery from the village site designs to linear abstraction (the latter
of Banpo (c. 4500 BCE), discovered in with occasional symbolic references).
1953 near Xi’an in Shaanxi, have schema- The last major phase of the Neolithic
tized fish, bird, deer, and plant designs, Period is represented by the Longshan
which are related thematically to hunt- culture, distinguished particularly by the
ing and gathering, and what may be a black pottery of its later stages (c. 2200–
human face or mask. Dating for the domi- 1700 BCE). Longshan is named after the
nant phase of the Yangshao culture may site of its discovery in 1928, in Shandong
be put roughly between 5000 and 3000 province, although evidence increas-
BCE. Over this span of two millennia the ingly suggests origins to the south along
Yangshao culture progressed generally the China coast, in Jiangsu province. Its
westward along the Huang He and Wei remains are widely distributed, in some
River valleys from sites in central China, sites lying directly over a Painted Pottery
such as Banpo, to sites farther west, such stratum, indicating that the Longshan
as Miaodigou, Majiayao, Banshan, and culture replaced the Yangshao. In other
Machang. The art produced at these vil- areas there is evidence of a mixed culture,
lages exhibits a clear and logical stylistic including elements of both Yangshao
evolution, leading from representational and Longshan, that occurred between
these stages. This mixed culture is called
“Longshanoid” or, after one of the sites
in Hubei, Qijiaping. By contrast with the
Yangshao, the fully developed Longshan
pottery is wheel-made and especially
thinly potted. The finest specimens have
a dark gray or black body burnished to a
hard, smooth surface that is occasion-
ally incised but never painted, giving it
a metallic appearance. The occasional
use of open-worked design and the sim-
ulation of lugs and folded plating all
suggest the highly skilled imitation of
contemporary valuable copper wares (no
longer extant); the existence of such cop-
Painted Pottery funerary urn, Neolithic per wares heralded the transition from a
Banshan phase, c. 3000 BCE, from lithic to a metallic culture. At this point,
Yangshao, Henan province, China; in the superior calibre of Chinese ceramics
the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, was first attained.
Stockholm. Height 33.5 cm. Ostasiatiska In Yangshao pottery, emphasis was
Museet, Stockholm
on funerary wares. The delicate potting
Chinese Art | 165
of the Longshan ware and the prevalence occur in the ubiquitous gray pottery of
of offering stands and goblets suggest the Shang dynasty.
that these vessels were made not for
burial but for sacrificial rites connected Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE)
with the worship of ancestral spirits.
Ritual vessels, oracle bones (used by Early Western Zhou pottery, like the
shamans in divination), ceremonial jade bronzes, continued the Shang tradition
objects and ornaments, and architecture at a somewhat lower technical level, and
(pounded-earth foundations, protec- the soft white Shang pottery disappeared.
tive city walls, rectilinear organization) Stemmed offering dishes, dou, were made
reflect an advanced material culture on in a hard stoneware dipped or brushed
the threshold of the Bronze Age. This over with a glaze ranging from gray to
culture continued in outlying areas long brownish green. The fact that some of the
after the coming of bronze technology richest finds of high-fired glazed wares
to the central Henan–Shaanxi–southern have been made not in Henan but at Yiqi
Shanxi region. in Anhui shows that the centre of advance
in pottery technology was beginning to
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) move, with the growth of population, to
the lower Huai and Yangtze (Chang) val-
The Shang dynasty saw several impor- leys. Crude attempts also were made to
tant advances in pottery technology, give pottery the appearance of bejeweled
including the development of a hard- metal by covering dou stands with lac-
bodied, high-fire stoneware and pottery quer inlaid with shell disks.
glazes. A small quantity of stoneware In the second half of the dynasty the
is covered with a thin, hard, yellowish range of pottery types and techniques
green glaze applied in liquid form to the was greatly extended. A low-fired pot-
vessel. Shang potters also developed a tery was produced in Henan primarily
fine soft-bodied white ware, employing for burial. Some of it is white, and some
kaolin (later used in porcelain); this ware is covered with slip, or liquid clay, and
was probably for ceremonial use and was painted, reviving an ancient tradition of
decorated with motifs similar to those on northern China. A soft-bodied, black, bur-
the ritual bronzes. The only known com- nished ware, sometimes decorated with
plete specimen of a fine white stoneware scrolls and geometric motifs scratched
dating from about 1400 BCE is deco- through the polished surface, has been
rated with chevrons (linked V-shapes) found at Huixian. In the period of the
and a key-fret pattern, the shoulder Warring States, a soft earthenware cov-
motifs being reminiscent of those seen ered with green lead glaze was made in
on contemporary bronze vessels. Much northern China for burial. In the lower
cruder imitations of bronze vessels also Yangtze valley an almost porcelaneous
166 | The Culture of China
Nanjing region. They were made chiefly Ding ware of the Northern Song. In the
at Shaoxing, at Shanglin Lake, and at late 7th and the 8th century, ceramists
Deqing, north of Hangzhou, which also in northern China, working primarily at
produced a stoneware with a glossy black kilns at Tongchuan near Chang’an and
glaze. During the Six Dynasties potters at Gongxian in Henan province, also
freed themselves from the influence of developed “three-colour” (sancai) pottery
bronze design and produced shapes wares and figurines that were slipped and
more characteristic of pottery. covered with a low-fired lead glaze tinted
While most of the Zhejiang wares are with copper or ferrous oxide in green,
plain or simply decorated, “northern cela- yellow, brown, and sometimes blue; the
don,” produced in Hebei and Henan in the bright colours were allowed to mix or run
6th century, is exotic in style, reflecting naturally over the robust contour of these
the taste of Turkish rulers and other cul- vessels, which are among the finest in
tural contacts with western Asia. Heavy the history of Chinese pottery. Northern
funerary jars are adorned with acanthus Chinese kilns in Shaanxi also produced
and lotus leaves, and flowers and round a stoneware with a rich black glaze, and a
decorative plaques are molded or applied type of celadon was made north of Xi’an,
to the surface in imitation of Sāsānian in Shaanxi. The northern Chinese potters
repoussé metalwork. Tomb figurines of borrowed shapes and motifs from west-
this period are often made of dark gray ern Asia even more freely than had their
earthenware and unglazed, though some- 6th-century predecessors: foreign shapes
times they are painted. included the amphora, bird-headed ewer,
and rhyton (a drinking vessel formed
Sui (581–618) and Tang to look like an animal’s head). Foreign
(618–907) Dynasties motifs included hunting reliefs, floral
medallions, boys with garlands or swags
After the comparative sterility of the of vines, and Buddhist symbols adapted
Six Dynasties, this was a great period and applied with characteristic Tang con-
in the development of Chinese pottery. fidence. Some forms were also borrowed
Although a white porcelain perfected from metalwork or glassware.
early in the 7th century is called Xing Tomb figurines were produced in
yao (Xing “ware”) because of a reference such enormous quantities that attempts
to the white porcelain of Xingzhou in were made through sumptuary laws to
the 9th-century essay “Cha Jing” (“Tea limit their number and size; such efforts
Classic”) by Lu Yu, as yet no kilns have met with little success. The figurines
been found there. Kilns near Dingzhou were made, generally in molds, of earth-
in Hebei, however, were at this time enware covered with slip and painted
already producing a fine white porcelain, or glazed or both. Among the human
which was the ancestor of the famous figures are servants and actors, female
168 | The Culture of China
dancers, and musicians of exquisite Al-Fust· āt· in Egypt and at Sāmarrā’ in Iraq,
grace. The 7th-century figurines are slen- the luxurious summer residence of the
der and high-waisted, while those of the ‘Abbāsid caliphs—notably al-Mu‘tas·im
8th century are increasingly rotund and (son of Hārūn al-Rashīd)—between 836
round-faced, reflecting a change in fash- and 883. Tang wares, consisting chiefly
ion. There are also many figurines of of celadons from southern Chinese kilns,
Central Asian grooms and Semitic mer- have also been found in Indonesia and
chants with caricatured features such as the Philippines, marking the beginning
deep-set eyes and jutting noses. Of the of a vast export trade in Chinese pottery
camels and horses, the most remarkable that has continued almost without inter-
are glazed camels bearing on their backs ruption into modern times.
a group of four or five singers and musi- Perhaps the most important single
cians. After the middle of the 8th century, development was the use of coloured
there was a sharp decline both in the glazes—as monochromes or splashed
quantity and in the quality of tomb wares and dappled. The Tang wares common-
and figurines in northern China. est in Western collections are those with
The great southward movement of either monochrome or dappled glazes
population in the Tang dynasty stimu- covering a highly absorbent, buff, earth-
lated the development of many new kilns. enware body. The dappled glazes were
Celadons were now made in Jionglai usually applied with a sponge, and they
(Sichuan), Changsha (Hunan), and sev- include blue, dark blue, green, yellow,
eral areas of Guangdong and Fujian. A orange, straw, and brown colours. These
kiln producing whitewares was active at glazes normally exhibit a fine crackle and
Jizhou in Jiangxi, and at Jingdezhen in often fall short of the base in an uneven
the same province two kilns were produc- wavy line, the unglazed surface area vary-
ing celadons and whitewares. From these ing from about one-third to two-thirds of
humble beginnings, Jingdezhen was des- the vessel.
tined to become, in the Ming (1368–1644) Dappled glazes are also found on the
and Qing (1644–1911/12) dynasties, the magnificent series of tomb figures with
largest pottery factory in the world. In Lu which this period is particularly associated.
Yu’s essay the “Cha Jing,” the celadons of Similar figures were made in unglazed
Yuezhou in Zhejiang are ranked for their earthenware and were sometimes deco-
jadelike quality first among the wares rated with cold pigment. Although the
suitable for tea drinking, followed by the unglazed specimen or those covered
silvery Xing ware. Yue celadons from only with the straw-coloured glaze are
kilns at Yuyao and a number of other sites occasionally modeled superbly, many are
in Zhejiang were also exported, and quan- crude and apparently made for the tombs
tities of fine Yue ware have been found at of the less affluent and influential. Most of
Chinese Art | 169
the glazed figures are much better in qual- the massive increase in the population of
ity and occasionally reach a large size; southeastern China were a great stimulus
figures of the Bactrian camel, for instance, to the craft. A large complex of kilns that
are particularly impressive, some being had been established at Yuyao, around
nearly three feet high. The Bactrian pony, Shanglin Lake in Zhejiang, which lay in
introduced into China about 138 BCE, is the territory of the kingdom of Wuyue,
to be found in many spirited poses. This sent its finest celadons to the court of
fashion for tomb figures fell into disuse at Li Houzhu (Li Yu) until his realm fell to
the beginning of the Song dynasty (960– the Song in 978; after that they were sent
1279 CE) but was revived for a short while as tribute to the Song court at Bianjing.
during the Ming period (1368–1644), when The finest pieces, with decoration carved
Tang influence is noticeable. in the clay body under a very pale olive-
Marbled wares are seen occasion- green glaze, were called biseyao (“secret,”
ally. The effect was achieved either by or “reserve, colour ware”) by 10th-century
combing slips of contrasting colours (i.e., writers. It is not known whether this
mingling the slips after they had been put referred to a secret process or to the fact
on the pot, by means of a comb) or by min- that the ware was reserved for the court.
gling differently coloured clays. Another
type of Tang ware (probably from Henan) Song (960–1279), Liao
had a stoneware body with a dark brown (907–1125), and Jin (1115–1234)
glaze streaked by pale blue. Most vessels Dynasties
stand on a flat base; although later Tang
wares sometimes were given a foot ring, Of the dynasties listed, the Song dynasty
for the most part this can be regarded as marked a high point in the history of
evidence in favour of a Song dating. Chinese pottery, when technical mas-
tery, refinement of feeling, and a natural
Five Dynasties (907–960) spontaneity of technique were more per-
and Ten Kingdoms (902–978) fectly balanced than at any other time in
Chinese history. Unlike the sometimes
The confused state of northern China lifeless perfection that marks the palace
under the Five Dynasties was not con- wares of the Qing dynasty, the beauty of
ducive to development of the pottery Song wares is derived from the simplicity
industry, and some types, such as the of the shapes and purity of glaze tone and
Tang three-colour wares, went out of colour. In Song wares the touch of the
production completely. White porcelain potter’s hand can still be perceived, and
and black glazed stonewares, however, glazes have a depth and warmth that was
continued into the Song dynasty. In con- later lost when a higher level of manufac-
trast, the flourishing southern courts and turing skill was attained.
170 | The Culture of China
are decorated with flowers and leaves glaze, carving or scratching (sgraffito
painted in an oxidized rust brown consti- work) through one slip to another of a
tute an enormous family of Cizhou wares different colour, and painting over the
made for domestic and funerary use in glaze in low-fired colours. The earliest
numerous northern China kilns, and they known example of overglaze painting
are still being produced in some factories in the history of Chinese pottery bears
today. Cizhou techniques of decoration a date equivalent to 1201. The technique
included free brush painting under the was more widely used for the decoration
of Cizhou wares in the 14th century. In
both the variety and the vigour of their
forms and decoration, Cizhou stonewares
present a strong contrast to the restraint
and exquisite taste of the courtly wares.
Chinese connoisseurs and imperial col-
lectors considered them beneath their
notice, and it has taken the interest of
Western collectors and the concern for
the arts of the masses shown in China
since 1949 to elevate them to the hon-
oured place they deserve.
Tea bowl, Jian-type stoneware with oil-spot effect (yohen temmoku) from Fujian province,
12th–13th century, Southern Song dynasty; in the Seikado Bunko Art Museum, Tokyo. © The
Seikado Bunko Art Museum
which the ware was shipped to Japan. almost every province of China. Most
Yonghe kilns also turned out a coarse marked was the growth of the industry
variety of temmoku and experimented in the south (modern Guangdong and
with novel decorative effects produced by Fujian), where kilns turned out variants
laying floral paper cuts or skeleton leaves of celadon and qingbai both for local
under the glaze before firing. consumption and for barter in China’s
This greatly simplified account of rapidly increasing trade with Indonesia
Song wares cannot include the many and the Philippines. Huge quantities of
provincial kilns that flourished in these southern Chinese wares have been
174 | The Culture of China
coarse varieties were made in southern some of large size, were an important
China for trade with Southeast Asia or item in China’s trade with the Middle
for export to the Middle East. East, whose rulers, it was said, believed
Experiments also were made with that the glaze would crack or change
painting in underglaze copper red, but colour if poison touched it.
it was difficult to control and soon aban- At Jingdezhen the relatively coarse-
doned. Both the shapes and decoration bodied shufu ware was developed into a
of Yuan blue-and-white have a charac- hard white porcelain that no longer
teristic boldness. The motifs are richly reveals the touch of the potter’s hand.
varied, sometimes crowded and unre- The practically invisible designs some-
strained, but at their best they have great times carved in the translucent body are
splendour and vitality. Favourite motifs known as anhua (“secret decoration”). In
include the lotus, vines, and dragons the Yongle period (1402–24) the practice
that had already appeared on the shufu began of putting the reign mark on the
wares, creatures such as the qilin (“uni- base. This was first applied to the finest
corn”) and longma (“dragon-horse”), and white porcelain and to monochrome ware
fish and Daoist figures. Also popular for a decorated with copper red under a trans-
while were scenes from historical dramas parent glaze. As aforementioned, a white
and romances written by unemployed porcelain with ivory glaze was also made
Confucian scholars. at Dehua in Fujian.
In the early decades of the Ming, the
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) repertoire of designs on Yuan blue-and-
white was continued and refined. At first,
While northern traditions of Cizhou this ware evidently was considered too
and Jun ware continued to decline, pot- vulgar for court use, and none bears the
tery production in the south expanded. imperial reign mark until the Xuande
It was chiefly centred on Jingdezhen, period (1425–35). By this time the often
an ideal site because of the abun- crowded Yuan patterns had given way
dance of minerals used for porcelain chiefly to dragons or floral motifs of great
manufacture—kaolin (china clay) and clarity and grace, vigorously applied in a
petuntse (china stone)—ample wood thick, deep-blue pigment to dishes, vases,
fuel, and good communications by stem cups, and flattened pilgrim jars.
water. Most of the celadon, however, was Sometimes a richer effect was achieved
still produced in Zhejiang, notably at by painting dragons in underglaze red on
Longchuan and Chuzhou, whose Ming a blue ground or vice versa. In the
products are more heavily potted than Chenghua period (1464–87), the blue-
those of the Song and Yuan and are dec- and-white designs became somewhat
orated with incised and molded designs tenuous and overrefined, and the charac-
under a sea-green glaze. Celadon dishes, teristic wares made for the Zhengde
176 | The Culture of China
emperor (1505–21) and his Muslim chiefly in the decoration of small wine
eunuchs often bear Arabic inscriptions. cups with chicken motifs, much admired
In the Jiajing (1521–67) and Wanli (1572– by Chinese connoisseurs. These “chicken
1620) periods, the imperial kilns were cups” were already being copied later in
badly mismanaged, and their products the 16th century and again, very expertly,
were often of poor quality. Private facto- in the 18th. Overglaze painting soon
ries, however, turned out lively wares became popular; it was applied in the
until the end of the dynasty. 16th century in stronger colours bril-
Overglaze painting was applied with liantly contrasted against a dead-white
delicate care in the Chenghua period, background. These vigorous wucai (“five-
colour”) wares, which utilized a wide
palette, were especially free and bold in
the Jiajing and Wanli periods. Crude but
lively imitations of these and of the blue-
and-white of Jingdezhen were made in
kilns in southern China partly for the
Southeast Asian market and are known
as “Swatow ware,” named after one of the
export sites. Among the most impressive
of Ming pottery types are the sancai
(“three-colour”) wares, chiefly vases and
jars decorated with floral motifs in tur-
quoise, purple, yellow, and deep violet
blue, the colours separated by raised
lines in imitation of the metal strips used
in cloisonné work. This robust ware was
made in several centres, the best of it
between 1450 and 1550.
Beginning in the early 16th century,
a new ceramic tradition emerged in the
town of Yixing, on the western side of
Lake Tai, catering to the tea taste of schol-
ars in the nearby Suzhou area. Individually
Flask decorated with a dragon and made, sometimes to order, rather than
wave scrolls in underglaze blue, Ming
mass-produced, Yixing wares were often
dynasty, 14th century; in the Victoria
signed or even poetically inscribed by
and Albert Museum, London. Height 36.8
highly reputable master craftsmen, such
cm. Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert
Museum, London as Shi Dabin of the Wanli era and Chen
Mingyuan of the Qing dynasty Kangxi
Chinese Art | 177
Dome-shaped Yixing ware teapot with a six-lobed body, signed Gongchun, dated 1513, Ming
dynasty; in the Hong Kong Museum of Art. Height 9.9 cm. Reproduction by permission of the
Urban Council Hong Kong from the Hong Kong Museum of Art
Eggshell porcelain bowl, a copy of a Yongle period bowl, Qing dynasty, Kangxi reign (1661–
1722); in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert
Museum, London
The finest pieces include small mono- drawing and the use of cobalt washes of
chromes, which recaptured the perfection vivid intensity.
of form and glaze of classic Song wares. Five-colour (wucai) overglaze painted
New colours and glaze effects were wares of the Kangxi period became
introduced, such as eel-skin yellow, known in Europe as famille verte from
snakeskin green, turquoise blue, and an the predominant green colour in their flo-
exquisite soft red glaze shading to green ral decoration. These wares also included
(known as “peach bloom”) that was used expert imitations of the overglaze paint-
for small vessels made for the scholar’s ing of the Chenghua emperor’s reign.
desk. Also perfected was langyao (“sang- Another variety has floral decoration
de-boeuf,” or oxblood, ware), which was painted directly on the biscuit (unglazed
covered with a rich copper-red glaze. pottery body) against a rich black back-
Kangxi period blue-and-white is partic- ground (famille noire). Toward the end
ularly noted for a new precision in the of the Kangxi reign, a rose-pink made
Chinese Art | 179
time in the 19th century, notably in the prehistoric settlements into the great civ-
Daoguang and Guangxu reigns, the qual- ilization of today.
ity as a whole greatly declined. The Chinese themselves were among
the most historically conscious of all the
Major Types: major civilizations and were intensely
Chinese Painting aware of the strength and continuity of
their cultural tradition. They viewed his-
The development of painting within the tory as a cycle of decline and renewal
18 historical provinces—bounded by associated with the succession of ruling
the Plateau of Tibet on the west, the dynasties. Both the political fragmenta-
Gobi Desert to the north, and Myanmar tion and social and economic chaos of
(Burma), Laos, and Vietnam to the south- decline and the vigour of dynastic reju-
west—is the subject of this chapter. venation could stimulate and colour
The first communities that can be important artistic developments. Thus, it
identified culturally as Chinese were set- is quite legitimate to think of the history
tled chiefly in the basin of the Huang He of Chinese painting primarily in terms of
(Yellow River). Gradually they spread out, the styles of successive dynasties, as the
influencing other tribal cultures, until, by Chinese themselves do.
the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), most
of China proper was dominated by the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE)
culture that had been formed in the cra-
dle of northern Chinese civilization. Over The arts of the Zhou dynasty, the lon-
this area there slowly spread a common gest dynasty in Chinese history, reflect
written language, a common belief in the the profound changes that transformed
power of heaven and the ancestral spir- Chinese society during this period of
its to influence the living, and a common nearly 800 years. The first Zhou rulers vir-
emphasis on the importance of ceremony tually took over the Shang culture; indeed,
and sacrifice to achieve harmony among the earliest bronze vessels bearing Zhou
heaven, nature, and humankind. These inscriptions might, from their style, have
beliefs were to have a great influence on been made in the Shang dynasty. The
the character of Chinese painting, and Zhou kings parceled out their expand-
indeed all the arts of China. ing territory among feudal lords, each of
Chinese civilization is by no whom was free to make ritual objects for
means the oldest in the world: those of his own court use. As the feudal states
Mesopotamia and Egypt are far older. rose in power and independence, so did
But, while the early Western cultures died, the central Zhou itself shrink, to be fur-
became stagnant, or were transformed to ther weakened by the eastward shift of the
the point of breaking all continuity, that capital from sites in the Wei River valley
of China has grown continuously from near modern-day Xi’an to Luoyang in 771
Chinese Art | 181
BCE. Thereafter, as the Zhou empire was period. In decorating ceremonial objects,
broken up among rival states, many local artists began to depict the ceremonies
styles in the arts developed. The last three themselves, such as ancestral offerings in
centuries of the Zhou dynasty, known as temple settings, as well as ritual archery
the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), contests (important in the recruitment
saw a flowering of the arts in many areas. and promotion of officials), agriculture and
The breakdown of the feudal hegemony, sericulture (the raising of silkworms for
the growth of trade between the states, the production of raw silk), hunting, and the
and the rise of a rich landowning and waging of war—all activities vital to a well-
merchant class all brought into existence ordered state. Such representations were
new patrons and new attitudes that had a cast with gold or silver inlay or engraved
great influence on the arts and crafts. onto the sides of bronze vessels, most nota-
Practically nothing survives of Zhou bly the hu, where all these themes might
painting, although from literary evidence be combined on a single vessel. This con-
it seems that the art developed consider- ceptual transformation began by the late
ably, particularly during the period of the 6th century BCE, at about the same time
Warring States. Palaces and ancestral Confucius and other philosophers initi-
halls were decorated with wall paintings. ated humane speculation on the nature of
Late Zhou texts tell of a craftsman work- statecraft and social welfare.
ing for the Zhougong (duke of Zhou) who The early representation of land-
covered the stock of a whip with minute scape, indicated only crudely on bronzes,
paintings of dragons, snakes, horses, char- appears in more sophisticated fashion on
iots, and “all the ten thousand things” and embroidered textiles of the 4th–3rd cen-
of another painter who told the king of turies BCE from south-central Chinese
Qi that spirits and ghosts were easier to sites such as Mashan, near Jiangling in
draw than dogs and horses, whose precise the state of Chu (modern Hubei prov-
appearance is known to all. The rhetori- ince). There, as in the Han dynasty art
cal questions or riddles in the Tianwen that followed, landscape is suggested by
(“Questions to Heaven”), attributed to the rhythmic lines, which serve as mountain
poet Chu Yuan, are traditionally thought contours to organize spatially a variety
to have been inspired by wall paintings. of wild animals in front and back and
The most significant development of which, while structurally simple, convey
the late Zhou, one among the most revo- in linear fashion a sophisticated concept
lutionary of all moments in Chinese art, of mountain landscape as fluid, dynamic,
was the emergence of a representational and spiritual.
art form, a departure from the ritualized Further indications of the subject
depiction of fanciful and usually isolated matter of Dong (Eastern) Zhou picto-
creatures of the Shang and early to middle rial art are given by objects in lacquer,
Zhou that is evident in the bronzes of this chiefly from the state of Chu and from
182 | The Culture of China
Sichuan, on which hunting scenes, chari- Yi of Zeng. The labour required for these
ots and horsemen, and fantastic winged coffins is suggested by the set of nested
creatures drawn from folklore were coffins from the Han dynasty found at
painted in a simple but lively style natu- Mawangdui (two bearing exquisite land-
ral to the fluid character of the medium. scape designs, described below), which
Large painted lacquer coffins with such are said to represent one million man-
creatures depicted were present in the hours. A painted lacquer storage box
5th-century-BCE royal tomb of Marquis from the Zeng tomb bears the earliest
Drawing of ancestral offering scenes (ritual archery, sericulture, hunting, and warfare) cast
on a ceremonial bronze hu, 6th–5th century BCE, Zhou dynasty; in the Palace Museum,
Beijing. Wang Lu/ChinaStock Photo Library
Chinese Art | 183
depiction of two of the Chinese direc- tomb as the latter, is a kind of religious
tional animals (formerly thought to date almanac (the earliest known example
from the later Han), together with the of Chinese writing on silk) decorated
names of the 28 stars used in Chinese around its border with depictions of dei-
astrology (previously believed to have ties and sacred plants.
been introduced at a later time from Iran
or India). Qin (221–207 BCE) and Han
Some of these motifs and, perhaps, (206 BCE–220 CE) Dynasties
the early treatment of landscape itself
may derive in both theme and style from In 221 BCE the ruler of the feudal Qin
foreign sources, particularly China’s state united all of China under himself
northern nomadic neighbours. Those as Qin Shihuangdi (“First Sovereign
scenes concerned with ceremonial Emperor of Qin”) and laid the foundation
archery and ritual offerings in architec- for the long stability and prosperity of
tural settings, sericulture, warfare, and the succeeding Han dynasty. His mate-
domestic hunting, however, seem to be rial accomplishments were the product
essentially Chinese. These renditions of rare organizational genius, includ-
generally occur with figures in two-dimen- ing centralizing the Chinese state and
sional silhouette spread evenly over most legal system, unifying the Chinese writ-
of the available pictorial surface. By the ing script and its system of weights and
very late Zhou, however, occasional exam- measures, and consolidating many of the
ples—such as the depiction of a mounted walls of northern China into an architec-
warrior contending with a tiger, executed tural network of beacon towers able to
in inlaid gold and silver on a bronze spot any suspicious military movement
mirror from Jincun (c. 3rd century BCE, and relay messages across the territory
Hosokawa collection, Tokyo)—suggest in a single day. However, his means were
the emerging ability of artists to conceive brutal and exhausted the people, and the
of two-dimensional images in terms of dynasty failed to survive his early death.
implied bulk and spatial context. The Xi (Western) Han (206 BCE–25
The few surviving Zhou period paint- CE), with its capital at Chang’an (near
ings on silk—from about the 3rd century modern Xi’an), reached a climax of
BCE, the oldest in all East Asia—were pro- expansive power under Wudi (ruled
duced in the state of Chu and unearthed 141/140–87/86 BCE), who established
from tombs near Changsha. One depicts colonies in Korea and Indochina and
a woman, perhaps a shaman or possibly sent expeditions into Central Asia, which
the deceased, with a dragon and phoe- made Chinese arts and crafts known
nix; one depicts a gentleman conveyed in abroad and opened up China itself to for-
what appears to be a dragon-shaped boat; eign ideas and artistic influences. After
and a third, reported to be from the same the period of the usurping Xin dynasty
184 | The Culture of China
however, to be very conservative in style, filled with mythic figures. It contains sty-
even archaic, perhaps with the intent listic features not previously seen before
of advertising the sponsoring family’s the 4th century CE, creating spatial
chaste attachment to the pure and simple illusion through foreshortening, overlap-
virtues of past times. A far earlier painting, ping, and placement upon an implied
a funerary banner from about 168 BCE, ground plane, as well as suggesting cer-
excavated in 1972 at Mawangdui, reveals tain lighting effects through contrasting
how much more sophisticated early Han and modulated colours.
and even late Zhou painting must have Han landscape painting is well repre-
been. Painted with bright, evenly applied sented by the lacquer coffins of Lady Dai at
mineral pigments and fine, elegant brush Mawangdui, two of which are painted with
lines on silk, the banner represents a kind scenes of mountains, clouds, and a variety
of cosmic array, with separate scenes of a of full-bodied human and animal figures.
funerary ceremony, the underworld, and Two approaches are used: one, more archi-
the ascent of the deceased (the Lady Dai tectonic, uses overlapping pyramidal
mentioned above) to a heavenly setting patterns that derive from the bronze decor
Landscape scene from a bronze fitting of a chariot canopy from Dingxian, Hebei province,
drawing, c. 2nd–1st century BCE, Western Han dynasty; in the Hebei Provincial Museum,
Wuhan, China. Zhang Ping/ChinaStock Photo Library
186 | The Culture of China
of the late Zhou period (1046–255 BCE); Wei moved their capital to Luoyang in
the other continues the dynamic linear the heartland of ancient Chinese civiliza-
convention already noted on the embroi- tion, where they lost what little Turkish
dered textiles from Jiangling, in the identity they still possessed. They were
Warring States period (475–221 BCE), as succeeded in 535 by other petty barbar-
well as on late Zhou painted lacquers, on ian dynasties who held the north until the
inlaid bronze tubes used as canopy fittings reunification of China in 581.
for chariots, and on woven silks found at The barbarians adopted Buddhism as
Noin Ula, in Mongolia. Elsewhere, in the a matter of state policy, for Buddhism was
late Han, a new feeling for pictorial space an international religion with a concept
in a more open outdoor setting appeared of kingship that helped them to equate
on molded bricks decorating tombs near their earthly power with their spiritual
Chengdu; these portrayed hunting and authority and thus to legitimize their
harvesting, the local salt-mining industry, control over the Chinese. Moreover, in
and other subjects. the devastated land that was northern
China in the 4th and 5th centuries, when
Three Kingdoms (220–280) the Confucian system was in ruins and
and Six Dynasties (220–589) Daoism a refuge for the few, the Buddhist
doctrine of salvation through faith and
For 60 years after the fall of Han, China good works acted as a powerful consol-
was divided between three native dynas- ing and uniting force, much like the role
ties: the Wei in the north, Wu in the the Christian church played in the Middle
southeast, and Shuhan in the west. It was Ages in Europe. Therefore, when the Bei
briefly reunited under the Xi (Western) Wei embarked on great projects of tem-
Jin; but in 311 Luoyang and in 316 ple building and the carving of colossal
Chang’an fell to the invading Xiongnu, images, the people supported them, and
and before long the whole of northern Buddhist art flourished in the north.
China was occupied by barbarian tribes The Six Dynasties of South China,
who set up one petty kingdom after which ruled from Nanjing, were slower to
another until, in 439, a Turkish tribe, the respond to the Buddhist message, partly
Tuoba, brought the region under their because they were less accessible to the
rule as the Bei (Northern) Wei dynasty. missionaries entering China from Central
They established a capital at Pingcheng Asia and partly because Confucianism
(modern Datong) in Shanxi that they and Daoism had been kept alive among
populated through the forced immigra- the refugees from the north. Buddhist
tion of tens of thousands of Chinese. missionaries and art came to Nanjing by
The Chinese they recruited into their way of Indochina, but this cultural traffic
service influenced the Tuoba until they did not become important before the 4th
became completely Sinicized. In 495 the century. Although the rulers (with few
Chinese Art | 187
exceptions) were weak, corrupt, or cruel is bound strictly to the text (as if used as a
and the court a maze of intrigue, it was mnemonic device): the advice to imperial
chiefly in Nanjing that the great poets, concubines to bear sons to the emperor,
calligraphers, painters, and critics flour- for instance, is accompanied by a delight-
ished, and they in turn greatly influenced ful family group. The figures are slender
the arts of the occupied north. and fairylike, and the line is fine and flows
The breakdown of the Confucian sys- rhythmically. The roots of this elegant
tem after the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 southern style, which then epitomized
CE) was reflected in painting and painting the highest Nanjing court standard, can
theory: increasingly, Daoist and Buddhist be traced back to Changsha in the late
themes and theoretical reasons for paint- Zhou (1046–256 BCE)–early Han period,
ing were emphasized. This period saw and it was later adopted as court style
the first activity by the courtier class, who by the Bei Wei rulers (e.g., at Longmen)
painted as amateurs and who were far when they moved south to Luoyang in
better remembered in the written record 495. Gu Kaizhi also was noted as a por-
of the art than were their professional, traitist, and, among Buddhist subjects,
artisan-class counterparts. Among the his rendering of the sage Vimalakirti
first named painting masters, Cao Buxing became a model for later painters.
and Dai Kui painted chiefly Buddhist and The south saw few major painters
Daoist subjects. Dai Kui was noted as a in the 5th century, but the settled reign
poet, painter, and musician and was one of Wudi in the 6th produced a number
of the first to establish the tradition of of notable figures, among them Zhang
scholarly amateur painting (wenrenhua). Sengyao, who was commissioned by the
He was also the leading sculptor of his pious emperor to decorate the walls of
day, almost the only instance in Chinese Buddhist temples in Nanjing. All his work
history of a gentleman who engaged in is lost, but his style, from early accounts
this craft. and later copies, seems to have combined
The greatest painter at the southern realism with a new freedom in the use
court in this period was Gu Kaizhi, an of the brush, employing dots and dash-
amateur painter from a family of distin- ing strokes very different from the fine
guished Dong (Eastern) Wei dynasty precision of Gu Kaizhi. He also painted
scholar-officials in Nanjing and an “flowers in relief” on the temple walls,
eccentric member of a Daoist sect. One which were much admired. Whether the
of the most famous of his works (which effect of relief was produced by chiar-
survives in a Tang dynasty copy in the oscuro or by the thickness of the pigment
British Museum) illustrates a 3rd-century itself is not known.
didactic text Nüshizhen (“Admonitions of Painters in northern China were
the Court Instructress”), by Zhang Hua. chiefly occupied in Buddhist fresco paint-
In this hand scroll, narrative illustration ing (painting on a freshly plastered wall).
188 | The Culture of China
Bodhisattva, detail of a painted mural, mid-5th century, Bei (Northern) Wei dynasty, in cave
272, Dunhuang, Gansu province, China. Chen Zhi’an/ChinaStock Photo Library
Chinese Art | 189
While all the temples of the period have The beginning of aesthetic theory in
been destroyed, a quantity of wall paint- China was another product of the spirit
ing survives at Dunhuang in northwestern of inquiry and introspection that char-
Gansu in the Caves of the Thousand acterized these restless years. About
Buddhas, Qianfodong, where there are 300 CE a long, passionate poem, Wen
nearly 500 cave shrines and niches dat- Fu (“Rhymeprose on Literature”), was
ing from the 5th century onward. There composed by Lu Ji on the subject of artis-
are also wall paintings in the caves of tic creation. Also from this period, the
Maijishan and Bingling Temple. Early Wenxin Diaolong (“Literary Mind and
Dunhuang paintings chiefly depict Carving of Dragons”) by Liu Xie has long
incidents in the life of the Buddha, the remained China’s premier treatise on aes-
Jatakas (stories of his previous incar- thetics. It offers insightful consideration
nations), and such simple themes as of a wide range of chosen topics, begin-
the perils from which Avalokiteshvara ning with a discussion of wen, or nature’s
(Chinese Guanyin) saves the faithful. In underlying pattern. Set forth as central to
style they show a blend of Central Asian the mastery of artistic expression are the
and Chinese techniques that reflects the control of “wind” (feng, emotional vitality)
mixed population of northern China at and “bone” (gu, structural organization).
this time. In the Nan (Southern) Liang dynasty
Painters practicing foreign tech- critical works were written on literature
niques were active at the northern courts and calligraphy; and, about the mid-6th
in the 6th century. Cao Zhongda painted, century, the painter Xie He compiled
according to an early text, “after the the earliest work on art theory that
manner of foreign countries” and was has survived in China, the Guhuapinlu
noted for closely clinging drapery that (“Classified Record of Painters of Former
made his figures look as though they Times”). In this work he grades 27 paint-
had been drenched in water. At the end ers in three classes, prefacing his list with
of the 6th century, a painter from Khotan a short statement of six aesthetic princi-
(Hotan), Weichi Bozhina, was active at ples by which painting should be judged.
the Sui court. A descendant of his, Weichi These are qiyun shengdong (“spirit reso-
Yiseng, painted frescoes in the temples of nance, life-motion”), an enigmatic and
Chang’an using a thick impasto (a thick much debated phrase that means that the
application of pigment) and a brush line painter should endow his work with life
that was “tight and strong like bending and movement through harmony with the
iron or coiling wire.” Those foreign tech- spirit of nature; gufa yongbi (“structural
niques caused much comment among the method in use of the brush”), referring to
Chinese but seem to have been confined the structural power and tension of the
to Buddhist painting and were eventually brushstroke in both painting and callig-
abandoned. raphy, through which the vital spirit is
190 | The Culture of China
great days were over, and, as the empire 8th-century tombs in northern China,
shrank and the economic crisis deep- notably that of Princess Yongtai (rebur-
ened, the government and people turned ied 706) near Xi’an.
against foreigners and foreign religions. The royal tombs near Xi’an (706)
In 845 all foreign religions were briefly show the emergence of a more liberated
but disastrously proscribed; temples and tradition in brushwork that came to the
monasteries were destroyed or turned to fore in mid- to late 8th-century painting,
secular use, and Buddhist bronze images as it did in the calligraphy of Zhang Xu,
were melted down. Today the finest Yan Zhenqing, and other master writ-
Buddhist art and architecture in the Tang ers. The greatest brush master of Tang
style is to be found not in China but in painting was the 8th-century artist Wu
the 8th-century temples at Nara in Japan. Daoxuan, also called Wu Daozi, who not
While the ancient heartland of Chinese only enjoyed a career at court but had
civilization in the Henan-Shaanxi area sufficient creative energy to execute,
sank in political and economic impor- according to Tang records, some 300 wall
tance, the southeast became ever more paintings in the temples of Luoyang and
densely populated and prosperous, and Chang’an. His brushwork, in contrast to
in the last century of the Tang it was once that of Yan Liben, was full of such sweep-
again the cultural centre of China, as it ing power that crowds would gather
had been in the Six Dynasties (220–589). to watch him as he worked. He painted
The patronage of the Sui and Tang chiefly in ink, leaving the colouring to
courts attracted painters from all over the his assistants, and he was famous for
empire. Yan Liben, who rose to high office the three-dimensional, sculptural effect
as an administrator, finally becoming a he achieved with the ink line alone. His
minister of state, was also a noted 7th-cen- work (e.g., a mural at the Datong Hall of
tury figure painter. His duties included the imperial palace, representing almost
painting historical scrolls, notable events 300 miles [500 km] of Sichuan’s Jialing
past and present, and portraits, including River, produced in a single day with-
those of foreigners and strange creatures out preliminary sketches) survives only
brought to court as tribute, to the delight through descriptions and very unreliable
of his patron, Taizong. Yan Liben painted copies. Wu Daozi had a profound influ-
in a conservative style with a delicate, ence, particularly on figure painting, in
scarcely modulated line. Part of a scroll the Tang and Song dynasties. His style
depicting 13 emperors from Han to Sui may be reflected in some of the 8th-cen-
(in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) is tury caves at Dunhuang, although the
attributed to him. His brother Yan Lide meticulous handling of the great paradise
was also a painter. Features of their style compositions in the caves increasingly
may possibly be preserved in wall paint- came to approximate the high standards
ings in recently discovered 7th- and early of Chinese court artists and suggests the
192 | The Culture of China
Polo player, detail of a mural from the tomb of Li Xian (the crown prince Zhanghuai), near
Xianyang, Shaanxi province, 706 CE, Tang dynasty; in the Shaanxi Provincial Museum,
Xi’an, China. Wang Lu/ChinaStock Photo Library
inspiration of earlier and more conser- in a Song dynasty copy (in the Museum
vative Buddhist painters, who included of Fine Arts, Boston), while later versions of
Zheng Fazhi and Dong Boren. This more several compositions attributed to Zhou
restrained style can also be seen in the Fang exist. Eighth-century royal tomb
Japanese temple murals at Hōryū Temple murals and Dunhuang Buddhist paint-
near Nara, executed about 670–710 in the ings demonstrate the early appearance
Chinese “international” manner. and widespread appeal of styles that these
Figure painters who depicted court court artists helped later to canonize, with
life in a careful manner derived from individual figures (especially women) of
Yan Liben rather than from Wu Daozi monumental, sculpturesque proportion
included Zhang Xuan and Zhou Fang. The arranged upon a blank background with
former’s Ladies Preparing Silk survives classic simplicity and balance.
Chinese Art | 193
Landscape Painting
Brushwork”), attributed to Jing Hao, sets by Dong Yuan and Juran became domi-
out the philosophy of this school of land- nant in the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing
scape painting, one that was consistent (1644–1911/12) periods, preferred by
with newly emergent Neo-Confucian ide- amateur artists because of its easy reduc-
als. Painting was to be judged both by its tion to a calligraphic mode, its calm and
visual truthfulness to nature and by its understated compositional nature, and
expressive impact. The artist must pos- its regional affiliation.
sess creative intuition and a reverence While the few figure painters in
for natural subject matter, tempered by northern China, such as Hu Huai, charac-
rigorous empirical observation and per- teristically recorded hunting scenes, the
sonal self-discipline. Consistent with this, southerners, notably Gu Hongzhong and
in all the major schools of Song landscape Zhou Wenju, depicted the voluptuous,
painting that followed, artists would ren- sensual court life under Li Houzhu. A
der with remarkable accuracy their own remarkable copy of an original work by Gu
regional geography, letting it serve as Hongzhong depicts the scandalous revel-
a basis for their styles, their emotional ries of the minister Han Xizai. Zhou Wenju
moods, and their personal visions. was famous for his pictures of court ladies
In contrast to the stark drama of and musical entertainments, executed with
this northern style, landscapes associ- a fine line and soft, glowing colour in the
ated with the name of Dong Yuan, who tradition of Zhang Xuan and Zhou Fang.
held a sinecure post at the court of Li
Houzhu in Nanjing, are broad and almost Flower Painting
impressionistic in treatment. The coarse
brushstrokes (known as “hemp-fibre” Flower painting, previously associated
texture strokes), dotted accents (“moss chiefly with Buddhist art, came into its
dots”), and wet ink washes of his mono- own as a separate branch of painting in
chrome style, said to be derived from the Five Dynasties. At Chengdu, the mas-
Wang Wei, suggest the rounded, tree- ter Huang Quan brought to maturity the
clad hills and moist atmosphere of the technique of mogu hua (“boneless paint-
Jiangnan (“South of the Yangtze River”) ing”), in which he applied light colours
region. The contrast between the firm with delicate skill, hiding the intentionally
brushwork and dramatic compositions pale underdrawing and seeming thereby
of such northern painters as Jing Hao to dispense with the usually dominant ele-
and his followers and the more relaxed ment of a strong brush outline. His great
and spontaneous manner of Dong Yuan rival, Xu Xi, working for Li Houzhu in
and his follower Juran laid the founda- Nanjing, first drew his flowers in ink in a
tion for two distinct traditions in Chinese bold, free manner suggestive of the draft
landscape painting that have continued script, caoshu, adding a little colour after-
up to modern times. The style developed ward. Both men established standards
Chinese Art | 197
A Pheasant and Sparrows Among Rocks and Shrubs, ink and colours on silk hanging scroll
attributed to Huang Jucai, 10th century, Bei (Northern) Song dynasty; in the National Palace
Museum, Taipei, Taiwan. National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan
198 | The Culture of China
northwest, cutting off Chinese contact Bianjing was a city of palaces, temples,
with western and Central Asia. From the and tall pagodas; Buddhism flourished,
new capital, Bianjing, the Song rulers pur- and monasteries and temples once again
sued a pacific policy, buying off the Khitan multiplied. The Song emperors attracted
and showing unprecedented toleration at around them the greatest literary and
home. While it brought Chinese schol- artistic talent of the empire, and some-
arship, arts, and letters to a new peak of thing of this high culture was carried on
achievement, this policy left the north- by their successors of Liao and Jin. The
ern frontiers unguarded. When in 1114 atmosphere at the Nan Song court in
the Juchen Tatars in the far northwest Hangzhou, perhaps even more refined
revolted against the Khitan, the Chinese and civilized, was clouded by the loss of
army helped the rebels destroy their old the north, and the temptation to enjoy
enemy. The Juchen then turned on the the delights of Hangzhou and neglect
Song: they invaded China, besieged the their armies on the frontier turned men
capital in 1126, and took as prisoner the in on themselves. Power and confidence
emperor Qinzong, the emperor emeritus no longer characterized Nan Song art;
Huizong (who had recently abdicated), instead it was imbued with an exquisite
and the imperial court. They then estab- sensibility and a romanticism that is
lished their own dynasty, the Jin, with sometimes poignant, given the disaster
their capital at the city later to be called that befell China in the 13th century.
Beijing. The remnants of the Song court Song interest in history and a revival
fled to the south in 1127 and, after sev- of the classics were matched by a new
eral years of wandering, established their concern with the tangible remains of
“temporary” capital at the beautiful city China’s past. This was the age of the
of Hangzhou. The Nan Song (Southern beginning of archaeology and of the first
Song) never seriously tried to recover the great collectors and connoisseurs. One of
north but enjoyed the beauty and pros- the most enthusiastic of these was the Bei
perity of their new home, while the arts Song emperor Huizong (1100–1125/26),
continued to flourish in an atmosphere whose passion for the arts blinded him
of humanity and tolerance until the to the perils that threatened his country.
Mongols entered China in the 13th cen- Huizong’s sophisticated antiquarian-
tury and swept all before them. In 1234 ism reflects an attitude that became an
they destroyed the Juchen Tatars, and, increasingly important factor in Chinese
although the Chinese armies resisted val- art. He collected and cataloged pre-Qin
iantly, Hangzhou fell in 1276. Three years bronzes and jades while the palace stu-
later a loyal Song minister drowned him- dios turned out close replicas and archaic
self and the young emperor. emulations of both media. Building his
The Bei (Northern) Song was a period royal garden, the Genyue, was said to have
of reconstruction and consolidation. nearly bankrupted the state, as gigantic
Chinese Art | 199
garden stones hauled up by boat from wash bounded by firmly brushed, scal-
the south closed down the Grand Canal lop-edged contours. He is remembered
for long periods. He was also the most especially for winter landscapes and for
distinguished of all imperial painting simple compositions in which he set a
collectors, and the catalog of his collec- pair of tall, rugged, aging evergreens
tion (the Xuanhe Huapu, encompassing against a low, level view of desiccated
6,396 paintings by 231 painters) remains landscape. As with Jing Hao and Guan
a valuable document for the study of Tong, probably none of his original work
early Chinese painting. (Part of the col- survives, but aspects of his style have
lection passed into the hands of the Jin been perpetuated in thousands of other
conquerors, and the remainder was scat- artists’ works.
tered at the fall of Bianjing.) Huizong An even more formidable figure was
also elevated to new heights the recent the early 11th-century painter Fan Kuan,
process of bureaucratizing court paint- who began by following Li Cheng’s style
ing, with entrance examinations modeled but turned to studying nature directly and
on civil service norms, with ranks and finally followed only his own inclinations.
promotions like those of scholar-offi- He lived as a recluse in the mountains of
cials, and with regularized instruction Shaanxi, and a Song writer said that “his
sometimes offered by the emperor him- manners and appearance were stern and
self as chief academician. The favours old-fashioned; he had a great love of wine
granted throughout the Song to lower- and was devoted to the Dao.” A tall land-
class artisans at court incurred the ire of scape scroll, Travelers Among Mountains
aristocratic courtiers and provided stim- and Streams (National Palace Museum,
ulus for the rise of the amateur painting Taipei, Taiwan), bearing his hidden sig-
movement among these scholar-offi- nature, depicts peasants and pack mules
cials (shidafu hua), which ultimately emerging from thick woodland at the
became the literati painting mode (wen- foot of a towering cliff that dwarfs them
renhua) that dominated most of Yuan to insignificance. The composition is
(1206–1368), Ming (1368–1644), and Qing monumental, the detail is realistic, and
(1644–1911/12) history. the brushwork, featuring a stippling style
Settled conditions and a tolerant known as “raindrop” strokes, is powerful
atmosphere helped to make the Bei and close-textured. While the details of
Song a period of great achievement in the work are based on closely observed
landscape painting. Li Cheng, a follower geographic reality (perhaps some specific
of Jing Hao who lived a few years into site such as Mount Heng), a profoundly
the Song, was a scholar who defined the idealistic conception is revealed in the
soft, billowing earthen formations of the highly rational structure of the paint-
northeastern Chinese terrain with “cloud- ing, which conforms closely to aspects of
like” texture, interior layers of graded ink Daoist cosmology and numerology.
200 | The Culture of China
Other northern masters of the 11th Mi Fu, the bamboo painter Wen Tong,
century who helped to establish the great the plum painter and priest Zhongren
classical tradition were Xu Daoning, Gao Huaguang, and the figure and horse
Kegong, and Yan Wengui. The second half painter Li Gonglin. Su and Mi, together
of the century was dominated by Guo Xi, with their friend Huang Tingjian, were
who became an instructor in the painting also the foremost calligraphers of the
division of the Imperial Hanlin Academy. dynasty, all three developing the tradition
His style combined the technique of Li established by Zhang Xu, Yan Zhenqing,
Cheng with the monumentality of Fan and Huaisu in the mid-8th century. The
Kuan, and he made some advances, par- aim of these artists was not to depict
ticularly in the relief that he attained by nature realistically—that could be left to
shading with ink washes (“cloudlike” tex- the professionals—but to express them-
ture), a spectacular example of which is selves, to “satisfy the heart.” They spoke
his Early Spring (1072; National Palace of merely “borrowing” the literal shapes
Museum, Taipei, Taiwan). He was a great and forms of things as a vehicle through
decorator and liked to work on such large which they could “lodge” their thoughts
surfaces as plaster walls and standing and feelings. In this amateur painting
screens. His observations on landscape mode of the scholar-official (shidafu hua,
painting were collected and published later called wenrenhua), skill was suspect
by his son Gao Si under the title Linquan because it was the attribute of the profes-
Gaozhi (“Lofty Record of Forests and sional and court painter. The scholars
Streams”). In addition to giving ideas for valued spontaneity above all, even mak-
paintings and notes on the rules of the art, ing a virtue of awkwardness as a sign of
in this work he stresses that the enjoyment the painter’s sincerity.
of landscape painting can function as a Mi Fu, an influential and demanding
substitute for wandering in the mountains, connoisseur, was the first major advocate
an indulgence for which the conscientious and follower of Dong Yuan’s boneless
Confucian scholar-official was too busy. style, reducing it to mere ink dots (Mi
While the monumental realistic tra- dian, or “Mi dots”). This new technique
dition was reaching its climax, quite influenced many painters, including Mi
another approach to painting was being Fu’s son Mi Youren, who combined it
expressed by a group of intellectuals that with a subdued form of ink splashing.
included the poet-statesman-artist Su Wen Tong and Su Dongpo were both
Shi (Su Dongpo), the landscape painter devoted to bamboo painting, an exacting
Early Spring, detail of a hanging scroll, ink and slight colour on silk, by Guo Xi, 1072, Northern
Song dynasty; in the National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan. National Palace Museum,
Taipei, Taiwan
Chinese Art | 201
202 | The Culture of China
art form very close in technique to callig- Among the distinguished academi-
raphy. Su Dongpo wrote poems on Wen cians at Huizong’s court were Zhang
Tong’s paintings, thus helping to estab- Zeduan, whose extraordinarily realistic
lish the unity of the three arts of poetry, Qingming Festival scroll (Palace Museum,
painting, and calligraphy that became Beijing) preserves a wealth of social and
a hallmark of the wenrenhua. When Su architectural information in compel-
Dongpo painted landscapes, Li Gonglin lingly artistic form, and Li Tang, who fled
sometimes executed the figures. Li was to the south in 1127 and supervised the
a master of baimiao (“plain line”) paint- reestablishment of the northern artistic
ing, without colour, shading, or wash. He tradition at the new court in Hangzhou.
brought a scholar’s refinement of taste to Although Guo Xi’s style remained popu-
a tradition theretofore dominated by Wu lar in the north after the Jin occupation,
Daozi’s dramatic style. Li Tang’s mature style came to dominate
The northern emperors were enthu- in the south. Li was a master in the Fan
siastic patrons of the arts. Huizong, Kuan tradition, but he gradually reduced
perhaps the most knowledgeable of all Fan’s monumentality into more refined
Chinese emperors about the arts, was and delicate compositions and trans-
himself an accomplished calligrapher formed Fan’s small “raindrop” texture
(he developed a unique and extremely into a broader “ax-cut” texture stroke that
elegant style known as “slender gold”) subsequently remained a hallmark of
and a painter chiefly of birds and flow- most Chinese court academy landscape
ers in the realistic tradition stretching painting.
back to Huang Quan and developed by In the first two generations of the Nan
subsequent court artists such as Cui Bai Song, however, historical figure painting
of the late 11th century. While meticu- regained its earlier dominance at court.
lous in detail, his works were subjective Gaozong and Xiaozong, respectively
in mood, following poetic themes that the son and grandson of the imprisoned
were calligraphically inscribed on the Huizong, sought to legitimize their neces-
painting. A fine example of the kind of sary but technically unlawful assumption
painting attributed to him is the minutely of power by supporting works illustrat-
observed and carefully painted Five- ing the ancient classics and traditional
Coloured Parakeet on Blossoming Apricot virtues. Such works, by artists including
Tree (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). He Li Tang and Ma Hezhi, often include
demanded the same qualities in the work lengthy inscriptions purportedly exe-
of his court painters and would add his cuted by the emperors themselves. They
cipher to pictures of which he approved. represent the finest survival today of
It is consequently very difficult to distin- the ancient court tradition of propagan-
guish the work of the emperor from that distic historical narrative painting in a
of his favoured court artists. Confucian political mode.
Chinese Art | 203
Subsequently, in the late 12th and early the Golden Girdle, between 1201 and
13th centuries, the primacy of landscape 1204, but he put it aside, quit the court,
painting was reasserted. The tradition of Li and became a Chan recluse. What is
Tang was turned in an increasingly roman- thought to be his earlier work has the pro-
tic and dreamlike direction, however, by fessional skill expected of a colleague of
the great masters Ma Yuan, his son Ma Lin, Ma Yuan, but his later paintings became
Xia Gui, and Liu Songnian, all of whom freer and more spontaneous.
served with distinction in the painting The greatest of the Chan painters was
division of the imperial Hanlin Academy. Muqi, or Fachang, who reestablished the
These artists used the Li Tang technique, Liutong Monastery in the western hills of
only more freely, developing the so-called Hangzhou. The wide range of subjects of
“large ax-cut” texture stroke. Their compo- his work (which included Buddhist dei-
sitions are often “one-cornered,” depicting ties, landscapes, birds and animals, and
a foreground promontory with a fashion- flowers and fruit) and the spontaneity of
ably rusticated building and a few stylish his style bear witness to the Chan phi-
figures separated from the silhouettes of losophy that the “Buddha essence” is in
distant peaks by a vast and aesthetically all things equally and that only a sponta-
poignant expanse of misty emptiness—a neous style can convey something of the
view these painters must have seen any sudden awareness that comes to the Chan
summer evening as they gazed across adept in his moments of illumination.
Hangzhou’s West Lake. The Ma family’s Perhaps his best-known work is his hast-
works achieved a philosophically inspired ily sketched Six Persimmons (preserved
sense of quietude, while Xia Gui’s man- and idolized in Japan), while a some-
ner was strikingly dramatic in brushwork what more conservative style is seen in
and composition. The Ma-Xia school, as it his triptych of three hanging scrolls with
came to be called, was greatly admired in Guanyin flanked by a crane and gibbons
Japan during the Muromachi and Azuchi- (Daitoku Temple, Kyōto, Japan). Chinese
Momoyama periods, and its impact can connoisseurs disapproved of the rough
still be found today in Japanese garden- brushwork and lack of literary content in
ing traditions. Muqi’s paintings, and none appear to have
Toward the end of this period, Chan survived in China. However, his work, and
(Zen) Buddhist painting experienced that of other Chan artists such as Liang
a brief but remarkable florescence, Kai and Yujian, was collected and widely
stimulated by scholars abandoning the copied in Japan, forming the basis of the
decaying political environment of the Japanese suiboku-ga (sumi-e) tradition.
Nan Song court for the monastic life prac- Chan Buddhism borrowed greatly
ticed in the hill temples across the lake from Daoism, both in philosophy and
from Hangzhou. The court painter Liang in painting manner. One of the last
Kai had been awarded the highest order, great Song artists was Chen Rong, an
204 | The Culture of China
tradition of Su Dongpo and his late Bei conservative painter before the Mongol
Song colleagues) first came to dominate conquest, especially of realistic flowers
Chinese painting standards. and birds, he altered his style to incor-
The restriction of the scholars’ porate the primitive qualities of ancient
opportunities at court and the choice of painting, favouring the Tang blue-and-
many of them to withdraw into seclusion green manner in his landscape painting,
rather than serve the Mongols created a stiff or peculiarly mannered renditions
heightened sense of class identity and of vegetation and small animals, and the
individual purpose, which in turn inspired archaic flavour of clerical script in his
their art. Eremitic rather than courtly val- brushwork. Calligraphy became a part
ues now shaped the art of painting as of his design and frequently confirmed
never before, and a stylistic gulf sprang through historical references a link
up between literati painters and court between subject matter and his eremitic
professionals that was not bridged until choice of lifestyle. Like many Chinese
the 18th century. Whereas most paint- scholars who espoused this amateur ideal,
ing had previously displayed technical Qian Xuan was obliged by demeaning
refinement and had conservatively trans- circumstances to exchange his paintings
mitted the heritage of the immediate past, in return for his family’s livelihood.
gradually evolving through modest indi- The most distinguished of the
vidual departures, the literati thenceforth scholar-painters was Zhao Mengfu, a fel-
typically based their styles on a wide- low townsman and younger follower of
ranging knowledge of distant stylistic Qian Xuan who became a high official
precedents, selectively chosen and radi- and president of the imperial Hanlin
cally transformed by means of expressive Academy. In his official travels he col-
calligraphic brushwork. Style and sub- lected paintings by Bei Song masters
ject were both intended to reflect closely that inspired him to revive and rein-
the artist’s own personality and mood terpret the classical styles in his own
rather than conforming to the wishes of a fashion. A notable example is Autumn
patron. Typical were the simply brushed Colours in the Qiao and Hua Mountains
orchid paintings of Zheng Sixiao, who (1296; National Palace Museum, Taipei,
painted this traditional symbol of politi- Taiwan), a nostalgic, deliberately archais-
cal loyalty without any ground beneath tic landscape in the Tang manner. The
as a comment on the grievous loss of hand scrolls Twin Pines and Level View
China to foreign domination. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Qian Xuan was among the first to City) and Water Village (1302; Palace
define this new direction. From Wuxing Museum, Beijing) exemplify his reinter-
in Zhejiang, he steadfastly declined an pretation of past masters (Li Cheng and
invitation to serve at court, as reflected Dong Yuan, respectively) and furthered
in his painting style and themes. A the new direction of scholarly landscape
206 | The Culture of China
painting by applying the standards and of personality, for a brush style too sweet
techniques of calligraphy to painting. and pleasing.
The Yuan produced many fine cal- Other gentlemen-painters who worked
ligraphers, including Zhao Mengfu, who at the Yuan court perpetuated more con-
was the most influential, Yang Weizhen, servative Song styles, often rivaling or
and Zhang Yu. The period was less inno- even surpassing their Song predecessors
vative in calligraphy than in painting, in the process. Ren Renfa worked in great
however, and Zhao’s primary accomplish- detail and was perhaps the last of China’s
ment was to sum up and resynthesize great horse painters; he defended his court
the past. His well-studied writing style service through both the style and theme
was praised in his time for its breadth of of his paintings. Li Kan carefully studied
historical understanding, and his stan- the varieties of bamboo during his official
dard script became the national model travels and wrote a systematic treatise on
for book printing, but he was later criti- painting them; he remains unsurpassed
cized for a lack of daring or expression as a skilled bamboo painter. Gao Kegong
A Sheep and a Goat, painting in ink by Zhao Mengfu; in the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Chinese Art | 207
Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains, detail from a hand scroll, ink on paper by Huang
Gongwang, 1350, Yuan dynasty; in the National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan. National
Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan
208 | The Culture of China
Quite different was the technique reflected in the vigour and rich colour of
of the fourth Yuan master, Wang Meng, Ming arts and crafts. Early in the 1400s,
a grandson of Zhao Mengfu. His brush- China again expanded into Central
work was dense and energetic, derived Asia, and maritime expeditions brought
from Dong Yuan but tangled and hoary Central Asian products around the Indian
and thereby imbued with a feeling of Ocean to its own shores. Chinese pottery
great antiquity. He often drew heavily exports also greatly increased. The 15th
from Guo Xi or from what he perceived century was a period of settled prosperity
as Tang traditions in his landscape com- and great achievement in the arts, but the
positions, which he filled with scholarly last century of the dynasty was marked by
retreats. He sometimes used strong corruption at court and a deep discontent
colours as well, which added a degree of among the scholar-gentry that is reflected
visual charm and nostalgia to his paint- in their painting.
ing that was lacking in the other three The first Ming emperor, Hongwu,
masters’ work. was a highly distrustful personality
The combination in the Four Masters whose vengeful focus fell upon Suzhou,
of a consistent philosophical and politi- the local base of his chief rival for the
cal attitude and a wide range of ink throne as well as home to the Yuan
techniques made them models for later period (1206–1368) literati painting move-
scholar-painters, both in their lives and ment. So many artists became victim to
in their art. It is impossible to appreci- his recriminations, typically for political
ate the work of the landscape painters of rather than artistic reasons, that a novel
the Ming and Qing (1644–1911/12) dynas- movement in Chinese painting history
ties unless one is aware of how acutely was nearly halted. Among those literati
conscious they were of their debt to the painters who lost their lives during this
Yuan masters and how frequently they period were Wang Meng, Zhao Yuan, Xu
paid tribute to them both in their style Ben, Chen Ruyan, Zhang Yu, Zhou Wei,
and in their inscriptions. From this point and Sheng Zhu. Rejecting the individu-
on, indeed, the artist’s own inscription, alist standard of literati painting, early
as well as the colophons of admirers and Ming emperors who revived the custom
connoisseurs, became an integral part of of summoning painters to court sought
the total work of art. instead to create a cultural bridge to the
last native regimes, the Tang and Song.
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) Although they revived Song professional
court styles, they never organized their
The restoration of a native dynasty made painters into a central teaching academy
China once again a great power. The Ming and indeed sometimes dealt quite harshly
dynasty felt a kinship with the heyday of with them. Scholar-painters, increasingly
the Tang dynasty (618–907), a connection few in number in the early Ming, stayed at
210 | The Culture of China
home in the south, further widening the the early Ming court was Wang Fu, who
gulf between themselves and court artists. survived a long period of banishment
Early Ming court painters such as Xie to the frontier under the first emperor
Huan and Li Zai at first revived the Tang to return as a court calligrapher. He
blue-and-green and Bei Song court styles became a key figure in the survival and
of Guo Xi. Bian Wenjin and his follower transmission of Yuan literati style and
Lu Ji carried forward the bird-and-flower was the first to single out the masters
painting tradition of Huang Quan, Cui Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, Ni Zan, and
Bai, and the Song emperor Huizong. Wang Meng as models. Other early Ming
Gradually, however, the Nan Song styles scholar-official painters in the Yuan tradi-
of the landscape artists Li Tang, Ma Yuan, tion were the bamboo painter Xia Chang
and Xia Gui came to hold sway, begin- and Liu Jue, who retired to Suzhou at the
ning with Dai Jin, who served under age of 50 after having been president of
the fifth emperor, the Xuande emperor the Board of Justice. In his landscapes
(himself a painter of moderate ability). Liu Jue gives to the cool, often austere
Nevertheless, Dai Jin, who was opposed style of the Yuan masters a looser, more
in the Beijing capital by jealous court genial character, thus making them more
rivals and who found the restrictions accessible to the large number of ama-
there intolerable (as did many others who teur gentlemen-painters who flourished
followed), was affected by the calligraphi- in the Jiangnan region—notably those
cally inspired scholars’ art: his brushwork in and around Suzhou, during the settled
shows far greater freedom than is found middle years of the 15th century.
in his Nan Song models. The Wu district of Jiangsu, in which
Like Dai Jin, many professional Suzhou lies, gave its name to the Wu
painters went to Beijing from the old Nan school of landscape painting, dominated
Song capital region around Hangzhou, in the late 15th century by Shen Zhou, a
and they were said to belong to the Zhe friend and pupil of Liu Jue. Shen Zhou
school of painting. Many of the so-called never became an official but instead
Zhe school artists were in fact scholars devoted his life to painting and poetry.
disgruntled with the autocratic Ming pol- He often painted in the manner of the
itics and drawn to Daoist eremitic themes Yuan masters, but his interpretations of
and eccentric brushwork. Most dazzling Ni Zan and Wu Zhen are more clearly
among them, perhaps, was Wu Wei, from structured and firmer in brushwork. His
Jiangxia in Hubei, whose drunken bouts work is unsurpassed in all Chinese art
at court were forgiven out of admiration for its humane feeling; the gentle and
for his genius with the brush. unpretentious figures he introduced give
Among the few important amateur his paintings great appeal. Shen Zhou
painters to hold a scholarly position at commanded a wide range of styles and
Chinese Art | 211
knowledge about such matters), there Southern school of Chan Buddhism and
occurred an even more fundamental its philosophy of spontaneous enlighten-
questioning of contemporary standards. ment, while he rejected such “Northern
In the work of Chen and Cui, which school” (i.e., gradualist, pedantic) artists
exhibits all the aforementioned quali- as Guo Xi, Ma Yuan, Xia Gui, and Qui
ties, an almost unprecedented interest in Ying. Dong believed that the greatest
grotesquerie and satire visually enlivens painters were highly creative individuals
their work, yet it also reflects something who, to be followed effectively, had to be
of the restless individualism and deep creatively reinterpreted. Appropriately,
disillusionment that were part of the his own landscape painting was often
spirit of this period of national decline. quite original, sometimes daringly so,
The breakdown of orthodoxy reached an even while based on a systematic reduc-
extreme form in Xu Wei. In his explosive tion and synthetic reintegration of past
paintings, chiefly of flowers, plants, and styles. However, having breathed new
bamboo, he showed an absolute mastery life into a troubled tradition by looking
of brush and ink and a total disregard of inward and to the past, his reinterpreta-
tradition. tions (particularly of the styles of Dong
Standing above all others of this Yuan and Juran) set an ideal beyond
period in terms of historical impact, which his contemporaries and followers
the theorist, critic, and painter Dong could not go without either a great leap
Qichang saw the proliferation of styles as of imagination, a direct return to nature,
a symptom of the decline in morale of the or a departure from the historical core of
scholar class as the Ming became increas- Chinese painting standards. Only a few
ingly corrupt. His aim to reestablish artists, in the early Qing, could achieve
standards in landscape painting paral- this, primarily through the route of artis-
leled a movement to restore traditional tic imagination; many more throughout
virtue to government. In his brief but the Qing followed Dong too slavishly in
influential essay “Huashuo” (“Comments theory without attaining new heights or
on Painting”), he set out what he held to perspectives in actual practice.
be the proper lineage of scholarly paint- One further feature of late Ming art
ing models, from Wang Wei of the Tang was the popularity of wood-block printing,
through Dong Yuan and Juran of the including the appearance of a sophisti-
Five Dynasties, Su Dongpo and Mi Fu of cated tradition of polychrome printing,
the Song, Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, done in imitation of painting. Among
Ni Zan, and Wang Meng of the Yuan, the earliest major examples were the col-
and Shen Zhou and Wen Zhengming lections of ink designs Fangshi Mopu of
of the Ming. He labeled these artists as 1588 and Chengshi Moyuan of 1606 (“Mr.
“Southern school” in reference to the Fang Yulu’s Ink Catalog” and “Mr. Cheng
Chinese Art | 213
Dayue’s Ink Garden,” respectively); both Qing dynasty, even the painting of many
catalogs utilized graphic designs by sig- of its finest eccentrics and the design of
nificant artists to promote the products of its best gardens, is similarly character-
Anhui province’s foremost manufacturers ized both by lavish decoration and ornate
of ink sticks. The Shizhuzhai Shuhuapu effects as well as by superb technique
(“Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Painting and conservative taste. By the 19th cen-
and Calligraphy”), produced by Hu tury, however, China’s internal weakness
Zhengyan between 1619 and 1633, set the and humiliation by the Western powers
highest standard for polychrome wood- were reflected in a growing stagnation of
block printing and helped influence the the arts.
development of colour printing in Japan. The dual attraction of the Manchu
Painters such as Chen Hongshou par- rulers to unbridled decoration and to
ticipated in print production in forms orthodox academicism characterized
ranging from book illustration to play- their patronage at court. In regard to
ing cards, while others, including Xiao the former, they favoured artists such as
Yuncong, generated high-quality topo- Yuan Jiang, who, in the reign of Kangxi,
graphical illustrations. Through such combined with great decorative skill
artists, the medium came to influence the model of Guo Xi and the mannered
painting as well as to be influenced by it. distortions that had cropped up in the
late Ming (1368–1644), partly as a result
Qing Dynasty (1644–1911/12) of Ming artists’ exposure to an unfa-
miliar Western art. More thoroughly
The Manchu conquest did not produce a Westernized work, highly exotic from the
dislocation of Chinese social and cultural Asian perspective, was produced both by
life in the same way the Mongol invasion native court artists such as Jiao Bingzhen,
had done. On the contrary, even before who applied Western perspective to his
their conquest, the Manchus began illustrations of the text Gengzhitu (“Rice
imitating Chinese ways, and the Qing and Silk Culture”), which were repro-
rulers, particularly Kangxi (1661–1722) duced and distributed in the form of wood
and Qianlong (1735–96), were well-edu- engravings in 1696, and by the Italian
cated men who were eager to enlist the missionary Giuseppe Castiglione. In the
support of Chinese scholars. They were mid-18th century Castiglione produced
extremely conservative in their political a Sino-European technique that had con-
and cultural attitudes; in artistic taste, siderable influence on court artists such
their native love of extravagance (which as Zuo Yigui, but he was ignored by lite-
the Chinese viewed as barbarous) was rati critics. His depictions of Manchu
tempered, ironically, by an equally strong hunts and battles provide a valuable
conservative propensity. The art of the visual record of the times.
214 | The Culture of China
White Clouds over Xiao and Xiang, hanging scroll after Zhao Mengfu by Wang Jian, one of
the Six Masters of the early Qing period, ink and colour on paper, 1668; in the Freer Gallery
of Art, Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, Freer Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C.
216 | The Culture of China
River Landscape, detail of a hand scroll by Fan Qi, one of the Eight Masters of Nanjing, 17th
century, Qing dynasty, ink and colour on silk; in the Museum of Asian Art, one of the National
Museums of Berlin, Germany. Courtesy of Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz,
Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst, Berlin
and Myriad Ravines in the Rietberg Nanjing, also express a feeling of melan-
Museum, Zürich, Switzerland; C.A. choly. His works were typically inspired
Drenowatz Collection). He was the most by the densely tangled brushwork of
prominent of the artists who came to be Wang Meng of the Yuan (exemplified by
known as the Eight Masters of Nanjing. his painting Bao’en Temple, Sumitomo
This group was only loosely related sty- Collection, Ōiso, Japan).
listically, though contemporary painters Another Individualist artist to join the
from Nanjing did share solidity of form Buddhist ranks was Hongren, exemplar of
derived from Song prototypes and, pos- a style that arose in the Xin’an or Huizhou
sibly, from the influence of Western art. district of southeastern Anhui province
The landscapes of Kuncan (Shiqi), and that drew on the famed landscape
who became a somewhat misanthropic of the nearby Huang Mountains. The
abbot at a Buddhist monastery near group of artists now known as the Anhui
Chinese Art | 217
school (including Ding Yunpeng, Xiao a controlled intent rather than sheer
Yuncong, Mei Qing, Zha Shibiao, and Dai lunacy and suggest a knowledgeable, if
Benxiao) mostly pursued an emotional hard to unravel, commentary on China’s
extreme opposite from Gong Xian and contemporary predicament.
Kuncan, a severe coolness based on the Zhu Da’s cousin Daoji was raised in
sparse, dry linear style of the Yuan artist secret in a Chan Buddhist community.
Ni Zan. However individualistic, virtu- He traveled widely as an adult in such
ally all these artists reveal the influence varied artistic regions as the Huang
of Dong Qichang’s compositional means. Mountains district of Anhui province and
In the 17th century, when the Anhui style Nanjing and finally settled in the newly
became popular among wealthy collec- prosperous city of Yangzhou, where in
tors in the area of present-day Shanghai, his later years he publicly acknowledged
propagated in part through wood-block his royal identity, renounced his Buddhist
catalogs illustrating Anhui’s vaunted ink status, and engaged in professional prac-
and painting-paper products, ownership of tices. His work has a freshness inspired
a Hongren painting became the mark not by masters of the past but by an
of a knowing connoisseur. unfettered imagination, with brush tech-
Two artists, both members of the niques that were free and unconventional
deposed and decimated Ming royal fam- and a daring use of colour. In his essay
ily, stood out among these Individualist “Huayulu” (“Comments on Painting”), he
masters and left, albeit belatedly recog- ridiculed traditionalism, writing that his
nized, the most enduring legacy of all. own method was “no method” and insist-
Known by a sequence of names, perhaps ing that, like nature, creativity with the
designed to protect his royal identity, brush must be spontaneous and seam-
Zhu Da, or Bada Shanren, suffered or at less, based on the concept of yihua, the
least feigned a period of madness and “unifying line.”
muteness in the 1680s. He emerged from Daoji’s extreme stand in favour of
this with an eccentric style remarkable artistic individuality stands out against
for its facility with extremes, alternat- the growing scholasticism of Qing paint-
ing between a wet-and-wild manner and ing and was an inspiration to the artists,
a dry, withdrawn use of brush and ink. roughly grouped together as the “Eight
His paintings of glowering birds and Eccentrics” (including Zheng Xie, Hua
fish casting strange and ironic glances, Yan, Huang Shen, Gao Fenghan, Jin
as well as his structurally interwoven Nong, and Luo Pin), who were patronized
studies of rocks and vegetation, are vir- by the rich merchants in early 18th-cen-
tually without precedent in composition, tury Yangzhou. The art of Zhu Da and
although aspects of both the eccentric Xu Daoji was not firmly enshrined, however,
Wei and Dong Qichang are discernible in until the late 19th century, when a new
his work. His esoteric inscriptions reveal individualist thrust appeared in Shanghai
218 | The Culture of China
Since 1912
Self-portrait on a hanging scroll, ink and colour on paper by Ren Xiong, undated (probably
1855–57); in the Palace Museum, Beijing. 177.4 × 78.5 cm. Hu Chui/ChinaStock Photo Library
Chinese Art | 219
themes more than the old landscape was a significant harbinger and contin-
tradition did, and it emphasized decora- ued to thrive in Hong Kong, practiced by
tive qualities, exaggerated stylization, such artists as Zhao Shao’ang.
and satiric humour rather than refined The first establishment of Western-
brushwork and sober classicism. Under style art instruction also dates from
Wu Changshi’s influence, this style was this period. A small art department was
passed on to Beijing in the early 20th opened in Nanjing High Normal School
century through the art of Chen Hengke in 1906, and the first art academy, later
(Chen Shizeng) and Qi Baishi. to become the Shanghai Art School, was
The first Chinese artists to respond founded in the year of the revolution,
to international developments in mod- 1911, by the 16-year-old Liu Haisu. In the
ern art were those who had visited next decade he would pioneer the first
Japan, where the issues of moderniza- public exhibitions (1913) and the use of
tion appeared earlier than they did in live models, first clothed and then nude,
China. The Japanese blended native in the classroom.
and Western traditions in styles such as Increasingly, by the mid-1920s, young
Nihonga painting and in establishing Chinese artists were attracted not just to
an institutional basis of support (under Japan but also to Paris and German art
the leadership of Okakura Kakuzō, who centres. A trio of these artists brought
founded the Tokyo Fine Arts School in back some understanding of the essen-
1889). Among the first Chinese artists tial contemporary European traditions
to bring back Japanese influence were and movements. Liu Haisu was first
Gao Jianfu, his brother Gao Qifeng, and attracted to Impressionist art, while Lin
Chen Shuren. Gao Jianfu studied art for Fengmian, who became director of the
four years in Japan, beginning in 1898; National Academy of Art in Hangzhou
during a second trip there, he met Sun in 1928, was inspired by the experiments
Yat-sen, and subsequently, in Guangzhou in colour and pattern of Henri Matisse
(Canton), he participated in the uprisings and the Fauves. Lin advocated a synthe-
that paved the way for the fall of imperial sis combining Western techniques and
rule and the establishment in 1912 of a Chinese expressiveness and left a lasting
republic. Inspired by the “New Japanese mark on the modern Chinese use of the
Style,” the Gao brothers and Chen inau- brush. Xu Beihong, head of the National
gurated a “New National Painting” Central University’s art department in
movement, which in turn gave rise to a Nanjing, eschewed European Modernist
Cantonese, or Lingnan, regional style movements in favour of more conser-
that incorporated Euro-Japanese charac- vative Parisian academic styles. He
teristics. Although the new style did not developed his facility in drawing and oils,
produce satisfying or lasting solutions, it later learning to imitate pencil and chalk
220 | The Culture of China
with the Chinese brush. The monumental that the old tradition could still produce
figure paintings he created would serve great masters.
as a basis for Socialist Realist painters Socialism produced a new set of
after the communist revolution of 1949. artistic demands that were first met not
By the 1930s all these modern trends by painting but by the inexpensive mass
were clearly developed and institutional- medium of wood-block prints, which had
ized. Although most of the major artists of been invented in China and first used in
the time advocated Modernism, two con- the Tang dynasty (618–907) to illustrate
tinued to support more traditional styles: Buddhist sutras. Initially stimulated by
Qi Baishi, who combined Shanghai style the satiric leftist writer Lu Xun, printmak-
with an infusion of folk-derived vitality, ers flourished during the 1930s and ’40s
and the relatively conservative landscap- under the dual influence of European
ist Huang Binhong, who demonstrated socialist artists like Käthe Kollwitz and
the Chinese folk tradition of New Year’s by the creation of artists’ federations and
prints and papercuts. Among the most associations, under the management of the
prominent print artists were Li Hua and party’s Department of Propaganda, which
Gu Yuan, who attained a new standard of served as an exclusive pathway to partici-
political realism in Chinese art. pation in exhibitions and other means of
In 1942, as part of the Chinese advancement; by the establishment of a
Communist Party’s first intellectual strict system of control over publications;
rectification movement, Mao Zedong and by the virtual elimination of the com-
delivered two speeches at the Yan’an mercial market for contemporary arts.
Forum on Literature and Art that laid out Throughout the 1950s, as Socialist
the official party dictates on aesthetics Realist standards were gradually imple-
for decades to come—namely, the neces- mented, oil painting and woodblock
sity to popularize styles and subjects in printing were favoured and political
order to reach a mass audience, the need cartoons and posters were raised to the
for artists to share in the lives of ordinary status of high art. Artists working in the
people, and the requirement that the traditional media—with their basis in the
party and its goals be treated positively Individualist art of the old “feudal” aris-
rather than subjected to satiric criticism. tocracy—struggled institutionally for
“Art for art’s sake” was strictly denounced survival, eventually succeeding only as
as a bourgeois liberal attempt to escape a result of the nationalist fervour that
from the truly political nature of art. accompanied China’s ideological break
Although Mao later defended a place for with the Soviet Union late in the decade.
the artistic study of nude models, a staple The internationalist but relatively con-
of Western naturalism, the tone he set led servative Xu Beihong was installed as
to severe limitations on the actual prac- head of the new Central Academy of Fine
tice of this. Arts in Beijing, but he died in 1953. Other
The Sino-Japanese War of 1937–45 led older-generation leaders died shortly
many artists of varied persuasions to flee afterward (e.g., Qi Baishi and Huang
eastern China for the temporary Nationalist Binhong) or were shunted aside (e.g., Liu
capital in Chongqing, Sichuan province. Haisu and Lin Fengmian), and a younger
This exodus brought a tremendous mixing generation soon came to the fore, ready
of styles and artistic ferment, but the oppor- to make the necessary compromises with
tunity for innovation that this promised the new regime. The talented landscapist
was thwarted by subsequent events. After Li Keran, who had studied with Qi Baishi,
the 1949 revolution, Communist Party Lin Fengmian, Huang Binhong, and
control of the arts was firmly established Xu Beihong, combined their influences
by the placement of the academies under with realistic sketching to achieve a new
the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture; naturalism in the traditional medium. A
222 | The Culture of China
Chairman Mao at Jinggang Mountain, oil on canvas by Luo Gongliu, 1961; in the Museum of
Chinese Revolutionary History, Beijing. Zhao Liye/ChinaStock Photo Library
leading figure painter was Cheng Shifa, ranging from forced labour and severe
a descendant of the Shanghai school who confinement to death. Destruction of tra-
utilized that style in politically polished ditional arts was especially rampant in the
depictions of China’s minority peoples. early years of the movement. Only those
Many talented artists, including Luo arts approved by a military-run apparatus
Gongliu and Ai Zhongxin, painted in oils, under the sway of Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing,
which, because of their link to the Soviet could thrive; these followed the party’s
Union and Soviet art advisers, held a increasingly strict propagandist dictates
favoured position until the Sino-Soviet and were often created anonymously as
split of the late 1950s. collective works. In the early 1970s, when
While the early 1960s provided a China first reopened Western contacts,
moment of political relaxation for Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai attempted to restore
artists, the Cultural Revolution of 1966– government patronage for the tradi-
76 brought unprecedented hardships, tional arts. When Zhou’s health declined,
Chinese Art | 223
Boat People, ink and colours on paper hanging scroll by He Huaishuo, 1979; in the Water,
Pine, and Stone Retreat Collection, Hong Kong. The Water, Pine and Stone Retreat Collection,
Hong Kong
224 | The Culture of China
traditional arts and artists again suffered an avant-garde exhibition featuring instal-
under Jiang Qing, including being pub- lation art, performance art, and printed
licly denounced and punished as “black scrolls mocking the government both
arts” after officials saw exhibitions in drew record crowds. The latter was closed
Beijing, Shanghai, and Xi’an in 1974. by police, and both exhibits were eventu-
The passing of Mao and Maoism ally denounced as having lowered local
after 1976 brought a new and sometimes morals, supposedly helping to precipitate
refreshing chapter in the arts under the the tragic events that followed in June
leadership of Deng Xiaoping. The 1980s 1989. New limitations on artistic produc-
were characterized by decreasing govern- tion, exhibition, and publication ensued.
ment control of the arts and increasingly At the conclusion of these events, a num-
bold artistic experimentation. Three ber of leading artists, including Huang
phenomena in 1979 announced this new Yongyu, fled China, joining others—
era: the appearance of Cubist and other including Zhang Daqian, He Huaishuo,
Western styles as well as nude figures and Lin Fengmian—who had previously
(although the government covered the fled or abandoned China to establish cen-
nudes) in the murals publicly commis- tres of Chinese art throughout the world.
sioned for the new Beijing airport; an
influential private arts exhibition by Painting at the Turn
the “Stars” art group at the Beijing Art of the 21st Century
Gallery; and the rise of a truly realistic oil
painting movement, which swept away Many of the artists who remained in
the artificiality of Socialist Realist pro- China after the events of Tiananmen
paganda. In the 1980s a resurgence of Square adopted styles influenced by
traditional Chinese painting occurred, Western Pop art. In one Chinese varia-
featuring the return of formerly dis- tion of the style, “Political Pop,” artists
graced artists, including Li Keran, Cheng such as Wang Guangyi and Li Shan jux-
Shifa, Shi Lu, and Huang Yongyu, and the taposed Red Guard imagery of workers,
emergence of such fresh talents as Wu peasants, and soldiers with capitalist
Guanzhong, Jia Youfu, and Li Huasheng. imagery such as the Coca-Cola logo (a
After 1985, as an increasingly bold favourite image of American Pop artist
avant-garde movement arose, the once- Andy Warhol). The image of Mao Zedong
threatening traditional-style painting was frequently utilized—and ridiculed—in
came to seem to the government like a paintings of this style. Other artists used
safe alternative. In the final months before cartoonish portraiture and bright colours
the June 1989 imposition of martial law (a style reminiscent of American Roy
in Beijing, an exhibition of nude oil paint- Lichtenstein) in works that explore the
ings from the Central Academy of Fine banalities of bourgeois life. While such
Arts at the Chinese National Gallery and derivations of Pop art often possessed
Chinese Art | 225
common stylistic elements, they differed many artists made work that was overly
in their tendencies either to challenge or derivative of Western styles; by the mid-
to reflect popular culture, politics, and 1990s, such overtly referential work had
economic realities. Artists representing decreased in popularity.
these movements participated in presti- Realism maintained an important
gious international art fairs such as the position in China at the end of the 20th
Venice Biennale. century. Most Chinese artists graduated
As the 1990s progressed, the Chinese from academies of fine art that rigor-
visual arts developed in an environment ously trained them in realist techniques.
increasingly characterized by an open- In the early 1990s, classical Chinese
market economy and a relatively liberal oil painting, as seen in the work of Jing
political climate. Artists became freer to Shangyi, reached a high degree of excel-
express themselves than they had ever lence. Many artists—including those
been in the history of Chinese art. In this in the fields of oil painting, traditional
democratic atmosphere, different styles Chinese painting, printmaking, and
and forms of art coexisted. sculpture—depicted realistic scenes of
Changes in government policy daily life in their works, much like the
allowed artists to study modern art from older generations had done. Artists such
the West more extensively than ever as Luo Zhongli followed the tenets of tra-
before. Many canonical writings on aes- ditional Chinese art while also drawing
thetics and art theory were translated and on the methods of international modern
published in China. Chinese artists also art (and sometimes Chinese folk art) in
greatly enriched their understanding of their work. Others used their skills at
Western art once elegant catalogs were realism to adopt contemporary Western
imported from overseas and once exhi- trends, including Photo-realism and
bitions of the work of artists such as the work inspired by Western artists such as
German Expressionist painters, Pablo Andrew Wyeth and Balthus. Many such
Picasso, and Robert Rauschenberg trav- interpretations of realism also won inter-
eled to China. Inspired by the “art for art’s national attention and prizes.
sake” quality of much of the work they By the late 1990s, in addition to con-
saw, many Chinese artists began to reject tinuing traditional forms, Chinese artists
the idea—long-standing in China—that renewed the avant-garde experimen-
art must serve politics and the people. tation of the mid-1980s and explored
Increasingly, many Chinese artists faith- performance art, conceptual art, earth art,
fully imitated Western styles, exploring installation art, and video art, all chief
such styles as Cubism and Abstract media of the international art scene. As
Expressionism. While such experiments the art world became increasingly global,
shook the Chinese art system and laid China thus became a part of it. At the
a foundation for the birth of new forms, 2000 Shanghai Biennial, theoreticians,
226 | The Culture of China
critics, and artists discussed the virtues of wisdom; it may be broken but
of retaining traditional Chinese forms as cannot be twisted; this is its qual-
well as the importance of learning from ity of bravery; its sharp edges are
foreign styles. These two often conflict- not intended for violence; this is
ing themes continued to define Chinese its quality of purity. (Translation
art into the 21st century. adapted from Zheng Dekun)
Ceremonial cong of jade (calcined nephrite), 3rd millennium BCE, Neolithic Liangzhu cul-
ture; in the Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, U.S. The Seattle Art Museum, purchased
by the Foster family in memory of Albert O. Foster, photographed by Paul Macapia
228 | The Culture of China
of wear and practical usage that suggests perhaps representing the earliest exam-
a primarily ceremonial function. These ples of mingqi (“spirit vessels”), artistic
include the first examples of the flat, per- figures substituted for live victims buried
forated bi disk (with a hole in the centre), in order to serve the deceased.
which became the symbol of heaven in
later times, and of the cong, a tube with Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE)
a square exterior and a cylindrical hollow
exterior. These two items remained part of In the Zhou, production of jade bi, cong,
the Chinese imperial paraphernalia until and other Shang ritual forms was con-
the early 20th century. The precise mean- tinued and their use systematized.
ing of the cong, as well as its possible Differently shaped sceptres were used for
association with astronomical sighting the ranks of the nobility and as authority
or geomantic site selection, and its con- for mobilizing troops, settling disputes,
junction of yin (square, earth, female) declaring peace, and so on. At burial, the
and yang (circular, heaven, male) features seven orifices of the body were sealed
remain unclear. Also present at this time, with jade plugs and plaques. Stylistically,
in the Liangzhu culture and, in Shandong Zhou dynasty jades at first continued
province, the Longshan culture, are cere- Shang traditions, but then, just as the
monial gui and zhang blades and axes, as ritual bronzes did, they turned toward
well as an increasing variety of ornamen- looser, less-systematic designs by mid-
tal arc-shaped and circular jade pendants, dle Zhou times, with zoomorphic decor
necklaces, and bracelets (often in ani- transformed into abstract meander pat-
mal form), together with the significant terns. This breakdown of formal structure
appearance of mask decoration; all these continued to the end of the dynasty.
forms link the Neolithic jades to those of The introduction of iron tools and
the subsequent Shang period. harder abrasives in the Dong (Eastern)
Zhou led to a new freedom in carving in
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) the round. Ornamental jades, chiefly in
the form of sword and scabbard fittings,
In the Shang dynasty and particularly at pendants, and adornment for clothing,
Anyang, the craft of jade carving made were fashioned into a great variety of ani-
a notable advance. Ceremonial weapons mals and birds, chiefly from flat plaques
and fittings for bronze weapons were no more than a few millimetres thick.
carved from jade; ritual jades included
the bi, cong, and symbols of rank. Plaques Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE)
and dress ornaments were carved from
thin slabs of jade, but there are also small Given the archaizing fashion of the Song,
figurines, masks, and birds and ani- jades of this period are often difficult
mals carved in the round, some of these to detect. Tombs of the Five Dynasties
Chinese Art | 229
Dragon among clouds, carved jade medallion or button, Qing dynasty, probably late 18th
century (reign of Qianlong); in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Courtesy of the
board of trustees of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, Wells Legacy
230 | The Culture of China
Yarkand between about 1760 and 1820, allowed to dry, and smoothed before the
during which time much fine nephrite surface is ready for decoration by carving,
was sent to Beijing for carving. Jadeite engraving, or inlay.
from Myanmar (Burma) reached the The Chinese had discovered as early
capital from the second quarter of the as the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046)
18th century, and chromite- or graphite- that the juice of the lac tree, a naturally
flecked “spinach jade” from the Baikal occurring polymer, could be used for
region of Siberia was imported in the 19th forming hard but lightweight vessels
century. The finest Qing dynasty jade when built up in very thin layers through
carving is often assigned to the reign of the repeated dipping of a core of carved
Qianlong, but carved jade is difficult to wood, bamboo, or cloth. With the addi-
date, and some high-quality pieces in tion of pigments, most commonly red
the Qianlong style have been made since and black, less frequently green and yel-
1950 in the Handicraft Research Institute low, it could also be used for painting and
in Beijing. Typical of what is considered decorating the outer layers of these ves-
of Qianlong date are vases with lids and sels. Coffins, chariots, furniture, and other
chains carved from a single block, vessels objects found in Shang tombs were often
in antique bronze shapes with pseudo- lacquered, and lacquer was used to fix
archaic decoration, fairy mountains, and inlays of shell and coloured stone.
brush pots for the scholar’s desk. Being sticky, painted lacquer must
be applied slowly with the brush, giv-
Chinese Lacquerwork ing rise to prolonged motions and fluid,
often elegantly curvilinear designs.
Lacquerwork is a labour-intensive deco- Since lacquer is almost totally imper-
rative work produced by the application vious to water, vessels and wine cups
of many coats of lacquer to a core mate- have been excavated in perfect condi-
rial such as wood, bamboo, or cloth. True tion from waterlogged graves of the late
lacquerwork is Chinese or Japanese in ori- 5th-century-BCE Zeng state in Suixian,
gin. The technique was copied in Europe, of the 4th–3rd-century-BCE Chu state
where it was known as “japanning,” but in Jiangling (now Shashi), and of the
European lacquerwork lacks the hardness early 2nd-century-BCE Han dynasty
and brilliance of Asian lacquer. True lac- in Changsha. Such works ranged from
quer is the purified and dehydrated sap large-scale coffins to bird- or animal-
of Rhus vernicifera, the lac tree, which is shaped drum stands to such daily utensils
native to China and cultivated in Japan. as nested toiletry boxes and food-serv-
Lacquer becomes extremely hard but ing implements. By the Warring States
not brittle on exposure to air and takes a period (475–221 BCE), lacquerwork had
high polish. Many thin layers are applied, developed into a major industry; and,
Chinese Art | 231
Xuande emperor, may be of the period. are shallower and more sharply carved,
It is often difficult to distinguish genuine sometimes through as many as nine lay-
Ming lacquer from Korean and Japanese ers of different colours, on a background
imitations, and reign marks are not in consisting of minute brocade (allover
themselves a reliable guide to dating. floral and figure designs) or diaper
Decoration of this early Ming lac- (diamond-shaped) patterns. Other tech-
quer includes both pictorial designs niques that were popular in the middle
(landscapes with figures in pavilions decades of the Ming include carving
are common) and rich dragon, phoenix, through alternate layers of red and black
and floral motifs, carved deeply in a full, lacquer, known by the Japanese name
freely flowing and plastic style, often guri; inlaying one colour with another;
against a yellow background. While this and outlining the inlay with engraved
style continued into the 16th century, the lines filled with gold lacquer. Painting
Jiajing period also saw the emergence of and inlaying with mother-of-pearl and
more realistic and intricate designs that other materials were also employed.
ChaPtER 8
Chinese Music
numbers that indirectly may relate to of rather specific music theory as well as
music. The Chunqiu (“Spring and Autumn varied aesthetic principles. The straight-
[Annals]”), with its records of major events, est path to this material is found on the
and the Shujing (“Classic of History”), legendary journey, mentioned earlier, of
with its mixture of documents and forg- Ling Lun in search of bamboo pipes.
eries, contain many references to the use The charm of such a tale tends to
of music, particularly at court activities. cloud several interesting facts it con-
There are occasional comments about tains. First, it is noteworthy that the goal
the singing of peasant groups, which is of the search was to put music in tune
an item that is rare even in the early his- with the universe. It is upheld in theory
torical materials of Europe. The Shijing in the “Annotations on Music” (“Yueji”)
(“Classic of Poetry”) is of equal interest, section of the Liji with such comments
for it consists of the texts of 305 songs that as “Music is the harmony of heaven and
are dated from the 10th to the 7th centu- earth while rites are the measurement of
ries BCE. Their great variety of topics heaven and earth. Through harmony all
(love, ritual, political satire, etc.) reflect a things are made known, through measure
viable vocal musical tradition quite under- all things are properly classified. Music
standable to modern music appreciators. comes from heaven, rites are shaped
The songs also include references to less by earthly designs.” Such cosmological
durable musical relics such as the flutes, ideals may be not merely ancient super-
mouth organ (sheng), and, apparently, two stitions but actually cogent insights into
forms of the zither (the qin and the se). the cultural function of music in human
societies. Confucius, as pictured in The
Aesthetic Principles Analects written long after his death, had
and Extramusical a similar view of music, including a con-
Associations cern for the choice of music and modes
proper for the moral well-being of a gen-
Despite the controversial authenticity and tleman. It is an open question as to how
dates of ancient Chinese written sources, much performance practice followed the
a combined study of them produces admonitions and theories of the scholars;
tantalizing images of courtly parties, but centuries later one finds numerous
military parades, and folk festivals; but it pictures of the wise man standing before
does not provide a single note of music. some natural beauties while his servant
Nevertheless, in keeping with the prehis- follows closely behind him carrying his
toric traditions of China, the philosophies seven-stringed zither (qin) for proper use
of sages, such as Confucius and Mencius, in such a proper setting.
and the endless scientific curiosity of Another point to be noted in the leg-
Chinese acousticians furnish a great deal end of the origin of music is that Ling
Chinese Music | 237
If one then continued to construct pipes are generated in a cycle of fifths, and
alternately four-thirds and two-thirds the the 7 remaining pitches are located a
length of the previous ones, an entire major third above or below the first 4. If
system of 12 notes could be generated, one starts from the Western C, the tones
which is, with the exception of the means would appear as seen in notation II.
of creation, acoustically and proportion-
ately in the same relation as is found
in the Greek Pythagorean system. The
English versions of the Chinese names
for the 12 pitches seem quite fanciful;
but they represent theoretically correct
pitches, as do terms used in the Western The actual sounds produced on these
traditional system, such as “C” or “A-flat” ancient bells do not always match the
(“A♭”). The source of each name in pitch name given, but late 20th-century
the Chinese system is conjectural; but findings imply that it might have been
Chinese classical acousticians, like mod- possible to modulate to new pitch centres
ern Western scientists, no doubt found and different scales.
value in creating a professional nomen-
clature that was divorced from everyday Scales and Modes
speech and potentially descriptive of the
nature of the object. For example, the use For both Western and Chinese traditions,
of bell names may relate to the gradual the 12 pitches are merely a tonal vocabulary
preference for tuned bells over pipes in from which a specific ordering of a limited
the music division of the courts. Names number of pitches can be extracted and
like “old purifier” and “equalizing rule” reproduced on different pitch levels. Such
may refer to the pitch problems of the limited structures are called a scale. With
“Pythagorean comma”—a reference to the a set scale it is possible to emphasize dif-
cycle of fifths that produces 12 mathemat- ferent notes in such a way that they seem
ically correct pitches but results in a 13th to be the pitch centre. Such variations
pitch that does not match the 1st pitch. of pitch centre within a scale are called
A new interpretation of Chinese modes. In the Western traditional systems
theory occurred in the late 20th century most scales use seven tones that can be
with the discovery of sets of 4th- and 5th- transposed and that contain modes. For
century tuned bells. Some of the bells example, C major (C–D–E–F–G–A–B) can
produce two pitches and have the pitch be made a Dorian mode by using D as the
names written at the two striking places. pitch centre without changing the pitches
This information led to the development used (D–E–F–G–A–B–C), and the whole
of a 12-pitch theory in which 5 pitches scale and its modes can be transposed
Chinese Music | 239
sheng
Chinese free reed wind instrument consisting of usually 17 bamboo pipes set in a small wind-
chest into which a musician blows through a mouthpiece. Each pipe has a free reed, made of
metal (or formerly of bamboo or reed), that vibrates to produce sound when a finger hole on the
pipe is covered. The acoustical length of each pipe is determined by a slot in the back of the pipe.
The pipes, which are of five different lengths, are arranged in two triangular shapes to symbolize
the folded wings of a phoenix bird. In addition to the traditional 13-, 14-, and 17-pipe sets, there are
21- and 24-pipe sets as well as a 36-pipe set based on the chromatic scale, with all 12 semitones.
Other modern variants also exist. Images of sheng-like instruments exist from 1100 BCE, and
actual instruments survive from the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE).
Several instruments were derived from the sheng, including the Japanese sho and the
Korean saenghwang. The Chinese instrument plays melodies with occasional fourth or fifth har-
monies (e.g., F or G above C), whereas the Japanese sho normally plays 11-note chords, a tradition
that may have emerged from a misinterpretation of ancient court notations. Contemporary
Chinese ensembles include the larger sheng, which is capable of playing Western chords.
Instruments similar to the sheng are found throughout Southeast Asia, notably the khaen of Laos
and parts of Thailand and Vietnam. A sheng taken to Russia in the 1770s helped to stimulate the
invention of European instruments using free reeds—including the accordion, concertina, har-
monium, and harmonica.
Asia, and it is not possible to know with of many books and musical instruments
assurance where this wind instrument under the order of Shihuangdi, emperor
first appeared. Western imitations of its of the Qin dynasty. Yet there are several
sound are found in the reed organ and, survivals from the Han dynasty that do
later, in the harmonica and the accordion. give some insight into how the musi-
cal events took place. In the court and
han Dynasty: the Confucian temples there were two
MusICaL EvEnts anD basic musical divisions: banquet music
FOREIGn InFLuEnCEs (yanyue) and ritual music (yayue).
Dances in the Confucian rituals were
The extensive work in theory and classifi- divided into military (wuwu) and civil
cation in ancient times implies that there (wenwu) forms. The ensembles of musi-
must have been an equally large amount cians and dancers could be quite large,
of performance practice. Modern infor- and ancient listings of their content were
mation on all these elements of music often printed in formation patterns in a
has suffered because of the destruction manner analogous in principle to those
242 | The Culture of China
Not all the new influences in China than on the “liberation” of neighbouring
came via religious or trade activities. countries, a development of more thor-
During the Six Dynasties period (220–589 ough tax systems and more and more
CE) China was rent by internal strife and trade cities and harbours. Into all these
border wars. The constant confrontations power sources flowed foreign goods and
with the Tatars of the north caused an foreign ideas. Persians, Arabs, Indians,
increased interest in the musical signals and Malayans were found in the foreign
of the enemy via drums, trumpets, and quarters of port towns, while every trade
double reeds. Although related instru- caravan brought in masses of new faces
ments were equally evident to the south and modes of living. Perhaps it is not sur-
and west, there can be little doubt that prising that an 8th-century poet, Yuan
the creation of cavalry bands with double Zhen, should lament about air pollution
kettledrums are direct imitations of the created by western horsemen, about the
musical prowess of the horseback ter- ladies who studied western fashions and
rorists against whom the walls of China makeup, and about the entertainers who
were built. With great effort and much devoted themselves to only “western”
blood, China gradually reunified under music. (One must remember that the
the Sui dynasty (581–618), and older term “western” in Yuan’s work refers to
courtly music and the latest musical fads the land west of the Great Wall.)
were consolidated. There was hardly a tavern in the
capital of Chang’an (now Xi’an, Shaanxi
Tang Dynasty province) that could compete without
the aid of a western dancing or singing
The few centuries of Tang dynasty exis- girl with an accompanying set of foreign
tence (618–907) are supersaturated with musicians. Popular tunes of the period
brilliant imperial growth and cultural included “South India” and “Watching the
flourishing as well as military and natural Moon in Brahman Land,” while beautiful,
disasters. Such a rich loam of good and exotic dancing boys or girls were ever
bad nourished one of the most fascinat- the rage. One set of girls from Sogdiana
ing eras of music history in the world. (centred in modern Uzbekistan) won
the support of the emperor Xuanzong
Thriving of Foreign Styles (712–756) because they were costumed in
crimson robes, green pants, and red deer-
The more formal imperial ceremonies skin boots and twirled on top of balls.
revitalized the ancient orchestras of Other girls from the area today called
bells, stone chimes, flutes, drums, and Tashkent inspired a poet of the 9th cen-
zithers, plus large bands of courtly danc- tury, Bai Juyi, with their dance, which
ers. In reality, imperial power was based began with their emergence from artifi-
perhaps less on the Mandate of Heaven cial lotuses and ended with the pulling
244 | The Culture of China
ensemble played inside a palace. There beat, and the piece ended in a faster
are lists of the names of some pieces tempo. Documents also tell much about
in these categories with their author- the instrumentation and the colour and
ship usually credited to the emperor or design of each costume of the musicians
empress of the time. For example, “The and dancers. No orchestral scores are to
Battle Line Smashing Song” was said be found, however. One solo piece for qin
to be by the Tang emperor Taizong survives, and 28 ritual melodies for pipa
(626–649). The accompanying dance is were discovered in the hidden library of
listed for 120 performers with spears and the Buddhist caves of Dunhuang (Caves
armour. A similarly grandiose piece is of the Thousand Buddhas), but the grand
“Music of Grand Victory” credited to the musical traditions of Tang remain frus-
next Tang emperor, Gaozong (649–683). tratingly elusive. Major clues to their
Wu Hou (d. 705) is said to have written actual sounds will be found in marginal
“The Imperial Birthday Music,” in which survivals of such music. The original tra-
the dancers form out the characters mean- ditions waned with the decline of Tang
ing “Long Live the Emperor” in the best good fortune, and the conflicts of the Five
modern marching-band tradition. Music Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
inside the palace includes a concert ver- (907–960) brought the international
sion of “The Battle Line Smashing Song,” period to an end.
with only four dancers, “A Banquet Song,”
and a piece supposedly composed by the Song and Yuan Dynasties
empress Wu Hou in honour of her pet par-
rot, who frequently called out “Long Live Despite the chaos of kingdoms in the
Her Majesty.” Those familiar with music 10th century, or perhaps because of it,
in the courts of Henry VIII and Louis XIV cultural traditions solidified, so that by
or with the songs always ending in praise the Song dynasty (960–1279) one can
of Queen Elizabeth I may recognize the speak of a national rather than an inter-
cultural context of such music. national cultural mood. Many of the
Later-dynasty copies of Tang paint- short-lived usurpers of regional govern-
ings show ladies entertaining the ments were of “barbarian” (i.e., Turkic)
emperor with ensembles of strings, origin, but their general cultural efforts
winds, and percussion; and many of the were to appear Chinese rather than to
choreographic plans of the larger pieces import further foreign fads.
are also available in books. According
to some sources, court orchestra pieces Consolidation of
began with a prelude in free rhythm that Earlier Trends
set the mood and mode of the piece and
introduced the instruments. This was One significant foreign musical addi-
followed by a slow section in a steady tion of the period was from the northern
246 | The Culture of China
Mongols in the form of a two-stringed filled with colloquial phrases, and capa-
fiddle, or bowed lute—the “foreign lute” ble of freewheeling musical settings. A
(huqin). It became an important fea- major source for music based on both the
ture of the plebian theatre and teahouse old and new forms is found in the rising
world, which grew stronger and larger world of public theatre.
as more musicians and dancers were
dropped from government payrolls. With Music Theatre
the establishment of the Song court,
Confucian ceremonies and similar “old- Chinese drama can be noted as far back
fashioned” musical events were revived; as the Zhou dynasty, but it was really the
but imperial contributions to music of Tang period Pear Garden school that
the period were primarily in the creation quite literally set the stage for Chinese
of gigantic historical or encyclopaedic opera. Regional music-drama flourished
works. For example, the official Song shi throughout the Song empire, but the two
(1345; “Song History”) contained 496 major forms were the southern drama
chapters, of which 17 deal directly with (nanqu or nanxi) and the northern drama
music, and musical events and people (zaju or beiqu). The ci poetical form was
appear throughout the entire work. popular in both, although the south-
The Yuhai encyclopaedia (c. 1267; “Sea ern style was held to be softer, with its
of Jade”) has 200 chapters, with 10 on emphasis on five-tone scales and flute
music. It is interesting that the lü pipes and percussion accompaniments. The
are discussed separately under the topic northern style is said to have preferred
of measurements. Manuals on how to the seven-toned scale, to have used more
play the seven-stringed qin zither also strings, and in general to have been
survive, as well as rare music collections bolder in spirit. According to period writ-
such as Songs of Whitestone, the Daoist, ers, each of the four acts of a northern
based on the poems and songs of Jiang drama was set in a specific mode in which
Gui (1155–1221) and first printed in 1202. different tunes were used, interspersed
Many Song poets continued to use the with dialogue. The southern style was
five- and seven-syllable-line shi form more lyrical.
perfected by Tang writers, which was The Mongols under Genghis Khan
believed to have been chanted to tunes and later Kublai Khan finally succeeded
strictly adhering to the word tones of in invading China, and the foreign Yuan
the Chinese language. The singing girls dynasty (1206–1368) was founded. The
(jiguan) of the teahouses and brothels two styles of drama noted above contin-
and the general growth of urban, mercan- ued and intermixed under Yuan drama
tile life inspired the creation of ci poems, (Yuanqu), while the basic poetical form
which were free of word-tone restrictions, became sanqu, popular songs of even freer
Chinese Music | 247
The vocal style of kunqu matched developed vocal styles and orchestra-
the soft accompaniment and was usu- tions that helped make it distinctive.
ally performed by a male singing falsetto. With informed practice, listeners can
Another style of opera from the same still distinguish regional vocal styles,
period, yiyang qiang, seemed more which vary from low, sensual sounds to
appealing to the general public and is high and nasal falsettos. To understand
noteworthy for its use at some point in its the enduring appeal of Chinese musical
development of a chorus (bangqiang) as theatre, it is best to turn to the primary
well as of soloists. In addition, passages music-drama form since the 18th century,
in colloquial speech were often interpo- jingxi or jingju.
lated between lines of classical poetry in
order to explain them. Such lines were Jingxi
often sung. Still another Ming music-
drama genre of considerable influence Credit for the beginning of jingxi is
in the myriad regional forms is the clap- given to actors from Anhui appearing in
per opera (bangzi qiang). In addition to Beijing (then called Peking) in the 1790s.
the rhythmic importance of the clappers, However, jingxi really combines ele-
the instrumental accompaniment of this ments from many different earlier forms
form is noted for its emphasis on strings, and, like Western grand opera, can be
the principal form being the moon gui- considered to be a 19th-century product.
tar (yueqin), a plucked lute with a large, In addition to all the instruments men-
round wooden body and four strings tioned above, many others may be found.
in double courses. An interesting addi- The most common melodic instru-
tion to this instrument is the presence ment for opera is some form of fiddle, or
of a thin strip of metal tied at both ends bowed lute (huqin). It comes in several
inside the body to give the instrument a different forms, such as the jinghu and
richer tone. Among the endless variants erhu. Although the shape of the body
of style and accompaniments in Chinese may be different, all traditional Chinese
regional opera, one must add the sounds fiddles exhibit certain specific structural
of the extremely large flat gongs heard in characteristics. The small body has a
the southwest and the yangqin (western skin or wooden soundboard and an open
zither), particularly popular in Cantonese back. The two strings pass over a bridge
music. The latter is often called a butter- and then are suspended above a pole to
fly harp, though it is neither a harp nor the pegs, which are inserted from the rear
a butterfly but a hammered dulcimer of the scroll (not from the sides as on a
derived from a Middle Eastern instru- Western violin). Such a system places
ment (sant·ūr) brought into China in the one string above the other rather than
18th century. Each of the myriad types parallel to it (as on a banjo or a pipa).
of regional opera flourishing in China Because of this, the bow passes between
Chinese Music | 249
the strings, playing one string by press- In Chinese music, as in all East Asian
ing down and the other by pulling up. music, one must remember that harmony
The fingerings of tunes are done by side- and harmonic progression are not parts
ways pressure, along the strings; they are of traditional music. The functions of har-
too far from the pole for it to serve as a mony—such as underlining expression,
fingerboard, which, because of the verti- providing sonic contrast, and creating
cal stringing, would be a nuisance in any a sense of forward motion—are handled
case. It is this unique manner of fiddle with equal efficiency by rhythm in East
construction that helps one determine Asia, although the methods and sounds
the source of many of the bowed lutes of are very different. In both traditions, the
Southeast Asia. choices are not arbitrary, and with cul-
Barrel drums with tacked heads (gu) tural exposure one comes to recognize
and a double reed with a conical bore and the musical intention, even though it is
bell (suona) are used in military scenes, not necessary to know precisely what
along with cymbals (bo) and large flat chord or what rhythm pattern produces
gongs. The most common percussion an appropriate musical effect. For exam-
instruments are a small flat gong (luo), ple, very few listeners to Western music
a drum (bangu), and clappers (paiban). know that a doubly diminished chord
The small gong is some 8 inches (20 cm) (C–E♭–G♭–A) played tremolo means
in diameter; the face is slightly curved danger, although all would recognize the
except for a flat centre spot. It is designed danger signal by ear. By the same token,
in this manner in order that the tone and a jingxi fan hearing the large gong played
pitch of the gong will rise quickly each alone in the rhythm shown in notation IV
time it is hit. This “sliding” gong effect is would know that the situation is a similar
characteristic of the Beijing sound. The moment of confusion but probably would
bangu or danbi gu is equally unique in not know that the pattern is named the
construction. The skin is stretched over a scattering hammer (luanjue). Pattern
set of wooden wedges strapped in a circle names are for specialists, but pattern
with only a small spot in the middle com- sounds and “meanings” are for attuned
pletely hollow. This allows the performer listeners. For the moment, attention will
to produce a very dry, sharp sound. Such be given to the melodic side of jingxi.
a tone is practical as well as aesthetic, for
the bangu player is often the leader of the
ensemble, and his signals are essential to
the coordination of the performance. The
drum player frequently plays the clap-
per as well, holding the clapper in his left
hand while playing the drum with a nar- Like any theatrical music, the tunes
row bamboo stick held in his right hand. of jingxi must conform to the text
250 | The Culture of China
B♭), but their modes differ. Xipi are said the text and the character. In most arias
to emphasize (in the context of the trans- each sentence is separated by an instru-
position shown) E and A, and erhuang mental interlude.
G and C. Xipi melodies are often more Jingxi is also characterized by
disjunct. Although both examples are colourful costumes and striking character-
set at a standard tempo (yuanban), the identifying makeup as well as acrobatic
erhuang is faster and its rhythm denser, combats and dances. These conventions
as it is a male aria, while the xipi is of Chinese opera are similar to those of
female and slower. Both pieces could be 18th-century European traditions, though
played at a slower (manban) or faster the sounds are certainly quite different.
(kuaiban) tempo, however, or could be The need to communicate in music or
accompanied by other special rhythms. in theatre requires the repeated use of
Such choices often cause changes in the aural and visual conventions if an audi-
melody itself. In general, the choice of ence is to understand and be moved by
both tune and rhythm style is guided by the event.
piece needs to know very little Chinese in the study of the oral history of Ming
to recognize the musical interpretations and Qing music and of the distribution
of the action. Since the mid-20th century and development of various musical
there has been a considerable revival instruments. Much of the repertoire of
of solo literature for the zheng, a zither such stylistic groups is derived from the-
with 16 strings and movable bridges atre music, but there are many examples
whose popularity spreads as far south that may imply the sounds of older lost
as Vietnam. The strings are apparently traditions. There are a variety of nota-
influenced by the Middle Eastern dulci- tion systems, particularly for the solo
mer mentioned above (yangqin), for they music. The one most commonly used in
are metal. tune books of the last dynasties is gong
Chamber music exists in many che, which indicates notes in a scale as
styles, functions, and locations. Some of shown in notation VI.
it can be considered folk music played
by farmers or working people for festi-
vals or private entertainment, as in the
American bluegrass tradition. Music of
this type can still be heard at weddings
or funerals in Chinese communities all
over the world. During the Ming and This system is still popularly used,
Qing periods, small ensembles of court- although mainland sources prefer the
iers or professional musicians could be number system shown in the first line of
found at palaces, but the major sources notation VII.
for this kind of chamber music were
in the world of the musically inclined
businessman or trader. Because of this,
certain regional forms of chamber music
such as Amoy (Xiamen) “southern pipe”
and Shantung (Shandong) music sur-
vive in such locations as Taiwan, Manila,
Singapore, and San Francisco. In this
context it is noteworthy that even dur-
ing Japan’s isolation period from the
17th to the 19th century, Chinese vocal
and chamber music, known in Japanese
as minshingaku (Ming and Qing music),
was played in Nagasaki, the only open
port in Japan. Examples of such dis-
persed regional music are of great value
254 | The Culture of China
As part of the encouragement of “Red Is the East,” while the Miao people
people’s music, the national govern- (called Hmong in Southeast Asia) were
ment emphasized regional folk music. credited with “Sing in Praise of Chairman
Provincial and national research insti- Mao.” During the Maoist period, more
tutes were created to collect and study than 50 minority groups and provin-
such music, and folk songs were incor- cial Chinese ensembles had at least one
porated into primary as well as advanced song directly in praise of Chairman Mao,
and Western music education. In gen- while other songs dealt with local indus-
eral, folk music was “reconstructed” away tries and accomplishments. Such songs
from its former individualistic nature into are sometimes performed in regional
collectives of choruses or folk orchestras. style with traditional accompaniments,
The topics of such regional songs also although they may often be found
were reconstructed so that they reflected arranged Western-style for use in the
the new socialist life. The most famous public schools of the nation. This effort,
new folk song from Shaanxi province is in addition to the number of recordings
In 1967, these members of the China Popular Liberation Army’s choir performed songs under
a portrait of Chairman Mao Zedong. AFP/Getty Images
256 | The Culture of China
FORMatIvE PERIOD
maidens and young boys dressed as gods brutal husband, who then appeared and,
and as various animals were popular. singing and dancing, abused his wife
Sword-swallowing, fire-eating, juggling, even more. The embezzling rascal hero
acrobatics, ropewalking, tumbling, and of Canqun (“The Military Counselor”)
similar stage tricks had come from the became a stock character in later plays.
nomads of Central Asia by the 2nd cen- Thus, by Tang times, three basic types of
tury BCE and were called the “hundred drama were known: military play, domes-
entertainments.” During the Han dynasty tic play, and satire of officialdom; and the
(206 BCE–220 CE) palace singers acted establishment of role types had begun.
out warriors’ stories, the forerunners of
military plays in later Chinese opera, and Song Period
by the time of the Three Kingdoms (220–
280 CE) clay puppets were used to enact The variety play (zaqu) was created by
plays. These evolved into glove-and-stick writers and performers in North China
puppets in later years. during the Bei (Northern) Song dynasty
(960–1127). None of the scripts has sur-
Tang Period vived, but something of their nature
can be deduced from the 280 titles
The emperor Xuanzong showed an inter- that remain and from court records.
est in the performing arts, stimulating A play consisted of three parts: a low-
many advances in stage arts during the comedy prologue, the main play in one
Tang dynasty (618–907). More than a or two scenes (consisting of extended
thousand pupils were enrolled in music, sequences of songs, dancing, and per-
dance, and acting schools. Spectacular haps dialogue), and a musical epilogue.
masked court dances and masked Two, three, or four variety plays would
Buddhist dance processions that soon be included in a program along with a
were learned by Korean and Japanese sampling from the “hundred entertain-
performers were part of court life. Three ments.” In the following Nan (Southern)
types of play are recorded as having been Song dynasty (1127–1279), northern writ-
popular. Daimian (“Mask”) was about ers continued composing plays of this
Prince Lan Ling, who covered his gentle general type under the name profes-
face with a horrifying mask to frighten sional scripts (yuanben). None of the 691
his enemies when he went into battle. professional scripts of which the titles are
Some suggest the colourful painted faces known has survived. Concurrently a new
of warriors in contemporary Chinese form of drama, southern drama (nanxi),
opera derive from this play. Tayaoniang emerged in the area around Hangzhou
(“Stepping and Swaying Woman”) was in southern China. Originally the cre-
a farcical domestic play in which a sob- ation of folk authors, it soon became an
bing wife bitterly complained about her appealing and polished dramatic form. A
Chinese Performing Arts | 259
southern drama tells a sustained story in though brilliantly coloured, are opaque
colloquial language; flexible verses (qu) and cast a largely colourless shadow.
were set to popular music, making both Shadow plays are still performed in
music and poetry accessible to the ordi- China. Singers, dancers, actors, acrobats,
nary spectator. Professional playwrights and other performers were all employed
belonging to Hangzhou’s writing soci- at the professional theatres of the dis-
eties (shuhui) wrote large numbers of tricts. Troupes were as small as possible
southern dramas for local troupes. Of for economic reasons, containing as few
these, 113 titles and 3 play texts remain, as five or six performers. They would tour
preserved in an imperial collection of the countryside if they had no work in the
the 15th century. Zhang Xie zhuangyuan large cities, thus spreading urban styles
(“Top Graduate Zhang Xie”) is probably of performing arts throughout the vast
the oldest of the three texts. It dramatizes region of China.
the story of a young student who aspires
to success, earns a degree and position, Yuan Period
but callously turns his back on the girl
who faithfully loves him. Scholars turned to writing drama in the
Professional theatre districts became Yuan period (1206–1368) when they were
established during the Song dynasty. removed from their positions in the gov-
Major cities contained several districts ernment by China’s new Mongol rulers,
(17 or more in Hangzhou), with as many descendants of Genghis Khan. They
as 50 playhouses in a district. Plays per- developed the earlier northern style of
formed by puppets and mechanical dolls zaju into a four-act dramatic form, in
were extremely popular. which songs (in the same mode in one
A legend attributes the origin of act) alternated with dialogue. Singing was
shadow theatre in China to an incident restricted to a single character in each
said to have occurred about 100 BCE: a play. Melodies were those of the Beijing
priest, claiming to have brought to life the region. The beauty of poetic lyrics was
emperor’s deceased wife, cast a woman’s highly valued, while plot incidents were
shadow on a white screen with a lamp. of lesser importance. About 200 plays
Others suggest the shadow play dates survive, from the thousands of romances,
only from the Song period. In any case religious plays, histories, and domes-
it was widely performed in Song times tic, bandit, and lawsuit plays that were
in the theatre districts. Puppets were composed. Xixiang ji (“The Romance of
made of translucent leather and coloured the Western Chamber”), by Wang Shifu,
with transparent dye so they cast (like is a 13th-century adaptation of an epic
some Indian puppets) coloured shadows romance of the 12th century. The stu-
on the screen. In this respect they were dent Zhang and his beautiful sweetheart
unlike Javanese shadow puppets, which, Ying Ying are models of the tender and
260 | The Culture of China
melancholy young lovers who figure Ming play is Pipa ji (“Pipa [Lute] Song”),
prominently in Chinese drama. Loyalty is written in 42 affecting scenes, by the
the theme of the history play Zhaoshi guer scholar Gao Ming in the 14th century.
(“The Orphan of Zhao”), written in the sec- Its heroine, Zhao Wuniang, sets a per-
ond half of the 13th century. In it the hero fect example of Confucian filial piety and
sacrifices his son to save the life of young marital fidelity, caring for her husband’s
Zhao so that Zhao can later avenge the parents until their tragic death and then
death of his family (a situation developed playing the pipa to eke out a living as she
into a major dramatic type in 18th-century patiently searches for her husband.
popular Japanese drama). Huilan ji (“The In the mid-16th century, a musician,
Chalk Circle”), demonstrating the clever- Wei Liangfu, of Suzhou, devoted 10 years
ness of a famous judge, Bao, is known in to creating the kunqu style of music,
the West, having been adapted (1948) by based on southern folk and popular
the German playwright Bertolt Brecht in melodies. At first it was used in short
The Caucasian Chalk Circle. The class plays. Liang Chenyu, poet of the 16th
of bandit dramas are mostly based on century, adapted it to full-length opera
the novel Shuihu zhuan (“The Water in time, and it quickly spread to all parts
Margin”) and its 108 bandit heroes, who of China, where it held the stage until
live by their wits doing constant battle the advent of jingxi (Peking [Beijing]
against corrupt and avaricious officials. opera), two centuries later. Important
The life of the common man is portrayed kunqu dramatists were Tang Xianzu
with considerable reality in Yuan drama, (died 1616), famed for the delicate sen-
though within a highly formalized artistic sitivity of his poetry; Shen Jing (died
frame. The lasting worth of Yuan plays is 1610), who excelled in versification; and
attested to by their constant adaptation to the creator of effective theatrical pieces,
new musical styles over the years so that Li Yu (1611–85). A large-scale perfor-
Yuan masterpieces make up a large part mance of kunqu for the Qing emperor
of the traditional opera repertory. Qianlong in 1784 marked its high point
in Chinese culture. Kunqu had begun as
Ming Period a genuinely popular opera form; it was
welcomed by audiences in Beijing in the
Plays of the Yuan period were widely 1600s, but within decades it had become
popular with the people. When under the a theatre of the literati, its poetic forms
native Chinese Ming rulers (1368–1644) too esoteric and its music too refined for
Mongol influence was eradicated, drama the common audience. In 1853 Suzhou
was, for a time, forbidden. Revived in the was captured by the Taiping rebels, and
south, it increasingly became a literary thereafter kunqu was without a strong
form for a scholarly elite. A renowned base of support and declined rapidly.
Chinese Performing Arts | 261
A jingxi troupe performing a scene from Baishezhuan (“The White Snake”). © Wu Gang/
Liaison International
262 | The Culture of China
teahouses, and in time these became regu- found in every area of China (the different
lar performances providing troupes with forms have been estimated at 300). These
much of their financial support. operas are performed according to local
Essentially, jingxi was a continua- musical styles and in regional languages.
tion of northern-style drama, while kunqu General characteristics of most forms
marked the culmination of southern-style of Chinese opera are similar, however.
drama. Musically they are very differ- Action occurs on a stage bare of scenery
ent: the former uses loud clappers and except for a backdrop and sidepieces. A
cymbals for scenes of action and the pen- table and several chairs indicate a throne,
etrating sound of fiddles accompanies wall, mountain, or other location. (More
singing; in the latter the flute is the major elaborate scenery is used in Guangzhou
instrument, and strings and cymbals are [Canton] and Shanghai, influenced by
absent. A limited number of melodies are Western drama and motion pictures.)
repeated many times in jingxi (set to dif- Actors enter through a door right and exit
ferent lyrics), while in kunqu the melodic through a door left. Costumes, headgear,
range is much wider. Jingxi lyrics are and makeup identify standard character
in colloquial language (they are often types. Actors play a single role type as a
criticized as lacking in literary merit). rule: male (sheng), female (dan), painted-
Overall, the newer opera form is highly face warrior (jing), or clown (chou). Each
theatrical and vigorous, while the older role type can be subdivided into several
form is restrained, gentle, and elegant. role subtypes. Actors undergo seven
Some jingxi are Yuan plays or kunqu years of training as children, during
operas adapted to the new northern musi- which time their appropriate role type
cal system. Many plays first staged as is determined. Singing is essential for
jingxi are dramatizations of the war novel sheng and dan roles; minor actors and
Sanguo zhi yanyi (“Romance of the Three actors of clown roles must be skilled in
Kingdoms”), written in the 14th century acrobatics that enliven battle scenes.
by Lo Guanzhong. Mei Lanfang, the most Singing is accompanied by a large num-
famous performer of jingxi female roles ber of conventionalized movements and
in the 20th century, introduced a number gestures. For example, the long “flow-
of these highly active military plays into ing water” sleeves that are attached to
the repertoire. Kunqu dramas told a long the costumes of dignified characters
and involved story in great detail, often can be manipulated in 107 movements.
in 40 or 50 consecutive scenes. It became Pantomime is highly developed, and
the custom in jingxi to perform a bill of several scenes have become famous
a number of acts or scenes from several for being enacted without dialogue: in
plays, like a Western concert program. Baishe zhuan (“The White Snake”) a
Concurrent with the national forms boatman rows his lovely daughter across
of drama mentioned before, local opera is a swirling river; in San zha gou (“Where
Chinese Performing Arts | 263
ELEMEnts OF tRaDItIOnaL
ChInEsE aRChItECtuRE
in a full-hipped roof. The timber build- Southeast Asian neighbours, who cover
ing is limited in depth by the span of the their houses with atap (leaves of the nipa
truss, with the weight of the roof growing palm [Nypa]) or split bamboo, which
three times with every doubling of depth; tend to sag naturally, presenting a pic-
structurally, however, the building might turesque effect. The upswept eaves at the
be of any length along the front, although corners of the Chinese roof, however, do
in theory it ought not to exceed 13 bays have a structural function in reducing
and may never actually have exceeded 11 what would otherwise be an excessive
bays in the more recent dynasties. overhang at that point.
A distinctively different engineering In the “pavilion concept,” whereby
system for supporting the roof appears each building is conceived of as a free-
today mostly in the southwestern region standing rectilinear unit, flexibility in
of China, using tall, thin roof purlin-to- the overall design is achieved by increas-
ground columns along the full length of ing the number of such units, which are
the gable end and horizontal tie beams arranged together with open, connect-
that penetrate these timber columns. ing galleries skirting around rectilinear
Known as chuandou, this system allows courtyards; diversity is achieved through
for endless possibilities in the geometri- design variations that individualize
cal design upon the gable wall, unlike these courtyard complexes. In the private
the more standardized tailiang sys- house or mansion, the grouping of halls
tem. In place of column-top bracketing, and courtyards is informal, apart from
slanting wooden struts extend support the axial arrangement of the entrance
for the eaves purlin diagonally down- court with its main hall facing the gate-
ward to the columns. It is possible that way; but in a palace, such as the gigantic
chuandou architecture was once stan- Forbidden City in Beijing, the formal
dard throughout much of China before halls are ranged with their courtyards
the Han dynasty and that it retreated to behind one another on a south-to-north
that region with the disappearance of tall axis, the state halls building up to a cer-
timber in the north and with the arrival of emonial climax and then receding toward
the timber-saving bracketing system that more private courts and buildings to the
gradually came to characterize most tra- north. Ancestral halls and temples follow
ditional Chinese architecture. the palatial arrangement. The scale of a
The origin of the distinctive curve building, the number of bays, the unit of
of the roof, which first appeared in measure used for the timbers, whether
China about the 6th century CE, is not bracketing is included or not, and the
fully understood, although a number type of roof (gabled, half- or full-hipped,
of theories have been put forward. The with or without decorative pent roof and
most likely is that it was borrowed, for with or without prominent decorative
purely aesthetic reasons, from China’s ridge tiling and prominent overhang) all
Chinese Architecture | 269
accord with the placement and signifi- so forth. By that measure, as a building
cance of the building within a courtyard expanded in status and scale, each part of
arrangement, with the relative impor- it expanded accordingly; the structure of
tance of that courtyard within a larger a larger building was better supportive of
compound, and with the absolute sta- the weight it had to carry, while visually
tus of the whole building complex. The and aesthetically, consistent proportions
entire system, therefore, is modular and were maintained from one building to
highly standardized. the next. Modular in the extreme, build-
The domination of the roof allows lit- ings were designed to persist through
tle variation in the form of the individual the repeated replacement of parts, so that
building; thus, aesthetic subtlety is con- any given building has not only an origi-
centrated in pleasing proportions and in nal construction date but may belong to
details such as the roof brackets or the many different periods in between.
plinths supporting the columns. Unused This entire system of regularity pro-
to any major variation, the Chinese duced an architecture that changed but
became unusually sensitive to subtle little and therefore could be “read” with
architectural differentiation. Tang archi- great clarity by all. It defined, with little
tecture achieved a “classic” standard, ambiguity, who could go where and
with massive proportions yet simple shaped a world that told everyone their
designs in which function and form were place in it. On the one hand, its restrictive-
fully harmonized. Architects in the Song ness may account for why the names of
dynasty were much more adventurous in so few traditional Chinese architects are
designing interlocking roofs and differ- known. On the other hand, a system so
ent roof levels than were their successors neatly integrated in all of its features from
in later centuries. The beauty of the archi- a very early time, from the Han period
tecture of the Ming and Qing dynasties on, seems to have needed little improve-
lies rather in the lightweight effect and ment and never underwent periods of
the richness of painted decoration. radical redefinition like that which left
The radical standardization of Europeans with Romanesque and Gothic,
Chinese architecture was best expressed Renaissance and Baroque. The Chinese
in its system of measurement, which by architectural system was not considered
the Song dynasty had developed eight to have been man-made at all but essen-
different grades of measure, depending tially to have been revealed by heaven.
upon the status of the buildings and of With so little change being possible, and
individual buildings within a given com- only slow, nearly invisible evolution tak-
pound. The unit of measure (a given inch) ing place, with no one to take credit for
was larger for a more important build- it, it is understandable that until the late
ing; the buildings flanking and facing 1920s, with the research of Liang Sicheng
it would use a slightly smaller unit, and (1901–72), Liang’s wife, Lin Huiyin
270 | The Culture of China
of the feudal states. They were irregu- which surrounding lower-level chambers
lar in shape and surrounded by walls of were inserted.
rammed earth. Some long defensive walls The origins of the Chinese bracket-
also have been located, the largest being ing system also are found on pictorial
one that protected the state of Qi from bronzes, showing a spreading block (dou)
Lu to the south, stretching for more than placed upon a column to support the
300 miles (500 km) from the Huang He beam above more broadly, and in depic-
to the sea. Chu had a similar wall along tions of curved arms (gong) attached
its northern frontier. near the top of the columns, parallel to
Foundations of a number of palace the building wall, extending outward and
buildings have been found in the cities, up to help support the beam; however, the
including Fengchu and, at Huixian, the block and arms were not yet combined to
remains of a hall 85 feet (26 m) square, create traditional Chinese brackets (dou-
which was used for ancestral rites in gong) or to achieve extension forward
connection with an adjacent tomb—an from the wall. Roof tiles replaced thatch
arrangement that became common in before the end of the Western Zhou (771
the Han dynasty. An important late Zhou BCE), and bricks have been found from
structure used for a number of functions early in the Eastern Zhou.
in the conduct of state rituals and incor-
porating a complex range of symbolic Qin (221–207 BCE) and Han
numerical systems was the Spirit Hall (206 BCE–220 CE) Dynasties
(Mingtang), discussed in a variety of
Zhou literature but not yet known for that In 221 Qin Shihuangdi (“the First Sovereign
period through excavations. Late Zhou Emperor of Qin”) put in place the ele-
texts also describe platforms or towers, ments that provided the foundation for the
tai, made of rammed earth and timber and succeeding Han dynasty: he centralized
used as watchtowers, as treasuries, or for the Chinese state and its legal system and
ritual sacrifices and feasts, while pictures standardized the systems of weights
engraved or inlaid on late Zhou bronze and measures and the Chinese writing
vessels show two-story buildings used for system. Further, he consolidated many of
this type of ritual activity. Some of these the walls of northern China into an archi-
multistory buildings are now understood, tectural network of barriers and beacon
through modern excavations of two- and towers for rapid communication. From
three-story Qin and Han palaces and these towers, watchmen could identify
of state ritual halls at Xianyang, Xi’an, suspicious military movement and relay
and Luoyang, to have been constructed the information across the entire length of
around a large, raised, pounded-earth the wall across north China in a single day.
core that structurally supported upper While little except walls and tombs
building levels and galleries and into remains of the architecture of either
272 | The Culture of China
the Qin or Han dynasties, much can be “spirit army” of some 8,000 life-size war-
learned about Han architecture from rior figures along with 400 horses and
historical writings and long descriptive 100 chariots placed in battle formation in
poems, known as fu. Clearly this was an a series of pits beneath the nearby fields.
era of great palace building. Shihuangdi Molded in separate sections, assembled,
undertook the building of a vast palace, then fully painted, these warrior figures
the Efang Gong or Ebang Gong, whose were executed in minute and realistic
main hall was intended to accommodate detail and provide evidence of an early
10,000 guests in its upper story. He also naturalistic sculptural tradition that was
copied, probably at reduced scale, the scarcely imagined by scholars before
palaces and pavilions of each of the feu- their discovery in 1974. For the heads,
dal lords he had defeated; these buildings some 30 different models were used, and
displayed an encyclopaedia of regional each was hand-finished to give further
architectural styles, stretched more than variety. In 1982 a pair of precisely engi-
7 miles (11 km) along the Wei River, and neered bronze replicas (40 inches [104
were filled with local lords and ladies cap- cm] high) of the imperial chariot, with
tured from the different states. considerable gold and silver inlay, was
The first emperor’s tomb was part excavated, each with a charioteer and
of a city of the dead that covered nearly four horses.
0.75 square mile (2 square km) and The main audience hall of the
was surrounded by double walls, with Western Han Weiyang palace was said
numerous gates, corner towers, and a to have been about 390 feet (120 m) long
ceremonial palace. The mausoleum itself by 115 feet (35 m) deep, possibly smaller
was surmounted by an artificial mound, or than its largest Qin predecessor yet much
tumulus, a feature not known in the Shang larger than its equivalents in the Beijing
or early Zhou and first found among the palace today. From the Zhou dynasty
tombs of the 4th–3rd centuries BCE near (1046–255 BCE) through the Yuan (1206–
Jiangling in Hubei province. About 141 1368 CE), no architectural structure
feet (43 m) high, this tumulus was shaped called forth more intense consideration
like a triple-layered truncated pyramid than the Spirit Hall, or Mingtang, which
symbolizing heaven, man, and earth. was the predecessor of Beijing’s Temple
The tomb, which has not yet been exca- of Heaven. The site of the Han ritual hall,
vated, reportedly featured a large chart of in the southern suburbs of Han dynasty
the heavens painted on its domed vault Chang’an, was excavated in 1956–57.
and a three-dimensional representation Translating traditional ritual values into
of the earth below, with rivers of liquid symbolic architecture, the Mingtang was
mercury driven by mechanical contriv- surrounded by an outer circular moat
ances. Excavations around the tomb have and set on a circular foundation (the
uncovered a large protective terra-cotta two circles together forming a disk, or
Chinese Architecture | 273
bi, symbolic of heaven) that was further natural hills. Many Han tombs were
enclosed within an intermediate rectilin- decorated with wall paintings, with more
ear colonnade (symbolic of earth). The permanent and expensive stone reliefs,
three-story hall itself (the number three or with stamped or molded bricks.
signifying heaven, man, and earth) was The most remarkable excavated tomb
built around a raised earthen core. It is of the period belonged to the wife of a mid-
thought to have been a composite ritual level aristocrat, one of three family tombs
structure that included a royal academy of the governor of Changsha found in a
on the first floor; a second floor divided suburb of that southern city, Mawangdui,
into nine zones, corresponding to the four and dating from 168 BCE or shortly after.
seasons and the “five phases” theory of Small in scale but richly equipped and
change, with five inner shrines and with perfectly preserved, the wooden tomb
outer spaces for monthly ritual offerings; consists of several outer compartments
and a third-floor central hall surrounded for grave goods tightly arranged around
by a terrace (lingtai, or “spirit platform”) a set of four nested lacquered coffins. An
for observation of the heavens and regu- outer layer of sticky white kaolin clay
lation of the calendar. prevented moisture from penetrating the
The Han palaces were set about with tomb, and an inner layer of charcoal fixed
tall timber towers (lou) and brick or stone all the available oxygen within a day of
towers (tai) used for a variety of purposes, burial, so the deceased (Xin Zhui, or
including the display and storage of Lady Dai, the governor’s wife) was found
works of art. Ceramic representations of in a near-perfect state of preservation.
Han architecture provide the first direct Included among the grave goods, which
evidence of true bracketing, with simple came with a written inventory provid-
brackets projecting a single step forward ing contemporaneous terminology, are
from the wall (and sometimes several the finest caches yet discovered of early
steps upward from the wall) in order to Chinese silks (gauzes and damasks, twills
support the roof projection. and embroideries, including many whole
Han tombs are among the most garments) and lacquerware (including
elaborate ever constructed in China. In wood-, bamboo-, and cloth-cored exam-
some localities they are of timber, but ples), together with a remarkable painted
more often they are of brick or stone, banner that might have been carried by
divided into several chambers, and cov- the shaman in the funerary procession.
ered with a corbeled vault or, more rarely,
a true arched vault. The tombs of the Three Kingdoms (220–280)
Han emperors were enclosed in gigan- and Six Dynasties (220–589)
tic earthen mounds that are still visible
today, but some royal tombs began the After the fall of Luoyang (311) and
later practice of burial in hollowed-out Chang’an (316) to the invading Xiongnu,
274 | The Culture of China
the building of great cities and palaces Sui (581–618) and Tang
ceased until the Northern Wei moved (618–907) Dynasties
their capital to Luoyang in 495. There
they constructed a city of great magnifi- The founding of the Sui dynasty reunited
cence (which was eventually sacked in China after more than 300 years of frag-
535). The main monuments of the 4th mentation. The second Sui emperor
and 5th centuries were Buddhist temples engaged in unsuccessful wars and vast
and monasteries. By the mid-6th century public works, such as the Grand Canal
there were some 500 religious establish- linking the north and south of China
ments in and around Luoyang alone and physically and economically. Work on
about 30,000 in the whole of the north- these grand schemes exhausted the peo-
ern realm. ple and led them to revolt. The succeeding
Each Buddhist temple had a pagoda Tang dynasty built a more enduring state
erected as a reliquary or memorial, and on the foundations the Sui rulers had
other pagodas dotted the city and the sur- laid, and the first 130 years of the Tang
rounding landscape. They have mostly was one of the most prosperous and bril-
disappeared, but one can get some idea liant periods in the history of Chinese
of their form from reliefs at Yungang and civilization. During this time, the empire
from the earliest surviving pagodas at was extended so far across Central Asia
Nara in Japan. Based on an enlargement that for a while Bukhara and Samarkand
and refinement of the Han timber tower, (both now in Uzbekistan) were under
or lou, they had up to 12 stories, with a Chinese control, the Central Asian king-
projecting mast at the top ringed with doms paid tribute to China, and Chinese
metal disks. This mast was the only fea- cultural influence reached Korea and
ture preserved from the Indian Buddhist Japan. Chang’an became the greatest
burial or reliquary mound, the stupa, a city in the world at that time; its streets
hemispherical form that the Chinese were filled with foreigners, and foreign
rarely seem to have copied. The brick religions—including Zoroastrianism,
and stone pagodas, which were originally Buddhism, Manichaeism, Nestorianism,
more Indian in form and were gradu- Christianity, Judaism, and Islam—flour-
ally Sinicized, are tiered structures with ished. This confident cosmopolitanism is
the stories marked by projecting string reflected in all the arts of the period.
courses (horizontal bands) and architec- The splendour of the dynasty reached
tural features borrowed from timberwork its peak between 712 and 756 under the
indicated in relief. The oldest surviv- emperor Xuanzong (Minghuang), but
ing example is the Songyue Temple, a before the end of his reign a disastrous
12-sided stone pagoda on Mount Song defeat caused Central Asia to enter the
(c. 520–525) that is Indian in its shape control of the advancing Arabs, and
and detail. the rebellion of General An Lushan in
Chinese Architecture | 275
755 almost brought down the dynasty. the foundation completed in 2003, now
Although the Tang survived for another a UNESCO World Heritage site), with
150 years, its government and people its elevated corridors extended like huge
largely turned against foreigners and for- arms toward overlapping triple tow-
eign religions. In 845 all foreign religions ers (foreshadowing the later Japanese
were briefly but disastrously proscribed; Phoenix Hall at Uji and the Wu Gate at
temples and monasteries were destroyed Beijing), and the Linde Hall; marble flag-
or turned to secular use, and Buddhist stones and bases of 164 columns of the
bronze images were melted down. latter give some indication of its splen-
Only the descriptions in literature dour. Lost marvels of Sui Tang palace
and poetry, no doubt exaggerated, remain architecture include Yuwen Kai’s rotating
of the architecture of southern China pavilion in the Sui palace, which could
from the Sui period. The great palaces, hold 200 guests, and the 295-foot-high (90
temples, and pagodas of 6th-century m) state Spirit Hall built for China’s only
Nanjing have all disappeared. Evidence reigning empress, the usurper Wuhou (or
of wall paintings and reliefs suggests, Wu Zetian, who changed the name of the
however, that the curved roof was already dynasty from Tang to Zhou during her
beginning to make its appearance in the reign from 690 to 705). Surviving murals
south, although it did not reach northern from Buddhist caves at Dunhuang and
China until well into the Tang dynasty. excavated royal tombs near Chang’an pro-
The Sui capital, Daxing (now Xi’an), vide a graphic record of Tang architecture,
was designed in 583 on imperial order by its taste for multistory elevation, tall tow-
the great architect Yuwen Kai; renamed ers, and elaborate elevated walkways, its
Chang’an, it was further developed by the uncharacteristic use of brightly coloured
Tang after 618. This vast city, six times the tiles on the building surfaces, and its
size of present-day Xi’an, was laid out in integration of architecture with gardens,
nine months on a grid plan, with eastern ponds, and bridges.
and western markets and the Imperial City The Sui-Tang period saw some of
placed in the north-central section, a plan China’s most lavish royal tomb building,
later followed in the Ming dynasty rebuild- before the onset of a relative modesty
ing of Beijing. In 634 Tang Taizong built a in the Song (960–1279) and a decline of
new palace, the Daming Palace, on higher qualitative standards in later periods.
ground just outside the city to the north- Excavated royal tombs at Changling, north
east. The site of the Daming Palace, which of the capital, include three built for close
became the centre of court life during the relatives of Wuhou who were degraded or
glittering reigns of Gaozong (649–683) executed by her on her way to the throne;
and Xuanzong (712–756), was partly exca- they were reburied amid much pomp and
vated. Remains were found of two great splendour in 706 after the restoration
halls, Hanyuan Hall (reconstruction of of the Tang royal lineage. In each, the
276 | The Culture of China
The Chinese-inspired Great Buddha Hall (Daibutsu-den) of the Tōdai Temple, Nara, Japan.
The original Late Nara building was completed in 752; the present hall is an 18th-century
reconstruction. Orion Press—Scala/Art Resource, New York
Chinese Architecture | 277
of events was a more critical feature than Nothing survives today, but some idea of
architectural engineering, the latter, after the architecture of the city is suggested
all, requiring good execution but allow- by a remarkably realistic hand scroll,
ing little innovation. Understanding the Going up the River at Qingming Festival
flow of the earth’s vital energy (qi) and Time, painted by the 12th-century court
the relation of the stable earth to the ever- artist Zhang Zeduan (whether painted
changing heavens, as known through before or after the sacking is uncertain).
astral charts and almanacs, provided From contemporary accounts, Bianjing
these masters with an esoteric knowl- was a city of towers, the tallest being a
edge and authority that rivaled that of pagoda 360 feet (110 m) high, built in 989
the emperor himself and brought it into by the architect Yu Hao to house a relic
the lives of every individual. Whether of the Indian emperor Ashoka. Palaces
regarded, today, as superstition or as and temples were at first designed in
proto- or quasi-scientific knowledge, the Tang tradition, sturdy and relatively
information about when to cut the first simple in detail though smaller in scale.
wood, how to position the building where The plan and grouping of the elements,
the building materials would be stored, however, became progressively more
when to lay the threshold and build the complex; temple halls were often built in
hearth and marital bed or raise the main two or three stories, and structural detail
roof beam, were all matters of the utmost became more elaborate.
importance. Various charms, good or bad, The style of the 10th century is exem-
might also be secreted away among the plified in the Guanyin Hall of the Dule
beams, and only certain numbers were Temple at Jixian, Hebei province, built
used—all others avoided—in the mea- in 984 in Liao territory. A two-story struc-
surement of parts, all of which made ture with a mezzanine that projects to
the fengshui masters and carpenters an outer balcony, the hall is effectively
something like magicians or sorcerers, constructed of three tiers of support-
all-powerful in the lives of the people and ing brackets. It houses a 52-foot-high
as much to be feared as admired by their (16 metre), 11-headed clay sculpture of
clientele. the bodhisattva Guanyin, the largest of
its kind in China, placed majestically
Song (960–1279), beneath a central canopy. From the 11th
Liao (907–1125), and Jin century, the finest surviving buildings are
(1115–1234) Dynasties the main hall and library of the Huayan
Temple in the Liao capital at Datong
The Song capital, Bianliang or Bianjing (Shanxi), which was accorded the right
(present-day Kaifeng), grew to be a great to house images of the Liao emperors,
city, only to be burned by Juchen Tatars installed in 1062. The library, perhaps the
in 1127, just after the work was completed. most intricate and perfectly preserved
Chinese Architecture | 279
Going up the River at Qingming Festival Time, detail of an ink and colour on silk hand scroll
by Zhang Zeduan, 12th century, Song dynasty; in the Palace Museum, Beijing. 24.8 cm × 528
cm. Wan-go H.C. Weng Photo Collection, New York
the bracket, but also a great variety of is Song architecture at its most refined.
bracket types may be used in the same Practically nothing survives today of
building (56 different types are found the Southern Song capital of Hangzhou,
in the five-story wooden pagoda built in described as the greatest city in the world
1056 at the Fogong Temple in Yingxian, by the Venetian traveler Marco Polo, who
Shanxi province). The tail-rafter, hitherto spent much of the time from 1276 to 1292
anchored at the inner end to a crossbeam, in the city. The dense population and con-
now is freely balanced on the bracket fined space of Hangzhou forced buildings
cluster, supporting purlins at each end, upward, and many dwellings were in three
thus giving the whole system something to five stories. While palace buildings in
of the dynamic functionalism of High the southern part of the city were probably
Gothic architecture. The interior is also crowded together, temples and high-plat-
much more elaborate. Richly detailed formed viewing pavilions overlooking
rounded vaults, or cupolas, are set in the West Lake were buildings of fairylike
ceiling over the principal images; balda- beauty. They survive today only in the
chins (ornamental structures resembling work of such Southern Song landscape
canopies) and pavilions to house images and architecture painters as Li Song.
or relics reproduce in miniature the intri- The variety of form, structural tech-
cate carpentry of full-scale buildings; and nique, detail, and decoration in Song
extremely complex bookcases, some of architecture reflects the sophistication
which, as at the Huayan Temple, were of Song culture and a new intellectual
made to revolve, also assume the form of interest in the art. Master builders such
miniature buildings. as Yu Hao and the state architect Li Jie
Upwards of 60 Song, Liao, and Jin were educated men. The latter is known
pagodas survive, the latter built by today chiefly as the compiler of Yingzao
Chinese master craftsmen for their bar- fashi (“Building Standards”), which he
barian overlords. These pagodas are presented to the throne in 1100. This illus-
generally six- or eight-sided and made trated work deals in encyclopaedic fashion
of brick or wood. A tall and very slender with all branches of architecture: layout,
“iron-coloured” brick pagoda of the 11th construction, stonework, carpentry, brack-
century survives at Kaifeng, and, like the eting, decoration, materials, and labour.
seven-story White Pagoda at Qingzhou, The Yingzao fashi became a standard text,
near Chengde, it reproduces in brick and, while it was influential in spreading
an elaborate bracketing system copied the most advanced techniques of the time
from timber construction. The 13-story with its first publication in 1103, by codi-
Tianning Temple pagoda in Beijing (11th fying practice, it may also have inhibited
or early 12th century) shows a subordina- further development and contributed to
tion of rich detail to a simple outline that the conservatism of later techniques.
Chinese Architecture | 281
Little remains of Yuan architecture today. The first Ming emperor established his
The great palace of Kublai Khan in the capital at Nanjing (“Southern Capital”),
282 | The Culture of China
surrounding it with a wall more than (1556) walled southern suburbs, or “outer
16 miles (30 km) in length, one of the city.” A series of eight major state tem-
longest in the world. The palace he con- ples lay on the periphery in balanced
structed no longer exists. In 1402 a son symmetry, including temples to the
of the founding Ming emperor enfeoffed sun (east) and moon (west) and, to the
at the old Yuan capital usurped the far south of the city, the huge matched
throne from his nephew, the second temple grounds of heaven (east) and
Ming ruler, and installed himself as the agriculture (west). Close adherence to
Yongle emperor. He rebuilt the destroyed the traditional principles of north-south
Mongol palaces and moved the Ming axiality, walled enclosures and restric-
capital there in 1421, renaming the city tive gateways, systematic compounding
Beijing (“Northern Capital”). His cen- of courtyard structures, regimentation
tral palace cluster, the Forbidden City, is of scale, and a hierarchy of roofing types
the foremost surviving Chinese palace were all intended to satisfy classical
compound, maintained and successively architectural norms, displaying visually
rebuilt over the centuries. In a strict the renewed might of native rulers and
hierarchical sequence, the palaces lie their restoration of traditional order.
centred within the bureaucratic auspices Central to this entire arrangement
of the imperial city, which is surrounded are three great halls of state, situated
by the metropolis that came to be called on a high, triple-level marble platform
the “inner city,” in contrast to the newer (the number three, here and elsewhere,
The Hall of Supreme Harmony (centre), one of the former Imperial Palaces, now part of the
Palace Museum complex in the Forbidden City, Beijing. Xinhua News Agency
Chinese Architecture | 283
symbolic of heaven and of the impe- detail. This same lack of progress shows
rial role as chief communicant between in Ming temples also. Exceptional is
heaven and earth). The southernmost the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests
of these is the largest wooden building (Qiniandian) at the Temple of Heaven,
in China (roughly 215 by 115 feet [65 by a descendant of the ancient Mingtang
35 m]), known as the Hall of Supreme state temple. It took its present circu-
Harmony. (The names and specific func- lar form about 1530. Its three concentric
tions of many of the main halls were circles of columns, which range up to
changed several times during the Ming
and Qing [1644–1911/12] dynasties.) To
their north lies a smaller-scale trio, the
main halls of the inner court, in which the
emperor and his ladies resided. The entire
complex now comprises some 9,000
rooms (of an intended 9,999, representing
a perfect yang number). The grandeur of
this palatial scheme was matched by the
layout of a vast imperial burial ground
on the southern slopes of the mountain
range to the north of Beijing, not far from
the Great Wall, which eventually came to
house 13 Ming royal mausoleums, with
an elaborate “spirit way” and accompany-
ing ritual temple complexes.
In its colossal scale, the monumental
sweep of its golden-tiled roofs, and its
axial symmetry, the heart of the Forbidden
City is unsurpassed as a symbol of impe-
rial power. In architectural technique,
however, the buildings may be consid-
ered a decline from the adventurous
planning and construction of the Song
period. Here the unit is a simple square
or rectangular pavilion with few projec-
Children sweeping the steps at the
tions or none, and the bracketing system
Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, cen-
is reduced to a decorative frieze with little
tral building of the Temple of Heaven,
or no structural function. Instead, empha-
in the Forbidden City, Beijing. Emil
sis is placed upon carved balustrades, Schulthess/Black Star
rich colour, and painted architectural
284 | The Culture of China
59 feet (18 m) in height, symbolize the 4 The Manchu rulers were most lavish in
seasons, the 12 months, and the 12 daily their summer palaces, created to escape
hours; in a remarkable feat of engineer- the heat of the city. In 1703 the Kangxi
ing, they support the three roof levels (a emperor began the construction, near the
yang number) and, in succession, a huge old Manchu capital, Zhengde, of a series
square brace representing earth, a mas- of palaces and pavilions set in a natural
sive circular architrave denoting heaven, landscape. Engravings of these made by
and a vast interior cupola decorated with the Jesuit father Matteo Ripa in 1712–13
golden dragons among clouds. (In its and taken by him to London in 1724 are
final rebuilding, in the 1890s, its tall tim- thought to have influenced the revolution
bers had to be imported from the U.S. in garden design that began in Europe at
state of Oregon.) about this time. Near the Zhengde pal-
ace were built several imposing Buddhist
Qing Dynasty (1644–1911/12) temples in a mixed Sino-Tibetan style
that reflects the Tibetan Buddhist lean-
The Manchus began imitating Chinese ings of the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and
ways even before their conquest of China, Qianlong emperors.
and the Qing rulers, particularly Kangxi About 1687 the Kangxi emperor
(1661–1722) and Qianlong (1735–96), were had begun to create another garden
well-educated men who were eager to park northwest of Beijing, which grew
enlist the support of Chinese scholars. under his successors into the enormous
They were extremely conservative in Yuanmingyuan (“Garden of Pure Light”).
their political and cultural attitudes; in Here were scattered a great number of
artistic taste, their native love of extrav- official and palace buildings, to which the
agance (which the Chinese viewed as Qianlong emperor moved his court semi-
barbarous) was tempered, ironically, by permanently. In the northern corners of
an equally strong conservatism. The art the Yuanmingyuan, the Jesuit missionary
of the Qing dynasty, even the painting and artist Giuseppe Castiglione (known
of many of its finest eccentrics and the in China as Lang Shining) designed
design of its best gardens, is at once char- for Qianlong a series of extraordinary
acterized by lavish decoration and ornate Sino-Rococo buildings, set in Italianate
effects as well as by superb technique gardens ornamented with mechanical
and conservative taste. fountains designed by the Jesuit priest
Qing dynasty work in the Forbidden Michel Benoist. Today the Yuanmingyuan
City was confined chiefly to the restora- has almost completely disappeared, as
tion or reconstruction of major Ming the foreign-style buildings were burned
buildings, although the results were typi- by the French and British in 1860. To
cally more ornate in detail and brighter replace it, the empress dowager Cixi
in colour than at any time since the Tang. greatly enlarged the new summer palace
Chinese Architecture | 285
(Yiheyuan) along the shore of Kunming becomes evident that, as in the worst of
Lake to the north of the city. Qing architecture, these gardens became
The finest architectural achieve- ever more ornate. The best examples,
ment of the period, however, occurred in however, remain well within the bounds
private rather than institutional archi- of good taste because of the scholars’
tecture—namely, in the scholars’ gardens cultivated sensibility, and they were dis-
of southeastern China, in such towns as tinguished by an inventive imagination
Suzhou, Yangzhou, and Wuxi. As these lacking in Manchu court architecture.
often involved renovations carried out Such gardens were primarily Daoist in
on Yuan and Ming dynasty foundations, nature, intended as microcosms invested
it remains difficult to discern the pre- with the capacity to engender tranquillity
cise outlines of their innovations. With and induce longevity in those who lodged
the aid of paintings and Ji Cheng’s text there. The chief hallmark of these gardens
Yuanye (1631–34; “Forging a Garden”), it was the combination of a central pond,
Garden of the Master of Nets (Wangshiyuan), Ming and Qing dynasties; at Suzhou, Jiangsu
province, China. Caroline Courtauld
286 | The Culture of China
After 1949, the urgent need in China decorations were seriously damaged or
for housing and industrial building led to destroyed, as the new regime regarded
many examples of purely utilitarian archi- them as emblems of decadence and mori-
tecture and to major construction projects bundity. Most new commissions were
such as dams and bridges. Beijing and monotonously imposing structures. The
other big cities were transformed by end of Cultural Revolution architecture
spectacular planning projects, but an was marked when the regime’s founder,
awareness of the traditional role of symbol- Mao Zedong, died in 1976 and was bur-
ism in architecture was often retained and ied in a grand mausoleum, located at
adapted. Indeed, much of the architecture the south end of Tiananmen Square.
in the 1950s was built in the Soviet style Designed by a large team of architects
of imposing edifices centered on grand that same year, the monument bears a
squares and axes. During this period, resemblance to the Lincoln Memorial in
large portions of the Forbidden City in Washington, D.C.
Beijing were restored and established as a
public museum. Lamentably, most of the Into the 21st Century
city’s great outer walls were taken down in
the name of modernization and to facili- After this rather fallow period in Chinese
tate vehicular circulation. A new primary architecture, the Chinese building
thoroughfare (Chang’an Boulevard), now industry, beginning in the 1980s—with
symbolically on an east-west axis rather the implementation of China’s new
than traditionally oriented north-south, “opening up” economic and diplo-
was also established there. In 1959 a vast matic policies—entered an unparalleled
square for public political activity was period of prosperity. This boom was in
completed in front of the Tiananmen part a result of the new political struc-
(Gate of Heavenly Peace, the entryway ture, which provided sufficient funds
to the Imperial City), flanked on one side for Chinese architects to explore dif-
by the complex containing the Museum ferent creative possibilities, and in part
of Chinese History and the Museum of because China’s economic development
Chinese Revolution and on the other side during this period created a need for an
by the Great Hall of the People. These dig- increased number of office towers, hotels,
nified structures, part of the “Ten Grand shopping spaces, and urban housing,
Buildings” built from 1958 to 1959, were accompanied by massive new roadway
modeled after the Soviet style, with a hint construction. All of this required the tear-
of the Chinese vernacular in details such ing down of older structures in the name
as a slight turn of a cornice. of urban renewal, particularly of domes-
Over the course of the Cultural tic urban housing, and the displacement
Revolution (1966–76), many magnifi- and relocation of tens of millions
cent older buildings and their exquisite of urban residents. Massive numbers of
288 | The Culture of China
when and how they are eaten. The special objects. The tools for Chinese calligra-
preparation of food in China has deep phy are few: an ink stick, an ink stone, a
and ancient roots. Much of Chinese his- brush, and paper or silk. The calligrapher,
tory and ritual can be learned from the using a combination of technical skill
crispy skin of a Peking duck, the burn of and imagination, must provide inter-
a roasted Sichuan green bean, the com- esting shapes to the strokes and must
fort of a steamed pork dumpling, and a compose beautiful structures from them
simple bowl of rice. without any retouching or shading and,
Perhaps second only to the apprecia- most important of all, with well-balanced
tion of Chinese food is the appreciation spaces between the strokes. This balance
of China’s art. Whether it be the life-size needs years of practice and training.
terra-cotta warriors in Xi’an, the ritual The music and performing arts of
bronze vessels of an early era, or the scroll China, like the written language, are
paintings of emperors, Chinese art has ancient. The archaeological resources
been available to Western museumgoers go back to 3000 BCE, and extensive writ-
for centuries. Though it may require some ten documents refer to endless different
extra effort on the part of the Western forms of music in connection with folk
viewer to understand the principles of festivals and religious events as well as in
artists who approach life and the world the courts of hundreds of emperors and
in a different manner, the effort is always princes in dozens of different provinces,
rewarded many times over by expanded dynasties, and periods. If a survey is car-
artistic horizons and by cultural growth. ried forward from 3000 BCE, it becomes
In China and the countries most clear that the last brief segment of mate-
influenced by Chinese culture—Korea rial, from the Song dynasty (960–1279
and Japan—calligraphy by long and CE) to today, is equivalent to the entire
exacting tradition is considered a major major history of European music.
art, equal to sculpture or painting. It was This volume gives ample evidence
said that Cangjie, the legendary inven- of the richness and depth of Chinese cul-
tor of Chinese writing, got his ideas from ture. While contemporary news relates
observing animals’ footprints and birds’ the vitality of China’s economic engine, it
claw marks on the sand as well as from tends to minimize the incredible vibrancy
other natural phenomena. He then started of the country’s ancient culture—its inven-
to work out simple images from what tion of paper, silk, movable type, and even
he conceived as representing different fireworks.
Glossary
analect A collection of teachings. eremitic Being like a hermit in values
Animism A belief that not only do or actions.
humans and animals, have souls, ewer A jug in the shape of a vase.
but that inanimate objects such as excrescence Something that projects
stones, rivers, and weather events outward in an abnormal way, espe-
(such as storms) also have souls and cially something ugly or undesirable.
life as well. florescence Flowering.
apotheosis Deification, or raising to a hegemony Dominance of one group
godlike status. over another.
architectonic Relating to architecture. laity Common followers of a faith who
bodhisattva In Buddhist thought, an are not members of its clergy.
enlightened being; someone who nirvana The state of ultimate enlighten-
doesn’t enter nirvana so that he or ment in Buddhism that transcends
she can help others attain suffering and which is an ultimate
enlightenment. goal to be sought and cherished.
celadon A glaze for ceramics which is putonghua “Common language”; the
typically green with a yellowish- dialect of Mandarin spoken in
gray cast. Beijing that is considered a national
cenobitic Referring to a religious group language.
such as monks who live in commu- qi Vital energy, breath.
nity following shared rules and strict quietism A religious philosophy
discipline. that emphasizes the idea that
colloquy A high-level, serious passive contemplation and sup-
conversation. pression of the will can provide
colophon Identifying information such spiritual peace.
as an inscription, a mark, or an repoussé A jewelry-making technique
emblem that is used by a printer or of pressing shapes into metal.
a publisher. sericulture The raising of caterpillars
dao In Chinese philosophy, a concept for the production of raw silk.
signifying “the proper way,” or shaman A religious figure who uses
“heaven’s way.” magic to intercede between the natu-
de Virtue. ral and supernatural spheres.
dharma In Hinduism the moral law soteriological A theological belief
guiding individual conduct; in concerning salvation by a heroic or
Buddhism, the universal truth. godlike figure.
292 | The Culture of China
Huang Zongxi, 86 L
Huashanshuixu, 190
Huayan Temple, 278, 280 lacquer/lacquerwork, 81, 151, 153, 160, 162,
Hu Huai, 196 165, 181, 182, 184, 185, 186, 226, 230–233,
Hui, 23–24, 47 273, 281
Huizhou language, 46 Lahu, 24, 35
Huizong, 198–199, 202, 210, 214 landscape painting, 193, 195–196, 205–206,
Hu Shi, 60 210, 212, 214
Hu Yuan, 81 Lantern Festival, 37, 39
Laozi, 75, 80, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 105, 119
Legalism, 75, 78
I Liang Kai, 203
Islam, 118, 190, 274 Liang Shuming, 89
Liang Sicheng, 286, 288
Li Ao, 80
J Liao dynasty, 29, 84, 171–174, 197–204, 278–281
jade/jade carving, 151, 154, 155, 156, 161, Li Bai, 58, 108
165, 179, 198, 226–230, 270 Li Cheng, 195, 199, 200, 205, 208
Jains, 112 Liezi, 90, 104
Jiao Bingzhen, 213 Li Gonglin, 200, 202
Jia Yi, 75 Li Hongzhi, 143
Jin dynasty, 25, 84, 85, 169, 171–174, 197–204, Liji, 77–78, 83, 235, 236
278–281 Li Jie, 280
Jing Hao, 195, 196, 199 Li Kan, 206
jingxi, 248–251, 254, 260, 261–262, Lin Fengmian, 219, 221, 224
263, 265 Lin Yutang, 62
Jizang, 80, 133 Lin Zexu, 87
Juchen, 25, 27, 29, 81, 84, 198, 278 Li Si, 61, 75
Judaism, 190, 274 Li Sixun, 193
Juran, 196, 208, 212 Lisu, 24–25, 35
Li Tang, 202, 203, 210
Liu Garden, 286
K Liu Haisu, 219, 221
Kangxi zidian, 62 Liu Jue, 210
Kang Youwei, 87 Liu Songnian, 203
Khitan, 29, 81, 197–198 Liu Xie, 189
Kublai Khan, 85, 246, 281 Liu Yin, 85
Kuiji, 134, 135 Liu Zongzhou, 86
Kumarajiva, 119–120, 133 Li Zai, 210
Kuncan (Shiqi), 216, 217 Li Zhaodao, 193
kunqu, 247–248, 260, 262 Li Zhi, 86
Index | 297
Qin dynasty, 57, 61, 75, 79, 162–163, 183–186, Song dynasty, 22, 30, 58, 81–84, 106, 121,
239, 241, 271–273 128, 152, 167, 169, 170–174, 175, 178, 191,
Qing dynasty, 25, 38, 41, 168, 169, 172, 176, 192, 195, 196, 197–204, 206, 208, 209,
177–180, 184, 196, 197, 199, 209, 211, 212, 210, 211, 212, 214, 216, 228–229, 232, 234,
213–218, 229–230, 232, 247–254, 261–263, 245–247, 258–259, 267, 269, 275, 278–281,
267, 269, 283, 284–286 283, 290
Qin tomb, 37 Songyue Temple, 274, 277
Qo Xiong, 27 sports, 39
Qui Ying, 212 Standard Cantonese language, 51–52
storytelling, 252
Sui dynasty, 54, 80, 120, 167–169, 189, 190–194,
R 243, 274–277
Ren Renfa, 206 Sun Fu, 81
Ricci, Matteo, 58, 211 Su Shi (Su Dongpo), 81, 200, 202, 205,
208, 212
S
sculpture, 151, 153, 187, 225, 290
T
shadow plays, 252, 259 tai chi chuan, 38, 39
Shang dynasty, 57, 66, 67, 77, 151, 152, Taixuanjing, 79
155–159, 160, 161, 165, 180, 181, 228, 230, Tang dynasty, 54, 57, 58, 80, 81, 106, 108, 118,
234, 270, 272 120, 126–127, 152, 163, 166, 167–169, 170,
Shao Yong, 82, 83 187, 190–194, 205, 209, 210, 212, 220, 232,
She, 32 243–245, 258, 269, 274–277, 278, 279, 284
sheng, 240–241, 247 Tang Junyi, 89
Shen Jing, 260 Tang koine, 54
Shen Zhou, 210–211, 212 Tang Taizong, 275
Shijing, 55, 57, 77, 236, 242 Tang Xianzu, 260
Shi Ke, 194 Tang Yin, 211
Shitao (Daoji), 211, 217, 218 Tatars, 29, 198, 243, 278
Shujing, 57, 67, 70, 77, 236 Ten Kingdoms, 169, 194–197, 245, 277–278
Shuowen jiezi, 62 terra-cotta army, 37, 272, 290
Sichuan cooking/cuisine, 40, 43 Three Kingdoms, 166–167, 186–190, 258,
Sima Guang, 81, 83 273–274
Sima Qian, 76, 78, 91, 93 Tian Han, 254, 264
Sinitic (Chinese) languages, linguistic Tianning Temple, 280
characteristics of, 48–49 Tiantai school of Buddhism, 136–138
Sino-Tibetan language family, overview of, Tibetans, 21, 32–33, 48
45–47 transcription systems, 50
Six Dynasties, 166–167, 186–190, 191, 193, 243, Tujia, 33
273–274, 277 Turkic languages, 47
Index | 299
W X
Wa, 34–35 Xia Chang, 210
Wade-Giles transcription system, 50 Xia Gui, 203, 210, 212
Wang Anshi, 81 Xiamen-Shantou (Southern Min)
Wang Bi, 80 language, 46
Wang Fou, 105 Xiang language, 46, 49, 53, 55, 57
Wang Fu, 210 Xie He, 189–190
Wang Fuzhi, 86 Xie Huan, 210
Wang Hui, 214 Xin dynasty, 163, 183–184
Wang Ji, 86 Xiong Shili, 89
Wang Jian, 214 Xuanhe Huapu, 199
Wang Meng, 209, 210, 212, 216 Xuanzang, 80, 134, 135
Wang Mian, 207 Xuanzong, 190, 193, 243, 244, 258, 274, 275
Wang Roxu, 84 Xu Beihong, 219–220, 221
Wang Shimin, 214 Xu Daoning, 200
Wang Wei, 193, 196, 212 Xue Xuan, 85
Wang Xia (Wang Mo), 194 Xu Fuguan, 89
Wang Xizhi, 108 Xu Heng, 84–85
Wang Yangming, 85–86 Xunzi, 74–75
Wang Yuanqi, 214–215 Xu Shen, 62, 226
Warring States period, 71, 93, 107, 151, 165, Xu Wei, 211, 212, 217, 218
181, 186, 229, 230 Xu Xi, 196, 197
Weichi Bozhina, 189
Weichi Yiseng, 189
Wen Fu, 189 Y
Wen Tong, 200, 202, 208 Yang Weizhen, 206
Wenxin Diaolong, 189 Yang Xiong, 79
Wen Zhengming, 211, 212 Yang Zhu, 71, 72, 73, 104
wood-block printing, 212–213, 217, 220, 221 Yan Liben, 191, 192
300 | The Culture of China