GREEK PHILOSOPHY

A COLLECTION OF TEXTS
WITH NOTES AND EXPLANATIONS

BY

C. J. DE VOGEL
PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT AND MEDIAEVAL
PH.D.,
PHILOSOPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF UTRECHT

VOLUME II

ARISTOTLE, THE EARLY PERIPATETIC

SCHOOL AND THE EARLY ACADEMY

LEIDKN
E. J. BRILL
1953
The publication of this volume is facilitated by a subvention granted by
"The Netherlands Organization for Pure Research" (Z.W.O.)

Copyright 1953 by E. J .
Brill, Leiden, Holland
All rights reserved, including the right to translate or to reproduce
this book or parts thereof in any form

Printed in the Netherlands

 CONTENTS
BOOK III ARISTOTLE
CHAPTER X LIFE AND WORKS
i Prolegomena the Aristotelian question
: . . . 1-2
2 Life and works .of Aristotle 3-10
3 Date of Aristotle's works according to
W. Jaeger 10-15
4 Reactions and corrections *5-*9
CHAPTER XI THE EXOTERIC WRITINGS
i The Eudemus or Tlept ^DX^<; 20-23
2 The Protrepticus 24-28
3 Ilepl 9iXoCT09iac; 28-36
CHAPTER XII LOGIC
i The School- writings. Introductory remarks . .
37-40
2 The Categories: terms 40-42
3 TTspl epfjiYjvetac;: propositions 42-44
4 The Prior Analytics the doctrine of the syllogism
:
44-54
5 The Posterior Analyticis: the doctrine of
demonstration 54-64
6 The Topics and De Sophisticis elenchis . . .
64-66
CHAPTER xni ARISTOTLE'S PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE
i Introductory remarks 67-68
2 The first book of the Physics 68-76
3 The second book of the Physics 76-93
4 Definitions of motion, space and time .... 93-96
5 The theory of the First Unmoved Mover. . .
96-101
CHAPTER XIV THE METAPHYSICS
i The object of methaphysics 102-110
2 Plato's theory of Ideas criticized 110-114
3 Substance 114-124
4 Potency and actuality 124-129
5 Being and truth 130-132
VIII CONTENTS

CHAPTER XV THE PRACTICAL SCIENCES

i The three ethics and their interrelation .
133-134
. .

2 The Nicomachean Ethics. Formal principles

(Bks 1-1115) 135-157
3 The Nicomachean Ethics. A phaenomenology
of virtue 157-181
4 The Politics 182-203
CHAPTER XVI THK PSYCHOLOGY
i Soul and its various functions 204-209
2 Sense-perception 209-212
3 Thinking 212-216
CHAPTER XVII RHETORIC AND POETICS
i The Rhetoric 217-224
2 Poetics 224-229

BOOK IV THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL AND

THE EARLY ACADEMY
CHAPTER XVIII THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL
T Thcophrastus 230-240
2 Dicaearchus 241-245
3 Aristoxenus 245-248
4 Demetrius of Phaleron 248-252
5 Strato of Lampsacus 252-259
6 Lyco and Aristo of Ceos 259-265
7 Aristo of Cos 265-267
7a Note on the Magna Moralia 267
CHAPTER XIX THE EARLY ACADEMY
i Speusippus 268-274
2 Xenocrates 274-282
3 Heraclides Ponticus 282-288
4 Eudoxus, Philippus of Opous and the Bpinomis 288-294
5 Polemo, Crates and Crantor 294-300

Bibliography 300-305
Index I of names 306-310
II of subjects 310-318
III of Greek words 3*8-337
 PREFACE
To this volume have few things to add. Those who take the trouble
I
of reading it understand the purpose of the book. I altered
will easily
my first project so far as to think it better to divide Greek philosophy
after Plato into two volumes, so that after this one there will be a third
containing the Hellenistic systems and Neoplatonism with its preparation.
I wish to express my gratitude to Professor A. Mansion at Louvain,
who kindly read the manuscript of the chapter dealing with Aristotle's
philosophy of nature, and to Professor Fr. Wehrli of Zurich, who was so
kind as to give me the opportunity of reading his manuscript on Lycon
and the two Aristons before it was published, in September 1951, and
of discussing certain points with him x.

I thank also Dr. W. Vollgraff L. M. de Rijk, who read the

and Dr.
proofs with me, and two English ladies, Mrs. Paap and Mrs. Breuning,
who purified the barbarisms of my English text.
Perfection is a thing not easily attained in earthly life. A
few misprints
are rectified in the Errata. I hope that, for the rest, very few mistakes
have crept in. _ T , _r
C. J. d. V.

1
The references to Prof. Wehrli's edition of the fragments of Heraclides
Ponticus in ch. XIX, 3, were added by himself to the proofs of this work.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
As to the text of Aristotle, I did not follow exclusively one edition.
Generally speaking, I used the editions of Sir David Ross of the Physics,
Metaphysics and Analytica, that of Minio-Paluello of the Categories and
De interpretation, Rackham's of the Ethica Nicomachea, Immisch for
the Politica. For the De anima I used P. Siwek's edition, of the Rhetoric
those of M. Dufour and J. H. Freese, of the Poetics those of By water and
of Hardy. Of Theophrastus' Metaphysics I used, as is indicated, the edition
of Ross-Fobes ;
where newer editions are lacking, the fragments are
taken from Wimmer. For the other Peripatetics I used Wehrli's Schule
des Aristoteles', for the Academy the indicated sources and the existing
collections of the fragments of Speusippus (Lang) and Xenocrates
(Heinze) .
 BOOK III

ARISTOTLE
TENTH CHAPTER
LIFE AND WORKS
i PROLEGOMENA: THE ARISTOTELIAN QUESTION
395 Concerning Plato we had to ask the radical question whether the problem

we really know his doctrine; whether his own works do contain this
doctrine, or whether we have to pay more attention to the indications
of his disciples. Thismay be called the Platonic question. It dates from
Trendelenburg's work on the ideal Numbers (1826). One might speak
of an Aristotelian question too, in the sense of a radical problem of the
tradition. Werner Jaeger was the first to raise this matter radically in
his Aristotle of 1923. The problem is due to the following two points*
i. We have not the complete works of Aristotle at our disposal; 2. the

writings which we possess contain older and younger parts, and it

would not be difficult to make Aristotle contradict Aristotle.
Ad i. Of Plato we possess the complete literary works meant for publication.
On the other hand, his school-teaching is not directly known to us. With Aristotle,
the situation is exactly the reverse: his literary works, which were much read
in Antiquity, are lost, while his school-writings are preserved to us. A scholar
like Jaeger ascribed to this situation the seeming opposition of character between
Plato and Aristotle. This view, however, is only partly justified: it leaves out of
account the fact that the lost works of Aristotle all belonged to the period of his
youth. This being so, the study of their fragments can teach us something of the
development of their author and of the genesis of his philosctphy; but they are
not to be put on one level with his riper works. The true Aristotle remains for us
the author of the School-writings, more especially of the. ripest parts of them,
the utility of the older fragments being precisely this, that they give us a standard
by which to distinguish the older from the younger parts of his wt>rks.
Ad 2. The school-writings of Aristotle, as they are preserved to us, cannot
be divided into three chronological periods, as may be done with Plato's works.
The mixture of earlier and later parts runs through the whole of them. Now this
creates a rather complicated situation. Werner Jaeger was the first to realize this
problem clearly and to propose a solution which, although it may be corrected
and completed on several points, has given a new approach and new lan to the
studies of Aristotle.
E)e Vogel, Greek Philosophy II I
 2 ARISTOTLE [396]

what has 396 Three points have been established:

been reached
1. The existence of a Platonic period in the thinking of Aristotle

has been proved by Jaeger l .

2. The period between the Academy and the Lyceum, which seemed
to be a vacuum
as long as the school-writings were all supposed to be
written during the latest period 2 has now been filled up with a large
,

part of them.
3. Our idea
of the latest period of Aristotle's activity as a teacher
has been considerably changed.

a restriction 397 From the fact that many points in the chronology of the works
of Aristotle are not definitely cleared up, it must not be concluded that

we cannot yet form for ourselves an idea of the philosophy of Aristotle

nor get a true knowledge of it. It must be noted first that the description,
given by W. D. Ross in his Aristotle of 1923, was made before its author
knew the work of Jaeger, which appeared in the same year. This fact is an
interesting illustration of the remark which has been made by A. Mansion
in his Introduction a la Physique Aristotelicienne : that, if one wishes to speak
of Aristotle's philosophy of nature, or even of any other part of his

philosophy, ethics excepted, the situation is not so unfavourable and

3
problems not so complicated as they might seem to be Why ? Mansion .

said it very clearly in his Introduction cited above: the reason could
be this, that in the development of Aristotle's thinking after all the
continuity is more important than the difference which might be seen;

in the fact that Aristotle himself did little to eliminate all the traces
works 4.
of his earlier opinions that may be seen in the final form of his

1
J. Bernays, Die Dialoge des Aristoteles in ihrem Verhaltnis zu seinen iibrigen
Werken, Berlin 1863, tries to confine the Platonic influence to the literary form
of Aristotle's early writings. V. Rose, who collected all these platonizing passages
from the Dialogues of Aristotle, went further and concluded that they were spurious
(Aristoteles Pseudepigraphus, Lipsiis 1863).
2
In fact this was the opinion of Zeller (Ph. d. Gr. II 2, 3 p. 155), and also
of Bernays.
3
Mansion, o.c. 2 iQ46, p. 7.
t

4
lb., p. 33/34: "Mais ce qu'il faut noter surtout c'est que, de facon g6n6rale,
Aristote n'a pas jug6 ncessaire de remanier profond6ment ce$ redactions reprises
a quelque cours ant^rieur et ainsi 1'adaptation de la doctrine a des vues devenues
plus tard classiques chez lui, apparait par moments comme bien imparfaite. Cest,
sans doute, qu'il avait davantage conscience de I'unit6 et de la continuite de sa
pensee, que des 6tapes diverses et monies parfois contradictoires entre elles qu'elle
avait parcourues, pour aboutir a son deVeloppement ultime."
 [398] LIFE AND WORKS 3

2 LIFE AND WORKS OF ARISTOTLE

398 Ep. I ad Ammaeum 5, p. 727 R. life
Dionys. Halic., :

*
'ApujTOTX7)<; TiaTpcx; {Jiev ?jv Nixojxaxou T& yvo<; xai TYJV Te^v/jv ocva9^-
J
povTO<; ei<; Ma^aova TOV 'AcrxXYjTULoii [ry)Tpo<; Si: OaiarlSog, aTroy^vou TLV&<;
,

T&V ex XaXxiSoc; TTJV obroixtav ayay^vTOv etg ZTayeipa- eyevvrjOyj 8e xara

TTjv evevYjxoaTYjv xal evaryjv oXujjuuaSa AioTpecpouc; 'AOyjVYjenv Sp^ovTOi;
5(0!. 99, i; a. 384)
2
... em Se IIoXoy)Xou dcpxovTo^ (ol. 103, 2; a. 366/7)
TeXei>T7)<javTO<; TOU TcaTpcx; oxTOxaiSexaTov TO<; S^fov e ^ 'A6Y)va<; ^X0ev, xai
au(iTa0el<; HXaTCovi %p6vov etxoaaeTY] SieTpupe aruv auTco. a7ro6avovTo<; Se

em eo^tXou <5cpxovTO<; (ol. 108, I a.

348/7) arcYjpe vupoc; 'EpfjLfav
;

'Arapvecoc; Tupavvov
3
xal TpteT^ ^povov Trap' auTco StaTpi^ac; ** ejc*
4
ioEupo\iXoi) dcp^ovToc; (ol. 108, 4; a. 345/4) ei<; MUTIXYJVTJV excoptc07) exetOev -

Se 7upo<; OiXtTcrcov &XSTO *** *aT<x IIu66SoTov ap^ovTa (ol. 109, 2; a. 343/2),

1 Aristotle's father was the court-physician of Amyntas II, king of Macedonia

and father of Philippus.
2
Diog. Laert. V9 gives the same chronology and traces it back to the Chronicle
of Apollodorus.
3
Hermias is known to us as one of the addressees of the Sixth Letter of Plato.
The two others, Erastus and Coriscus, disciples of Plato and his Academy, doubt-
less tried to introduce in their native town Scepsis certain political reforms that
had been suggested in the Academy. Jaeger, Aristotle, 2 i948, p. 113, sums up the
tendency of Plato's Letter in the following words: ''Presumably Plato wished to
institute a friendship between the two companions and their "neighbour" Hermias,
because, while he recognized their noble disposition, he was afraid they might be
somewhat doctrinaire. The letter that we possess is the solemn record of this
peculiar pact between Realpolitik and theoretical schemes of reform."
At the request of this Hermias, who possessed a formidable military power
and was practically independent of the Persian Empire, Ar. and Xenocrates-
established themselves at Assos after the death of Plato, and stayed there for three
years. For Aristotle these years were a period of intense work. An important
part of his works on logic, physics and metaphysics was written here. Surely
Erastus, Coriscus and Hermias attended his lectures. We find the name of Coriscus
frequently cited in the Organon to illustrate an individual case as opposed to the
xcc06Xou.
4
) That Aristotle left Assos and settled at Mytilene was probably due to the
influence of Theophrastus, who was a native of Lesbos and also an ancient disciple
of Plato and the Academy. That, during the years of Assos and Mytilene, Aristotle
was already occupied with biological research, may be inferred front the fact that
in his biological works localities in Asia Minor and Lesbos are rather frequently
mentioned. Consult: Thompson, Translation of the Historia animalium, p. VII,
and the same, Aristotle as a biologist, p. 12.

*
TTOCTP&C a correction of Van Herwerden. The Mss have
is ul6<;.
**
Wolf; Mss
***
$xeTO Usener; others read
 ARISTOTLE [398]

l
xod St^Tpi^e XP VOV ottTaeTTJ Trap* OCUTG> xaO^youfJievo^ 'AXeavSpoi> [JLETOC
8

T>)V OiXtTCTTou TeXeur/jv EuaiveToo dcp^ovroc; (ol. in, 2; a. 335/4) acpixo-

ITT'

(xevo^ ei *A07)vac; ea^dXa^ev ev Auxeico %p6 vov ST&V ScoSexa. TCO Si: Tpiaxai-

SexaTco, (JLCTOC TYJV 'AXe^avSpou TeXeuTYjv em Kyj9iaoXa>pou <5cpyovTO (ol. 114, 15

2 ; a. 322) a7rapa<; ei<; XaXxtSa voaco TeXeuTa, rpia Trpo^ TOI<; e^xovra ptcoaa<; frnj.
three poems 399 a. Olympiodorus in his Commentary on Plato's Gorgias has
of Aristotle j r Iu x 11 r A x *i x r
preserved for us the following poem of Aristotle in commemoration of
Plato (Fr. 673 Rose):
011 Plato eXOwv S' I? xXetvov KexpojciTjc; SaTreSov

8v ouS* aivetv TOLCTI xaxotorL

o^ [jLovoc; 73 TupcoToc; OVYJTCOV xaT^Sei^ev evapyco^

olxeico TS pico xat (jteOoSotat Xoywv,
a><; aya06^ TS xal suod(Ji6>v ajxa yivsTat avvjp
ou vuv S' eart Xapecv ouSevl TOCUTOC TTOTC.

The poem has been interpreted by Wilamowitz in Aristoteles und Athen II,
p. 412-416. He
declares the construction po>(jLov 9iXia<; to be a metaphor that would
be tolerable "fiir backfische, aber nicht fiir Hellenen", and is most inclined to
explain 9iXta<; as a genitivus causae. "In any case Ar. means that the man about
4 whom he speaks, i.e. Eudemus, founded an altar for Plato for the sake of his
friendship" ("um seiner Freundschaft willen dem Platon einen Altar gestiftet
hat"). Jaeger protests against the assumption that Plato was formally venerated
as a god by his disciples, and I think he is right. Having stated that the dedicator
of the altar is unknown to us, he remarks: "a Greek would surely have assumed
without question that what was meant was that he set up an altar to most honour-
able Philia, in honour of the friendship of the man whom bad men may not even
praise" (Aristotle, p. 108).

*) Hermias had friendly relations with the Macedonian court (an anti-Persian
coalition). probable that on his recommendation Philip invited Aristotle
It is
to be the praeceptor of the young Alexander.
Of his years at the Macedonian court are doubtless Aristotle's six books
on philological problems in Homer ('ATropY^ocTa 'Oinrjpixa), brought to Alexandria
by Demetrius of *Phaleron. Here they became the foundation of philological
studies of the Alexandrian scholars.
For Alexander Aristotle wrote a work Ilepi (jiovapxiaq and another about co-
lonization.
According t6 a decree of the Delphians, found by Homolle in 1895, Aristotle
and his nephew Callisthenes were praised and honoured for having made a list of
the Pythionikai (Dittenberger, 5y//. 3 275). This list, which was a valuable
,

document for the history of Greek literature, must have been made by Ar. in the
very last years of his stay at the Macedonian court or during the first year of his
second stay at Athens, Callisthenes having gone to Asia in 334. Other similar
lists of the victors of the great Dionysia and of those at Olympia are mentioned

among the works of Ar.

 [399]
LIFE AND WORKS 5

As to the last four lines of this elegy, cp. the nrs. 275a, b and 374a of our first

volume.

b. Fr. 674 Rose (Diog. Laert. V

6), an epigramma dedicated to
Hermias of Atarneus, who had been treacherously arrested at a con-

ference, and sent captive to the Great King. The latter, having vainly
tried to coerce him. into revealing Philip's plans, finally executed him
by a servile supplicium (crucifixion).
TovSe TTOT' on Hermias
ou^ 6aico<; Tcapapou; [Jiaxapcov Oefiiv ayvvjv
exTeivev Ilepa&v To^ocpopcov
ou 9avepo><; Xoy/Y) <povioi<; ev dyoaai
aXX* av&po<; TuaTei ^pY)<ya(jisvo<; SoXiou.

c. Fr. 675 Rose (Athenaeus XV, p. 696 A; also Diog. L. 7). V Hymn to

Hymn to Virtue, in honour of Hermias, who died as a martyr for the

sake of philosophy.

a, 7ToXu(Jio/Oe yevet
xaXXidTov (Sup,

xal Oavsiv ^aXa>TO^ ev 'EXXaSi

xal TTOVOUC; TX9)vai fiaXepoix; axdc
lid

xal yovewv [jLaXaxauyyjToto 6*

aeij 8' eve^' ot Ato^ 'HpaxXsTj^ AvjSac; TE xoupoi

5
to TcoXX av^TXadav

Se TroOoic; 'A^tXeix; Aia<; T' 'AtSao SOJJIOIK;

a^ 8' evsxsv 91X100 [zop9a<; xal 'ATapveot; eVrpo90

Totyap ao[St(jLO(; epyoi^, aOavaTov TS [juv au^douort

TS yepac; Ps(3aiou.

Wilamowitz explained this poem in AY. u. Athen IT, p. 405-412; Jaeger in

Aristotle, p. 117 if.
-
7r6voi> (jiaXepo^x; axajjiavTa? unceasing labours, wearing out.
xap?r6v fcaaOavarov. I have adopted the correction of Wilamowitz: taocOavocTov.
Athenaeus has aOavaTov, Diog. L. etq aOavaTov.
T*
The meaning is: taov iryj dOavacrCa.
Xpuaou TS xpefaaco xai yovlwv - better than gold and ancestors.
ooi<; 8& 7r60oi(; - not so much "through longing for thee" as "by enthusiasm for
thee" (cp. Gorgias' Epitaphios, Diels VS 5 II 8 1 B
6, the end, where the orator
 ARISTOTLE [400]

says that, "though they have died themselves, 6 7r66o<; ou ouva7r6<xvev" which ;

does not mean "the longing for them" for this can hardly be called dc0<v<xTO<; ,

but "the enthusiasm for noble deeds" *).

Sevfou ai$<x.<; and ypa<; 9iXfoc<; may be paraphrased as follows: STI xai Ata
xal

two kinds 4QQ Ar. used to lecture during the morning hours for a selected

group of more advanced disciples, while in the evening he lectured

for a larger, non-selected circle of students.

Gellius, Noct. Att. XX 5, i:

Commentationum suarum artiumque, quas discipulis tradebat, Aristo-
teles duas species habuisse dicitur: alia erant quae
philosophus . . .

nominabat ecoTepixa, alia quae appellabat axpootTixa. ea>Tepixa dice-

bantur quae ad rhetoricas meditationes facultatemque argutiarum
civiliumque rerum notitiam conducebant, axpoocTixdc autem vocabantur 5
in quibus philosophia remotior subtiliorque agitabatur quaeque ad
naturae contemplationes disceptationesve dialect icas pertinebant. huic
disciplinae, quam dixi, axpoaTixyj tempus exercendae dabat in Lycio
matutinum nee ad earn quemquam temere admittebat, nisi quorum
ante ingenium et eruditionis elementa atque in discendo studium la- I0
boremque explorasset. illas vero exotericas auditiones exercitiumque
'dicendi eodem in loco vesperi faciebat easque vulgo iuvenibus sine
delectu praebebat ; atque eum SeiXiviv TOPITTOCTOV appellabat, ilium alterum
supra ewOivov; utroque enim tempore ambulans disserebat. libros quoque
suos, earum omnium rerum commentarios, seorsum divisit, ut alii 15

e x o t e r i c i dicerentur, partim acroatici.

Cp. Cic., De fin. V 12; Ep. ad Att. IV 16, 2; Strabo XIII i, 54, p. 609; Plut.,
Adv. Coloten 14, 4, p. 1115.

the fate of 491 The had a highly

Ar.'s library
J of Aristotle
library b J remarkable fate.

a. Strabo XIII i, 54, p. 608:

told by Q y $ v 'AptdjOTeXY)*; TYJV eaurou (pi(3Xio67)XY)v) 0eo9pa<TT6> TuapeScoxev,
xal T7)v <JX^) V a7rXi7rs, Trpomx; ^iv t(j(jt,ev auvayaywv pi(3Xia xai
sv ALYUTCTCO (iajiX^ac; pipXioOifjxY)^ auvTa^iv. 0s69paaTo^ 8k. N7]XeL vrap-

eScoxev, 6 8* ei^ SXYJ^LV xo[Ataa<; TOC<; (AST* auTov TuaplScoxev, iSicoTau; av0pa)7rot<; ?
ot xaTaxXetdTa el/ov TOC pi^Xta ouS* eTTtfjieXco^ xeifieva eTreiSyj Se ^a6ovTO ryjv 5

cnrouSYjv TCOV 'ATTaXixwv padiX^cav, 09* ol<; ^v Y) TroXi^, y)TouvTaw pt^Xta et;
r?]v xaTaaxeuTjv TTJS ev HepyafJico pi(3Xto0Y]X7]^, xara -pk Sxpu^av ev Sicopuyt

1
See the remarkable study of C. W. Vollgraff on the Epitaphios: L'oraison
funtbre de Gorgias, Leiden 1952, p. 85-87, and the following section (p. 87-169).
 [401] LIFE AND WORKS 7

* 2
TLVI u?ri Sfi voTiac; xal OTJTCOV xaxco0vTa o^e TUOTS dbu^SovTO ot arco roil

yvou<; 'AraXXixcovTi TO) TTjtcp TuoXXcov apyupfccov T<X T 'ApidTOT^Xoix; xal TOC
IOTOU 09paaTou (3ipXfac' 9jv SE 6 'AraXXixcov 9iXo(3tpXo<; (xaXXov YJ 91X6(7090^*
3
810 xal y)Tcov 7r;av6p0cocTiv TCOV Sia(3pco[iaTcov ei^ avTiypa9a xaiva fxer/jveyxe
TYJV ypa9Y)v avaTuXvjpcov oux e5 xal e8a>xev afjiapTaScov TcXyipr] Ta pipXia.
SJ: TOIC; ex TCOV TreptTcaTWv, TOLC; [JLEV TcaXat Tot(;
(JLCTOC 0s69paaTOv,
oux
4
8X0)^ TOC Ptpxta TrXvjv oXCywv xal (JiaXiaTa TWV s^coTeptxoiv , (JLTjSev

aXXa 0aei<; XyjxuOl^eiv 5

tv 9iXoco9etv 7rpay(JiaTixca^, , TOL^ S* udTspov,
o5 Ta pt^Xta TauTa TUpoyjXOev, <5c(jLeivov (JL^V exeivwv 91X0(1095^ xal aptorTO-
avayxa^eaBat [JilvTOi Ta TroXXa eixoTa Xeyeiv Sta TO TtX^Ooc TCOV

ajxapTtcov. -rcoXi 8s ei^ TOUTO xal YJ 'PcofjiTj TrpoaeXapeTO euGuc; yap (jieTa T/]V

'AjceXXixcovTO*; TeXeur/jv 2ilXXa<; ^pe TYJV 'ArueXXixcovToc; ptpXioOvjxyjv 6 TOC<;

20 'A0yjva<; eXtov Seupo 8e (ei^; 'PcofJLYjv) Tupavvicov TS 6 ypa(jLjjLaTtxo<;

xo(jLio-0staav

9iXapuiTOTeX7)<; tov, OepaTieuaa^ T^V STTI TTJ<; pipXioOyjxY]^;, xal

xal ETul TCOV aXXcov aujjipaivet TCOV ei<; Ttpaaiv ypa90(Jivcov ^LpXicov xal ev0a8e
xal sv

b. Pint. Sulla 26, 1-2 tells the same andl> y

story:
J
Plutarchus

8e waciat? Tai<; vaualv e^ '980-00, TpiTaIo<; ev llsipaisl xa6cop-

(jLia07) xal e^eiXev eauTco TTJV 'ATceXXtxcovo^ TOU Tyjtou ptpXioOifjxYjv,

[xi)7]0el<;

sv '^
TOC TcXeiaTa TCOV 'ApiaTOTeXou^ xal 0so9pacrTou p^pXicov 9)v, OUTCCO TOTS

cra9cov yvcopt^6(JLva TO<; TcoXXotc;. XlyETat 8k xo(JLia0eta7](; auTY]<; i<; 'PcofXTjv

Tupavvicova TOV ypajJipiaTixov vaxuacraa0at Ta TroXXa, xal Trap* auToG TOV

'PoSiov 'AvSpovixov U7copY]C7avTa TCOV avTtypa9cov zlq, (Ji^aov 0tvaL xal ava-
TOIX; vijv 9po[Jivou(;

1
"in a cave". Athenaeus I 3 a tells us that, before the arranging of the library
at Pergamum, Neleus sold books of Aristotle to Ptolemaeus Philadelphus for the
library at Alexandria.
2
Moths or worms.
3
SiocppcojAaToc worm-eaten parchments.
4
If this accouift is true, we must note that the school- writings of Aristotle
came very near to being lost for ever, and that the full knowledge of his philosophy
barely escaped being confined to the first generation of the School. Up to Cicero

Antiquity would have known Aristotle almost exclusively from his exoteric writings.
We have some reason to doubt this. Zeller II 2, 3 138-154. Interesting from this
point of view is the list, given by Diog. Laert. V, 22-27, which is probably based
on a list made by Hermippus c. 200 B.C. Many of the school-writings of Ar., or
parts of them, are mentioned here under other titles.
5
0oct? Xr)xu6Ceiv declaim commonplaces.
 8 ARISTOTLE [402]

works of 402 work main

Aristotle's literary
"
is divided J Ross
by into three
Aristotle ,.
sections :

(1) Works of a more or less popular order, which were published

by himself;
Memoranda and
(2) collections of material, which may have been
made by disciples;
(3) works, written by himself.
scientific

Nearly the whole existing Corpus Aristotelicum, so far as it is au-

thentic, belongs to the third group.

First group The list of Diog. begins with 19 works which seem to have been all more or less
popular and belonged to the Platonic period of Ar. The greater part were dialogues ;

some of them bore the same titles as certain dialogues of Plato: Sophisfes, Politicus,
Menexcnus, Symposion. The dialogue Eudemus or Jlepl ^ux?te, written shortly
after 354, was modelled closely on the Phaedo. The Protrepticus, addressed to
Themison, the prince of Cyprus, also belonged to the period of the Academy.
The Ilepi 91X0009(0^, still written in the form of a dialogue, was a work of Platonic
style but with marked differences in doctrine. It dates from the years of Assos.
Second group Of the second group a large number of titles is mentioned. Of the extant works
of Aristotle only book K of the Metaph., and probably the 'AOrjvaicov TroXireta may
be classed among this group.
Third group The so-called school-writings of Ar. Systematically classified the Corpus Aristo-
tulicum contains the following works:

I. On logic, brought together in the Organon.

1
1. KaT7)Yopiai (Categoriae). Probably authentic .

2. Ilepl ep[r/)veta<; (De interpret atione) There

. is no reason to doubt the au-
thenticity.
3-4. 'AvocXuTixa rrp^Tcpa and Qcrspa (Analytica priora and poster iora).
5. ToTuxa (Topica).
6. Hep! ao9taTixcov eXsyxtov (De sophisticis elenchis).

II. Philosophy of nature.

1. or Ouaixv) axpoaaiq (Physica), 8 books.
OoCTixdc
2. (De caelo), 4 books.
Ilepl oupavou
3. ITepl yeveaeax; xa ^ 90opa<;, De gencratione et corruptione, 2 books.
4. MerecopoXoyixa (Meteorologica), 4 books, of which the fourth is generally
considered as not genuine 2 .

In the Corpus follows, the short book Ilepl x6a(JLou (De mundo). It is surely not a
work of Aristotle. Probably it dates from the first century i3.C. Its philosophy
bears the traces* of Posidonius.

1
In modern times the authenticity has been doubted, because the idea
work differs from that of Metaph. ZH. Suzanne Mansion pleaded
of substance in this
against the authenticity (Proceedings of the tenth International Congress of Phil.,
Amsterdam 1949, pp. 1097-1100), L. M. de Rijk defends it (in Mnemosyne 1951,
pp. 129-159).
2
A. Mansion, Introd. p. 16, judges the unauthenticity not sufficiently proved.
[402] LIFE AND WORKS 9

If we follow the order of the Corpus Aristotelicum, we have to mention first

the psychological works, and then the biological.

III. Psychology.
1. Ilepl ^ u X*te (De anima), 3 books.
2. The so-called Parva naturalia, containing
(1) Ilepl ataOrjaecoc; xal aLaOyjTtov (De sensu et sensibili)
(2) Ilepl [AV7j(ry]<;
xai avajjLVTjaecoc; (De memoria et reminiscentia)
(3) Ilepl UTTVOU (De somno)
(4) Ilepl evuTcvttov (De insomniis)

(5) (De divinatione per somnum)

Ilepl TYJS xaO* UTTVOV (jLavTtxyjq
(6) ITepl (jt,axpopi6TY)To<; xal
ppaxup^nQTo? (De longitudine et brevitate vitae)
l
(7) Ilepl oiYJs xal OavaTou (De vita et movte]

(8) ITepl avaTTvoTjs (De respiratione).

In the Corpus follows here the short treatise Kepi 7rveu[j/xTo^ (de spiritu), which
may have been written i 250. It contains a later doctrine than was known to
2
Aristotle .

IV. Biological works.

1. Ilepl Ta cj>a taroptat (Historic* animalium) TO books, of which the tenth is
,

not of Ar. Probably also b. VII, a part of VIII, and b. IX are spurious. A large
collection of facts.
The following 4 works give the author's theories based on them.
2. ITepl ^cpoiv (/.optcov (De partibus animalium), 4 books.
3. Ilepl cowv xivi?)ae6><;( De motu animalium).
4. Ilepl Tuopetai; wwv (De incessu animalium).
5. Ilepl ^cocov yeveaea)? (De generatione animalium), 5 books.

In the Corpus these authentic works of Aristotle are succeeded by a series of

treatises which all originate from the Peripatetic School, but not from the Master
himself. Among them are the Problemata, a large collection of all kinds of problems
mathematical, optical, musical, physiological, medical partly they reach ;

back to Ar. himself.

V. Metaphysics.
Ta (jieTa Ta cpuatxa, 14 books, first collected by Andronicus and placed by him
after the Physics, whence they were called by this name. The science we call
metaphysics is named by Ar. himself Trpw-nr) 91X0009 a, or also OeoXoyia.
VI. Ethics.
Next follow in the Corpus the 10 books of the *HOixa Ntxojjiaxeia (Ethica
1.
Ni comae hea) % .

2. The 2 books of the *HOtxa fjieyaXa (Magna moralia).

3. Four books of the 'HOixa Eu8Y)[jLia (Ethica Eudemia), namely the books A, B, F,
H. The books A E Z have been left out, because they are the same as E Z H of

1
The
two chapters of this treatise are headed by the editors Ilepl
first
xal Ar. mentions this subject at the beginning of the first chapter, but he
YT)p<o<;.
does not deal with it here.
2
The distinction of veins and arteries, which was unknown to Ar.
 io ARISTOTLE'S WORKS [402]

the Nicontachean Ethics. The last three chapters of the Eudemian Ethics (H 13-15)
are also separated and headed as a book VIII (0), e.g. by W. Jaeger.
These three works, of which only the Nic. Ethics are without doubt authentic l ,

are followed in the Corpus by a small treatise Ilepl dcpetcov xocl xaxi&v, which dates
probably from the first century B.C. or A.C.
VII. Politics and Economics.
i. HoXtTixdc, 8 books.
2. not accepted as authentic. The third exists
O^xovojiixa, 3 books, generally
only in a Latin translation.
Of the large collection of 158 politeiai, which was made in the School of Ar.
and on his suggestion, only that of the Athenians has been preserved (found on
a papyrus in 1890). This document being probably not written by Ar. himself
but by a disciple, we had good reason to mention it as belonging to the second
group.
VIII. Rhetoric and Poetics.
1.T^XVYJ ^YjTopixTj, 3 books, of which the third has been suspected, but is now
generally believed to be authentic.
In the Corpus it is succeeded by the 'PyjTopixv] 7upo<; 'AXav&pov, an early Peripatetic
work, but not of Ar. himself.
2. Ilepl 7roi7)TixTJ<;, authentic but fragmentary.

3 DATE OF ARISTOTLE'S WORKS ACCORDING TO W. JAEGER

Concerning the chronology of the works of Ar. W. Jaeger has come

to the following results:
Firstjperiod 403 To the first Athenian period (the Academy) belong the Dialogues of Ar.
(except the Ilepl 9tXo<Jo<pa<;) with the Protrepticus.
Jaeger fixed no special date
either to the logical treatises of Ar. or to his Rhetoric. But he says somewhere more
or less incidentally that Ar.'s logic was formed at an early date, probably still
in the Academy *. We have good reasons to put the Rhetoric in a later period.
In treating the Metaphysics, of which the older part must have been written at
Assos, Jaeger remarks that at that date the fundamental principles of the Physics

1
The Magna moralia are now generally considered as a work of a generation
after Aristotle,and are in fact proved to be so by various arguments, lastly by
an analysis of the style (K. O. Brink, Stil und Form der ps. Aristotelischen MM.
Thesis of Berlin 1933). As to the Eudemian Ethics, since Jaeger they are generally
believed to be an early .work of Aristotle, from his platonizing period. In a recent
study (Studien zu den Ethiken des Corpus Ar., Paderborn i$q.o) K. J. Schacher
tries to prove that they are not a work of Ar., but of his able disciple Eudemus
of Rhodos. The arguments he gives in order to prove this thesis, are for the greater
part not conclusive. Yet, in my opinion he has shaken the theory of Jaeger as to
the early date of the work in question and opened a new perspective.
8
Certainly it is not necessary to deduce that the six works of the Organum
were all written during the first period, and we can hardly admit that this was
the opinion of Jaeger. But he has left the task of stating this point more precisely
to others.
[403] JAEGER'S CHRONOLOGY n
were already fixed the idea of teleology, the principles of form and matter, potency
:

and act. Consequently J. admits that the first books of the Physics (I and II)
were conceived, and probably written, at Athens, under the eyes of Plato. He
assumes this explicitly for De caelo I, where the hypothesis of aether has been
proposed for the first time as a new solution opposed to Platonism.
At Athens was also written the oldest part of the Politics, the criticism of Plato's
Republic: Pol. II, 2-3. Ar. wrote it before having read the Nomoi. He must have
received this work at Assos and, having read it hastily, have added a short review
of it to the ch. 3 of Pol. II. "Perfectly Platonic" is, according to J., book III
of the De anima, which contains the doctrine of the nous. The actual form of this
book may be of a more recent date, the substance of the thought originates from
the Academy.

404 The years of Assos, Lesbos and the Macedonian court. At Assos was the middle
written the oldest part of the Metaphysics ("Urmetaphysik") the books A (historical
: period
survey, A (a kind of encyclopaedia of philosophical terms), K
1-8 (treating the
same subject-matter as the books B F E, but in an earlier form) next the book ;

A, the so-called Theology, a short survey of the whole metaphysical system, except
ch. 8, which is a later addition; finally chapters 9-10 of the book * M
and the whole
book N, in which the theory of the Ideas is shortly criticized and Speusippus'
2
theory of numbers amply .

The books B and F are also of an early date, but posterior to K 1-8.
P'rom the same time as Metaph. A dates the dialogue Ilepl <piXoao9ia<;, which
contains almost the same criticism of the theory of the Ideas as the first-mentioned
book.
From the period of Assos also date the Eudemian Ethics. Jaeger characterizes
this work as "reformplatonisch". He means by this term, that the author, having
given up the theory of Ideas, wishes to found a new, reformed Platonism. The
main argument for the early date of this work is that the term 9p6v7)ai<; is used
here in the Platonic meaning of philosophical insight into a transcendent reality,
whereas later, in the NIC. Eth., Aristotle uses it to indicate a gi<; TTPOCXTLXY), even
for animals (a kind of instinct for what is or is not harmful to them).
According to J. a part of the Politica too was written at Assos, namely the last
books, H 0, containing the ideal state (dcptoTT) TroXirefac), which is opposed to that
of Plato. To this part of the work belong the books B 3 and F 4 On the other hand,
.

the books A E Z are of a much later date: giving an empirical foundation to the
best constitution, they belong to the third period of Ar.'s activity. Book A has
then been put at the head of the whole, by way of introduction.
As to the Physics, we found that J. rather suggests that books I and II
were written at Athens during the life of Plato. In this case book VII too, which

1
These two chapters are an older introduction to the. discussion of the theory
*
of numbers.
a
In the bookN the name of Xenocrates is not mentioned. His tlleory is criticized
by Ar. very sharply in the book M, which for this reason must have been written
in a later period, namely in the Lyceum, when Xenocrates was the head of the
Academy. During the years of Assos, while Speusippus directed the School of Plato
at Athens, Xenocrates was in the company of Ar.
3
A survey of former theories of the state, partly written at Athens (the ch.
2-3) partly at Assos.
4
Book F treats the notion of 7roXi<; and
 12 AR STOTLE'S WORKS [404]

belongs to the oldest parts of Ar.'s works, must be dated in the first period. Book
x

being a later addition (to be dated in the third period), we have the impression,
though J. does not say so explicitly, that Books III-VI must be placed in the middle
period, at Assos or later, but most probably at Assos, because in these years the
author was occupied with what is called by J. speculative physics.
What he states explicitly is, that the form in which we have the work De caelo
dates from these years (at least two years after the death of Plato, but not much
later). The style is near to that of Ilepl 91X0(109^1;; the theory of the movement
of the celestial spheres in B 8 is later than that of the movement of the celestial
bodies in II. 9tX
Also the Ilepl yevaeco<; xal 90opa<;, being a work of "speculative physics", is to
be dated in this period, probably still at Assos. J. sees these works of physics as
being of the same order of ideas as the politics of the ideal state, the ethics based
on theology (the Eudemian Eth.) and that part of the Metaphysics which exhibits
the same character ("Urmetaphysik").

the third 405 Ar.'s second stay at Athens: the years of the Lyceum. There is an im-
period portant province in the works of Ar. which, according to J., originates without
exception from the third period: the research-work, as well on the field of history
as on that of nature. The only argument for this late dating which J. gives, is,
that the expedition of Alexander furnished a great deal of material for zoology
as well as for botany 2 According to this theory all the biological works of
.

Ar. belong to the last period of his activity.

The Meteorology too is dated by J. in the last period. He docs so with reference
to the work on the rising of the Nile, which ends with the triumphant words:
OUXSTL 7rp6pX7)|jLa Icmv (0967) yap 9<xvpco<; OTI et; USTCOV attest.
J. cites these words as characteristic of the experimental method of Ar., as opposed
to that of Plato and the Academy, which was still closely followed by Ar. himself
3
in his early, Platonizing works .

To
the third period J. also reckons the whole group of anthropological-physiologi-
cal treatises: De anima I and II, the Parva naturaha without exception. (Not the
doctrine of the nofts in De anima III, which harmonizes with the early ethics
and metaphysics).
J. points especially to the method used in the treatise on divination by dreams,
which being purely experimental differs toto coelo from the point of view in the
4
middle period, in Jlepl 9tXocrc9ta<; .

Finally J. cites the fifth chapter of the De partibus animalium I in order to

illustrate the purely empirical character of Ar.'s idea of science during this last
period
5
. We
give the text of this famous chapter.
1
This book contains a revision of the theory of the Prime Mover.
2
In fact, J. opposes the method of research of Ar. and his successors to that
of Plato and the Academy, Ar.'s purpose being to study the details, while Plato's
was merely the division of notions. The question is first whether this opposition
is justified. We have to remark that, in order to make a division of notions, details
must be studied. Secondly, we saw Ar. occupied in Mikrasia and on Lesbos with
the collection of material for the Historia Animalium.
3
Jaeger, Aristotle, p. 331.
4
Ib., p. 162 ff., 333 f. In the DC divinatione per somnum Ar. no longer explains
the prevision of the future in the dream state as proceeding from metaphysical
regions, but he explains it in a purely natural way, by means of psycho-physiology.
6
!b., P- 337-34-
 [406] JAEGER'S CHRONOLOGY 13

406 Aristotle, De part. anim. I 5, 644b aa-645aw :

T&v oiai&v 8aai <pi<ret auvcaraai, Ta? {Jifev ayev/jTou? *a ' i^iptou^ clvat
TOV #7cocvTa ateova, Ta; 8e [iST^xetv yevaeo>? xal 99opas. Sujijiiftyxe 8fc rapt
Ixetva? Ti^tac? ofiaa? xal Qeia? IXaTTOo? -fjfjiiv urcapxetv OecopCa? (xal yap
26 e &v $v TI? axe^aiTo Ttepl auT&v, xal Ttepl &v stSlvat 7to0o3(iev,
Icnrlv oXlya T ^avepa xaTa rJjv ata0Y)aiv) 7 Tcspl 84 TCOV 96apTo>v 9urc5v TS xal

^cocav e67copou(jiev (xotXXov irpis rJjv yvtoaiv Sta Ti mivTpocpov TCoXXa yip Ttspl
3ofxa<TTov ylvo<; Xapot TI<; av T&V uTcap^ivTcov pouX6ptevo; SiaTtoveiv txavo>^.

"E^ei S* exdcTepa x*P LV * Tcov fxv yap eL xaTa (jtixpiv ecpaTrrdfJieOa, 6(jtco^ Sta

T/JV TL(xi6T73Ta TOO yvcopt^eiv ^Stov ?) Ta Trap* Tjpuv <5c7ravTa, &(ncep xal T&V

35 Ipeofji^veov T^> TUX&V xal (juxpiv {Jt6piov xaTiSetv ^8t6v e<mv ^ noXXa STepa xal
>45 a (AeyaXa Si* axpi^sta^ JSetv T<X S4 Sta TO (jtaXXov xal TuXstco yvopt^siv aut&v
Xa(jLpdcvet r})v TYJC; l7naTY)[jL7]<; U7repox*/)v, 2rt 8^ Sia TO 7rX7)criatTSpa ^(JLWV slvat
x
xal TY]<; 9\iaeo><; otxei6Tpa avTixaTaXXaTTSTai TI 7upo<; rJjv Ttspl Ta 6eia

5 9iXoaocpav. 'Eirsl 8^ Trepl Ixetvcov 8ii/)XOo[jiv XlyovT<; TO 9aw6(xsvov v)(Jitv,

7 (jtvjSfiv :rapaXi7c6vTa<; fiE<; 8uva(jiiv (jiifjTe

v. Kal yap Iv TOL<; fXY) xxapi

2
rJ)v ataOvjaiv xaTa rJjv Qfioptav ofjLO)^ YJ SYjjjuoupyYjaacjoc 9\iai?
10
YjSova<; 7rapxet T ^ 8uva(jivoi<; Tac; aiTia^ yvo)pt^iv xal 9\iat 91X006901^.
Kal yap av tr] TcapaXoyov xal STOTTOV, ? Ta<; (jiev ixova<; au

XaipO(jiv OTI r}]v STjfjLioupyyjaaaav TX V<5

Q
V <ruv6copoi3(jiv, olov

7^ T7)v TrXaaTixyjv, auT&v 8e TWV 9u<Ti auvcrTa>T6)v (JL-J) (jiaXXov aya7r6>(xev TTJV
15 Oecoptav, 8uva(xsvot Ta? atTta? xaOopav. Ai6 St (JLYJ Sud^spatvEtv TratStxco?
y
T7]v ?Tpl Tcav dcTtfjiOTlpcov a>a>v l7ricrx^iv. 'Ev TTaort yap TO&; 9u<rtxot? SVSCTT

TI 6aufjtacTT6v xal xa0cx7Tp *HpaxXtTO(; XlyTat Trpo? TO&J; ?vou? l7Ttv Toic;

PouXOfJL^VOO? IVTUX^V aUTCp, 01 I7rt87) 7CpO<Jl6vTc; filSoV aUTOV 0p6[XVOV TCp6{;

20 TC> KTCVCO ^aTTjaav (exXi yap auTOu<; iffivai, OappouvTa? elvai yap xal
Ivrau6a OEO^C;), OUTCO xal 7Tp6<; r/jv ^yjnQatv Tcepl xaaTOO TCOV ^<l)0)v Tipoat^vat
3
8fit jjiY) Suaco7TOU(jLvov , d)? v GtTOxaw ovTO? Ttv6<; 9uatxou xal xaXou. T6 yap
jjtYj Tux6vT(o<; aXX* lvxa TIVO? Iv TOI? TYJ<; 9tici0)c; pyoi? IcrTl xal (idcXiara*
25 o5 8* 2vxa auv^<TTY)Xv ^ ylyov T^Xou?, T/]V TOU xaXou x^ipocv slXy)9ev. Et 81
<3cTt(iov elvai Vv6fjux, TOV auT^v Tp6:rov
oux laTt yap <5cvU TroXXvji; SuaxpLa? ISfitv I? &v
?, olov at(jia, crapxe^, 6aTa,' 9Xp? xal T<i

30TotauTa tx6pia. 'Opioiox; TE SEI VO^EIV TOV Ttspl ooTivoaouv T&V [loptcov Y)

balances somewhat. TI -
a
$1
- "Nature that created
Syjjjtioupy^acxaa 9\iai<; them as an intelligent artist*
See on the meaning of this version our Ch. XIII, 3, nrs. 499-501.
8
Tcpoailvai Set \ri\ SuorcoTcoiSjjLevov
- "we must not recoil with childish aversion".
 14 ARISTOTLE'S WORKS [406]

T&V <rxeucov SiaXeyofAevov JIT] Trepi TYJ<; uXvj^ TcoieiaOai TYJV |rvY)|ry)v,

Ta\yn} X*P IV > XXa TTJ<; 0X7)^ (Jiop9^^, olov xai Trspi oixta<;, aXXa (JLYJ
TrXivOcov

xal TnqXou xai uXa)v xal TOV Tuspl 9uaea)^ Trspi TTJ<; auv6e<jeto<; xai T% 0X7)^ 35
ouaa<;, aXXa (JLY] Trepi TOtiTwv a JJLY) aofi(3aivei x<opi6[jieva TTOTS TTJ<;

Jaeger, calls this "a programme for research and instruction in the Peripatetic
I.e.,
School" which explains to us the spirit that reigns in the works of Ar.'s followers.
*,

As to Ar. himself, J describes the spirit of his later years as opposed to his former
.

conception of metaphysics in the following words: "He no longer speaks of the

world of appearances as more knowable to us but to be contrasted with the essence
of reality, which is more knowable naturally a He justifies metaphysics now by .

means of the everlasting longing of the human heart to penetrate the mysteries
of the imperishable and invisible world, and is ready to content himself with the
merest corner of that hidden truth, while the precedence of real science (YJ TYJ<; TUI-
uTrepox'O) is now clearly assigned to empirical research. This is the praise
<JT7)|A7)<;

of devotion to the small, the confession of allegiance to the study that fulfills its
highest achievements in the History of Animals, the collection of Constitutions,
the history of the theatre, and the chronicle of the Pythian competitions."
"He (Ar.) organizes and overcomes the manifold (&rceipov) of appearances, which
3
Plato simply passes over" .

the organi- 407 To the third period of Ar.'s activity belongs also the organization of the
aation of
writing of a complete history of the sciences. Theophrastus was charged with the
science
waiting of a detailed History of philosophy (the Ouoixcov S6$ai in 18 books), from
Thales up to his time. This work has been the basis for all later doxography.
Eudemus of Rhodos had to write a History of the mathematical sciences (arithmetic,
geometry, and astronomy), probably also of theology.
Meno wrote the History of Medicine, the 'laTpixdc, known to us by a papyrus-
fragment.
J. mentions here, too, the great illustrated work 'AvaTo{iat, a collection which
was regularly used in the medical lectures of the Lyceum. Ar. often refers to it
in his treatises.

the revision 408 To this last period belongs, finally, the revision of the theory of the
of the theory First Mover in
Metaph. A
8. This revision is based on new astronomic theories :

of the FirstE U(J OXUS admitted 26 celestial spheres, his (indirect) disciple Callippus assumed
Mover
^. ^ r h^^if comes in Metaph. A 8 to 47 or 55, and accordingly postulates
the existence of thet same number of Unmoved Movers. J. thinks this to be an
innovation after the original theory, which admitted of only one Unmoved Mover,
who alone governs the kosmos which is one, and is called therefore 0s6<;. Thus in

1
"em Forscnungs- und Unterrichtsprogramm der peripatetischen Schule".
2
We view of Ar. directly at the beginning of his Physics (I i)
shall find this
and of his Metaphysics (A 2). See our nrs. 470 and 519 (982a 23 - 26 ); also Eth. Nic.
2- 4
I, I095b (our nr. 566).
8
"Ar. organisiert und iiberwindet das Apeiron der Erscheinungen, das Platon
iiberfliegt", Jaeger says. The truth of this statement, however, seems to me doubt-
ful,because Plato in the Philebus designed as the especial task of philosophy the
determining of "the intermediate stages" between the One and the Apeiron.
[408] JAEGER S CHRONOLOGY 15

chapters A 7 and 9-10, which form a close unity. The 8th chapter is clearly a later
addition.
Phys. VIII also gives a revised treatment of the question of the First Mover,
and must be of a later date l .

409 To complete the image we have to make to ourselves of Ar.'s third period Parts of the
according to Jaeger, we must state the following points. Politics, Ethics

1. First the empirical books (A E Z) of the Politics must be reckoned to this and MetaP h -

last period, as they are based on the material of the 158 constitutions; then also
j
book A, which is an introduction to the whole.
2. J. does not say explicitly that the Nic. Ethics are to be placed in this period
too. This seems, however, to be an almost inevitable conclusion. First by the char-
acter of the work. The empirical books of the Politics are characterized by J. as a
phaenomenology of veal political life. Now the Nic. Ethics give such a phaenomenology
of moral life. And secondly, the relation to the Eudemian Ethics. We
have seen that
by J. this work was placed in the middle period. The Nic. Ethics, representing a
later phasis of Ar.'s thought, then seem almost necessarily to have been written
in the third period.
3. Finally the central books of the Metaphysics: Z H
0, containing the doctrine
of substance and that of potency and act, and with them the introductory book E.
Are they to be placed in the third period ? Such seems to be the opinion of J.,
though he only says explicitly that book M, which criticizes Xenocrates, must
have been written in the years of the Lyceum. The thesis of J., however, is not to
say that Ar. has abandoned metaphysics during this period and has turned to merely
empirical research, but rather that he has changed his conception of metaphysics,
the object of this science having been first to him supra-sensible being, after- ^

wards the Sv ?j t>v, which means: being in all its nuances, being in its multiplicity.'
Now this is in harmony with the spirit of empirical research. Thus it fits well to
the third period.

4 REACTIONS AND CORRECTIONS

410 The work of Jaeger has been generally acknowledged as a study the
2
of fundamental importance. Its chronology has been adopted by Ross , generally
4
E. Brdhier 3 and Uberweg-Praechter .
accepted

E. Hoffmann wrote in the Philologische Wochenschrift of 1924 that J. "had re-

suscitated the living Aristotle in the flesh". He understands Jaeger in this way
that a separation should be made between a metaphysical and an empirical period
in the development of Ar.
/. Bidez in Un singulier naufrage littdraire dans VAntiquit6\ a la recherche des
dpaves de VAristote perdu (Brussels 1938) is occupied with the early works of
Ar. in the footstepsof Jaeger.

1
We treat this question in our Ch. XIII, 5.
2
W. D. Ross remarks in the Introduction to his Aristotle-Selections (New-
York 1938, p. XIV: "The attempt to trace the development of Ar.'s thought
through his works is still in its infancy." Yet the main conclusions of J. are well
established in his opinion, and he adopts almost J.'s whole chronology.
3
Histoire de la Philosophic I, 1926.
4
Geschichte der Phil. I, "1926.
 16 ARISTOTLE'S WORKS [410]

E. Bignone uses the traces of the lost works of Ar. for the study of Epicurus.
Jaeger's theory of the revision of the doctrine of the First Mover has found
an almost general agreement up to the very last years 1 So by .
/. LagrangeM .

in his article Comment s'est transform^ la pensie religieuse d'Aristote d'apres un

livre recent in Revue Thomiste 1926, p. 285 ff. and by R. Mugnier, La thforie du
f

premier Moteur et Involution de la pensfe aristotflicienne, Paris 1930.

With the same question deals M. Bousset, Sur la thSologie d'Aristote: monotheisme
ou polythdisme ? in Revue Thomiste 1938, p. 798 ff.

serious 4jj a> A. Mansion of Louvain has been the first to criticize J.'s
**
objections of .

A. Mansion theories in a more radical way 2 .

He remarks first that Metaph. A must be of a much later date than J. thinks it is,
so that the distance of time which lies between ch. 8 and the rest of this book
can by no means be so great as J. assumes it to be. Secondly, Ar. has left his
Metaph. unfinished. This fact implies that he worked at it till the end of his life.
It is impossible to accept that the work we have was finished before 335 3 .

Mansion's final judgment on the work of J. is that, in general, his

conclusions cannot be accepted as being definitive. "En somme son
travail est en grande partie a refaire."

b. After Mansion Von Ivanka protested against the separation

of a metaphysical and an empirical period, which would have succeeded
one another in Ar.'s development 4 .

Other 412 The objections of Mansion and Von Ivanka were based on a purely historical
protests method. Such is M. de Corte (in La doctrine de I'in-
not the case of the protest of
telligence chez Ar., Paris 1934) against the genetic method, applied by Jaeger to
the study of Ar. De Corte starts from the Thomistic interpretation of Ar. as being
the right one. Now the doctrine of Thomas on the intellectus agens as a part or
perhaps rather as a function of the human soul may have been a real correction
of Ar.'s doctrine of the nous; it is, however, more a philosophical than a purely
historical interpretation 5 But, if the method of W. Jaeger is to be criticized,
.

it should be done on purely historical grounds, not on dogmatic assumptions.

The same remark applies to the work of P. van Schilfgaarde, De zielkunde van
Aristoteles (Leiden 1938) the author pleads for a philosophizing interpretation
:

of Ar., which means with him, an interpretation in the style of Hegel .

1
Since the interesting study of Ph. Merlan on Ar.'s Unmoved Movers in Traditio
of 1946, others too find traces of a plurality of Unmoved Movers in Ar.'s early
works. See our* nr. 518.
2
In the Revue Ntoscholastique de Louvain, 1927, pp. 307 ff. and 423 ff.
s
In fact, I do not think this to have been the opinion of J. Vid. supra (nr. 409).
4
Scholastik VII, p. 27 ff.
6
F. Nuyens remarks rightly that the texts of Ar. point rather to the Averroistic
interpretation of the nous as a substantia separata.
6
Dr. Nuyens wrote a review of this work in Studien 1939, p. 66 f. I did ;

the same for the Museum 1940, p. 149 If.

[413] JAEGER'S CHRONOLOGY CORRECTED 17

413 Nuyens, Ontwikkelingsmomenten in de zielkunde van Aristoteles

F. the work of
u*ens
(thesis of the University of Amsterdam, 1939), French translation at
Louvain 1948 (L' Evolution de la Psychologic d'Aristote) has found in the
development of the psychology of Ar. a criterion which enables him to
a more exact determination of the chronology of Ar.'s works, and so
to an important correction of the results of Jaeger.
Standard is: the conception of the soul as entelechy of a body in De anima. the leading
Soul and body are then essentially joined. The soul is not a substance, as it was principle
with Plato and in the Eudemus of Ar. The question is: what are the intermediate
stages between the Eudemus and the De anima ? A special treatise on the soul,
dating from the middle period, does not exist. But Ar. speaks repeatedly on the
subject more or less incidentally, often in the Ethics and Politics, less frequently
but still in a sufficient measure in the Metaph. and in his biological works. Three
periods can be distinguished:
(I) The first is that of an antagonistic dualism, in which body and soul are
opposed to each other as hostile powers (the Eudemus)',
(II) A natural collaboration of soul and body. The soul does not directly lose
its independence. It is a vital power which, being joined to a special organ, lives
in the body. It dominates the body and uses it as its instrument (vitalistic instru-
mentism). This conception is characteristic of the middle period. Biological study
has influenced the author: in the Eudemus psychology was restricted to man, in
De anima it has become "general", i.e. extending to all living beings;
(III) In the third period the soul is the entelechy of the body. Soul and body
are essentially joined; whence follows that the soul comes into being and perishes
with the body. It is no longer deemed immortal, as it was in (I).
The problem of the nous is necessarily linked up with that of the soul. In the the problem
first period the nous belongs to the soul and is immortal with it; in the second of the noAs
nous and soul are separated, nous is what is not bodily. In the third the nous
comes 6upa0ev: it is immaterial and immortal. It does not belong to the soul.
This criterion leads its author to the following results: Results
1. llepl 9i,Xoao9ia<; does not belong to the middle period (Assos), as it was dated
by Jaeger, but to the first. It is of the same time as the Protrepticus *. In this last
work too the theory of Ideas is already criticized.
2. This statement has a further consequence: if IT. 9iX. was written in the
Academy, then also De caelo, Phys. I-VII, and De generatione et corruptione.
3. The Categories, Topica and II. 009. X. prove to belong to the first period;
De interpr., Anal. pr. and post, to the second.
4. To the middle period belongs, as it appears from the local references (to
the region of Assos and Lesbos) the Historia Animalium. Ross had already
remarked this. N. concludes: but with this fact the whole construction of Jaeger
that the biological w^rks of Ar. all belong to the third period and there mark a
new phase in their author's development, collapses.
To the Hist. anim. succeeds the De partibus anim. In this work the dualism
of body and soul is replaced by collaboration. The soul is localized in the heart.
The same view is represented by the De motu anim., and some of the Parva
naturalia, namely the De iuv. et sen., De vita et morte and the De resp.
1
We shall see in our next chapter that this conclusion of Dr. Nuyens cannot
be right. This fact surely must exhort us to a certain prudence as to the application
of his criterion.
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 2
 i8 ARISTOTLE'S WORKS [413]

The 6th treatise of the Parva Nat. however, the De long, et brev. vitae, is nearer
to the De anima. It forms a transition to the third period. As to the rest of the bio-
logical works, only the De gener. anim. represents the same view as the De anima,
and therefore belongs to the final period.
5. Concerning the Metaph. N. confirms the early date of the book A, B, K 1-8,
M y-io and N; also that M1-9 belongs to the final period. Book T has no texts
relative to the soul, but E has. The view of the soul in this book is near to that of
De anima. It must be dated shortly before this work.
N.'s criterion leads to an exact determine' tion of the date of books Z H 0. These
books presuppose the definition of soul in De anima. Consequently they belong
to the last years of Ar.'s activity. In book , however, are also older traces. So
this book, as we have it, is probably a later redaction of an earlier treatise.
Book I gives no indications as to its date.
Concerning A Nuyens confirms the objection of Mansion against Jaeger. Soul
and body are considered in this book as form and matter of the living being.
This must have been written after De anima, i.e. very late. Chapter 8 is a later ad-
dition, but as to time it is not far removed from the rest.
6. N. determines also the date of the NIC. Ethics. Whether this work belongs
to the third period, to the beginning of it or to the end, is a question which was
left open by Jaeger. Both Mansion and Ross date the work very late. N. comes to
other conclusions the psychology which is presupposed here, is not that of De anima;
:

it is much nearer to Plato. For this reason the work must be dated surely ten years
before the DC anima: it may have been written towards the end of the middle
period or at the beginning of the third.
7. Also regarding the Politics N. comes to an important conclusion. We saw
a that books IV- VI were reckoned by Jaeger to the third period, and that the first
book was added, according to him, afterwards as an introduction to the whole.
Now the relation of body and soul appears to be conceived in this book in a clearly
mechanical way, and soul is divided into parts as was done by Plato but not in
Ar/s De anima. So this first book may have been written early in the third period,
but by no means very late.
8. N. too cites the fifth chapter of the De part. anim. I and comments on it in
a somewhat different way from Jaeger: we cannot cite this beautiful chapter as
a document in illustration of a "positivistic" period in Ar/s development. This
author never cultivated science at the cost of speculative philosophy. Both go
together, up to the end of his activity. The science which he defends here, is
according to himself the prerogative of the <pu<jet 91X630901.
9. Finally the De anima. The third book is not of an early date, as it was in the
opinion of Jaeger, and also of Ross. Its doctrine of the nous is not Platonic; it is
no remainder of a, former period, but just the result of the psychology of the final
period. The work shows a unity of composition; the problem of the nous pervades
the whole.
A is closely connected with the De anima De sensu
part of the Parvd naturalia :

et sensato, mcmoria et reminiscentia, De somno et vigifia, De insomniis and

De,
De divinatione. Together with the De gener. anim. they belong to the last years.
These then are the results of the work of Dr. Nuyens. The fact that they in their
turn must be corrected on several points, does not take away the importance of
the work.

Further 414 jh e chronology of the biological works has been determined

C
method niore precisely by I. Doring in Aristotle's De partibus animalium, Gote-
[414] JAEGER'S CHRONOLOGY CORRECTED 19

borg 1943; that of certain treatises of the Parva naturalia by H. J.

Drossaart Ltdofs, Arislotelis DC insomniis et de divinatione per
somnum,
Leiden 1947. Both authors know the book of Nuyens and make use
of his results.
Some objections against the method of Nuyens have been made by objections
G. Verbeke, L'evolution de la psychologic d' Aristote, in Revue philosophique
de Louvain, 1948, pp. 335-35 1 -

Verbeke remarks first that it is impossible to date whole works of Ar. on the
ground of a few texts in which the relation soul-body is touched upon. In the same
treatise may be earlier and later parts (as Doring proved that the first book of
the De parlibus is of a much earlier date than the following books of this treatise,
and Drossaart L,ulofs that both in the De Somno and in the De insommis there are
sections of an earlier and a more advanced date). Secondly he points out that the
arguments adduced by N. for the early date of the Topics are not conclusive;
thirdly that there arc serious difficulties as to the chronology of the Nic. Ethics,
the doctrine of the nous in this last work being much nearer to Plato than is
supposed by N.
1 myself had to make an objection to N. regarding the early date he attributes
to the llspl 91X0 CTO 9 tag. Now, because the chronology of the physical treatises is
based by N. on that of this dialogue, this point too must be revised.
The main result of the work of N. remains that the biological works of Ar. are
of a much earlier elate than Jaeger had admitted; that the later books of the
Metaphysics are of the author's latest years, and consequently that neither the
"research"-work of Ar. is to be attributed as a whole to his latest period, nor the
metaphysical speculation to a former phase of his development
1
.

1 have to remark here again that in

1
my opinion Jaeger's theory docs not
necessarily imply that the last books of the Meiaph. were written before 335, and
that, consequently, the results of Dr. Nuyens on this point are rather a precision
than a contradiction of Jaeger's views.
1 had the opportunity, after having written the above chapter, to ask Prof.

Jaeger himself, when he visited our country in July 1950, whether my impression
on this point was right. He confirmed to me that it has never been his intention
to make a radical separation between a metaphysical and a "positivistic" period
in Ar.'s development. He did not think it possible to date books Z H
of the
Metaph. more precisely, but he did not intend to exclude the possibility that they
might have been written very late.
 ELEVENTH CHAPTER
THE EXOTERIC WRITINGS
i THE EUDEMUS OR IIEPI TTXIIS
the theme 415Ar. wrote this dialogue shortly after the death of Eudemus
of Cyprus, a companion of his in the Academy of Plato, who died in Sicily
under the standard of Dio (354). The story of his death is told by Cicero.

a. Cic., De div.
I 25 (Fr. 37 R.):

Quid ? singular! vir ingenio Aristoteles et paene divino ipsene

errat an alios vult errare, cum scribit Eudemum Cyprium
familiarem
suum Macedonian! facientem Pheras venisse, quae erat urbs in
iter in
Thessalia turn admodum nobilis, ab Alexandro autem tyranno crudeli
dominatu tencbatur. in eo igitur oppido ita graviter aegrum Eudemum 5
fuisse utomnes medici diffiderent. ei visum in quiete egregia facie
iuvenem dicere fore ut perbrevi convalesceret paucisque diebus inter-
iturum Alexandrum tyrannum, ipsum autem Eudemum quinquennio
post domum esse rediturum. atque ita quidem prima statim scribit
Aristoteles consecuta et convaluisse Eudemum et ab uxoris 10
fratribus interfectum tyrannum. quinto autem anno exeunte cum esset
spes ex illo somnio in Cyprum ilium ex Sicilia esse rediturum, proeliantem
eum ad Syracusas occidisse. ex quo ita illud somnium esse interpretatum
ut cum animus Eudemi e corpore excesserit, turn domum revertisse vi-
deatur. 15

b. Cp. Plut., Life of Dio, 22:

SuveTrpocTTov 8e (TCO AIGM) xal T&V iroXiTixcov TcoXXol xal T&V
8 TS Ku7rpio<; Eu&7)fJio<;, ei<; Sv 'ApiaTOTeXvjc; obroOavAvTa TOV

SiaXoyov eTuoiTjcre, xal

the soul no 415 i n this dialogue Ar. defends the immortality of the soul and
armo y
a ^ ac k s ^e doc t T i ne that the soul is the harmony of the body. Philoponus,

in hiscommentary of the De anima, mentions the following two argu-

ments, used by Ar. in the Eudemus.
[ 4 i6] THE EUDEMUS 21

a. Fr. 45 R., p 50: ar^ment

Tfj ap|AOvia, <py)aiv,

evavTiov. oux <5tpa /] apfiovia ecruv.

points to the corresponding logical formula in the Categ. 3 b ff.

24
Jaeger, y4y. 41, :

TTttxpxei. 8& TOCI<; ouaiaic; xal TO (jirjS^v aura!*; Ivavrtav elvat. "Substances never have
contraries". Soul, then, is a substance, as is said directly by Plotinus, Enn.
IV 7, 8: T6 JJL&V (sc. 7rp6Tpov, 73 ^x-r)) ouafac, ^) 8& apjxovta oux ouafoc.
1
Jaeger, though he does not think the Categ. authentic cites another parallel
,

between a Platonic argument (Phaedo 93 b-d) why the soul is no harmony, and
a formula in the Categ. Plato says: the soul is either good, moral and rational,
or the opposite. Now these opposed constitutions are a sort of harmony and dis-
harmony of the soul. But the attributes "good" etc. and their opposites admit
of a {laXXov xal YJTTOV. Consequently, if harmony --- soul, the soul would admit
of degrees, which is impossible. Cp. Categ. 3 b 33 -4 a9 Aoxei 8k. 7) ouata ^YJ In&ixe-
:

oOai TO (jtaXXov xal TO TJTTOV. E.q.s. "Substance does not admit of degrees".

b. Fr. 45 R., ib.: Second

argument
Tfj apfjiovta, <p"/3<n, TOU <7c!>{jiaTo<; evavTiov ICTTIV TJ avapfjioaria TOU aa>(JiaTOc;,
avapjJLoaTia 8k TOU (JL^UXOU crcifjiaTO*; voao^; xal aa6veia xal oda'/QC, &v TO
[lev a<JU[JL[JLSTpia TCOV (TToixetwv Y) voao^, T{> 8s; TCOV 6[Jioio(jiep(ov Y) aarO^veia, TO
S^ TCOV opyavtxcov TO adv/os. et TOLVUV YJ avapfjiocrTia voao<;
xal aaOeveia xal

alaxoc;, Y) ap(Jiovia Spa uyteia xal ta^ix; xal xaXXo<; ^WXT] Se ouSev eari TOUTCOV
OUTE uyteia cpTjfxl OUTS ta/u^ OUTS xaXXoc; ^u^rjv yap elye xal 6 0epatTYj<;.
cov. oux Spa eoViv f) ^ux^) apjiovia.

the soul
Simplicius in Ar., De anima
c. I 3, says that, according to Ar. an eidos
in the Eudemus, the soul is an eidos.
Fr. 46 R.:
Kal ev Toi EuSyjfjLco TCO Tcepl ^u^c; auTCp ysypafji^vcp SiaXoyto
TYJV fyvxr^ slvai.

remarks that in this period the young Ar. was still dependent on Plato
J., I.e.,
in metaphysics, but completely independent of him in the sphere of logic and
methodology. "The fundamental attitude embodied in the doctrine of the categories,
and the main portions of the doctrine itself, had been developed before Ar. dared
to shake the metaphysical foundation of Plato's philosophy" .

417 a. The story

Midas and Silenus, cited. by Plutarch in the
of thc

Consolatio ad Apollonium 27: Silenus, captured by Mida^ answers to the soul

the question of the king what is the highest good to man (TI TTOT CO-TL TO

1
Ar. p. 46, with note 3. I think the arguments adduced by J. on this point
not decisive. I am rather inclined to accept the authenticity of the Categ. and to
explain the doctrine of the Trpconr) ouala in this treatise as a strong reaction of the
author against the theory of the Ideas, which may be placed at the beginning of
the years of Assos.
 22 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [4*7 J

TOLC; avOpcoTToi^ xal TI TO TravTcov aipeTWTaTov) ;

he answers
after a long silence, jz6Xis and avaxayxa^cov (fr. 44 R., p. 49):

Aaifxovoi; emTcovou xal TU^TJC; ^ocXeTcyj^ e97){Jiepov <TTrp|Jia, TI

Xlyeiv oc u(juv apeiov jr/) yvcovai ; JJLST' ayvoiag yap TCOV oixeicov xaxtov
6 (3io<;. av0pto7roi<; e Tua^Trav oux Son yevecrOai TO TTOCVTCOV apiarov oue
axetv TYJ<; TOO peXTiaTou <puoreco<; apiaTov yap Tuaat xal 7raaai<; TO [JLYJ yeveaOat,
TO JJieVTOl [JLTa TOUTO Xai TO TTp&TOV TJ>V avOpCOTTG) aVUCTTCOV TO yeVOJJLEVOU^
aTroOavstv ax; Ta^taTa. STjXov ouv J)^ oucry]^ xpstTTOvo^ TTJ^ sv TO> T&Ovavai

8taycoy^<; 7] TYJ^ ev TW ^v, OUTCOC;

J., ^(y. p. 48, rightly pointed to the Platonic style and spirit of this answer:
To yeva0ai
JA-JJ
is not merely "not to be born"; it also means "not to enter into

Becoming".
the doctrine fc. proc lus in Plat. Remp.\ Ar. fr. 41 R.:
accepted by Aeyei Se xal 6 Sai(JLOVLO<; 'Api<TTOTXv)<; aiTiav Si* YJV sxstiOev [isv Eoucra '/]

Ar.
^U^TJ Seupo sTTiXavOavsTai TCOV exec Osa^aTcav, svTsuOev Ss
sxe TWV svTauOa
The exeZ OsajjiaTa are doubtless the Ideas.

c. The same fr.

the life of the ^r. concludes from the above-cited fact that the life of the soul without

body normal body is normal and

a state of health, whereas the
like life in the body
is to be considered as abnormal and a state of disease.

yap o5v xal ai>TO<; ex (Jiev uyetac; voaov oSsiiovTa^ Xyj(h)v

elc;

xal auToiv TCOV ypa(JLfJLcxTO>v civ spi[Jia0Y)Xicrav, ex voaou 8e et<; uystav

(jLY]Seva Tca>7uoTe TOUTO Tuacr/etv eotxevat Se TYJV [JLSV aveu cr<o(i.aTO^
xaTa 9\jaLv oOaav <uyeta, vocrcp Se T"/)V
ev a<I)(JtaTt>.

the nous 4jg a. That the nous was considered by Ar. during this period

the soul as & P a rt of the soul (unlike the later doctrine of the De anima), appears
from the passage of Simpl. cited supra (416c: the soul an eidos), Fr.
46 R., where he continues (after the words eI86<; TL dcTro^aiveTat T/JV
elvai )
:

xal ev TOUTOK; eTraivei TOU^ T<OV elScov SexTLXY]v Xeyovya^ T'/JV 4(U X"') V > ^X
aXXa TY)\) voY)Tix7]v dx; TCOV aXTjOcov SeuTepco^ eiStov yvcoo-Tixyjv TC^J
yap
vco T<i

The question might be asked here whether the words ou^ oXrjv e.q.s. are still
a report of Ar.'s view in the Eudemus, or whether they rather contain an explanation
of Simplicius. In the first case which seems to be the right one this fragment
would prove that the doctrine of the nous as the highest part ot the human soul,
which therefore alone is divine and immortal, originates in the very first period
 [418] THE EUDEMUS 23

of Ar.'s thought l This doctrine differs from that of De anima, where the nous
.

no longer is regarded as a part of the soul, but as a "separated substance" which

conies from the outside. We find it explicitly in the Protr. (fr. 61 R.), in Metaph. A 3
and in the Nic. Ethics.

61 R. (from n as akm
b. Ar., fr. v lamblichus, Protr. ch. 8,' p.
-
48 ed.
T Pistelli)/ :

immortal
OU&EV ouv 6etov TI [jiaxapiov i>7rap*/i Tot^ av0pco7roi<; TuXvjv EXSIVO
ye (Jiovov
OC<*LOV o"7rou&YJ<; oaov ECJTIV ev Y](JUV vou xal TOOTO yap {JLOVOV SOIXEV
<ppovYj<7<o<;.
elvai TCOV Yj(JLTepcov dOavaTov xal p.6vov OEIOV. xal Tiapa TO TYJS TOiauT7)<; Suva-
[JLEO^ SovaaOai XOIVCOVEIV, xatTrep cov 6 PLO^ aOXto(; (puaei xal /aXeTcoc;, 6fjico<;
OUTCO;; coxovojJiTjTai x a P L ^ VT<0 ^ COOTTE SOXSLV 7rpo<; T<X 6cXXa Osov elvai TOV a*vGpco-
TUOV. 6 vouc; yap YJJJUOV
6 0eo^, stTS 'EpfjioTifJio^ CITS 'Avaayopa<; eiTre TOUTO,
xal OTL 6 OvY]To^ aiwv (xepoi; zyzi Oeou

c. Ar., Metaph.
24 26
1070 a - A 3, .

Ar. is speaking here about pre-existing and non pre-existing causes.

He says: Motive causes (T<X (jtev xivouvra atria) precede, formal causes
(T<X Se he, 6 X6yo<;) are simultaneous with the thing they produce. It is
a further question whether the form survives the thing. In certain cases
this certainly possible, e.g. the nous.
is

EJ Ss xal u<7Tpov TI UTCojJievci, orxsTTTeov STC' evicov yap ou&ev xcoXuei, otov
TOIOUTOV, (JL7] Tracra aXX* 6 voO^ Traorav yap aSuvarov

d. Cp. Ar., Eth. Nic. 1177 b

26 - 31
X 7, .

In the preceding lines the author has spoken of the advantages of the
fiio<; 0wp7jTixfS(;, being that of the activity of the mind (YJ TOU vou Vpyia).
He then continues:
C
O 8s TOIOUTO^ av ELY](3iog XPELTTCOV 7j xaT* avOpcoTTov ou yap '^

<7Tiv o(>T6)^ ptcoaETai, aXX' ^ OELOV TI EV auTo> UTrap^si o<y^> S '

TOO (Tuv0Tou, ToaouTco xal 7) svEpyEia TY]^ xara TYJV aXXYjv apETYjv. Ei 8*J) 0stov
6 vou<; TTpo^; TOV avOpcoTrov, xal 6 xaTa TOUTOV (3io^ Osio^ Tipo^ TOV avOpcoTrivov
piov.
Now this vou<; is not only in man, but it is a part of him, and his chief
and best part. Sjp we could even say that man is his nous. 1178 a 2- 4 :

A6^i av xal Eivai Exacrro^ TOUTO, strap TO xupiov xal OJJIEIVOV

8* GCTOTTOV
oOv yivoiT* av, si [r/j TOV auTou [3iov aipotTO aXXa Ttvo^ aXXou.

1
I do not think it is already explicitly present in the Kudemus, but it is very
near. Certainly Dr. Nuyens is not right in admitting that the limitation of im-
mortality to the nous is a characteristic of the last period of Ar.'s development.
Koss and Mansion have rightly pointed out that this doctrine is of very early date.
 24 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [419]

2 THE PROTREPTICUS
the theme 419 The Protrepticus was an exhortation to the philosophic life, the
pio<; OecopY)Tix6<;, such as it was understood in the Academy. It was
addressed to Themiso, the prince of Cyprus. Against the pragmatistic
conception of knowledge in the school of Isocrates Ar. here fervently
defends the beauty and the happiness of the purely contemplative life,
which is exercised solely for its own sake. We have the answer from the

school of Isocr. in the anonymous Protrept. ad Demonicum.

a. Ar., fr. 52 R., p. 59. The pragmatists speak:

SY) JIT] XeX7)0vai TOV [zeXXovTa Ttepl TOUTCOV esTaeiv OTI TCOCVTOC TOC
Aei
aya0a xal TOC 7up6<; TOV ptov wcpeXifza Tot avOpco7rot<; ev TCO ^p^dOat xal TrpocTTeiv

ecrav aXX* oux ev TCO yiyvcoaxeiv jxovov OUTS yap oyiatvofjLev TCO yvcopi^eiv TOC

TroiTjTixa TYJ uyieia<; aXXa TCO TrpocpspeaOai TOL<; aco[Jiacnv OUTS 7cXoi>TOU(JLev TCO

yiyvcoaxsiv TrXouTOV aXXa TCO xexT^aOat TroXXvjv oucriav, ouSe TO TTOCVTCOV [JLC- 5
yiaTOv e5 ^cojjtev TCO yiyvcoaxeiv <5tTTa TCOV OVTCOV aXXa TCO TcpdcTTeiv e5 TO yap
euSaifJiovelv aX7)0to<; TOUT* ^GTLV. COCTTS TrpooTjxei xal TTJV 9iXocro9tav
e<TTiv cI>9XijJLO^ ^TOI Tcpa^tv slvai TCOV ayaOcov

Ar.'s defence The answer of Ar.

"
b. Ar., fr. 58 R. (lamblichus, Protr. c. 9). :

templative To 8e ^>jTetv OCTCO 7ra<jy)<; eTTKTTTjfnqi; erep6v TI yeve<T0at xal

auTTjv elvai TcavTOHcaaiv ayvoouvToc; TIVO^ SCTTIV oarov SiecrTYjxev s

ayaOa xal TOC avayxata' Sia^spet yap TcXetaTov. TOC (JLSV yap Si* eTspov ayaTrco-
jjieva TCOV 7rpay(jtaTCov cov avei> ^v aStivaTov, avayxaia xal auvama XEXTEOV,
oaa 8s Si' aTropaivf] (jLTjSev eTspov, dcyaOa xupico?. ou yap SYJ ToSe 5
auTa, xav
[Jtev aipeTov Sia ToSe, ToSe Se Si* #XXo, TOUTO TS eic; aTreipov ofyeTai Trpoiov,

aXX' tdTaTal TUOU. yeXoiov oSv ^87) TcavTeXcoc; TO y)Tev OCTTO 7uavTO<; co^eXeiav
STepav Tcap* auTO TO Trpayjxa xal TL o3v ufJLiv S^eXo^ xal TI ^pY)(Ti,[jLOv epcoTav.
co^ aXv]0co<; yap, coarcep Xeyojjiev, et TI? ^(Jia^ olov st; (j-axapcov vrjaout;
TV) Siavoia xo{Jiiaeiev. exet yap ouSevo^ XP e ^ a ^^ TC^ V aXXcov TIVO^ S9eXo(; 10
av yevoiTO, [Ji6vov,8e xaTaXeiTieTai TO StavostaOai xal Oecopetv, ovirep xal
vuv eXeOOepov <pa[jiev PIOV elvai. et 8e TauT* eciTlv dXY)0Y] TUCOC; oux av aiaxu- 7

VOITO Sixaico^ oaTtc; Tftitov e^ouaia^ yevo|jivY3<; ev (Jtaxapc^v olx'/jaai VYJCTOK;,

aSuvaTo^ etr) 8u eauTov. ouxouv 06 (jLejjLTtTo^ 6 |xia06<; earTi Trj<; eTcicTTY)[JLY)^ TOL^
av6pco7roi<; ouSe [JLixpov TO ytyvojjievov arc' auT^<; ayaOov. codTuep yap Trj<;i5

8txaiocruv7)(;, &^ 9aaiv ot ao9ol TCOV TTOIYJTCOV, ev aSou xo|ju6[jie0a Ta? Scopeac;,
OUTCO T^C; 9pov7)aeco ev (jtaxapcov vyjaoic;, co^ Soixev. ouSev o5v 8etv6v, av jx^

9atv7jTat xpyjaifiT] o5aa {jtYjS' axp^Aipicx; ou yap co9Xi|JLOv aXX' aya0y]v auT/)v
elvat 9a{xev, ouSe Si* STepov aXXa 81* eauTTjv alpecdOai auTTjv TrpoanQxei.
 [4*9] THK

20 yap el<; 'OXupiTrtav afa% &xa 1% 6a^ ATcoSTjfXoufjLev, xdt el

TtXttov &t* a&rifc &jfa0at, afitij Y^P ^f Ocwpia xpshrcov itoXX&v &rtt
xal Ta AiovtSerta 81;
OecopoGjjtev o$x &
Xv)^6(jtevo( Tt Ttapa T&V fotoxptt&v
xal TCpo<*6vre<;, TtoXXdcs Te 4XXa<; 6a<; tXotjie&x Sv 4vrl rcoXX&v xpqp
oSrca xal T?JV 06>pav TOO iravT& itportjiijtiov Tcdcvrwv T&V Soxoiivrcov
2 5 XP1Q a 'ti6)V * ^ Y^P S^wou iwl {xiv <4v9pcJ>7to\><; TO^C fii
SotSXoix; ToO; Si fxaxojjtivouc >cal 0iovra<; Set wopetieoflat
Ivexa ToQ Oedc0aar6at aikoii<, T>IV Si: TWV (JvTcov ytlcriv xal rJjv
otsadou Ssiv Oecopetv a[jiicr6L

In Metaph. A 2, 982 a 11 -*8 we shall again find the theme that philosophy alone
is exercised for its own sake and not wtiat&s TWOS Svcxev (our nr. 519).

420 a. Ar., fr. 52 R., p. 61 f. (Iambi, Protr. c. 6).

Phr6n&sis is the highest good therefore philosophy

;
is to be striven after.
ojxoXoYoujxev 8n Set (*iv T^V orcouSawSTOtTOV Spxeiv xal Tiv T?)V

xpdtTiaTov, T^V 8J: v6[xov (Kp^ovTa xal xtipiov clvat (x6vov o5to? Si
xal X6YO<; aTii <ppov^aeei<; I<JTW. In Si T<; tv xavv

Sv oSTO<; IXoiTO xari

5 TYJV iTctdTifjtJiTjv alpo6(Aevo^, TauT* IdTlv aYa8dc, xal xaxa Si T& evavrta
Irrsl Si Ttdcvre? alpouvTat (xdcXiaTa Ta xara TOC? otxeia<; I^ci^ 9

%ff* 6 Sxaio<;, T& Si xari r/jv ivSpeiav 6 rf)v avSpsiav Ix^ ^? ^ 1

& aet>9p6>v TO
xal T& ^povstv 6
TOUTO Y^P ^PYOV f<x,bnfi$ T^<; Suvdcjjteox;.

TYJV xuptcoTdcriQv xptatv xpaTt<TT6v iaTi TCOV dcYaO

Two remarks must be made here.

I. The sentence that the the highest standard of what is good,
9p6vtptoc is
at once reminds us of the Aristotelian definition of virtue as it is given in the
Eth. Nic. II 6, 15 (1106 b88 -iiO7 a8 ) "Virtue is a state of character, concerned with
:

choice, lying in a mean, i.e. the mean relative to us, this being determined by a
rational principle, and as the <pp6vi(jio<; would determine it" (our nr. 57 Ib).
Here again the 9p6vt.pLo; has the arbitrium of what is good.
II. W. Jaeger has pointed out that the meaning of the term <pp6vr}<n<; as it is
used here differs from that in the Nic. Eth.: in the Protr., as'in the Eud. Eth. t

9p6vYjm< is used in the Platonic sense of the word, which means philosophical
Insight, based on the knowledge of a transcendent reality whereas in the Nic.
Eth. it means simply?>rac&cfl/ wisdom, which has nothing to do with a transcendent
reality, and may be predicated even of animals (Eth. Nic. VI 5, ^140 b ). It is
w
no longer directed towards the general, but towards the concrete. In Eth. Nic.
VI 7, 1141 b3 -5 it is therefore said explicitly that men like Anaxagoras and Thales
,

were not fp^vtptot, but 00901, because they were indifferent to their own advantage,
but strove after knowledge of the eternal laws of the universe (our nrs. 590a
and 591b). <

In the following passage of the Protr. we shall see that 9p6vi{io<; and <iof6<; are
here almost identic.
 26 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [42OJ

Therefore b. The same fr. continued.

to be striven Ou ST) Set 9e\iyeiv 91X0*709^, si'Trsp scrrlv
Y] (zev 91X0(709^ xaOaTrep ol6(jisOa

after
xTYJaig TE xal XP*) aL S (109 Ca<;, 7]
Ss ao9ia TCOV (jLeytaTCov dyaOcov, ou Se Set

Xp^fJKXTtov fjiv vxa TiXetv 59* 'HpaxXeoix; cmf)Xa<; xal TcoXXaxu; xivSuvetletv,

Sia Se 9p6v73(7iv Tuovetv (jLY)Se SaTtavav. 3j JJLYJV dvSpaTroSwSec; ye TOU

(jtyjSev

aXXa [JiY)
TOU e5 yXi^ea6ai, xal rate; TCOV rcoXXcov auTov dxoXouOetv
Y)V

aXXa (JLY] TOU^ TtoXXou^ atodv ral^ aurou, xal ra fjtev xpYjfjtaTa ^vjTel'v TWV Se
xaXeov {jLY)Se{JLiav eTTLfjieXeiav TroLstaOat TO Tuaparcav.

The formula eS ^v is used by Ar. in the Nic. Eth. I 4, 1095 a 19 as a general and ,

preliminary definition of happiness: both 01 TuoXXot and ot xaptevre^ (more civilized

persons) agree on this point, that they identify happiness (TO euSaijjLo ;e tv) with
T& eu ^vjv xal TO ei> TrpaTTsiv.
Again we find the term used thrice in the eleventh chapter of the Magna
Moralia II.

the theory 421 That the author the Protr. still accepts the metaphysical
of

still accepted basis of the theory of the Ideas, appears from the following passage.

a. Ar., Protr. 13 Walzer (Iambi., Protr. p. 54 and 55 Pistelli):

Tcov [jLsv
aXXcov TS/V&V r.a TS opyava xai TOU<; XoytafJioix; Touq axpipscnraTouc
oux a TI' auTtov TCOV TupcoTCov Xa^ovTSc; ax^Sov taacriv, aXX* OCTCO TCOV
SeuTep<ov xal TpiTcov xal TroXXoaTcov, TOU^; Ss Xoyouc; it, e(jL7ripia<; Xa
(JLOVCO TCOV aXXcov a?r' a u T to v T co v a x p i p co v
TCO Se <piXoaocpoj */j

5
ICTTIV au T co v yap ICTTI OeaTYjc, aXX ou (jii[jL7][jLaTcov. Movo^ yap icpcx;

TY)v 9\iai,v pXcTTtov ^7] xal Trpo^ TO Ostov, xal xaOarcep av t xu[3epvY]T7)^ TI^
^ al'Sicov xai, (JLOVLJJLCOV ava^ajjisvos TOU PLOD Tat; ap'/at; 6p(jia xal ^vj

Jaeger, Ar. p. gi, rightly remarks that in Mctaph. A

25
2, 982 a the author no
longer speaks of aura ra TupcoTa, but simply of Ta TtpcoTa:
'AxpipsCTTarai Si: TtTiv
TUKJTY]{JLO)V at (jtaXiaTa TCOV rupcoTOJV eictv.
The omission is not fortuitous: it is a consequence of the rejection of the Ideas,
which makes the opposition to (jLi|jLY)|xotTa disappear.

terminology The expression auTa Ta axpiBri explained by the

fo. ^ r in the Protr. is
compared ,^ ^' N

with lollowmg passage from the ilepi LOSCOV.

TT. tSccTw
Ar., fr. 1^7 R -> P- J 49 (Alex. Aphr. in Ar. Metaph. I, 990 b
9,
10
):
"AXXcov Ss TIVCOV Trapa Ta xa(j* sxaaTa siatv al emcrT'/jjJiai, TauTa yap aTTS
TS xal aopiaTa, at Ss 7Tt(7T^(Jiai co p i G i v co v ECTTLV apa Tiva Tcapa Ta [JL

xaO* xaaTa, TauTa 8k al

Concrete things arc ajueipa and therefore not knowable; science has as its object
"the determinate": Ta a>pia(j(ivx. Cp. Jaeger, Ar. p. 93. The same term is used in
Protr. c. 6 (fr. 52 R., p. 60, 1. 21 ft.).
 [^ 22] THE PROTREPTICUS 27

422 In this Platonically-minded work Ar. speaks in a tone of great

disdain about earthly things.
Disdain of
a. Ar., fr. 59 R. (Iambi., Protr. c. 8, p. 132 Kiessling):
l
FVOIT] 8* v TIS auTO xal OCTTO TOV avOpoa-
TOUTCOV, el Oeeapyjaeiev UTT* auya<; things
Tceiov BLOV. eup7)<7i yap TQC SoxouvTa elvai [xeyaXa TOL^ avOpcoTcoit; Travra ovra

<7xiaypa9iav. 60ev xal XeyeTai *aXoa<; TO [r/jSev elvat, TOV avOpcoTtov xal TO
[jLTjSev elvai pefSaiov TCOV avOpa>7riva)v. ia/u<; TS yap xal [isysOo^ xal xaXXo^
5yeXa><; ecra xal ou8evo<; aia. xaXXo<; ye rcapa TO [rqSev opav axpipe^ Soxet
clvai TOIOUTOV. ei yap TK; eSiivaTO pXeTretv xaGaTiep TOV Auyxea 9actv, 6g Sta
TO>VTOL^wv etopa xal TG>V SevSpwv, TIOT' av e'So^ev etvat Tiva TYJV o^iv avexTov
opav s^ otcov auveCTT7]X xaxcov Tifial 8e xal So^ai Ta ^7]Xo6(jisva (JtaXXov TCOV
;

XOITTCOV dcSt,Y]yY]Toi) ye(jiL ^Xuapta^. TCO yap xaOopcovTt TOJV atStoiv Tt Y]Xt6iov

10 Trepl TauTa aTrouSa^etv. TI 8' ecrui (laxpov ^ rcoXu^poviov TOW

aXXa Sta TYJV 7](jLeTepav aaGeveiav o!(jiaL xal PIOU ppa-/UT7jTa xal TOUTO

b. In this spiritual climate life in a body becomes the death of

the soul, and death the escape into a higher life. As we saw in the Eudemus
(fr. 41 R.), the life of the soul without body seemed normal to the
author and life with a body abnormal and like a disease (our nr. 417a).
Here the imprisonment of the soul in the body is painted in horrible
colours as an unnatural state full of awful suffering.
the im-
Ar., fr. Go R. (Iambi, Protr. 8, p. 134 K.):
^1 OUTO
~ >
n ~ < , ,
*'*'**'
yap UeLov 01 ap/atoTepoi XeyouaL TO cpavai oioovat TY)V
' f ' Prisonment
V U X^ V ^[Jioopiav O f the soul
xal srcl xoXaaet, (JieyaXcov TIVCOV a(jiapT7][JLaTCov. Travu in
^r]v 7](jia<; yap yj au^eu^i^
TOIOUTCO TIVL SOIXS 7Tp6<; TO CTCO[jLa T^ ^ U X^' ^^^^P T^Cp TOU^ V TV) TuppYjVia

<pa<rl paaavii^etv rcoXXaxtc; TOU^ aXiaxofjisvou^ TrpoaSscr^euovTa^ Trpo^ avjixpi

vsxpoix; dcvTtTCpoaojTTOix; exaaTov vrpoc exaaTOv [ispoc; 7rpocrap(jLOT-

GUTG> eoixev '/] ^I>^Y] SiaTeTaaOat, xal TrpoaxcxoXXyjaOai Tuaai Tol^
TOU

c. Next follows the fr. 61 R. on the divine character of the nous, N ?^ s alone
which alone is immortal. Our nr. 418b. immortal

423 Dr. Nuyens, Fr. cd. p. 93 ff., has pointed to what'seems to him
to be some later elements in the Protr. of Ar., namely firstly the idea
of teleology in nature, and secondly what he calls the instrumental
conception of the relation soul-body.

1
After UTT* ocuyas a word lias probably dropped out: TOU oucovo; is possible
(after Tim. 37 d).
 28 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [423]

The principle a Ar., Protr., ii Walzer (Iambi., Protr. 9, p. 49 Pist.):

Tcov fjiev
o5v OCTTO Tiix>)<; yivofievtov ou8ev evexa TOU yiyveTai, o^S* ^ aTl Tl
TXO<; auToi^- TOL<; 8e OCTTO TEX^ yiyvo[ivoi<; lve<m xal TO TeXo<; xal TO o5
tSvexa xal TOUTO (SeXTiov ecmv
, 73
TO 8ia TOUTO yiyvojzevov. 'AXXa (JLYJV
TO
xaTa ye evexa TOD ytyveTai, xal peXTiovoc; evexev ael auvCcrTaTai YJ xa6a-
cpuoriv

Trep TO Sia T^V^ [AifJietTat yap ou TVJV T^V)V 73 ^uai^ aXXa auTT) TY)V
*

xal ECTTIV ?ul TO) poTjOetv xal Toe 7rapaXei7r6(Jieva

b. Ar., Protr. 6 Walzer (Iambi., Protr. 7, p. 41 Pist.):

"ETI Tobuv TO fjt^v eaTi ^ U X^1 T ^ v ^v fl^v T ^ <^ cro>[jta, xal TO [jiev ap^ei TO
8e apxeTai, xal TO fjisv ^p^Tat TO S* uTroxeiTat a)? opyavov. 'Ael TOLVUV 7rp6<; TO
ap/ov xal TO /pwpLevov auvTaTTETai YJ
TOU ap/o[Jivoi) xal TOU opyavou XP ^ a -

Thisis, according to Dr. N., a conception of the relation soul-body

different from that of antagonism, as it was seen in the Phaedo and in

the Eudemus: in principle it is just that instrumentism which is charac-
teristic of the middle period of Ar.'s development, and therefore points
to a later date of this work.
In fact, this argument of N. is not conclusive. We have to remark
that Plato's psychology in the Republic, where the rational part of the
soul is called the leading part or Y}yfjiovix6v, implied this kind of instru-
mentism; so that the differences, arranged by N. in periods of Ar.'s
development, were present at the same time in the thought of Plato.
Why could they not be present at the same time in the thought of Aristotle
too without there marking a different period ?
In the next paragraph we shall find decisive reasons for upholding
the early date of the Protr.

3I1EPI <DIAOi;O<I>JAS

the first 424 ln the first book of his 11. 9tX. Ar. seems to have treated of
the history of philosophy, including the Orient.

a. In fr. 6 R. Ije mentions the magi and the dualism of Zarathustra

(Diog. Laert.J 8).
the magi and
'ApiCTTOT^Xyj*; 8' ev TCpcoTO) Tuepl 9i,Xo<JO9ia<; xal TTpedpuTepou^ elvai (TOIK;

mentioned fAayoix;) TCOV AiyuTCTttov xal Siio xaT* auTOix; elvai ap/ac;, ayaOov Satjiova
xal xaxov Saifxova, xal TCO [xev ovo(xa elvai Zeu<; xal 'Qpo{jiaa8*/]<;, TO) 8e
xal

We know that, in Plato's later years, the Academy was keenly interested in
oriental wisdom. The doctrine of Zarathustra was mentioned also in the Alcib. Mai.,
[424] PERI PHILOSOPHIAS 2Q

certainly not a work of Plato but a product of his school in its early years
l
which is .

See :
J. Bidez, Eos ou Platon et I* Orient, Brussels 1945. Jaeger, Ar.p. 131 ff.

The the Orphic

b. 7 R. mentions the Orphic poems. Ar. distinguishes
fr.
ems
their doctrine, whichis old, from their literary form, which is of a much

later date (Philoponus in Ar. De anima I 5).

[lev yap eicri T<X 86y[JiaTa, TOCUTOC 8e (pvjaiv 'OvojiaxpiTOv ev eraai

Jaeger, Ar. p. 129 explains this as an instance of the author's view that the
f.,
same truths reappear human history several times. Thus in De caelo I 3, 270 b 19
in ,

where he says, speaking of the name of the "first body" (aether) "It seems too that :

the name of this first body has been passed down to the present time by the ancients,
who thought of it in the same way as we do" 2 oo yap <5bra!; ou8 Sic; dXX* dcTreipdbac;
Set vojx^eiv Ta<; OCUTCXC; a<pixvet<jOai. 86e;ac; efcc; 7)(i.a<;.

See also Metaph. A 8, at the end (1074 b 10 )

xotTa T& eix&c; rcoXXaxic; eupvj^vTjc; :

etc; T& SUVOCT&V exaa-nqc; xal T/VT)(; xai cpiXoaocpiac; xal TuaXtv 90etpo[ievcov xod TOCUTOCC; TOCC;
(sc. that the first principles are regarded as gods) Ixetvcov olov Xet^ava Trept-

"While probably each art and each science has often been developed as far
as possible and has again perished, these opinions, with others, have been pre-
3
served until the present like relics of the ancient treasure" .

425 a. In the second book Plato's doctrine of the ideal Numbers Second
was criticized. Fr. 9 R. (Syrianus in Ar. Metaph. 12, 9) :

'O(JioXoye [r/jSev etpyjxevai Trpoc; T<X<; exstvcov (sc. the Platonics before
Xenocrates) uTroOeoreic; (jiYjS' 8Xco<; 7rapaxoXou6ev TOLC; eiS-yjTixocc; apiO^ou;,
ETEpcH Twv fjLaOy][jLaTtxcov elev, (jtapTupsc ra ev TW ^ TCOV Tuepl T^C; 91X0-
TOUTOV TOV Tpovrov n ci(TT e txXXoc; apiOfJioc; at ESeai, {

, ouSefJitav rap! OCUTOU aiiveatv IXOL^SV av. TIC; yap TCOV ye

&XXov

the theory
b. Probably this passage belonged to a general criticism ot the
doctrine of the Ideas. We know, both from Proclus and from Plutarchus, criticized
that Ar. criticized this doctrine sharply in his Dialogues.
Fr. 8 R. (Proclus ap. loann. gramm., de mundi aetern. II, 2):
Ka! xtvSuveiiet (JiYjSev OUTCOC; 6 avyjp exetvoc; (6 'ApKTTOTsXV)^) aTUOTCotyjaaaOai
TWV nXaTCovoc; we; TY)V TCOV tSecov UTcoQecriv, ou JJLOVOV sv Xoytxotc; dtXXa xa! . . .

cv Y]6ixoi^ xaltv ^ucixotc;

. . . xa! ev Tyj (JieTa Ta fueiixa TroXXw TuXeov
. . . . . .

xa! ev TOCC; SiaXoyotc; (ra9^crTaTa xexpaywc; (JLTJ SiivaaOai TCO ^oyjiaTi TOUTCO
<ju|X7caOev x&v TIC; auTOv otY)Tai Sia ^tXoveixtav avTiXeyetv.

1
The arguments adduced by E. de Strycker in Les Etudes Classiques of 1942
are decisive.
2
Transl. of W. K. C. Guthrie.
8
Transl. of W. D. Ross.
 30 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [425]

c. Plut., Adv. Coloten 14 (same fr. R.).

Ta^ y [r/)v tSsa^ TiEpl cov EyxaXst TCO HXaTCOVL TtavTaxou xivcov 6

TX7)<; xal Tcaaav ETraycov dbcopiav airraid EV TOLC; YjOixcH^ u7uo(jtv7)[jLa(Tiv, EV

<(JLT(X TOC <pu(jixa, ev Tol'<;> cpuaixoo^, t,a TCOV s^toTspixcov SiaXoycov, cpiXovEtxo-

Tspov vtot<; 9tXo<ro9coTpov lx etv T ^ SoyjzaTL TOUTCO, co<; 7rpoO(Zvo

eSo^ev 73

TYJV HXaTcovo<; uitEpi&ELv 9 1X0(109 tav OUTW (Jiaxpav ^v TOU axoXouOelv.

think Jaeger right in referring this crit cism of Platonism exclusively to the
;
I is
II. 9tX. Dr. Nuyens defends the thesis that in the Protv. too Platonism was criticized.
We shall see in one of our next numbers that this opinion of N. is erroneous.

426 This book contained further what is called by Jaeger Ar.'s

philosophy of religion.
TWO sources a< Ar., fr. io R. (Sextus, Adv. dogm. Ill, 20-22):
of religious , , , M ^ , , ^ ,

belief ApiaTOTeXr]^ oe a?ro ouoiv ap^cov evvoiav Uecov eXeye yeyovevai ev TO^ av-

c;,
(XTCO T TCOV TTSpl ^U^"J]V GTUfJLpaiVOVTCOV Xal OCTTO TO)V fJLT(Op6)V. aXX'
OCTTO fjLV TO)V TCSpl T7)V ^U^Y)V (TUfjlpatVOVTCOV Sl(X Toi^ V TOt^ UTTVOL^ yiVOfJLEVOU^

vOou<na(7[JLou<; xal Tac; (jiavTLa^. orav yap, 973(7^, EV TOJ UTCVOUV xaO*
yvr^Tai 7) ^u*/*/),
TOT rfjv tStov aTroXapouca 9uortv 7cpo{JtavT\ieTai TE xal 5
7ipoayopUi Ta {jiXXovTa. ToiarjTT] SE SCTTI xal v TCO xaTa TOV OavaTOv x^P^"
f/
TCOV ao)[jLaTCov. a7ioSXTaL youv xal TOV Tuoiyjryjv O(JLY)pov coc; TOUTO
vTa 7T7rot7]X yap TOV (JLEV IlaTpoxXov EV TCO avaipELaOaL Trpoayo-
pUOVTa 7Tpl "ExTOpO^
TYJ<; avat,p<TCO(;, TOV S' "ExTOpa 7Tpl TY]^ 'A^lXXeCO^
TXUT7J^. X TOUTCOV OUV, 97JCTLV, UTCEVOT^CTaV ol avOptOTTOl LVai Tl 0OV, TO Ol
xaO' auTo 01x6^; TYJ ^UXY) TUOCVTCOV ETTKTTYjfJiovixcoTaTov. aXXa SY] xal CXTTO

TCOV [JLETECOpCOV 0aca(JLVOL yap {JLSO* Y)(JLpaV (JLEV YjXlOV TCSplTTOXoUVTa, VUXTCOp
SE TTJV EUTaxTOv TCOV aXXcov aaTSpcov xtvvjaiv, svofjuo^av slvai Ttva Osov TOV
TTJ<; TOtauTYjc; XIVYJGECOC; xal UTaia<; atTiov. TOLOUTO<; (JLEV xal 6 'ApiaTOTeXT)^.

The thought is of Plato and the Academy. Cp. Laws XII 966 d: our nr. 394a-

Cosmic order fo pr n R. Sextus (ib. 26-27) expresses this last view in rather
the existence picturesque colours. The passage may be taken quite well from Ar.'s
of God(s) n.
9iX. II.

"Evioi SE Em T7)v aTcapa^aTov xal EUTaxTov TCOV oupavicov

1
XIVTJCTIV Trapayevo-
(jLEvot 9aai T7)v*ap/7)v Tatc; TCOV OECOV 7rivo(ai<; OCTCO TauTYjc; ysyovlvai TrpcoTOv
J/

COGTUEp yap EL TL<; ETcl T7J? TpCOlXY]^ Xa0^6(JLVO<; ISY]<; SCOpa T7]V TCOV 'EXXYJVCOV
CTTpaTEiav [jLETa TcoXXou x6<T(jLou xal Ta^sco<; TOI<; TueStoi^ Trpoatouaav ,,t7T7u^at;

JJLEV TTpCOTa (TUV LTTTTOKTIV Xal OXa9tV, TCS^OU^ S* E^OTClOEV*', TUOCVTCO^ OCV 6 TOLOOTOc; 5
etc; svvoiav YJXOs TOU STI sort Tt<; 6 SiaTacjacov TTJV TOtauTYjv Ta^iv xal yxXsu6-
JJLEVOC; TOL<;
UTT* auTov xoa[Jiou{JLvoL<; <jTpaTicoTai<;, olov NaTCOp y] &XXo<; TIC; TCOV
 [426] PERI PHILOSOPHIAS 3!

6<; flSei ,,xo<j[ji7Jaai ETTTTOIK; TE xal avepac; aaTaSicoTa*;" xal 8v Tp6?iov 6

vewc; a(jia TCO OeaaaaOai TroppcoOsv vauv oupuo SicoxofJtevyjv
10 xal Tcacn, TOL<; Icmois euTps7ci^o{JLevY)v cruvhr]<Tt,v OTI <m TI^ 6 xaTeuOuvcov
xal ELS TOI> 7rpoxst(Xvoi><; XifJievac; xaravT&v, OUTGX; ot Trp&TOv Etc; oupavov
ava(3Ac^avT<; xal (kaaafjievoi qAiov (JLSV TOUC; OCTUO
avotToAyjs {^eXP 1 &ucra>

Sp6[Jiou<; GTaStsuovTa, aorTepcov Ss EUTOCXTOU^ TLva<; y/jpsia^, ETce^ifjTouv TOV

TYJ<; TcspixaXXou^ TauTY]^ SLaxoa^vjcreo)^, oux ix TauTOfJLaTou

xal

427 The same view occurs in the following interesting passage,

which shows us Ar.'s transposition of Plato's allegory of the den.
Ar.'s trans-
Cicero, De Nat. deorum II 37, 95 (Ar., fr. 12 R.):
^ 1 * . , . . position of
Praeclare ergo Anstoteles si essent, inquit, qui sub terra semper t h e allegory
. ,

habitavisscnt bonis et inlustribus domiciliis quae essent ornata signis of the den

atque picturis instructaque rebus iis omnibus quibus abundant ii qui

beati putantur, ncc tamen exissent unquam supra terram, accepisscnt

5autcm fama et auditione esse quoddam numen et vim deorum, deinde

aliquo tempore patefactis terrae faucibus ex illis abditis sedibus evadeie
in hacc loca quae nos incolimus atque exire potuissent, cum repente
terrain et maria caelumque vidissent, nubium magnitudinem vento-

rumque vim cognovissent aspexissentque solem eiusque cum magni-

lotudinem pulchritudinemque turn ctiam efficientiam cognovissent quod
is diem efficerct tot caelo luce diffusa, cum autem terras nox opacasset

turn caelum totum cernerent astris distinctum et ornatum lunaeque

luminum varictatem turn crescentis turn senescentis eorumque omnium
ortus et occasus atcjue in omni aeternitato ratos inmutabilesque cursus:
1 5 quae cum viderent, profecto et esse deos et haec tanta opera deorum
esse arbitrarentur. atque haec quidem ille.

We have to state that the rupture with Platonism has become a fact here: the rupture
the ideal World a transcendent Reality which alone is truly real and of which w th
sensible things are images the ideal World of Plato has disappeared. There is Platonism
a
just one reality: the sensible world in which we live. Its beauty and order point
the philosopher to a*divine Maker Surely this is a Platonic thought. But in the
1
.

later philosophy of Ar. it has disappeared completely: the Prime Mover of Phys.
VI II and Metaph. A is not the Maker of the kosmos as it is said in IT. 9tX.. II.
Two conclusions must be drawn from this fact :

i. As in this work of Ar. the theory of the Ideas has been abandoned, while

1
Surely not in the biblical sense of a Creator, but in the sense all Greeks gave
to the term: the "Builder of the Universe" who "made the kosmos", i.e. who
arranged formless matter into a kosmos.
 32 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [427]

accepted in the Protr. (our nr. 42 la), it is impossible that the dialogue
it is still
7u. would be anterior to the Protr. Hence the chronology of Jaeger must be
<piX.

right on this point, and it must be stated that the criterion of Nuyens has failed
x
here .

2. in this work, n. 9iX., Ar. admits of a Demiourgos, who "made the kosmos"
As
in the Greek sense of the term, while in the so-called "theology" of Metaph. no A
trace of this view can be found, it is impossible that this last book was written
by its author at a rather early date, such as during the years of Assos or even
before them. On the contrary, the chapters A 7, 9 and 10 represent a very different
mind, and we must suppose that a considerable space of time elapsed between
the half- Platonic view of II. <piX. and the full-grown Aristotelian view of Metaph. A.
So on this point A. Mansion appears to be right when he dates this book of the
Metaph. much later than Jaeger does.
On the other hand, on the well-known words of De caelo I 4, 271 a 33 ,,'O 8k 6e&s :

xal $i <pu(jt<; ouS&v jxar/jv Tcotooatv" a great light is poured by the present fr. from
II. <piX. It has been supposed 2 that these words are a mere literary form, an expres-
sion without any real meaning, because they do not fit in with Ar.'s view of the
Prime Mover in Phys. VIII and Metaph. A. True, but they do fit in excellently
with the belief of the young Ar. in IT. 9tX., who, having rejected the theory of the
Ideas, still keeps the religious principle of Plato that a divine Mind must be the
cause of order in the visible world.

428 The spirit of the Timaeus still speaks in the following fragments
of II. 9tX.
the spirit of a pr .
I4
** R. (Seneca,
\
Ouaest.
V nat. VII 30,
> ~> i):
/
the Timaeus
Egregie Aristoteles ait numquam nos verecundiores esse debere quam
cum de dis agitur. si intramus templa compositi quanto hoc magis . . .

f acere debemus, cum de sideribus, de eorum natura, de stellis disputamus,

ne quid temere, ne quid imprudenter aut ignorantes adfirmemus aut

mentiamur.
scientes

b. Fr. 18 R. (Ps. Philo, TT.

cfyGapata^ xoafjioo, p. 222, 12, Bernays) :

'ApiorTOTeX7)<; Se [JLTJTCOT' eucrepco<; xal

oaicoc; evi<7Ta(jievo^ ayev/jTOV xal

&<p6apTOv 97) Seivvjv Se

TOV xoajjiov slvai,
aOsonqra xaTeyivcoaxe TCOV T<X
evavrfac Ste^ovTCov, ot TCOV ^Lpox(Ji7)TCov ouSev toYjOrjaav Siacpepeiv TOCFOUTOV

opaTOV Oeov TjXtov xal aeXvjvjqv xal TO SXXo TCOV TrXavvjTCov xal dbrXavcov tb$
aXy)6coq TreptexovTa TtavOeiov.
This fr. belonged to the third book TC. cpiX.

A dialectical 429 a. A formal proof of the existence of God seems to have been
existence of given by Ar. in the so-called argumentum ex gradibus.
God 1 from me to pretend that this criterion is altogether useless. No,
It is far
but should be applied with greater prudence and controlled from other points
it
of view.
a
By Mansion in his Introd. a la Phys. Ar.
 [429] PERI PHILOSOPHIAS 33

Ar., 16 R. (Simpl. in Ar., De caelo I 9)

fr. :

Ka06Aoi> yap ev ol<; ecrrL TI P&TIOV, ev TOUTOK; Icrrf TI xal (Scpicrrov. CTTEL

o5v eaTiv ev TOI*;' oSaiv #XXo <5XXou peXTiov, gaTiv Spa TI xal apia-rov, orap
SIT) av TO Oetov.

Anothei proof 17 R.
A second
b. is given in the fr. :

*H apx>) 5) p-ta Y)
TtoXXaL xal ei {Jtev (jita, Sx ^
T^ *)Tou[jievov ei Se

73 TSTayfievat YJ
&TOCXTOL. aXX' el [Jiev <5cT<xxToi, dcTaxTOTepa TOC e^ aurcov, xal
oux e<m xo<T(jio<;6 xoafioc; aXX* axoajjua, xal eaTL TO Tiapa cpiicriv TOO xaTa

) 8vTO<;. ei Se TeTay^evai, Y) e eauTwv eTaxQvjaav y) UTCO e^coOev TLVCX;

<;. aXX* ei jxev 6<p* eauTtov eTaxQ^^av, exouat TI xoivov TO auvaicTov
xaxetvo 73

This text reminds us of the final passage of Metaph. AS: T<X Se ovra ou
TroXiTcijeaOat xax&c "oux dya06v TroXuxoipav(y)" etc.

430 The fragments 18-26 concern the kosmos and the Third book
eternity of the
doctrine that the celestial bodies have souls. With the first thesis Ar.
is against Plato's doctrine in the Tim. (at least as he took it) with ;

the latter he showed himself to be still closely connected with the doctrine
of the Academy.
Cic., De nat. deorum I 13, 33 (Ar. fr. 26 R.). The Epicurean Velleius difficulties

is speaking. doctrine
of God
Aristotelesque in tertio de philosophia libro multa turbat a magistro
suo Platone non dissentiens. modo enim menti tribuit omnem clivinita-
tem, modo mundum ipsum deum dicit esse, modo alium quendam
praeficit mundo eique eas partes tribuit ut rtplicatione quadam mundi
l

smotum regat atque tueatur. turn caeli ardorem deum dicit esse, non

intellcgens caelum mundi esse partem, quern alio loco ipse design arit
deum. quo modo autem caeli divinus ille sensus in celeritate tanta

1
1 do not think, after all, that by the words replicatione quadam Cic. means
a retrogade movement, such as is meant by Plato in Pohticus 270 d (T^J TOU TT(XVT&<;
dcveiXt^eO' an<i D Y Ar. in Metaph. A 8, 1074 a (a9aipa<;
2
aveXiTTouaac;). Since the . . .

chief aspect of Aristotle's theory of the movement of the celestial bodies is that
they move by a motion returning on itself, i.e. by a circular movement, I think that
the plain and obvious sense of Cicero's words is to state that, sometimes, Ar.
admitted a God to whom he attributed the role of governing and m'aintaining the
movement of the universe by a motion returning on itself. Festugiere, Le Dieu
cosmique p. 245 f., adopts the interpretation of J. Moreau who suggests that by
replicatione quadam Cicero meant the movement of the first heaven which turns
round in the opposite sense to that of the planets. In fact, since the motion of the
first heaven is considered by Ar. as the Trpcoryj 90900 (De caelo II 12), one could

hardly qualify this as ''retrograde" or "reacting", such as the movement of the

planets presents itself to us when we compare it with the fixed stars.
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 3
 34 THE EXOTERIC WRITINGS [430]

conservari potest ? ubi deinde illi tot dii, si numeramus etiam caelum
deum ? cum autem sine corpore idem vult esse deum, omni ilium sensu
privat, etiam prudentia. quo porro modo moveri carens corpore, aut 10
quo modo semper se movens esse quietus et beatus potest?

That Velleius found sonic difficulties in Ar.'s theories about the first principle
or God, is comprehensible and not without reason. When he says that Ar. called

now "Mind" God, now the Universe, or "Someone else" whom he put at the head
of it, or even aether (caeli ardorem), we can understand what is behind it. In fact,
Ar. admitted one dcpxv) (fr. 17). He called it God and seems to have conceived his
idea of an Unmoved Mover at an early date: even if Metaph. A 6 and 7 are
much later, we have a proof for the existence of a Prime Mover in Phys. VII i, and
we see Ar. occupied with the problem of motion in the De caelo and De gen. et
corr. In De Caelo 11 3 he calls "the heaven" a Oeiov awpta which as such must be in
eternal movement, i.e. in circular movement. For Oeou Ivepyeta aOavaala, TOUTO 8'
loTl <OY) atSio^. &CJT' avayxY) TCO Oeuo XIVYJCTLV at&tov uroxpxetv. Now, this being so, it
is contradictory to admit of a Prime Mover with the purpose of excluding a regressus

ad infinitum, as is argued in Phys. I. This contradiction remains even when the

celestial bodies are no longer regarded as animated beings having a Oetov acofjux
which consists of aether, as was taught by Ar. in II. 9iX. Ill (see our next nr.).
In Metaph. A 8 we find Ar.'s final doctrine of the celestial spheres which have
each an unmoved Mover, the "first heaven" being moved by the First Unmoved
Mover, who is placed as the first principle above the others. In the same way we
have to imagine that the star gods of II. 9iX. were considered by the author as
inferior to the first principle. The inconsequence, also of the final doctrine, is that,
the circular movement of heaven being considered as a necessary consequence of
its divine character, the relation to a Prime Mover becomes problematic.

the divinity 43l_ a .

Cic.,' De nat. deontm II 15, 42 (Ar., fr. 23 R.).
ofthecelest- _, ,
. .
A ,
t
. T A ^ xu , . ,

iai bodies That the stars are animated beings, was proved by Ar. first by the
following argument.
Cum igitur aliorum animantium ortus in terra sit, aliorum in aqua,
in acre aliorum, absurdum esse Aristoteli videtur in ea parte quae sit
ad gignenda animantia aptissima, animal gigni nulluin putare. sidera
autem aetherium locum obtinent. qui quoniam tenuissimus est et

semper agitatur et viget, necesse cst quod animal

in eo gignatur id et5
sensu acerrimo et mobilitate celerrima esse. quare cum in acthere astra
gignantur, consentaneum est in iis sensum inesse et intellegentiam.
ex quo efficitur in* deorum numero astra esse ducenda.

Plato, Tim\ 39 e, spoke of the four elements as peopled by living beings. Cp.
Epin. 984 d, where the fifth element (aether) is mentioned, an argument for
the later date of this dialogue.
We find the argument again in Philo, who interprets the inhabitants of the
air as angels l and finally in Apulcius, in the De deo Socratis (on the daemonium)
,

VIII 137. He too makes "daemons" out of the inhabitants of the air.

De gig. 2, 7-8; De plantat. 3, 12; De somn. I 22, 135.

 [431] PERI PHILOSOPHIAS 35

Consult: Jaeger, Ar. p. 144 ff.

b. Cic. ib. The

must have a superior intellect, stars thev feed
16, 42-43.
8
because they feed themselves on aether, the finest and lightest of elements. <, aether
Etenim licet videre acutiora ingenia et ad intellegendum aptiora
eorum qui terras incolant eas in quibus aer sit purus ac tenuis quam
illorum qui utantur crasso caelo atque concreto. quin etiam cibo quo
utare interesse aliquid ad mentis aciem putant. probabile est igitur
5 pracstantem intellegentiam in sideribus esse, quae et aetheriam partem
mundi incolant et marinis terrenisque umoribus longo intervallo exte-
nuatis alantur.
The same doctrine occurs in Plato, Laws V 747 d, and in the Epin. 981 e.

c. The divinity of the celestial bodies proved

Cic. ib. (16, 43-44). '
their order
f . , , ,
.
proves that
by their order and by their movement ,

.
they are
Sensum autem astrorum atque intellegentiam maxume declarat ordo animated

corum atque constantia (nihil est enim quod ratione et numero moveri
possit sine consilio), in quo nihil est temerarium nihil varium nihil
fortuitum. ordo autem siderum et in omni aeternitate constantia neque
5 naturam significat (est enim plena rationis) neque fortunam, quae arnica
varietati constantiam respuit. sequitur ergo ut ipsa sua sponte suo
in Theirdivini
"
sensu ac divinitatc moveantur. Nee vero Aristoteles non laudandus
j x -j. x ty proved by
eo quod omnia quae moventur aut natura moveri censuit aut vi aut t h e ir move-
voluntate; moveri autem solem et lunam et sidera omnia; quae autem ment
10 natura moverentur, haec aut pondere deorsum aut levitate in sublime

ferri, quorum neutrum astris contingeret propterea quod eorum motus

in orbem circumque fcrretur; nee vero dici potest vi quadam maiore
fieri ut contra naturam astra moveantur (quae enim potest maior esse ?) ;

restat igitur ut motus astrorum sit voluntarius.

15 Quae qui videat non indocte solum verum etiam impie faciat si deos
esse neget.

Cp. Plato, Laws X, 888 and the Epin. 982 a sqq., where is spoken of an
e sqq.
apiary) pouXeu<Ji<; of the stars, by which they accomplish their circular movement.
point explicitly, e.g. in the Nic. EtH. F 5, 1112 a
21
Later Ar. denies thjs Tiepl :

Toiv d'iSlcov ouSelc;

d. Also the doctrine that nous is of the same substance as the heavenly Notts of the

bodies, viz. aether, appears to have been taught by Aristotle, probably in stance as the
II. T
<piX. heavenly
bodies
Cic., Acad. post. I, 7, 26:

Quintum genus, eo quo essent astra mentesque, singulare eorumque

 36 THE EXOTERIC WRITINGS [43*]

quattuor (sc. elementorum) quae supra dixi dissimile Aristoteles quoddam

esse rebatur.
History of This doctrine, which appears first with Alcmaeon of Croton (our nr. 46b cp. also
;

the doctrine Socr. in Xen., Mem. I 4, our nr. 216, vol. I

p. 145, n. i, and Plato in Tim. 40 b-c,
42 b-d our nrs. 352 and 354b) had a remarkable history. It revived in the Arabian
;

doctrine of the intelligences of the spheres, the last of which is the "active intellect"
of man (intellectus agens separatus). Hence the disputations of Western philosophers
of the 1 3th century: de unitate intellectus (Albertus Magnus, Bonaventura, Thomas,
and again Duns Scotus). In the i6th century we find the doctrine of the consub-
stantiality of mind with the stars in Jacob Boehme. By his influence it appears
again in certain poems of the Dutch i7th century poet Jan Luyken
1
.

e. On the influence of Ar.'s II. <piX. in later Antiquity, in particular the

doctrine of the heavenly bodies, see the volume of A. J. Festugiere, Le dieu cosmique
(La Relation d'Hermes Trisme'giste II), Paris 1949, ch. VIII ff. Also E. Bignone,
L'Aristotele perauto e la formazione filosofica di Epicuro, Firenze 1937; J. Moreau,
L'Ame du monde de Platon aux Sto'iciens, Paris 1939; A. J. Festugiere, Epicure
et ses Dieux, Paris 1946, ch. V.

1
Vid. A. C. M. Meeuwesse, Jan Luyken als dichter van de Duytse Lier, diss.
Utrecht 1952, p. 234/5 and 271 (the modern author did not understand the doctrine).
 TWELFTH CHAPTER
LOGIC
i THE SCHOOL-WRITINGS. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
432 Strictly speaking Ar.'s logic does not belong to the system of
philosophy according to his own intention. Ar. made a systematical
division of all human thinking. There is no place for logic in this scheme.

a. Ar., Metaph. E i, 1025 b

25
:
Ar.'s division
cs, / * x * x A /
of all human
oiavoia TJ TrpaxTiXT] TJ TCOIYJTIXT] 7) UeoapTjTtXT). thinking

The TcpaTTEiv is the province of ethics; it depends on free choice

aeats). The rcotetv aims at the realization of a concrete 'pyov, technical

or artistic. Theoretical thinking has "a kind of being" as its object

(rcepl yevoc; TL TOU OVTOC; eaTiv). Now, as this genus may have three dif-
ferent theoretical thinking contains three main provinces:
species,
physics, which deals with things which exist separately but are not
immovable; mathematics, which has to do with things which are im-
movable but do not exist separately, and the first philosophy (called
metaphysics by a post-aristotelian term) which deals with things which
are both immovable and exist separately.
Ar. expresses this view in the following passage.

b. 1026 a 13 - 18 18 - 19 the three

Ar., ib., ;
:

'H [Jiev yap 90(71x7] Tcepi /wp terra (JLV aXX* o6x axivTjTa, T% Se [laOyjixaTixYJc; theoretical
evta Tcept axtv7)Ta [JLEV
ou /captaTa S^ tarox; aXX' ox; ev uXyj TJ
Se TrpcoTT) xat thinking
r

Tcepl ^(opiara xat axtv7]Ta. '2(TT Tpst^ av etev 9tXo(T09iai OscopTjrtxat,

9i>atx7], OeoXoytxT).
As to the object^of mathematics, Ar.'s formula betrays a certain hesitation:
in fact, he rather inclined to regard mathematical objects as an accident of physi-
is
cal things and it is clear that, in this case, mathematics are rather near to physics.
;

We have to treat this point in our ch. XIII, 3.

c. Ar., ib., 1026 a 19 - 23 Ar. continues after the lines cited sub b: a
.
hierarchy
r\>
Uu yap \ * * ^ v \/\~e/
TO Uetov
~ / / </ * sciences
ao7]Xov ort et TUOU urcapxet, ev TTJ TotauTT) 9ucret
xal T7]v Tt(jLtcoT<xT7)v Set Tcept T6 TtjJttcoTaTov yvo<; elvat. at JJL^V ouv OecopTjTtxat
iXXcov eTTtarTTjfjLcov alpeTcoTarat, auTT] 8k TCOV 0ecop7]TtxSv.
 LOGIC [432]

the object of d. Ar., ib. IO26 a 27 - 32 :

philosohpy Ei [jiev ouv (JLTJ

SOTTI TIC; erepa ouaia rcapa TOC^ <puaei a-uv<7TiQxi>ia<;, YJ

av ELY] TcpcoTT) eTutaTYjfjiT] el 8' gain Ti ouciia axLVYjTOc;, auTT) TcpoTepa xal 91X0-

crocpia TrpooTT], xal xaOoXou OUTOX; cm Trpamq

1
xal Tie pi TOU OVTOC; ^ ov TauTY)^
2
av el'yj Oecopvjaai, xal TI ecm xal TO, uTrap^ovTa fj
ov.

We shall consider this conception of metaphysics more closely in our ch. XIV, i .

The 433
place
of logic
According to Ar. logic has the character of a propaedeusis to all
sciences. He calls it T<X avaXimxa (the term "logic" is of a later date;
it is generally used by Stoic writers in the first century), and Ar. thinks
it necessary to study this discipline before exercising any science at all.

2-5
a. Ar., Metaph. T 3, 1005 b :

J
"Oaa S YX P^ (Tl T ^ v ^YOVTCOV TIVS<;
l '
ruepl TYJC; aXvjOeiac; ov Tporcov SsZ
J

(XTcoS^eaOai, SL aTratSEuatav TCOV avaXuTtxcov TOUTO Spcoatv SeZ yap Tispl

TOUTWV T^xeiv 7cpoTui(TTa(JLvou(; aXXa [JLY] axoiiovTa^ ^TJTSLV.
"As to the attempts discuss the terms on which truth
of some of those who
should be accepted"
Ar. means that the inquiry into the conditions under which beliefs are to be
accepted as true, should not be mixed up with questions about the nature of
reality. It belongs to logic, which should be studied before one approaches the
questions of being, which belong to metaphysics. Ross supposes that with the Ttvsq
TCOV Xcy6vTtov Antisthcnes and his school are referred to 3 .

aXXa axouovrac; ^YJTEIV - One should not inquire into the formal principles of
(JLY)

knowledge which belong to logic while attending lectures on metaphysics.

12 - 14
b. The same principle displayed in Metaph. a 3, 995 a
is :

Aio Set TreTratSeucrOai TT&C; exaora aTuoSexreov, cl)^ &TOTUOV a(Jia

7TiaTY](JLY]V Xal TpOTTOV

Later we find a different division of philosophy.

c. Directly after Ar.
of phii. The Stoics take logic as a part of it, dividing philosophy into these three

parts: logic, physics (including metaphysics), ethics. See our vol. III.

Logic an 434Because then logic had the character of an "instrument" for

"instrument*
philosophy and science, the Ancients gave to it the name of organon.
all

We find this term used in the following instructive passage of Philoponus.

Philoponus'in Ar. Anal. pr. 6, 19 Wallies:
Zy]T7]Teov, TcoTepov [Jipo<; ecmv 7^ opyavov 7) Xoyixv) TE xal StaXexrixY)
xal 8ia96peo<; Soxet TO<; 7raXatot<;

"And must be universal in this way, because it is first".

it
"And the attributes which belong to it".
See the commentary of Ross on this place, Metaph. I, p. 263.
[434] INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 39

Tuepl auTTJ^. ol [JLEV yap Zrcotxol

avTixpi><; [zpos aurvjv a7ro<pavovTat, TOI<;
8uo 9tXoao9ia<; OCUTYJV avTiSiaipouvT<; ol Se IlspLTraTYjTixoi
(jLepecrt, TTJC;

ol dbro 'ApwrroT^Xous opyavov ol Se OCTUO TYJ<; 'Axa8y)|jua<;, &v ecm

xal nXdcTcav, xal [lipoc, xai opyavov 9aivovrat

We may see from this fragment, that the author does not consider logic as the
proprium of Ar. and the Aristotelian spirit: Plato too was a logician, and Ar.
built on the foundations which were laid by him. This view is confirmed by modern
scholars.
See: E. Kapp, Greek Foundations of traditional Logic, New- York 1942.
Cp. also the interesting study of R. Schaercr, La dialectique platonicienne dans
ses rapports avec le syllogisme et la methode cartesienne in Revue de The'ol. et de
Phil. N.S. t. XXXVI, 1948, p. 24-40.

435 The centre Ar/s The

a. logic is his doctrine of the syllogism.
of
This term occurs in Plato's Theaet. 186 d, our nr. 319b, in the general the doctrine
of
sense of thought or reflexion. Ar. uses it technically in the sense of drawing ^e
a conclusion from two theses which have been admitted (premisses).
He gives his definition in An. pr. I i, 24 b
18
:

SuXXoyiajJio^ Si ecm Xoyoc; ev & TsOevTtav TLVCOV erepov TI TCOV xei(Jivcov

si; avayxY)^ <TD(Jipaivi TO) TaCka elvai.

Three of the six works of the Organon deal with the syllogism: the
prior and posterior Analytics, the Topics, and as a fourth may be joined
to them the IT. (109. eX., which is closely connected with the Topics.
The interrelation of these works is as follows:
In the pr. Anal, the syllogism is defined and its various forms are treated.
Abstraction is made of the truth of the premisses, so that the conclusion ought
not to be true (This is what Ar. calls the dialectical syllogism}.
The post. A nal. give the doctrine of demonstration they deal with the apodeictic :

or scientific syllogism, of which the premisses are true.

The Topics are a large collection of arguments, not limited at all to the three
main forms of the syllogism, but displaying a great multiplicity of forms. The II.
009. IX. is often considered as a part of the Topics and cited as the IXth book of them.

x the
b. already remarked that the Topics would have been
Brandis Topics

written very differently, if their author had had in his mind a clear t h e Anal.

conception of the syllogism. The greater part of this work must be

anterior to the doctrine of the Analytics.
This remark has been confirmed by modern critics, such*as Fr. Solm-
2 3 4
sen ,
P. Gohlke and E. Kapp .

1
Ober die Reihenfolge der B ticker des Aristotelischen Organons. Abh. der Berl.
Akad. 1833.
a
Die Entwicklung der aristotelischen Logik u. Rhetorik, 1929.
8
Die Entstehung der ar. Logik, Berlin 1936.
4
Greek Foundations of traditional Logic, New-York 1942.
 40 LOGIC [435]

The latter cites the opening phrase of the Topics in order to prove
that here the doctrine of the syllogism is not presupposed.
18 - 21
Ar., Top. I i, 100 a :

'H (jiev 7tp60eai<; TYJS TupayiiocTeia^ |ji0oov supeiiv, deep* 9j<; SuvYjaofieOa
aoXXoyi^ecrOat, Trepl TTOCVTOS TOO rcpoTeOevTO^ TroopX^fiaTo^ eJ; evSo^cov, xal
Xoyov i>7rex VTS ? (JW)6v epoufiev uTievavTiov.

Next follows: TTpcoTov oftv ir)Teov T e<m auXXoytCTfioc; xal TIVSC; auToo Sux9opai, e.q.s.
Kapp thinks that this has been added later. It more probable perhaps that this
is

introductory chapter has been added later by the author and has been adapted
by him to the characterof the whole work.

. and c i n the Corpus the Analytics are preceded by the Categories

and the De interpr.
The Categ. begin with an explanation of the terms homonymous, synonymous
and paronytnous. Chapters 2 and 3 contain more grammatical than philosophical
remarks. Ch. 4 gives the list of the ten categories, which are explained in the fol-
lowing chapters.
The De interpr. begins with a definition of nouns and verbs, gives remarks upon
simple and compound nouns, on indefinites, on declension and conjugation;
next on sentences or propositions (general, particular and indefinite; affirmative
or negative, and the like).

Now in traditional logic the doctrine of the syllogism is preceded

by a first chapter on terms and a second on propositions. Modern historians
of philosophy, however, have pointed out that in Ar.'s Analytics the
doctrine of the Categories and De interpr. is not presupposed l These .

works may have been added later.

2 THE CATEGORIES: TERMS

aequivocai 436 a. Ar., Categ. i a 1- 3 :

'O[Jic!>vi)(Jia XeysTou &v Svojxa [Jiovov xoivov, 6 S& X<XT<X To(>vo(Jia X6yo<;
Tpo<;, olov coov 8 TE avOpcoTroc; xal TO

univocal 5 x a6_8.
Jb^
2uvcovu(JLa Se XeysTat &v TO TS SvofJta xotv6v, xal 6 xaTa Toiivofxa
ouaLac; 6 auTO^, olov ^coov 8 TC (SvGpcaTcot; xal 6

derivatively c Ib.,
'
I a 12 - 15 :

Ilapcovofxa Se XeyeTat 8cra arco Ttvo^ Sia9lpovTa Tyj TUTCOCTSI TTJV xaTa TOU-

1
Thus E. Kapp in Gr. Foundations etc. It seems to me very doubtful whether
this thesis is right. W. D. Ross says (Ar., p. 21 f.): "The categories some or all
of them appear in almost every one of Aristotle's works, and the doctrine is
everywhere treated as something already established".
[436] THE CATEGORIES 41

vofia TrpotJYjyopl'av g^st, ^ ov t* 710

^S ypaf/,(JiaTiX7J<; 6 ypa(Z(JiaTix6<; xal OCTTO

437 Ar., Categ. 2, ia -

a. 16 19
:
uncombined
Tcov Xeyonvcov T <* (lev xaT<x au[ucXoxY)v XeyeTai, T(* 8* aveu dUfJLTrXoxy)^. combined
TO. JXEV o5v xaTa au[rrcXox7)v olov SvOpcoTioc; Tpexei, words
av8pa>7co<; vtxa* TOC 8'

aveu cri)(JL7cXox9j<; olov #v6pco7ro<;, (3ou^, TpE^SL, vixa.

b. Ib. 4, ib 25 -2a4 :
the te
?
Tcov XOCTOC (jL7]8e[jL(av <ju[Ji7uXoxY)v Xsyofjisvcov Sxao~Tov YJTOI ouaiav

Y)
TTOCTOV 7]
TTOIOV ^ 7Cp6<; Tl 7)
7TOU TJ
7COTS YJ
XEOaOoCl Y) ^Xeiv ^ ^OLELV 7]

Si: ouata [Jiev coc; TUTTCO eiTcetv olov avOpcoTroc;, CTCTTO^ TUOOOV 8e olov
TToiov &
olov Xeuxov, ypa(ji(jLaTt,x6v Trpoc; TI 8s oTov SiTrXaaiov,
piTTY)^
Y)(JLt(Tl), pLEl^OV
V Al)XStO) 1 SV ayopa 7TOTS 8e olov i'$i$j 7TpU<7LV
*
7TOU 8e olov ,
*

xsLdOai 8e olov avdcxeiTOU, xa07)Tat, ex^tv Se olov uTcoSeSsTai, coTrXtcrTai,

Troieiv 8e olov TSfjivei, xaiei Traaxsiv Se olov Tefjiverai, XOCISTOCI.

20 23
The same list occurs in Top. I 9, 103 b - .

In other places xetaOai and ^x etv are omitted the other eight are cited as forming ;

a complete list. So in An. post. I 22, 83 b 15 - 18 Cp. Phys. V i, 225b 5 - 9 2, 226 a 23 - 25 . ; .

Ross (Ar., p. 22) remarks: "It seems as if he had later come to the conclusion
that posture and possession are not ultimate, unanalysable notions".
In Top. I o instead of ouaia the term T <m is used, both in the sense of substance
and in that of essence. In other places Ar. uses in the latter sense the term TO TI vjv
9 - 10
elvoci, e.g. Top. 8, 103 b where he speaks about the "conversion" or interchange
,

of terms:
'AvdcyxY) Trav TO ru&pi Tivoq xaTYjyopo^svov >5 Tot avTLxaTYjyopetaOai. TOO TrpayfjiaToc;
$1 (17) xal el {JL^V avTtxaTTjyopeiTat, 6po<; r) ?8tov av etyj EL (/Iv yap <j7][jLaCvei.
TO TI vjv slvai,
o p o q, el Se (JL7) oYjjjLaivei, t S i o v.

438 Ar., Categ. 5, 2 a -

a. 11 19
:
Substance

a Se ecrnv 7) xupicoraTa TE xal rcpcoTox; xal (jLaXiara XeyofjievT],

UTTOXElfJLEVOU TIVO^ XsyETai (JLTJT* EV UTTOXELfJL^VCO TIVL ECTTLV, olov 6
6 Tic; I'TTTCO^. SeiJTepat Se outrtat XyovTai, ev ol<; etSeatv al
ouatai Xeyofzevai uTcapxouai, Taura TL xal TOC T&V eiScov TOtiTtov yevT], olov 6

TIC; av6p<07co<; ev etSei (Jiev uTrapxet TCO av6pco7rcp, y^voc; 8e TOO etSoix; earl TO

^wov SeiJTepat ouv a^Tat, XeyovTai ouatai, olov 8 Te fivOpcoTro^; xal TO coov.
According to this jpassage oucria in its first and proper sense means: the concrete,
individual being.
Now according to book 2, of the Metaph. substance is not the individual, but the
T ICTTI, i.e. the essence or quiddity, which is neither purely individual for it is the
intelligible "form" of the concrete being nor purely universal for it is bound
up with matter. See: A. M. de Vos, La vraie substance d'apres la Mtiaphysique
1
The fact that the Lykeion is mentioned, is used by Jaeger as an argument
for the later date of the treatise (Aristotle, p 46 n. 3). Butcp. Plato, Euthyd. 271 a.
 42 LOGIC [438]

d'Aristote (in Proceedings of the tenth internat. Congress of Phil., Amsterdam 1949,
p. 1094 ff.). For this reason, S. Mansion (ib., p. 1097 ff.) stating that the doctrine
of the Categ. is the farthest removed from Plato, infers that this treatise is not au-
thentic, as there is no period in Ar.'s development in which we could place it.
L. M. de Rijk argues against this (in Mnem. 1951, p, 148 if. and in The Cat-
egories of being, p. 51 f.).

Definitions Both senses arc mentioned in Ar.'s book of definitions:

of substance
fa Metaph.
,

b A
10 21
in Metaph. 8, IOI7 b , .

XeyeTaL TO. re arcXa awfjiaTa xal 6Xo><; acofjiaTa . . . . . . OTL ou xa0'

vou X^yeTaL aXXa xaTa TOUTCOV Ta aXXa. CTL TO TL . . .
-?jv slvat, ou
6 Xoyoc; opLafJioc;, xal TOUTO ouffta XlysTai exaaTou.

the first c The first sense is also found in Metaph. B 6,

7 9
1003 a - :

sense in two , \ ,

other places ^i (JLSV yap xaUoXou, oux eaovTat ouartat ouuev yap TOW xotvcov TOOS Tt

av)[JLaivei aXXa ToiovSe, YJ S' ouaia TO&E Tt.

34
Metaph. Z 13, 1038 b -iO39 a
2
d. It seems to occur again in :

"Ex TS 87] TOUTWV Oecopoucri 9avep6v OTI ouSev TWV xaOoXou urcap^ovTcov J
ouata SCTTL, xal cm ouSev ayjfJiatvet TWV XOLV^ xaTY)yopoi>[alva>v 2 ToSe TL,
aXXa TotovSe.
Ar. is proving here that universals are no substances. Yet it would be too rash
to conclude that substances are in his final opinion individual things, even when
he gives us some reason to make this inference. He is not yet at his final conclusion.
We have to face the question again in dealing with the metaphysics.
other char- 439
Besides by the definitions, given under 438a, the author char-
of substance acterizes substance by the following three points.

24 25
a. Substances never have contraries. Categ. 5, 3 b - :

'Yrcapxsi' Se TaT<; ouatat^ xal TO fiyjSev auTatc; evavTtov elvai.

b. No substance admits of degrees. 3 b

33 - 34
Ib., :

Aoxet Se v) ouoia (JIY) s7uiS^a6ai TO [xaXXov xai TO YJTTOV.

10 11
Opposite qualifications can be predicated of
c. it. Ib., 4 a - :

MaXtaTa Se tStov TTJ<; ouartac; Soxet elvai TO TauTOV xal ev apiOfjico 6v T&V
evavTicov elvai SEXTLXOV.

3 IIEPI EPMHNEIAL : PROPOSITIONS

440 De interpr. i, i6a
Ar.,
1-8
:

IIp&Tov Set O^crGai TL ovojia xal TL pvj(Aa, IrceiTa TL eaTLv aTro^acrLc; xal
xal a7co9avaic; xal Xoyo<;.

TWV xa66Xou ijTrapx^vreov

- no universal attribute.
2
ouS&v TCOV xowfj xaTY)yopoupivoiv - no common
predicate.
[440] DE INTERPRETATIONE 43

v
E(ra oi5v sv Tfj fl T&V iv rfj cni(A(3oXa, xai T& Words **

173 . xat aat T<X a6ra, ou84

9coval a!
these are
images of
In this case a declaration or statement (dc7r69avat<;) does not consist of grasping things
combinations in reality, but of making combinations of "impressions" (TtaG^aTa)
of the soul. These then may be called "notions* But they are 6pLoici>(jt.aTa of things.
1
.

A statement will be true when it combines two notions which are an image of two
combined elements in reality; it will be untrue in the opposite case. So this passage
10, 1051 b (our nr. 557):
8
does not contradict the famous passage in Metaph.

8k 6 evavTta> e^cov $ rot

In the same way dcXY)6^<; and (fttuftfjc X6yo? are defined by Plato, Soph. 263 b-d
(our nr. 343). Ar. builds on the foundation which has been laid by Plato.

441 His definitions of nomen and verbum are new.

a. Ar., De interpr. 2, i6a19- 21 :

definition
of noun
"Ovofxa [Jiv o5v ecm 90)V7] cnjfJiavTtx'}) xocra 6cveu

<TTl <ry}[AavTix6v xexcopicrjjisvov ev yap

ouSev auri xa0* eauTO cryjfjtatvei, &(T7csp Iv TW Xoyco TO) xaX6<;

According to the definition of X6yo^ (see our next nr.) in ch. 4, this word does
not only indicate a phrase or sentence; it can also indicate a part of it, an "ex-
pression" consisting of words which have a meaning separately. Consequently
the T$ before xaX6s ITCTCCH; ought not to be dropped.

b. Ib. 3, i6b- 8 :
verb

xal Scrav asi TWV xa6* Xeyo(Jivcov (n)(jLecov.

442 a. Definition of logos. Ib.4, 16 b 26 - 30 ;

1 7
17 a - .
phrase or

A6yo cnr)(jtavTix J]
<

xaTa TCOV (jiepcov TI <n}{xavTix6v

Tt xex aXX' ou .
X^yco S6,
5
olov <3cv8p<o7co<; [JLV Tt, aXX oux aXX' l<rrat

,
eav TI
"Ecm 8^ X6yo<; a7^a<; (jilv <n}fjLavTix6<;, . . . 8i ou Tra?, aXX* ev propositions
<5) T& aXTjOeieiv 7^ ^eiSeaOai UTrdcpxei, oux Iv Sc urcapxet, olov eux^)?)

X6yoc (JL^V, aXX' o^Te aXTjG^ o(>Te tjjeuSif)<;. oi o5v SXXot a9tGf0o)crav

yap ^ 7roiY]TtxY]<; otxstoT^pa y)

S^ a7co9avTt,x6<; TTJC; vuv

8 - 12 simple
b. Ib. 5, 17 a .

propositions
*E<ra 8^ el^ 7cpo>To<; Xoyo? ol 8'
 44 LOGIC [442]

X6yov dbrocpavTixiv ex p7)(

elvai 7) 7CTO>aeco<; pvjjjLaTo^ xal yap 6 TOU avOpcoTrou X6yo<;, eav JJIYJ TO &ITIV
7) ^v T)
garai 7)
TOIOUTOV TrpoaTeOyj, ofi-reco X6yo

affirmation, ^ Jfo 5^ a 25- 26 :

6 ecrav a7ro9avort<; TIVOC; xara Ttvo^, a7uo<paat<; 8i ECTTLV a?c6-

TIVOC; OLTCQ

4 THE PRIOR ANALYTICS: THE DOCTRINE OF THE SYLLOGISM

Division of 443 a. Ar., An. pr. I i, 24 a 16 - 22
propositions:
universal,
__, **.,/ / /

llpoTacri^ [xev ouv eari Xoyoc; xaTa^arixo^ v; aTcocpaTixoc; TIVO<; xara

:

>^
particular O 5 TO<? Si 7) xaOoXou ^ ev [jiepsi 73 aSioptaTo^. X^yw Se xaBoXou (JL^V TO wavrl TQ

(jiY)8evl uTrapxetv, ev [jiepei Se TO Tivl Y^ [JLYJ

TLVL yj (JLYJ
TcavTt uTrapxetv, aSiopicrTov
8e TO uTrapxetv uTrapxsw &veu TOU xa06Xou 7] XOCTOC {Ji^po^, olov TO TWV
Y] [JLT)

svavTtav elvai T/]V auTTjv eTrtarTTQjjLYjv 73 TO TTJV 7]Sov7]v JJLTJ elvai ayaOov.
I. ,,lTp6Tacii(; est propositio ad conclusionem inde efficiendam praemissa".
II. The division of propositions into universal and particular is called a division
according to quantity. Ar. makes it first in De interpr. 7, where he gives the fol-
lowing examples:
(a) Universal propositions:
Ila?

(b) Particular propositions:

Tig
ECTTI
ftripcoTto; Uwc6 ) __ Q ,
g aTl s r ^ '

The division into affirmative and negative propositions, which has been made
in De interpr. 6, is called in traditional logic a division according to quality.
Traditional scheme:
a. All x is y Universal affirmative Sa P
e. No x is y Universal negative S e P
i. Some x is y Particular affirmative S i P
o. Some x is not y Particular negative S o P

modality fa Ar. distinguishes also what is called in traditional logic the

modality of propositions. In De interpr. 12 (beginning) he mentions:
SUVOCTOV Xal (17)
&UVOCTOV

'evSe^ojJLevov xai JJLTJ evSex^lJLevov

(what may and may not happen: contingent)
aSuvocTOV xal avayxatov.

The same distinction is made in An. pr. I 2,25 a -

1 2
:

assertoric, 'Eicel Se Traaa TrpoTaat*; ecmv TJ TOU uTrapyetv T\ TOU ei; avayxTic;
apodcictic, * ~
problematic Y)
TOU
[443] THE ANALYTICA PRIORA 45

29 - 30
Again in An. pr. I 8, 29 b :

'Ercel 8* frrep6v ecmv fordpxeiv re xal e avdyxvjc; xa

c. Between the four kinds of propositions which are mentioned sub a the relations
between
following relations are possible.
propositions
Sa P contraries S e P

tessara
logica

SiP subcontraries SoP

1. From
the truth of the general proposition follows the truth of the subaltern
particular ("All men are mortal" "Some men are mortal"), but not inversely.
In modern terminology the general proposition is also called superimplicant
to the subaltern particular, while the latter is called subimplicant to the former *.
2. From the untruth of the particular follows the untruth of the subaltern
general ("Some Romans are not brave" "All Romans are not brave"), but not
inversely.
3. Contradictory propositions cannot be both true or both untrue.
4. Contrary propositions cannot both be true; they can both be untrue.
5. Subcontrary propositions cannot both be untrue; they can both be true.
The third rule is the fundamental law of thinking, on which all reasoning is built Principium :

the principium contradiction is. contra -

dictionis
Ar. does not formulate it in his De interpr., nor at the beginning of his Anal.
But the principle itself is presupposed in his whole doctrine of the syllogism.
It is mentioned as such in An. post. I n, a chapter which deals with axioms
(fundamental theses, which are presupposed without any proof).

444 a. The classical formula of the principium contradictionis is

19 32
found in Metaph. T 3, 1005 b ,
:

T6 atai #(Jia uTcdpxew TC xal \rf\ urudpxeiv aSiivarov TO> auTto xal xara TO
aur6 auTT) 89) Traacov e<m pepaiOTaTY) T&V ap^aiv aSuvarov yap 6v-
TIVOUV TauTov uTcoXajjipavsLv elvat xal (JLYJ elvat. 816 7uavT<; ot a7roSeixvuvTe<;

ei<; TauTYjv avayouaiv ecrxaryjv 86av.

b. Cp. An. p'ost. I n, 77 a 10 - 11 :

avai xal

22- 24 principium
c. Ib., 77 a :

exclusi tertii
T6 8* &7cav cpavai Y] a?tocpavat YJ etc; TO aSiivaTov a7r68et^i<; . xal
8
ouS* del xa66Xou, dXX' 8aov Ixav6v, txaviv 8 eTrl TOU

Consult: S. Stebbing, A modern introduction to logic, London S

i948, p. 58 f.
 46 LOGIC [444]

For instance, a mathematician will not say in general that either the affirmation
or the negation is true, but that this or that line is straight or not straight,
This is the so-called principium exclusi tevtii, another formulation of the princ.
contradictionis.

apodeicticai 445 a. Anal. pr. I i continued (24 a 22 - 26 ):

dialectical Aia9^pet S& ^ aTToSeiXTixT) 7Cp6Taai<; TYJC; SiaXexTix9j<; t STI, ?) jjd
premisses
x?j<|/i<; Gar^pou (Jtopfou 1% dvT^aaecic; ecmv yap IpcoTa, aXXa
(ou
6 daioSeixviicov), ^ SiaXexTtxv) Ipcoryjcru; avricpcSco'eto^ cmv.
This passage shows us which method of reasoning was exercised in the Academy
and was called dialectical by Ar. A dialogue is carried on by two persons. One of
them has the part of questioner, the other that of respondent and opponent.
The question dealt with is called Ttp^pXTjjxa. Every proposition can become a "pro-
blem": you have just to give the form of an dtvr^aats to it: "Is it in this or in that
way?" E.g.: "Is two-footed animal the definition of man, or not ?" Or: "Is animal
the genus of (the species) man, or not ?" 1 The simple question "Is two-footed
animal the definition of man ?" is a proposition. The Avr^acic makes a "problem"
out of it. Now the questioner makes his partner choose his position the responder :

says yes or no. That is: he "grasps one part ol the avT^aai?". Then the questioner
takes the other position. He continues asking. The responder has to see that he
does not contradict himself; the questioner tries to get from the answers of his
opponent a syllogism for his own thesis.
This, then, is the "reasoning from opinions that are generally accepted about
every problem propounded to us" (auXXoyKeoOai ruepl TraWx; TOU 7cpoTe0vTo<;
7cpo(3X^(Jt,aTO< ! !v&6cov), as it was said in Top. 1 i (cited supra, nr. 435b), for
which the author said that he was seeking the right method in that work a method
which, in fact, has been found later in the An. pr.

25 12
b. The same passage continued (24 a -b ) :

OuSev 8 Sicnast, 7rp6<; TO yev^dOai T&V exairpoi> auXXoyiajxiv xal yap 23

2
6 dcTcoSeixviieov xal 6 epcoT&v (TuXXoyt^erai XafScov TI xardc TLVO
3 4
^ |r}) UTcap^siv . COSTS laTai auXXoyumxY)* (jtlv 7cp6Tacrt<; a7rX&<;

^ <&7r69aai<; TIVO<; xaTa TIVO<; TOV eipYjfJilvov TpoTcov, aTuoSetXTixY) S, sav 0X738^ 30
5
^ xal Sta Tc5v e^ apx^<? U7co8eascov SLX^jjievT) , SiaXexTixv] Ss 7cuv6avo[jLv6i 24
6
[xv IpcoTYjatc; avTt^aarecoi; , auXXoyi^o(ievcp Se XTJ^I^ TOU <paivo^vou xal
!v86ou, xa0<iTcep cv

28 37
Examples taken* from Top. I 4, 101 b -
1
.

a - draws
ouXXoyiCeim a conclusion.
8
Xocpe&v e.q.s.
-
"by first assuming that some predicate
1
applies or does not apply
to some subject' (H. Tredennick).
4
ouXXoyicmxT) j/iv Tcp6Ta<jis
- the premiss of a syllogism.
6
8i& T&V i% dtftx^? uTToOloecov eCXTjpL^vYj - "if it is based on fundamental postu-
lates". &PX^fc OKoO^asti; are unprovable first principles, which are assumed in
science: axioms or postulates. Ar. defines them in An. post, I 2, 72 a 14 .

* - a
question to his partner, which of the two possibilities
!p<i>TT)<n<; dtvTi9dtaeco<;

propounded to him the latter will accept.

 [445] THE ANALYTICA PRIORA 47

A definition of proof and dialectical syllogism is given in Top. I i, directly after

the definition of syllogism. We have to cite it later.

446 16 - 18 term defined

An. pr. I I, 24 b :

"Opov 8k xaX& ei<; 8v SiaXuETat TrpoTaa^, olov TO TE xaTY)yopou(ivov xal

Y)

T& xaO' o3 xaTTjyopetTai, ?) TcpoaTiOsfjiivou Y) SiaLpoufjisvou TOU slvai xal JAY) elvai.

447 _a .
Ib., 24 b
18 - 22
:
syllogism

oXXoyicr{Ji6<; 8e ECTTI X6yo<; EV & TsOsvTeov TIVCOV ETEpov TL TWV xeipievcav

avayxTjc; cru(JLpatvei TO) TauTa elvat. Xeyco 8e TW TauTa elvat TO Sta Tau
TO 8e Sia TOCUTOC aufjipatveiv TO [JiyjSevoc; e^coOev opou TrpocrSsl'v
TO yev^aOai, TO avayxatov.

Nearly the same definition occurs in Top. I i.

22 - 26 Perfect and
b. Ib., 24 b :

TeXetov (jiev
oSv xaXoi auXXoyiajjiov TOV [jf/jSevoc; aXXou TrpoaSeofxevov Tcapa syllogisms

eiXY](Ji[jiva Trpoc; TO cpavvjvou TO avayxal'ov, aTeX^ Se TOV TrpocrSsofievov

TcXeiovaiv, a SOTI [JLv avayxaca Sia TWV uTroxetfievcov opt*>v, ou

Sta TupoTacrecav.

I.e.: when the premisses have been formulated incompletely, so that something
must be added in order to make the form of the syllogism complete.
26 30 "To be wholly
C. Ib., 14 b - :

T ^ A contained in"
rpv 'csx ,
*,,\
r , x > N N .
'
lo oe ev oXco ivai Tpov Tpco xat TO xaTa 7ravTO<; xa-r/jyopEoaUai UaTEpou
0(XTpOV TaUTOV ECTTLV. XyO(JLV TO XaT(X TCOCVTO^ XaT7]yOpLCT6at,

^ Xaftetv TWV TOU U7uoxt(ji6vou, xaO' ou 0aTpov ou Xex0Y]aTaL- xal TO xaTa

An example of T& Iv SXqi elvai: All men are mortal. Represented in a diagram:

(All S is P).
p

1 - 13
448 An. pr. 1*2, 25 a :

'Erai SE Tcaaa TupoTaat^ ICTTLV ^ TOU

^ TOU EvS^e^at U7capxt.v, TOUTOOV SE al (JLEV xara9aTixal at 8k
xaG* xaaT7)v 7rp6ap7;aiv, TraXtv 8k TCOV xaTa^aTixwv xal a7T09aTixcov al (JLEV

5 xa06Xou at 8k v (jipt at 8k aSt6piCTTot, TYJV (JLEV EV TCO ujcapxetv xaOoXou aTp>]-

Conversion
TIXYJV avayxY) TOL<; 8poi^ avTtaTp^eiv, olov el [JL7]8[JLia 7]8ov7) aya06v, ouS'
aya06v ouSsv SaTai 7)8ovY) TYJV 8k xaTTjyoptxvjv avTicrrpscpEiv JJLEV avayxatov,
 48 LOGIC [448]

ou [JiYjv
xa66Xou aXX* ev fjtipei, olov el Traaa -/jSovJ) aya06v, xal aya06v TI elvai
Y)8ovY)v T&V Se xaTa9aTix7)v avTiaTp<peiv avayxr) xaTa pipo^ 10
ev [jiipei TYJV [jiev

(el yap vjSovT) TK; aya66v, xal aya06v TI &TTOCI Y)8ov)f)), TYJV Se crTepy)TixY)v oux
avayxaiov ou yap el #v0pco7ro<; (JLY) uTcap^st Tivl fc><o, xal q)ov oux
Tivl

On the modal, qualitative and quantitative division of premisses, see supra,

443a, b.
r/)v (ji^v v TO) uTrdcpxetv xa66Xou etc. - "It is necessary that in universal attribution
the negative premiss should be convertible in its terms". In these and the fol-
lowing lines rules are given for the conversion of terms in assertoric premisses
l
(v TO) uirapxeiv) .

- the
TTjv (assertoric) affirmative premiss.
8& xaTTjyopixYjv
In ch. 3 rules are given for the conversion of terms in apodeictic and proble-
matic premisses.

Figures and 449 n% p Yt J A 26

25 b -26 a
2
.

moods of T ,, .

Ka P? wntes on
,

thls P assa R e:
syllogism
"It is one of the most impressive passages in Aristotle's writings, unsurpassed
in itsproud objectivity, when after careful preparation he introduces his syllogistical
principle, which has predetermined the history of logic for more than two thousand
years".

26- 30
Syllogism a 25 b :

Aicopiafzevcov Se TOUT<OV XeyofJiev r$t\ &a Ttvcav xal TTOTC xal 7uc5<; ytveTat26
(TuXXoytajJLO^ uarepov Se XexTeov Trepl aTroSet^eco^. ?rp6Tepov Se Trepl

auXXoytajjiou Xexr^ov ^ Trepl aTroSei^eo)^ Sia TO xaOoXou jxaXXov elvai TOV

auXXoytapiov YJ piev yap a7u68eii<; auXXoyiafio^ TIC;, 6 auXXoyiajJio^ Se ou Tra^ 30

3
Cp. Top. \ i, 100 a 22 - 33 :
'A7r68eil;u; (Jiev o5v ecmv, oTav it, aXyjOcov xal 7rpoVro>v 6 auX-

Xoyta(jL6(; fj, StaXexTixoc; 8^ cuXXoyLo^oc; 6 iZ, ivSo^wv auXXoYt^M- evo<5 ("which draws
its conclusion from probable premisses").
We shall see proof more precisely denned in the An. post.

The first 32 2
fe 35 b -2& a 1

"
oOv opoi Tpet<; OUT(O(; ex^ai 7rp6<; aXXyjXou^ COCTTC TOV ea^aTov ev 32
oXco elvai TW fia(p xal TOV [jiiaov ev oXco TCO TupcoTw ^ elvai ^ fjt/y) elvai, avayxyj
TWV &xpcov elvai auXXoyiajjiov TeXeiov. xaXco Se (jieaov [lev o xal auTO ev &XX<o 35
xal SXXo ev TOUT<O eaTiv, o xal Tyj 6^oei yiveTai {Jteaov S^pa Se TO auT6 Te ev
6v xal'ev & aXXo ecTiv. et yap TO xaTa TiavTOc; TOU B xal TO B xaTa A
TOU F, avayxv] TO A xaTa 7ravTO<; TOU F xar/jyopeurOat ?rp6Tepov

1
The above sentence might be translated also as: "The assertoric universal
negative premiss is necessarily convertible in its terms".
2
GY. Foundations etc., p. 66.
3
TrpcoTcov is defined in An. post. I 2 as e dpx&v obcelwv.
 [449] THE ANALYTICA PR1ORA 49

40 yap etp>)Tat TTCOC; TO xaTa 7tavTO<; Xyo[Jiev. ofAolw? Se xal e T& (JL&V xaTa A |
Celarent

26a8evo<; TOO B, T& $k B xaTa 7ravTO<; TOU F, STL TO ouSevl TGJ F U7rap?;ei. A
Instance of a syllogism of the first Figure: Example
All men
are mortal (propositio) maior 7rp6Ta<ji<;

Kings are men ,, minor ,, iXarreov.

Therefore Kings are mortal conclusio

Each syllogism contains three terms : the 3 terms

TCX#xp<x (the extremes), namely
T& rupwTov (<5txpov), which is called TO ^etov (terminus maior),
T& &JX<XTOV (<5cxpov), which is called T& gXaTTov
(terminus minor),
and T& jx^oov (middle term, terminus medius), which occurs in both premisses but
not in the conclusion.
The minor extreme (kings) is the subject of the conclusion (S),
the major extreme (mortal) is the predicate (P).
The middle term is indicated by M.
So S must be wholly contained in M, and M must be wholly contained in P. First mood:

Scheme : MaP Diagram :

SaM
SaP Barbara

Or M must be excluded from P. Second mood:

Instance: No man is sincere Celarent

Philosophers are men

Therefore etc.

Scheme : MeP
SaM
SeP

%
c. Two
other r^odes are possible, namely a i i and e i o (second premiss
particular), which are called by the names Darii and Ferio.

d. Ar. concludes his exposition of the First Figure thus (ib. 26 b 28 - 33) :

28, 29 AyjXov Se . . . STL TcavTec; 01 ev auTw auXXoyiajjiol T^Xsiot elm xal STL
31 TravTa T<X TrpopXvjfjiaTa SebcvuTai Sta ToriTou ToG axv^aTos
*
*" Y^P T ^
xal TO fjL>]Sevl xal TO TIVI xal T& (JLY)
TIVI uTtapxetv. xaXco Sk TO TOLOUTOV

De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II

 50 LOGIC [450]

second
pr. I 5, 26b -27a :
34 3
450 a. An.
"
Se TO auTO TCO filv Travrl T<*i Se jnqSevl UTiapxif), ^ exaT^pco TcavTl YJ

jjL7)Sev(, T& (lev ax>)(Aa TO TOIOUTOV xaXco Se^Tepov, (jtaov Se ev auT(p Xya> TO 35
xar/jyopoufxevov afj^oiv, ixpa Se xa0* &v XeyeTat TOUTO, [xet^ov 8e Sxpov TO
Tq> (Jt^aco xeC(jtevov, IXarrov Se T6 TroppcoTepeo TOU [Jtlaou. TtOeTai Se TO

S^co (lev T&V Sxpcov, TUptOTOV Se Tyj Oeaet. TeXetoc; jxev o5v oux SorTat 27

(JLO^ ouSajJLax; ev TO\iT(> TC) axv){JiaTi, SuvaTig

8* eVrai xal xa06Xou
xal [XT]
xa06Xou TCOV 6pcov SvTtav.
Instance of this figure: Every living being moves a
(camestres) No stone moves e
No stone is a living being e

Scheme : PM Diagram :

SM
S P

7- 9
b. In this figure there will be only negative syllogisms. Ib. 28 a :

ArjXov Se . . . 8Tt ou yfcveTOU xaTa<paTtxo<; auXXoytcrfAo^ Sta TOIJTOI) TOU

dXXa TravTec; GTepTjTixoi, xal ot xa66Xou xal ol xaTa

451 a. An. pr. I 6, 28 a 10 - 20 :

'Eav Se TO> auTCJi TO fzev TcavTl TO Se [JL7]Sevl uTrapxfl, >3 ^(A^co TravTl 7^ fjiy]Sevt,
10
TO [xevax^(Aa TO TOIOUTOV xaXco TptTOv, (jieaov S' ev auToS Xeyco xaO' o5 &[iyu>
Ta xaTTjyopoujJLeva, <5cxpa Se T<X xaT7]yopo\i[JLeva, (Jtei^ov S* dcxpov TO Tcoppca-
Tepov TOU (xeoou, SXaTTOV 8e TO eyyuTepov. TtOeTat Se TO [jiaov e^ca jxev Tc5v
ixpcov, Sa^aTov 8e Tyj O^aei. TeXeto<; (JLCV o5v ou yiveTai auXXoyi(j(jL6(; ouS* ev 15
TOUT6) T<I) ax^ocTi, SuvaTO<; S' e'aTai xal xa06Xou xal (JLTJ
xaOoXou TCOV opcov
Darapti gvTcov Tipo^ TO [Jieaov. xaOoXou [xev o5v OVTWV, 8Tav xal TO II xal TO P
T<j> S uTcapXY), ^TI Tivl Tw P TO II uTrap^eL e^ avayxyjc;.
Instance of this figure: Every seal is a marine animal a
Every seal has lungs a
Some marine animals have lungs i

Scheme: MP Diagram:
MS
SP
 [451] THE ANALYTICA PRIORA 51

14- 18
b. In this figure will occur only particular syllogisms. Ib., 29 a :

Oavepov 8e . . . STI auXXoylcraaOai, TO xa06Xou Sia TOUTOU TOU

oux gaTai, OUTS CTTep-yjTixov oftae xaTa<paTtx6v.

452 The Rules of the

principal rules of the syllogism have been formulated expli-
citly by Ar. in the later chapters of the same book.

36 - 37 three terms
a. An. pr. I 25, 41 b :

/ ~ 3 x
required for
AyjXov 8e . . . STL Tcaaa dcTroSet^i^ <rrai Sia Tpuov Spcov xal ou 7rXei6va>v. demonstra-
tion
32 - 33
b. Ib., 42 a :

TOUTOU 8' 8vTo<; cpavepou SyjXov ax; xal ex Suo TcpoTaaecov xal ou TcXeiovtov prci ^ig 8e8
01 yap Tpei<; Spot Suo TUpOTaaei^. required

the middle
c. An. pr. I 32, 47a 39 -b 6
:

term in both
x , , e ,

39 'AvayxT] ... TO [ASCTOV ev ajicpOTepai^ UTrapxetv (sc. Tat^ TrpoTaaeaiv )

ev premisses
a*7ra(7i TOLC; ax^atriv. eav [lev o5v xaTYjyop^ J xal xaTTjyop^Tat TO [Jieaov,

47 b^ auT6 [Jtev xaT^yopTJ, <5tXXo 8' SXSLVOU aTrapvTJTai, TO TrpwTOv SaTai cr^fxa-
eav 8e xal xaT7]Yopyi xal aTrapvYJTaL OCTUO TLVOC;, TO [Jteaov 2 eav 8* &XXa exetvou
3
xaTYjyopTJTai, 7) TO (JLSV aTrapv^Tat TO 8e xaTTjyopyJTai, TO ea^aTov OUTCO .

5, 6 yap elxev ^ v sxaaTco (rx^aTt TO |A<TOV.

6 - 13 In ever y
d. ^4n. r
^r. I 24,
"*> 41 b
^ :

syllogism
6 4
"ETL TS ev aTcavTi (sc. auXXoyt(T[jL<p ) Set xaTYjyopixov Tiva TCOV fipwv elvai one premiss
xal TO xaGoXou ujcapxetv aveu yap TOU xa06Xou 73 oux eaTat auXXoytafio^,
ou Tipoc; TO xetjievov 5 \ TO e^ apx^^ atTYjaeTai 6 KeiaOa) yap TTJV fJLouartxyjv . and one
7 universa
io7)Sov7)v elvat ajuouSatav. et fjiev o3v a^icoaeiev YjSovrjv elvai aTiouSaiav, (JLYJ

7cpoaGel<; TO ))7iaaav((, oux eaTai auXXoyia[Ji6<; ei 8e Tiva 7j8ovY)v, ei [Jtev

8
(StXXyjv,
ou8ev Tipoc; TO xeifxevov, et 8'
auTYjv TauTr^v, T^ e^ ap^% Xafi^avei, .

453Syllogisms of the second and third figures are to be controlled

by reducing them to the first.

lav xaTYjyopTJ - if it is a predicate.

T& you have the middle figure.
jjilaov
-

goxaTov then you will have the third

T& -
figure.
- affirmative.
xaTY)yopix6v
ou Tup6<; T& - the conclusion will be unrelated to the assumption.
XE^EVOV
petere id quod ab initio ad demonstrandum propositum
T& -
apx^S alretaOai
est\ what is called a petitio principii. See our nr. 454.
7
dtuoaeiev - If we postulate or assume.
- there is a
Xa(jtpavei petitio principii.
 LOGIC [453]

All imperfect a An. r

4>r. I 7 aqa 30 - 39 :

syllogisms ,
are validated $avepov Se xal STI TravTe^ oi aTeXeic; cuXXoyiafJiol TeXeiouvTai Sia TOU 30
l
TTpcoTou orx^fJLaTOc;. Y) yap 8eixTixo><; >)
Sia TOU aSuvaTou rcepatvovTai 7tavTe<; .

d(Ji90Tepa><; 8e yiveTai TO TipaVrov ax^a, SeixTixcoc; (Jiev TeXeiou|Jivcov, STI

2
Sia TYJ<; avTiaTpocpyjc; evrepaivovTO 7ravTe<;, r\
8* avTiaTpo^T] TO TcpcoTOv eTcotei
x, Sia Se TOU aSuvaTou Seixvufjievcov, STI Te6evTo<; TOU ^euSou^ 6 auXXo- 35

yiveTai Sia TOU TrpcoTou a^H-aTO*;, ^ ov ^v T ^ TeXeuTaito a/TQfiaTi,

ei TO A xal TO B TiavTl TOJ F uTtapxei, STI
3
TO A Tivl TW B uTcap^ei. ei yap
[jLTjSevi, TO 8e B TcavTl TW F, ouSevl TCO F TO A. aXX
s

?jv TravTi. ofioicoc; Se xal

e?ul Toiv &XXcov. 39
In the second and third figures syllogisms are reduced to the first "by means
of conversion", i.e. by transposing the terms of one of the premisses. E.g. in a
syllogism of the form
)
(third figure) the terms of the second premiss should be converted.
/ JVl o
We then get a syllogism of the form
MP )
$
(first figure).

Every de- b. An. pr. I 23, 41 b 1- 5

.

monstration
reducible to In the preceding passage Ar. has spoken of the procedure of hypothe-
the first tical proof Now in this case too a demonstration is to be reached by prov-
.

ing some proposition syllogistically. Ar. continues:

Ei Se TOUT* Traaav dar6Sei!;iv xal TuavTa auXXoyi<T(ji6v avayxyj yivedOai b
aXrjGec;,
Sia Tpi&v TCOV TrpoeipYjfxevcav a^fJiaTCOv. TOUTOU 8e Sei^OevToc; SvjXov ax; aTcac;
Te auXXoyiajjLcx; emTeXeiTai Sia TOU rcpcoTou ax^aTO^ xal avayeTai ei^ TOIX;
ev TOUTO) xaOoXou auXXoyicyfjiou^. 5

Petitio 454 An. pr. II 16, &4b 28 -65a4 :

principii
To S* ev apxfj aiTeiaOai xal Xafjipdcveiv e<JTi (JLV, co<; ev y^vei Xa(3ecv 4 , ev 28
TCO (AY)
otTToSeixvuvai TO TTpoxeifjievov, TOUTO 8e eTuicu^patvei TcoXXaxw^ xal
s

yap ei 6Xco(;
[JIT] auXXoyi^eTai, xal ei Si ayvcacrTOTepcov vj 6(Jioio)(; ayveoaTtov, 31
xal el Sia TCOV uaTepcav TO TrpOTepov Y) yap aTuoSei^it; ex TriaTOTepov Te xal

TcpOTepcov eCTTiv. TOUTCOV jiev ouv ouSv eaTi TO aiTeiaOai TO e^ ap^vjc; aXX'
e?rel TCX (/.ev
Si' auT6>v Trl^uxe yvtopi^e(J0ai Ta Se Si* SXXcov (at [Jiev yap ap^al 35

Si* auT<ov, Ta 8* UTCO T<X(; ap^ac; Si' ocXXcov), OTav [JLTJ

T(i Si* auToG yvcoaTOV
J
Si* auTou TK; eTuixeipf) Seixvuvai, TOT aiTetTai TO e^ apx^^. TOUTO 8* IGTTI (Jiev

- all the conclusions are reached.

TrepatvovTat 7ravTs<;
8etxTtxw<; by demonstration.
-

yj
Sia TOU dtSuvdtTou - or by reduction ad impossibile.
8ia TYJ<; dvTioTpo9yj<;
-
by means of conversion.
6n - we get a syllogism to the effect that .

& v yvei Xa^eiv - to take the

expression in its widest sense.
 [454] THE ANALYTICA PRIORA 53

TO 7rpoxi(jivov,

40 ere* dcXXa dcTTa TG>V 7r9ux6Tcov 81 exevou SetxvuaOai 8ia TOUTCOV dcTcoSsixviivai,

65 a TO apx^k* ^ ov e& To A SEIXVUOITO 8ta TOU B TO 8e B TOU F, TO Se F

SL<X

SetxvuaOai Sta TOU A au^patvei yap auTo 81 auTOu TO A

Ssixviivai,

OUTO> auXXoyio|Ji'vou<;.

Strictly speaking there is petitio principii when the conclusion is

included in one of the premisses.

455 13 - 19 induction
a. Top. I 12, 105 a :

'ETcaycoyy)
'

(IdTiv) YJ
dbro T&V xaO' IxaaTOv em Ta xaOoXou 9080^, olov
et ICTTL xu(3pvY)T7)<; 6 7TL(iTa(JLVO<; xpaTLaTO<; xal YJVIO/O^, xal oXco^ EOTTLV 6
s

TCpl SxaaTov apiaTo^. eaTi, 8 Y] (JLSV eTOxycoyT) TiiOavwTepov xal

xal XOCTOC T'Jjv aLaOvjaiv yv(opi[jLa>Tpov xal TOI? TroXXotc; xot,v6v x ,

2
6 8s:
auXXoyiajjio^ ptacTTtx(OTpov xal 7up6<; TOIX; avTtXoyixouc; VpyorTpov.

b. from the preceding passage, that induction, by which

It is clear

we conclude a general law from a number of particular cases, is no

syllogism. Yet Ar. treats it as a kind of syllogism in the following
passage.
An. pr. I 23, 68 b 15- 37 :

ouv xal 6 TO 8ia TOU 3 dcalt with

15 'ETraywyy] (JLv ECFTI E ETcaycoyyjc; m>XXoytcr(Ji6<; Tpou
6aTpov axpov TW (ji(TO) auXXoyiaacjOai
4
,
olov i TCOV AF JJLECTOV TO B, Sia TOU kind O f
F 8t^ai TO A TO) B i>7rapxtv OUTCO yap 7rotou(ji6a Ta<; 7ray6)yac;. olov <7T6) syllogism

TO A (Jtaxpoptov, TO 8' 9' &B TO x^V M-^ X OV ^9* w S F TO xaO' SxacrTov

20 (jiaxpopiov, olov avOpoj7ro<; xal titno$ xal Y][JLIOVO^. TO) SYJ
F oXq) uTrap^EL TO
A* Trav yap TO a^oXov (jLaxpo^tov 5 aXXa xal TO B, TO (r/) ^ov
. v 7ravT ^ X^ )

l)7TapXt TW F. OUVL
aVTtC7Tp9l TO F TO) B Xal (Jl7] U7TpTtVt TO (I(70V
6
,

25 avayxY] TO A TCO B uTrap^ELV S8i,XTat, yap 7rpoTpov OTt av Suo aTTa TW

UTrapxy) xa>l ^po^ 6aTpov auTcav avTtaTp97) TO axpov, OTt TO)

xal OaTpov U7uap^t TCOV xaT7]yopou(jtvo)v
7
. 8cl 8s votv TO F TO
29 TCOV xa0' xaarTov auyx[(JLvov 7) yap iTraycoyv) 8ia TTOCVTCOV.

1 -
xoiv6v accessible.
2
ptoccmxcoTEpov
- has more force to overcome opposition.
8
Sia TOU Irfpou -
by one extreme term, sc. the minor extreme, namely concrete
cases.
4
establishing a relation between the other extreme and the
-
CTuXXoytaaaOai
middle term.
6
This remark is a petitio principii. Tredennick has seen rightly that these words
cannot be attributed to Ar. Ross explains them by suggesting that a copyist has
substituted #xoXov for F.
8 - if the middle term is not wider in extension.
el .jjd) uTiepTeCvet T& jxaov
7
Constr. Odcrepov TCOV xaTyjyopou^vcov - the other predicate.
 54 LOGIC [455]

"Ecra 8* 6 TOIOUTO^ auXXoyi<7|Ji6s TYJ<; TrptoTY)^ xal a[jiaoi> TrpoTaaea)^ &v

yap <TTI fjilaov Sia TOU [xeaou 6 CTuXXoyKT^o^, &v Se [JLY) ecm, Si* eTrayayyyjs.
xai TpoTiov Tiva avTixetTai YJ eTcayoyy] TCO cyuXXoytaptco 6 (JLSV yap Sia TOO

(leaou TO Sxpov TC> Tptacp Seixvocnv, YJ Se Sia TOO TpiToo TO Sxpov TCO (JL^CTCJ).
9UGTSI [lev o5v 7cpoTepo<; xal yvtopL(jLcoTepo<; 6 Sia TOU [JL^CTOU cn>XXoyia{Ji6<;, 35
jLtv 8* evayeaTepo<; 6 Sia TT
"This kind of syllogism is concerned with the first or immediate premiss" (1. 30).
AT. means to say that induction supplies, without the aid of a middle term,
the universal proposition which may stand ?s major premiss of a demonstrative
syllogism. Concretely speaking: by means of some special cases (man, horse and
mule) the universal proposition is established.:
Every bileless animal is long-lived.

Now this proposition might be used as the major of the following demonstrative
syllogism :

Every bileless animal is long-lived

Man, horse and mule have no bile
Therefore: man, horse and mule are long-lived.
Induction is from observation; but
clearer for us, Ar. says, because it starts
objectively speaking 9uaei the syllogism, which proceeds deductively, from the
universal to the particular, is clearer and "more knowable".
By his theory of induction Ar. has given an answer to the question which has been
left open in the Pr. Anal.: How do we get our first premisses ? Consequently we
might expect that he would introduce induction as another means of getting
knowledge next to the syllogism. In fact, induction has this meaning in An. post.
I 1 8 and 31 (vid. infra). Cp. also An. post. II 19. On the other hand, if induction
is treated as a syllogism, it is a bad kind of syllogism, and therefore its conclusions

cannot be true. For this reason then only the syllogism is treated by Ar. in his
doctrine of demonstration, while induction is dealt with in the book on dialectical
syllogism.

induction c j n thi s sense we have to understand Ar. when he An.

says, in pr.
non-demon- TT
strative but H 23,
x-
DO D
, 14
14
!

dialectical "AraxvTa yap 8ta CToXXoyia^oij

TtiaTstiojjisv 7) vj IJ; e7caya>y9j^.

5 THE POSTERIOR ANALYTICS: THE DOCTRINE OF DEMONSTRATION

Thestudent's 456 a. An. I 1 - 11
need of post. i, 7ia :

^ ^ x
pre-existing Haaa St8a<TxaX[a xal Tcaaa (jiaOTjcr^; SiavoyjTixy) ex Tcpo/JTcap^oucnq*; ytveTai a
knowledge
yvcGaeca^. 9avep6v Se TOUTO Gscopouaiv srcl icaawv at TC yap (JLa0yj[JUXTtxal
T&V e7ri(iTY)(JL(ov Sia TOiiTou TOU Tp67tou 7rapayvovTai xal TCOV SXXcov exaaTY)
Teyvcov. ofjLota^ Se xal icepl TOIK; Xoyou^ oE TS Sia cyuXXoytajJicov xal ol 81* 5
S7ray6>y9]<; a^oTepot yap Sia Tcpoytvcoffxofilvcov TcotouvTat TYJV

CY)
-
"by means of discursive thinking", as opposed to the intuitive
"seeing" of the nods.
 [456] THE ANALYTICA POSTERIORA 55

* 2
OL (Jiiv Tuapa UVLVT<OV, ol Si
Xa|JipavovTe<; SeLxvtivTec; TO xa66Xou SLOC TOU
<*><;

89jXov elvai TO xa0' SxaaTov. ax; 8' auTto<; xal ol

p-yjTopLXol aujJLTrelOouaiv
10 yj yap SL<X TuapaSeiyfjiaTcov 3 8 eanv eTrayoayy), 73 Si* ev6u|JLY)(JLaTcov 4 , #7rep
,

earl ai>XXoyLcr(Ji6<;.

11 - 16 Its nature
b. Ib., 71 a :

5
ALX& avayxaiov TcpoyLvcoCTxeLV TO. [xev yap, STL CTTL
8* , TrpouTroXa^paveiv
avayxaLOv, 8k TL T& Xeyojjievov ICTTL 6
T<X iwevai Set, TOC ,
8* <5c[A9<o, olov
&TL
7
(jtev
arcav yj cpTJcrar ^ aTTO^Tjaat aXvjOec; STL S<m ,
TO Si Tp^ycovov, STI ToSl
8
t
, TYJV 8s (xovaSa (JfJi^co, xal Tl onrjjjialvei xal STL

9 - 12 Knowledge
457 a. ^4n. />os^., I 2, 71 b :

'ETrtaTaaGai Se otofJieO' xao~TOv aTrXcoc;, aXXa (JLTJ

TOV O^ICTTIXOV Tp67cov
T^V xaTa au[jLpepY]x6(;, Tav TYJV T' aiTiav oia>[JLe0a yivaWxsiv Si* YJV TO 7rpay[jLa

eaTtv, STL exetvou atTta eaTi, xal [li] ev8^ea0at TOOT* &XXco<;

Real knowledge is according to Ar. (i) knowledge of the causes; (2) knowledge :

of the necessary, where we can see that it cannot be otherwise. So also in Metaph.
A 1-2.
In An. post. II i Ar. says: We can ask ourselves four kinds of questions, namely:
T& #TI, TO 8i6Ti, (mv. Now the knowledge of the simple fact (TO 8ri)
el gaTi and T
is, according to Ar., not yet true knowledge. then have to know the 816, We
and in such a way, that we see that the thing cannot be otherwise.
The last point means that knowledge in the strict sense of the word is only
possible of what is necessary, not of the contingent. See our next cited passage.

b. Ib., I 33, 88 b 30- 35 :

To 8* eTttcmrjTov xal 7aaTY][i7) 8ia<pepei TOO 8oaaTOu xal 8ofyi$, STI Y) (Jiiv

7tt<TTY)[ji7)
xaOoXou xal Si' avayxaicov, T& 8* avayxacov oux evSex^oct <5cXX<o<;

Ixew- e'ffTi Si Tiva cxX7]0Y) (Jiev xal 8vTa, ev8ex6fjieva

Si xal <5cXXa><; Sxetv. S^Xov
o5v STL rcepl [Jiiv TaoTa ETCLaTiQfJiT] oux O~TLV SLTQ yap av aSiivaTa (5cXX<oc;

Ta SuvaTa #XXco<;

1
ol JJL^V e.q.s.
- "In the first case (i.e. with syllogism) we take premisses supposing
that they are known and accepted by our opponent".
2
ol 8^ - "In the other case (i.e. with induction) the universal is exhibited through
the fact that the particular is clear".
3
The instance infers the particular from the particular and therefore is called
by Ar. an imperfect form of induction, by which the universal is inferred from the
particular (See An. pr. II 24).
4
In An. pr. 1127 enthymema is defined as a syllogism starting from probabilities
or signs.
8
ra - "that the matter in question exists", i.e.: the fact must be assumed.
ort
8
T& Xey6^ev6v ion - "the meaning of the term used".
T(
7
"E.g. to say that in every question truth lies in the affirmation or negation,
that is to assume the fact" (First case).
8
Second case: the meaning of the term.
 56 LOGIC [458]

458 a. Ib. I 2, 7ib 16- 25 :

demonstra-
ra- 1
16
8s xal 81 aTcoSet^ecoc; EiSsvai. aTcoSei^iv 8 Xsyto auXXoyio~(Ji6v E
E7tlCTT7]plOVlx6v 8s XsyCO Xa0' OV TCO xeiv a UTOV 7Ul(JTa[Jl0a. El TOIVUV O~Tl

TO 7TiaTaa0ai olov E'OE^EV, avayxr) xal TTJV a7ro8LXTixy)v ETuaTyjiJiYjv ! aXy)0tov 20

T' elvai xal TtpcoTtov xat a^acov xal yvcopifJuoTepcav xal Trporepcav xal aiTicov
2
TOU (TU[X7repaa(jLaTO(; OUTW yap ecrovTai xal at ap/al ofxetai TOU Seixvufievou .

(Jtev yap earai xal <5veu TOUTCOV, aTuoSei^t^ 8' oix ScrTat ou yap

7Tl(JTlf]|JL73V. 25

Its b. The same passage

^ 5 continued (71
V/ b 25-72
/ a 5/ ) :

conditions
examined i. The premisses must be true.
'AXY)Oyj [lev oijv Sei elvat,, OTL oux edTi TO (JLY)
ov 7it(JTaCT0ai, olov OTI y)
Sta- 25

2. They must be primary and indemonstrable.

'Ex Tcpo>Tcov 8* avaTroSaxTcov, OTI oux 7rt,aTY)(TTai {JLY) E'X^V a7To8i^iv aii- 26
TO yap 7rtaTa(T0au oiv aTCoSfii^ic; EGTTI JJLT)
xaTa <TU(JLpp7]x6i;, TO E'XSW
(TTLV.

3. They must be the causes of the conclusion, better known than it,

and prior to it.

AiTia T xal yvcopt(jLCOTpa SEI Eivai xal 7rpoTpa, atTta (JLV oTt TOTE ETTI- 29

aTa(jL0a OTav TTJV aiTtav iS(o[jLv, xal rcpoTEpa, L7Tp atria, xal 7upoytvca<rx6-
[IVa OU [JLOVOV TOV TpOV TpOTTOV TO) ^l)VlVai, aXXa Xal TCO lSVat 4 OTI (TTLV.

What is meant by "prior" and "better known".

s

IlpoTEpa 8 CTTl xal yvcopifjLO)Tpa Si^coc; ou yap TauTov TTpoTEpov T^ 9\iai 33

xal ?rp6<; 7](Jiai; 7rpoTpov, ouS yvtopi(ia>Tpov xal yjfjiiv yvwptfJicoTEpov. Xlyco 72 a

SE TTpo^ Yj(JLa(; JJLEV TrpoTEpa xal yvcapipicoTEpa T<X lyyuTEpov TYJC; aidOyjarECOc;,

aTcXco^ SE TupoTEpa xal yvcopifxcoTspa Ta 7uoppo)Tpov. E'CTTI 8s TcoppwTaTco [JLEV

s
Ta xaOoXoo (jtaXiciTa, EyyuTaTto 8s Ta xa0 ExaaTa xal avTixeirai TauT* 5

Cp. Metaph. A n, 1018 b

32 - 34 : Kara JJLEV yap T^V X6yov Ta xa06Xou Trporepa, xara
Ta xaO*
TTJV afo07)<7iv

1
He means knowledge of the first, non-demonstrated principles. The question
:

is dealt with in I 3, I 10, and most of all in II 19. See our nrs. 459, 460 and 465.
2
"Unless these conditions are satisfied, the basic truths will not be appropriate
to the conclusion" (G. R. G. Mure).
3
"that the diagonal of a square is commensurate with its side" would be a
(JLT) 6v, and as such it cannot be the object of demonstration.
4
Not only in the second sense mentioned in 456b, namely that of under-
standing the term used, but also in the first sense: that of knowledge of the fact.
 [459] THE ANALYTICA POSTERIORA 57

"The premisses must be primary and immediate", Fir st

459 i.e. not de- . .

ducible from other premisses. This leads directly to the question how mdemon-
we can know our first premisses and whether there is another kind of strabie
knowledge which does not depend on demonstration. Ar. states first
that we have to start necessarily from indemonstrable first principles.
5- 7 18 - 25
An. post. I 3, 72 b ,
:

'Evtoi (JLSV o5v Sia TO 8etv Ta Tcp&Ta ETCiaTaaOai ou 8oxeZ eTuoTTjfjuq elvat,
l's 8' elvai [Jiev, TTOCVTOV (jievTot a7roSei?;ei<; eivai.

18 ieu; 86 cpafxev eTcianrjiryjv aTCoSeixTwajv eZvat, aXXa TYJV TCOV

OUTS Traaav
20 afjtecrwv avaTroSeixTov. xal Tou6' OTI avayxaiov, 9avepov ei yap avayxr] [lev
eTricrracrOai Ta rcpoTepa xal e &v 73 a7r68eii<;, idTaTai 8e TUOTS Ta a(Jieaa,
TaijT* avaTToSeLXTa avayxv) elvai. TauTa T* o5v OUTW Xyo[Jiev, xal ou [JLOVOV

25 eTUcrnfjjJiTjv aXXa xal ap^yjv eTridT^fAYji; elvat Tiva 9a(jiev, fj TOIX; Spouc;

Ar. means that beside demonstrative science there exists a higher and more
fundamental science, which precedes demonstration, namely the intuitive know-
ledge of the first principles (apxat) by the noils.

460 Ar. deals with first principles in chapters 10 and IT of An. post. I.

An. 31 - 32 First
a. post. 1 10, 76 a :

principles
Alyeo 8
J

ap^ac; ev exacrTco yevei

l
TauTa<; ac; OTL R defined

What are
b. Ib., 76a 37 -b 16 :

special
"Ecm 8' &v xpwvTat, ev rate; aTuoSeLXTixatc; 7ri(jTY)[JLai(;
Ta [Jisv tSia

7ut(jTy](jL7]<;
Ta Se xotva, xotva xaT* avaXoytav, eral xp^crtpLov ye ocrov ev TO>
Ss:

4 UTTO T7)v e7n,(TTYj(Ji7]v yevet,

2
. ^Sia [xev olov ypa[JifJiY)v etvai TOiavSt, xal TO eu0ii 3 ,

s
xotva Se olov TO taa arco fecov av 9^X7), OTL taa Ta XoiTia. ixavov 8 exaaTov
J
76 b TOUTtov OCTOV ev TO) TauTO yap xav xaTa TuavTcav Xapyj aXX
yevei TuotYjceL, (IT)

eTul [jLeyeOcov (Ji6vov, TW 8* apiOjjiyjTixto ere' apLO[Acov.

4
8' USta [xev xal a Xa^paveTai, elvat, , Trepl a YJ e7rtaTY)(jL7] OecopeZ Ta

1
Iv IxaaTco yevet - in every branch of science.
2
What means by the analogous character of the xoiva, is clear from the
Ar.
example given infra: "Take equals from equals and equals remain". This rule
can only be applied "in the genus which constitutes the province of the science
in question"; e.g. geometrical magnitudes cannot be subtracted from numbers,
nor numbers from geometrical magnitudes. But "the geometer may apply it to
magnitudes and the arithmetician to numbers"; i.e. magnitudes can be subtracted
from magnitudes, and numbers from numbers.
3
vpa^V elvat roiavSl x. T& euOu - the definitions of line and straight.
4
& XafzpaveTcu elvat - sc. by the special sciences.
 58 LOGIC [460]

'
l
xa aura j
ofov [xovaSaq Y) apiOfnrjTiXY), Y)
Si:
yecofxerpia ay)(Jieia xal 5
1
^. raura yap Xafjipavoucri TO slvat xal ToSi elvai. TOC 8e Toircov TraO"/)

xaO* aura, TI [xev <j7)(jtaivei Sxacrov, Xafxjiavouaiv, olov TJ (jtev apiOfJiyjTixT) T

TcepiTTOv ^ <5cpTtov Y) TETpaytovov ?} xujios, Y)

8e yeco(JLTpia TI T& SXoyov Y}
TO
xexXacrOai 73
veuetv 2 , STL 8' fe'crrt,
Seixvuooai Sta TS TO>V xoivwv xal ex TCOV 10

aTuoSeSeiyfji^vcav. xal 7) aaTpoXoyia cacrauTco^. Traaa yap obro&sixTiXY) eTriaTYjfJiY)

Trepl Tpta ecmv, 6aa TL elvat TiOsTai (Taika S* eaTl TO y^voc;, o3 TCOV xaO*
7ra0Y](JiaTcov eaTl OecopyjTixY]), xal Ta xoiva Xey6(Aeva a^cofjLaTa, e^ cLv
3
aTcoSeixvuat, xal TptTOv Ta 7ua6y), &v Tt crTjfjtaivet SxaaTov Xa(j$avei. 15

In the next paragraph Ar. qualifies these three elements shortly as Trepl 6
vuat xal a 8sxvu<Ji xal 1^ <> v i- e the subject of the demonstration (jrepl
-
6), its

object (#), and its basis or starting-point (IE, &v).

Thesis, 451 Not all things which are assumed without demonstration are
and axioma called by Ar. He
speaks of 6ecrst<;, i>7coO(ji<; and aio>(jiaTa.
axiomata.
Thesis is what is accepted without proof as basis of a demonstration.
Theseis are of two kinds: (i) those which posit the meaning of a term

(TI avjfjiaivei). These are definitions (opicfjioi). (2) Those which posit also
the existence of the matter. These are hypotheseis.
Axioms are truths which intrude upon the mind. They include existence,
but differ from hypotheses by being known from themselves and by
being absolutely necessary for whomsoever wishes to learn anything.
14 17
An. post. I 2, 72 a - :

'A(jiffou 8* apxyfc truXXoyio-Tixvjc; Oeoriv |iev Xeyeo YJV (JLT)

gffTi Set^at,
TI. 8* ava

From this definition of axiom appears clearly that Ar. does not only think of
mathematical axioms, such as "Take equals from equals" etc., but also of the
universal laws of logic: the principium contmdictionis and exclusi tertii. We found
supra (nr. 444b, c) that they are mentioned in Ar. post. In.
See on Ar.'s doctrine of first principles: Ross, Aristotle, p. 43 if.

1 - well as the
Trepl & ti ImorrjQfztj Oecopet the subjects, the existence a^s meaning
of which the science in question assumes, and the essential attributes (TOC uTrdtpxovTa
xa6' auTdt) of which it investigates. T& forapxovTa are called later in the same
passage T<X Tudc07).
2
T& xexXdcaOai yj veuetv - "deflection or verging of lines". "xXaaOat is used of
a straight line deflected at a line or surface veuetv is used of a straight line tending ;

to pass through a given point when produced" (W. D. Ross, Comm. in An. post.,
P- 539).
3
1% &v 7rpcx)T<ov aTCoSekcvuai - "which are the primary premisses of its demon-
stration".
 [462] THE ANALYTICA POSTERIORA 59

462 According to Ar. strict science knows not only the fact, but A hierarchy
also the cause. Now practically a science often does not know the causes.
In this case the science which and the causes is knows both the facts
"more precise and prior" to that which only knows the facts. And
generally the more abstract science is to be ranked higher than that
which studies a more concrete object.
31 - 37
An. post. I 27, 87 a :

'AxpipeaT^pa 8* e7ri<7TY)(jiY) e7riaTY)[JiY)<; xal TipoTepa YJ Te TOO STL xal SIOTI Y)

auTY], aXXa |JIY) X 00 ?^ T0 ^ OTI T7K T0 ^ SIOTL, xal Y] [JLY] xa6' uTroxeifJLevou TYJ<;
xa0' i)7uoxei|Jivoi> *, olov apiOfjiYjTiXY] apfJiovixyjc;, xal Y) 1^ eXaTTovov TYJ<;
ex
2
,
olov yeco(jieTpa<; apiOjmjTwcf]. Xlya) ex 7Upoa0aeco<; 8* ?
olov
ouaia <5t6eTo<;, cm? 8^ ouaia OBTO^ 3 TatiTYv ex

We shall find the same ideas again in the opening chapters of Metaph. A.

463 In ch. 31 of the same book Ar. deals with the question whether Science and
science can be reached by sense-perception. As we might expect from perception
his treatment of induction in An. pr. II 23, he answers this question in
the negative. Strictly speaking the syllogism is in his opinion the only
means by which knowledge can be acquired by man. This chapter,
however, must be compared with An. post. I 18, if we want to understand
rightly the author's view of the function of sense-perception with regard
to knowledge.

a. An. I 8ia38 -b 9 Sense -

post. 18, :

perception
38 <avep6v Si xal STL, et TK; ata&yjai^ exX^Xoixev, avayxY) xal e7uaTY)[JiY)v Tiva a necessary

exXeXoi7cvai, YJVaSiivaTov Xa^etv, eiTcep |iav6avo[Jiev Y) eTtaycoYTJ YJ dbroSei^ei.

40 gem 8* Y) fiev a7r68ei5^ ZK ^cov xa66Xou, YJ 8' eTraywYY] ex TGJV xara piepo^ knowledge
81 b dSiivarov 8e ra xaOoXou OeeopYJarat [JLYJ
Si' eTraycoyYi^, e?rel xal ra e

1
A science is (JLYJ
xa6* ^TroxetjjLlvoi) when it studies vorjTa and <5foXa (e.g. arithmetic) ;

uTToxet^vou when it is concerned with concrete objects (abOrjTa xal oXixa).

it is xocO'
Thus harmonics consider numerical relations Iv Tat<; xP^ a^-
2
1^ IXaTr6vcov is a science which starts from less undemonstrated principles
?) ;

i.e. which studies simpler entities. Such a science is, Ar. says, more exact and there-

fore prior to those sciences which study more complex entities and therefore have
to assume more "theses" or "hypotheses". E.g. arithmetic is prior to geometry,
which adds the principles of extension to those of number.
8
The unit is o&crfoc (JcOero^: "substance without position", while the point is

ouafoc 8er6^: "substance with position".

 60 LOGIC [463]

Si'
3
Svia ,
xal
(JLYJ ^wpicrTa IcrTtv, 73 TotovSl exaaTov. eTuaxOrjvai 8e (JLYJ l^ovra^ 5
et

ata07]<nv aSuvaTov. T&V Y<*p xaO' exacrrov YJ afaOyjatc; ou Y<xp evSexeTat Xa(3eiv
TYJV eTUCTTTjfjnrjv ofire Y^P ^x TCOV xaOoXou <5cveu e7uaYtoY?j<; ofi^e Si* 7

8, 9
' '

It is also clear that the loss of any of the senses entails the loss of a corresponding

portion of knowledge". This sentence indicates the existence of a certain neces-

sary relation between sense-perception and knowledge: the former is a necessary
condition to acquiring the latter, for it procures (indirectly) the universals by
induction. Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu. Cp. the larger ex-
position of II 19 (our nr. 465).
The position of An. pr. II 23 is sustained: knowledge of the particular is not pos-
sible. Therefore, science is only of the universal and by demonstration. But to the

question "How do we come to knowledge of the universal?" Ar. answers clearly:

by induction. And this is only possible by sense-perception.

No 28 8
b. An. post.
'
I o > / b -88 a
31, 87 .

knowledge
through In the preceding chapter the author has stated that no science can
^e aC(l u i re d by chance conjunctions. He now continues:
perception
OtiSe 81 ataOyjaeo)^ eariv eTtttfraaOai. et Y^p xal e<mv Y] ataSrjaic; TOO rotoOSe 28
xal (JLY]
TouSe Ttvo^, aXX' alcr6avea6at Y avaYxalov ToSe TL xal TUOU xal vuv.
TO 8k xaOoXou xal errl Traariv aSiivaTOv ataOavsaOai ou Y^P ^o^ e ^Ss vuv 30
ou Y^ ^v ^3
V xaOoXou TO Y^P ^
KV& TtavTaxou xaOoXou ^afjLgv elvai. eruel
s
oov at (lev aTuoSet^et^ xa66Xou, TauTa S oux ecrTtv aiaOavscrOai, 9avsp6v OTI
s
ouS*
>

7rto Ta<70at 8i aicr07]cre<o<; e<7Ttv. aXXa SvjXov oTt xal el ^v ataOavso-Oai TO 35

OTI Sualv opOalc; taac; ex et T ^ Y cov ^ e^Toufxev av aTroSet^iv xal
coaTrep cpaai Tive<; YjTrKJTafjieOa atcrOaveaOai, (Jiev Y^p avaYXT) xaO' sxadTOv,
8' sTciaTY)[jL7j TO) TO xaOoXou Y vc P^ l v eaTtv. 816 xal el srcl aeXYjvYjc; OVTEC;

TYJV Y^ V o^ x av f)Ssi[Jiev TY]V aiTtav TTJ^ sxXsL^eco^. 40

vTi9paTTOuaav >

Y)a6av6[JL6a Y^p av OTI vuv exXetTrei, xal ou 8ioTi, oXcoc; ou Y^p ^v Toii xaGoXou 88 a

ataOYjdK;. ou [JLTJV
aXX* ex TOU 6ewpetv TOUTO TioXXaxK; <Ti)(jLpatvov TO xa66Xou
av OirjpeuaavTe^ aTroSei^iv et/ofjiev ex Y^p TCOV xaO' SxaaTa TcXeiovcov TO xaOoXou

SvjXov. TO 8e xa66Xou TIJJLIOV, OTI, 873X01 TO atTiov <&CTTe rcepl TCOV TOLOUTCOV YJ 5

1
Ta I? a9atpaeco(; Xeyo^eva -
By these "products of abstraction" the objects
of mathematics are meant. In opposition to Plato and the Pythagoreans Ar. con-
siders them not as existing xocG* oonra (separate entities), but as properties of sensible
objects. They can be isolated only by abstraction and thus constitute the subjects
of mathematical demonstration. Cp. De anima III 7, 431 b 12 - 19 .

2
E.g. line or solid.
3
gvia - certain properties which can be treated as separate though they are not
 [463] THE ANALYTICA POSTERIORA 6l

2
xa06Xou TijJUcoTepa T&V aiaGrjaecov xal TYJS voyjasax; *, Sacov eTepov TO afruov

Tcepi Sk. T&V TipcoTcov <5tXXo<; Xoyo<;.

The end of the passage refers to II 19, where knowledge of non-demonstrated
first principles is dealt with.
See on Ar.'s theory of induction: L. Robin, Aristote, p. 56 ff., where the in-
stance of the eclipse is cited in order to prove that in Ar.'s opinion "induction
is alien to science" (L* induction est ttvangwe a la Science) a thesis which is right ;

in this sense that induction in itself is no demonstration and therefore does not
lead in itself to science. It would be wrong, however, if it were taken in the sense
that induction has nothing to do with science. The above-cited passage clearly
shows that such was not the opinion of Ar., and so does the final chapter of the
An. post. (II 19), with which we have to deal in our nr. 465.

464 The second book of the An. post, is concerned with definition.
As we found before, of the four questions man can ask himself that
of the OTI is preliminary to that of the SIOTI. In the same way that of
the ei e<m leads on to that of the TI e<m.
Answering the last question is defining a thing. But true definition
is not only nominal (e.g. eclipse is aTepvjau; 9<oToc;); it has to mention
also the cause (aTepvjaic; 9toTo<; OCTTO aeXYjviqs UTTO yvjc; avTi9pai;eto) In this .

sense then A. can say that the TI ecru and the Sia TI are one and the same
15
(An. post. II 2, 90 a ).
As we have seen Definitions
a. supra, definitions belong, according to Ar.,
to the first principles, which are assumed in the sciences without proof, principles
24 - 25 30 - 33
An. post. II 3, 90 b , :

Al ap/al T&V aTroSet^ecav 6pia(jiot, &v OTI oux edovrai a7To8si^ei<;

3
TCpOTSpOV .

'Opiafxoc; (jLev yap TOU T SCTTI, xal ouatac; al S' aTcoSet^eic; 9<xivovTai

UTroTiOe^evai xal Xa^pivouaat, TO TL ecmv, olov al (JLa67](JiaTi,xal TL [xovac; xal

TL T^ TrepiTTov, xal at aXXat 6p.oieo<;.

b. Nominal and causal definitions Nominal and

distinguished.
29 - 32
Ib. II 10, 93 b b 3 *- 94 a 7
, :

29 'Opta(jLo^ 8* eTceiSy] X^yerat elvat Xoyo<; TOU Tt IdTt, 9avepov OTC 6 (JLSV Tt^
4
IcTTat, Xoyoc; TOU TL orYjfjLatvei TO ovo(jLa TQ Xoyoc; CTepoc; ovofiaTcoSyjc; ,
olov TI

32 CTYjfjLatvei [TI EGTLV] T{5tycovov.

What is called here voyjai*; anticipates the exposition of II 19, where grasping
1

the universal from a multiplicity of concrete data is attributed to the nous, a

faculty which surpasses discursive thinking.
2 - in the case of facts like these which have a cause
rcepl TWV TOtouTOJv tfocov
other than themselves.
8
Our nr. 459.
4
X6yo<; grepcx; 6vo[xaTa>8Y)<;
- an equivalent nominal formula.
 62 LOGIC [464]

8* ecrriv 8po^ X6yo^ 6 STQX&V Sia T SGTIV. &crre 6 [iev 7rp6Tepo^ cnrjpiat- 38
f
vet piv, 8eixvuat 8* ou, 6 8 uaTepo^ 9avep6v STL Scrrat olov a7i68et5^ T
*
e<m, TV) 6aei Sia9p<ov TYJ<; a7toSeiea><;. 8ia9e*pei yap etaeiv Sia T[ (3povTCJt
2
xal T ecru ppovnq epei yap OUTCO [lev 8161*1 a7rocrpvvuTai T& mip ev TO&<;
s
T 8 larl ppovrvj ; ^090? aTToapevvufjievou 7rupo<; ev v^eaiv. &(rre 6 5
3
X6yo(; SXAov Tp6?rov X^yeTai, xal cbSl [jtev a7r6Set^i<; auvexiQ? ,
w8l 8e

Part the c. The formula that definition proceeds per genus et differentiam
f t ^

(specificam) is not in the Analytics, but in the Topica.

16
Top, I 8, 103 b :

*0 opKTfJio^ ex yvou^ xal 8ta90pa)v ecrrtv.

465 The final chapter of the An. post, deals with the question of
how we come to the apprehension of first principles.
the 17 17
An. post.
r II 19, go b -ioo b :

apprehension
of first Ilepl 8e TCOV ap^tov, TTCOC; TE ytvovTai yvcopifjioi xal TI<; TJ yvcop^oixra tU^ic^
pr ncip es | VT QQ^ V ^ aTl 4
S^Xov TTpoaTropyjcracrt, TTpcaTOv .

f/
Difficulties OTt (jLev
ouv oux evSe^eTat eTriaTaaOat 81* aTioSet^ecoc; (JLTJ ytvcoaxovTi Ta? 99 b
10

TTpcoTac; dcp^ac; TOK; a[AcroU(;, etpyjTai TcpoTepov. TCOV 8* dfjLeacov TYJV yvcoatv,
xal TTOTepov 73 auTY) eariv ^ oux 71 aurv), 8ia7ropY)aeisv av xal 7u6Tepov ETUI-
TI^,
5
(TTYjiJiY) ^ ou, >j TOU (Jiev e7riorT7)[jiY] TOU 8'
exarlpou erep6v TI y6vo<;, xal TTOTepov
oux evoucrat at S^eis eyyivovTat y] evoucrat XeXyjOaatv. et (xev Srj l^o{i,ev auTa^, 25
&TOTCOV 6 aufxpatvet yap axpipecruipac; 2x VTa ^ yvcoaetc; aTroSe^eco^ Xav0avetv.
ei 8e Xa^pavofJLev {JLTJ e/ovTe^ TrpoTepov, xcoi; av yv(opt^oi[JLev xal [JLav6avoi(JLev

ex (JIT] TrpouTcapxoucnrjc; yvcoaecoc; ;

aSuvarov yap, coaTcep xal em T^ aTroSet^eco^ 30

eXeyojxev. 9avepov Tofvuv ort, OUT' e^ew olov TO, OUT* ayvooucri, xal (jL7]8e(Jiiav

Solution exouatv eyytveo'Bat. avayxy) &pa e^eiv fiev -uva 8uva(JLtv, (JLTJ TOtauTYjv 8*
e^iv
First stage: e^etv 7] Sarai TOUTWV TifJLiWTepa xaT* axptpetav. 9atverat Se TOUTO ye Traatv

u ^ ^p^ ov TO ^
^cooi<;. ^et yap SuvafJLtv (JU{JL9UTOV xptTixyjv, YJV xaXouatv atdOvjcTLV. 35
(

'Evoucnrjs 8' ataOyjcreaic; TOG? (zev TCOV ^oiov eyytverat (JLOVYJ

TOU

1
Tyj Oiaet - in the arrangement of its terms.
2
OUTCO piv - in the first case.
3
"Demonstration, like a line, is continuous, because its premisses are parts
which are conterminous (as linked by middle terms), and there is a movement
from premisses to conclusion. Definition resembles rather the indivisible simplicity
of a point" (G. R. G. Mure).
4
TrpoaTTopYJaaai TrpcoTov
-
by raising some preliminary problems.
5
7t6Tspov whether there is scientific knowledge of both,
^Tri(jTT)(i7] ixaiipou
-

sc. as well of the primary premisses as of demonstrative knowledge.

6 - it
#TOTTOV leads to impossible consequences.
 [465] THE ANALYTICA POSTERIORA 63

8' oux eyytveTai. Saou; [Jiev

o5v (JLY) eyylveTai,
oux S<ra TOUTOK; 2t> T u ala6avec6ai ev ol^ 8', SveaTiv aia6avo(ivou; Second
yvcoai<;
100 a S^eiv STI ev Tyj ^u^f). TtoXX&v 8 TOIOUTCOV yivo(ivcov ^8y] Sia<popa Tig y[veTai ?

(Jiev yfcvearOai Xoyov ex TTJ<;

TCOV TOIOUTCOV (Jtov%, TOI<; 8e [/,Y).

3 'Ex o5v ataOvjcrewg ytveTat ex Si TcoXXaxi<;

T ird stage:
[/Iv {AVY)[JL>), ciaTrep Xeyo(jiev, [JivY)[JLr]c;
^
TOU aoTou ytvofJLevY)? ejJLTcetpta' at yap TroXXal [xv^fzai TOJ api0(Ji(5 I(ji7reip(a

6 'Ex 8* [i7csip(a TQ
ex Tiavroc; rjpejjLYjdavToc; TOU xaOoXou ev T^ ^ux^, TOU
Ta Four* hsta ^ e:
evog Tcapa TroXXa, o av ev iTcaatv ev evyj exetvoi<; TO auTO, T^V); ap^*/] xal

*;,
eav [xev Trepi yevecrtv, T^ v<y
3^j
eav 8e Tuepl TO 8v, eTcio'TifjiJLTjc;. an(j
x
10 OuTe SY] evuTuap^ouciv a9a)pia(JL^vai at eei^, OUT* OCTC' SXXcov S^etav yivovTai

yv(oaTtxeoT^pG)v, aXX' OCTCO aia6Y)<Teco<;, olov ev [AaxY) TpoTi^c; yevo(ieVy]<;

aTavTog STepog eaTY), e!0' STepog, e<o<; im apxV ^XOev

2
.
r]
8e ^i>x

Toiaiinr) ouaa ota SiivaaOai 7Tao~xeiv TOUTO.

15 8* eXe^v) fiev TuaXai, ou cra9c5(; 8e eXex9iQ, TraXtv etTccofxev. aTavTogyap

3
TWV dSia^opcov evog , Tupokov (zev ev Tfj ^u^ xaOoXou (xal yap abOaveTai
J

[jiev
TO xa6 exaciTov, 7]
8* ataOrjc'ig TOU xaOoXou eciTtv, olov avOpcoTtoo, aXX* ou
100 b KaXXfou avOpcoTTOi) ) TraXiv ev ToiiToig I'crTaTat, e'cog av Ta a^epv] CTT^ xal Ta
4 5 Knowledge
xaOoXou ,
olov TOtovSl ^oiov, ecog J^coov xal ev TOUTO) (baauTOc; .
SyjXov 8v]
STL TjfJLLv
Ta TrpcoTa eTraycoyyj yvcopi^etv avayxatov xal yap xal atdOyjatg OUTO) premisses
T6 xa06Xou e(JL7roiet.
by induction
5 'Ejrel Se TWV Tcepl TYJV Stavotav S^eov, al<; aXyjOeuo^ev, at (lev ael aXy]6ei<;
eiaiv, at 8e eTctSe^ovTai TO ipeGSog, olov S6^a xal Xoytafjioi;, aXyjOrj 8* del eTCLaTyj-

[JL7)
xal vou<;, xal ouSev eTrio'TYjfjLT)^ axpLplcTepov aXXo yevoc; ^ voiig, at 8* dp^al
6
i T(ov dbroSet^ecov yvcaptfjicoTepat, e7rtCTTy)(ji7]
8' avraaa [ieTa Xoyou eaTt ,
TCOV

e7riaTY)[JL7] (Jiev
oux av e&q, eTcel 8* ouSev aX7]6eaTepov evSe^eTai elvat

^ vouv, vou<; av ei>] TWV dp^oiv, ex Te TOUTCOV axoTrouat xal STI

fJLTjc;

a7co8ei^eeo<; apx*/] oux aTroSet^ig, a>oV ouS* e7TtCTT7)(JLY)<; eTtiar/jfAir]. et ouv fjiYjSev
av In* u ition
apxr). xal
I 5 <5cXXo
reap* eTCLaryjfjLYjv yevog e^ofJiev aX7]6e<;, vou<; eiY] eTrtaTyjfjLYjg

_____ the primary

premisses
1
OUTS -
acpa>pia[xvai : these states of knowledge are neither innate in a deter-
minate form, nor .
,

2
2co<;
- until the original formation has been restored.
-?jX0ev:
3
TCOV dc8iacp6pcov ev6q - one of a number of logically indiscriminable particulars.
4
TOC dc[zepYJ - xal T xa06Xou: "the indivisible concepts, the true universals",
i.e. the categories, which are par excellence universal and are indivisible because
not constituted of genus and differentia. Cp. Metaph. M 8, 1084 b
14
;
A 25, 1023 b
24

(Note of G. R. G. Mure).
6
xal Iv TOUT<I) wdauTax; - "which by the same process is a step towards a further
generalization" (Mure).
X6you IGT!: "and all scientific knowledge is discursive" .
 64 LOGIC [465]

tv) <v, 73
8 rcaaa
From this passage it is clear, (i) that indeed in Ar.'s opinion sense-perception
is at the basis of all human knowledge (the scholastic adagium Nihil est in intel-:

quod non prius fuerit in sensu. Cp. Kant, the opening sentence of the Kr. d. r. V.
lectu :

"Dass alle unsere Erkenntnis mit der Erfahrung anfange, daran ist gar kein
Zweifel";
(2) that knowledge reached only by the function of a higher intellectual
is

faculty, which he nous (the intellectus agens of the scholastics). This faculty
calls
grasps directly the intelligible, which is one, out of the multiplicity of sense data.
Two remarks must be made in this place.
I. When we ask the question how the nous can do this, Ar. answers: The
soul is so constituted as to be capable of this process. Which means: he traces this
function back to the organization of the human mind. Now by this acknowledgement
what is called an apriori-clemcnt is introduced in Ar.'s theory of knowledge.
II. It is not sufficiently clear from the above passage that, according to Ar.'s
doctrine, the intelligible appears only at the fourth stage of the process of knowledge.
Between JJLVYJJJLY) and {jareipta he speaks of a logos which arises out of the persistence
of sense-impressions. By no means could this term be translated here by "notion",
a notion being reached, according to Ar.'s account, only after experience, "when
the universal has come to rest within the soul", being "one beside the many",
and "residing as an identity in all the particular subjects".
Instead of the word logos, which is used by Ar. somewhat vaguely in 100 a 2 ,

he uses later (in the De anima) the term phantasma, which indicates the sensible
image resulting from sense-perception by memory. In this way Thomas Aquinas
says: "Phantasma est intelligibile in potentia", and: "Abstrahit intellectus agens
2
species intelligibiles a phantasmatibus" .

III. A third remark must be added. In 100 b - 3 Ar. speaks very shortly of 1

that process of generalization, which he calls elsewhere dc9aipeai<;. Mathematical

abstraction, which is called "abstraction of the second degree" by scholastics, is
dealt with in two passages of the De anima, namely II 6, 418 a 7 - 25 and III i,
13 - 20
425 a See our chapter XVI,
. 2, nr. 641.

6 THE TOPICS AND DE SOPHISTIC1S ELENCHIS

Topica 466 \v e had to cite the Topics several times in dealing with the

Analytics. On the general character of the work see our nr. 435a, b.

De soph. el.
467 The fl. IX. deals with fallacies.
(709.

aDe soph. el. L i,

20 22
164 a - :

riepl 8k TCOV aocpKTTix&v eXy^<ov xal T&V cpaivofjievcav (jiev sXey^aw OVTCOV
Se TrapaXoyiafJLwv aXX' oux eXyyo>v Xeyaifjiev, ap^ajjievoi xotTa cpiiaiv OCTTO
T&V

1
Y) 8& Tcaaa - 7rp6<; T& irav Trpay^a: "while science as a whole is similarly related
as originative source to the whole body of fact" (Mure).
2
S. Th. I 85, i, ad 4.
[467] PERI SOPH. ELENCHON 65

Kod adds a defining expression.

what are
b. Ib., i64b 27 -i65a4 :

*O [Jiev yap auXXoyiafJicx; ex TIVCOV ecru TeOvTCov ware Xeyeiv eTep6v TI e

<xvayxY)<; T&V xeifxevoov SLOC TCOV xeifjievcov, eXey^oc; Se auXXoyiajjioc; JJLET' OCVTL-
*
cpaaeax; TOO au(Ji7repaa[jiaTO<;. ol 8e TOUTO rcoiouai (xev ou, Soxouca Se Sia 7coXXa<;

468 Ar. divides them into two main groups: (i) the sophismata in
2
dictione Xeiv), where the deceitfulness appears in the form;
(Tcocpdc TTJV

(2) sophismata extra lectionem ('<o TYJS Xe^eox;), where the fallacy can be
seen only when the contents is regarded.
a. De el. I ^
23 24
165 b -
TWO main
^
soph. 4, :

groups
TpoTcoi 8' eicrl TOU JJLSV eXey^etv 8iio ol (lev yap ewri Trapa TT]V X^iv, ol

8' S^c
24 - 27 Sophismata
b. Ib., b :

in dictione
2
''Ecru Se Ta piev Tiapa TYJV Xe^iv e|jL7roi,ouvTa TY]V 9<xvTa<yiav e^ TOV apiOfJiov
TOCUTOC 8* ecrTiv 6(JLCovu(jiLa, a(jL9ipoXia, aiivOeau;, Staipeai^, TUpoawSia,

Ar. explains them in the following pages (165 b 30 -i66 b 20 ).

(1) Equivocation: ambiguity in a word. When a term is used in a double sense
in a syllogism, this syllogism has not three but four terms (quatermo terminorum),
which is a breach of one of the first rules of the syllogism.
(2) Amphiboly: ambiguity in a sentence, e.g. when we cannot see which word
is subject and which is object.
Composition: when words are wrongly combined, e.g. "A man can walk
(3)
while sitting, and can write while not writing".
(4) Division: by wrong separation of the words. E.g. 5 is 2 and 3.
(5) Accent: wrong interpretation of written words by changing the accent,
e.g. pronouncing ou in stead of ou.
(6) Figura d idioms: misunderstanding caused by the grammatical form of a
word, e.g. a masculine word with a female ending, etc.
c. Ib., i66b-: Extra
dictionem
Tcov 8' eco Xeeoo<; TrapaXoyiafJicov eESvj eeruv CTUTOC, ev {Jiev Tcapa TO
TYJC;

Tjxoi;, Seiirepov Se TO a7rXco<; r\ [U] a7uXa><; aXXa 7173 ^ TTOU ^ TUOTC ^ Trpo^
XeyecOat, TPLTOV Se TO T^apa TYJV TOU eXey^ou ayvotav, TeTapTov Se TO Trapa
TO eTrofJievov, TcejXTiTov Se TO Tiapa TO ev apxyj Xajx^aveLV, exTov Se TO jr
ax; aLTtov TiOevat, S^SofJiov Se TO Ta TtXetco epa>T7)[JiaTa ev Tcotetv.

1
sc. the sophists.
2
An with the expression might be found in
M etaph. Eanalogy
1027 b 4,
19
: T& Si cbt; aXyjO&<;
CT09(a(jLara Trapa TY;V XJ;tv
6v xal JJIT)
6v ax; vj;eu8o<;, ITUEISYJ icapa
OTI xal StaCpeatv, ("since they depend upon" ).

De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II

66 LOGIC [468]

These fallacies are explained in ch. 5.

(1) Accidens: whenever any attribute is claimed to belong in a like manner to
a thing and to its accident. E.g. "If Coriscus be different from "man", he is differ-
:

ent from himself: for he is a man".

(2) A dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter whenever an expression used
:

in a particular sense is taken as though it were used absolutely. E.g.: "If what is
not is the object of an opinion, then what is not is".
(3) Ignoratio elenchi to give a merely apparent refutation, e.g. by contradicting
:

not really the same attribute but merely the name, or by proving that the attribute
cannot be predicated of the subject, but not in the same respect and in the same
way in which was asserted.
it

(4) Consequens: whenever people suppose that the relation of consequens is

convertible. E.g. bile is supposed to be honey because honey is attended by a yellow
colour; also, since after rain the ground is wet in consequence, we suppose that if
the ground is has been raining.
wet, it

(5) assumption of the original point to be proved.

Petitio principii:
(6) Non causa pro causa whenever what is not a cause is inserted in the argument
:

as though the refutation depended on it. I.e. people try to refute a thesis by re-
:

futing a premiss which had not been assumed as such.

(7) Facere ex pluribus interrogationibus unam: whenever the plurality is un-
detected and a single answer is returned as if to a single question. E.g., when
part is good and part bad, "Is the whole good or bad ?"
m
Some instances of ao9iaTixol SXeyx ot ay be found in our nr. 197.
 THIRTEENTH CHAPTER
ARISTOTLE'S PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE
i INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
469 Ar.'s philosophy of nature is not only found in his physical
treatises (Phys., caelo, De gen. et corr., Meteor.), in which anorganic M-.'S works
De
nature is but also in those which deal with organic nature, the on nature
treated of,

biological works. Nature is, according to Ar., principle of motion. Now

the theory of motion is expounded by Ar. in his Phys., and books I and II
of this work, forming a general introduction to this theory, are at the
same time a philosophical introduction to the whole of Ar.'s physical
and biological works. On the other hand, the general philosophical
principles, which have been expounded in the introductory books of the
Physics, can be illustrated not only by the cosmological theory of the
De caelo, by the theory of generation and passing away of beings and
their qualities in De gen. et corr. and by that of atmospheric phenomena
in the Meteor. they can as well be commented on by numerous passages
;

from the biological works. As A. Mansion put it in his excellent Intro-

duction a la physique aristotelicienne: "Aristote se commente excellem-
ment lui-meme".
That this whole group of treatises was conceived by Ar. as a unity,
can be seen from the introduction to the Meteor ologica:

20 22 5 - 10
Meteor. I i, 338 a -b 339 a , .

20 Hepl (JLEV
OUV T&V TTpCOTOV OCITICOV T7J<; CpUCTEOX; XOCL TCepl 7Ca<7Y)<; XlVY)(ieCO

9U(7ixY]<;, ETI 8e Tuepl TCOV xara TTJV avco 9opav 8iaxexoafry)[Jiva>v Sarpcov xal
Tiepl TCOV aToixeicov TCOV aa)(jiaTixcov, Trocra TC xal Troia, xal TYJ<; et<; (5cXXv]Xa

(jLerapoXvjc;, xal Tuepl xal 96opac; TTJ<; XOIVTJC; eiprjcai TrpoTspov.

yeveaeco;
25 &' ecm {Jiepo^ Tyj<; [xeOoSou TauTY]<; ^TL 6ecopY)Teov, o TTOCVTS^ ol Tcporepov
Xoytav exaXouv Taura 8* earlv 8(ra au^paivei xara 9\iaiv (JLSV,

[JL^VTOl T7]^ TOU 7Up(OTOU CTTOlXefou T6)V (TCOfJiaTCOV, TTEpl TOV yeiTVLCOVTa
TOTTOV 17) 90pa TCOV fiaTpcov. (Follows an enumeration of this kind of pheno-
mena: the Milky Way, comets and shooting stars, dcpo<; xoiva TraOr) xai 6aTo^,
19 a5 winds and earthquakes etc.). AteX06vT<; 8e Trepl TOIJTCOV, 6ecopY)aa)(jLev et TI

8uva(jie0a xara T^V u97)Y>)[Ji^vov TpoTcov dbroSouvai Trepl ^cptov xal 9UTWV,
 68 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [469]

xaOoXoo re xal X W P^' axeSov yap TOIJTCOV prjOevTcav TeXoc; av efaq yeyovoc;
&8' oOv apa[Jievoi Xyco[Jiev Tcepl
10

Division of The opening sentence of this passage (TTepl (xv ouv TWV Trporrcov ai-dew T% <puaea>c;
the Physics xa
^gpl Trdcovjc; xivqaeax; 9uaixrj<;
|,
etpTjTai 7rp6Tepov) points to a division of the Phys.
into two parts: (i) on the causes (bb. I and II), (2) on motion (bb. III-VIII). The
distinction is not so clearly made by the ancient commentators. It has been re-
established by A. Mansion.

2 THE FIRST BOOK OF THE PHYSICS

Introductory 470 Phys. I I, l84a
10
-b 14 :

c ap er
'ETreiSyj TO eiSevai xal TO eTuiaTaorOai au(ji(3aivei Tuepl Traaa^ T<X<; (Jie668oi><;,
10
&v eicrlv ap^al ^ acTia ^ GTOLX^, ex TOU TauTa yvtopi^eiv (TOTS yap

yivcoaxeiv SxaaTov, oTav Ta atria yvcopiacofjiev TOC TrpcoTa xal Ta

7up(OTa(; xal [xexP 1 T & v aToi^eiwv), S9]Xov OTI xal TYJS Tcepl 9\iaeco(; 7ri<TT7)(JL7)<;
x
SiopiaaaOai TipaiTOv Ta Trepi Tac; ap^ac; . 15
xal aa9eaTep(ov errl Ta aa9^c7-
8e ex T<OV yvcopijJLWTepcov Y][JLLV 73 6S6<;

Tepa T^ 9\iaei xal yvcopijjicoTepa ou yap TauTa T][JUV

TC yvcapifjia xal a7rXco<; 2 .

Ai67rep avayxTj TOV TpOTrov TOUTOV Trpoayeiv ex TO>V aara9eaTepcov (jiev Tyj 9\i(rei
JIIV 8e
(ja9eaTepcov em Ta aa9e7Tepa T^ 9uaei xal yvcopL[ic[>Tepa. *'Eo-Ti 8* 20
rcpcoTOv S^Xa xal aa97J Ta cruyxe^u(jteva (zaXXov ucrrepov S' ex TO^Tcav
3
ytveTai yv<opi(za Ta (TTOix^a xal at ap^al Siaipouori TauTa . Aio ex TWV xaO-
6Xou ini Ta xaO* exaarTa Sel Trpoievai. To yap 8Xov xaTa TTJV aiaOyjaiv yvwpi-
[xcoTepov, TO Se xa66Xou 6Xov TI eaTiv TcoXXa yap TrepiXapipavei coc; [xepY]TO 25
4
xaOoXou .

n^TcovOe Se TauTo TOUTO TpoTrov Tiva xal TOC ovofiaTa 7rpo<; TOV Xoyovi84b
8Xov yap TI xal aSioptdTOx; avjfjLatvei, olov 6 x\ixXoq 6 8e 6pia(x6<; auTOu Siaipet
J

eU Ta xaO exacJTa. Kal Ta TiaiSia TO (Jiev Tipokov Trpoaayopeiiei TcavTac; TOU^

(SvSpac; 7raTepa<; xal (jiYjTepac; Tat; yuvatxa^, vxrrepov 8e Siopi^ei TOUTCOV exaTepov.
15 - 22
471 a. Phys. I 2, 184 b :

or many 8' T^TOI (Jiiav eivai T7)v xal ei [xiav, YJTOI axivv]Tov,
'AvayxT) ap^yjv TI TuXeioix;, 15

&<; 97)01 IIap(ievi87] xal MeXiacroc;, yj xivoufjiev/jv, cooTrep ol 9ucrixof, 01 [xev

s

aepa 9cxaxovTe(; eivai ol 8 uSeop TYJV TipcoTYjv ap/^v el 8e TrXeioix;,

1
The principle that we can only be said to have knowledge if we know the
causes of a phenomenon, is more than once repeated by Ar. Cp. Metaph. A i,
where the difference between Ifirceipta and T^VYJ or emor^T) is marked in this
way, that the first knows only the OTI, the latter also the SIOTL.
2 -
<x7cX&<; absolutely.
8
TauTa - "if we analyse them".
Stocipouai
4
"For the universal comprehends many things within it, like parts".
 [471] PHYS. i
69

7) aTcefpou?, xal d 7re7repac7(Jiva<; TrXeLou? Se (JLLa?, 7] Suo 7} Tpet? 7}

TT-
20Tapa? T)
SXXov TLV<X dpi6(ji6v, xal ei araipou?, 75 OUTCO? oicnrep AvjjjioxpiTcx;, TO

yevo? ev, ay)(jiaTL Se T)

el'SeL 8La9epou<ra<;, 73
xal evavTLa?.

b. 25 5
a 12- 14 The Eieatic
Ib., i84b -i85a ; ib., :

To (JLev
ouv eL ev xal OCXLVTJTOV TO ov axoTreiv ou Tcepi cpiiaeax; eera axoTueiv excluded

yap xal T<j> yecofxeTpT) OUXCTL Xoyo? e<m Tupoc; TOV aveXovra Ta
aXX* Y)TOt eTepac; em<jTY)[Ji7)<; TQ
Tuacroiv xoiv%, OUTCO<; ouSe T<O Tiepl ap/cov ou
yap ETI ap^T) eaTtv, ei ev [JLOVOV xal OOTCO^; ev earTtv. 'H yap ap^Y) Tiv6<; Y^
TLVWV l .

'Hpuiv S uTuoxetaOco Ta 9\icrei YJ

Travra T)
Svia xivou[Aeva elvai* S^Xov S' ex
2

:o, 21
472
>A\CSX>
oe
Ap/v)
a. Ib., i85a
/

otxeioTaTT] Tracwv, eTreiov)

20
-b 5
~^x
:

^^^^, >,/*-
7roXXa^co<; Xeyerai TO loetv ov,
~
TCCO<;
Refutation
of the Eieatic
thesis ex

Xeyoucriv ol XeyovTe^ elvat Iv Ta TravTa, TtoTepov ouortav Ta TuavTa T) Troaa y)

TTOLa, xal TtaXiv TroTepov oucrtav [Jitav Ta TtavTa, olov avOpcoicov eva y) ZTCTUOV
25 eva y) ^D^TJV (Jiiav, 7)
TTOLOV ev Se TOUTO, olov Xeuxov 7) 0eppLov 7]
TCOV aXXa>v TI

TGJV TOLOUTCOV. TauTa yap TravTa Sia^epei Te TroXu xal aSuvaTa Xeyetv. EL jxev

yap larai xal outrta xal TUOCTOV xal TTOLOV, xal TauTa e?T* a7roXeXu(jtva OCTU*

30 aXXTjXwv etTe [JLTJ,

TroXXa Ta ovTa. EL Se TravTa TCOLOV yj TUOCTOV, CLT' oucryj^ oi(TLa<;
ELTS (JIT) ouay)^, &TOTCOV, CL Set OCTOTUOV XeyeLv TO aSuvaTov. OuOev yap TWV <5XX<ov

^wpLCTTOv ICTTL Tuapa T7]v oucrfav TcavTa yap xa6' 6?roxeL[JLevoi) TTJC; ouaia^
XeyeTat. M^XLCTCTOC; Se TO ov avreipov elva[ 97](7Lv. Ilocrov Spa TL TO ov TO yap

185 baTieLpov ev TWouaiav Se avreipov elvaL 73 TTOLOTTjTa 73 TtaOoc; oux

TCOCTCO,

eL (JIT]
xaTa au(j.pep7)x6<;, eL ajjia xal ruoda aTTa elev 6 yap TOU aTceLpou
TCO TcocTO) Trpoor^pTJTaL, aXX* oux ouaLa ouSe TO) TCOLCO. El (Jiev TOLVUV xal ouafa

5 eari xal rcoaov, Siio xal ou^ ev TO ov eL 8* oucria (JLOVOV, oux aTreLpov,

^eL ouSev TCOCTOV yap TL

5 - 25 Refutation
b. Ib., 185 b :

5, 6 "ETL eTcel xal auTO TO ev TroXXaxw^ XeyeTaL cooTcep xal TO ov, axeTTTeov TLva unius
Tp67uov XeyouffLv elvaL ev TO Tiav. AeyeTaL S* ev y) TO (juvexe<; T)
TO aSLaLpeTOV 7)
3
oiv 6 X6yo<; 6 auTcx; xal el? 6 TOU TL )]v elvaL, &cnrep (xe6u xal olvo?. EL (JLev

10 TOLVDV yap SiaLpeTov TO auve^e?.

auve/e?, TroXXa TO ev ei? a:reLpov
4
8* arcopLav Trepl TOU (Jiepou? xal TOU oXou, LO>O)<; Se ou Tupoc; TOV Xoyov

1
I.e. : an inquiry into principles or into the first principle always presupposes
a multiplicity.
2
Which means : Ar. starts from the concrete reality of movement. A hypothesis
which destroys this elementary fact has no sense.
3 -
X6yoq definition, essence.
4
:rp6<; T&V X6yov - relevant to the present argument.
 70 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [472]

aXX* auT/jv xa0* aunqv, 7r6Tepov Sv iq

TrXeico TO jxepoc; xal TO oXov, xal TCG><;

iv >) TrXstto,
xalTT&S TrXeta, xal rep! T&V (xepcov TCOV [JLTJ crovexeov
si TrXeico,

xal ei T(p 8Xco Sv exaTSpov ax; aSiaipSTOv, OTI xal auT<x airrou;. 15
'AXXa (Jiyjv el co<; aSiaipeTov, ouOev Scnrai TTOCJOV ouSe TTOIOV, ouSs v) aTceipov
T6 8v, ciaTrep MlXiacioc; 9Y)aiv, ouSe 7re7rspaa[JLvov, cocrTrep Ilapfjiev^Y]*; T6

yap Tr^pac; aSiaipeTov, ou TO 7re7repaa(jievov.

l
'AXXa fJL7)v el TO> Xoyco Sv T<X SvTa ruavTa we; XCOTTIOV xal t[jLaTtov, TOV 'Hpa- 20
xXeiTou Xoyov aufxpaivei X6yeiv auTotc; TauTov yap eaTat, ayaOco xal xaxoi
elvai xal (JLYJ ayaOco xal ayaOw, ciaTe TauTov e'aTa& ayaOov xal oux ayaOov
xal a"vOpa>7uo<; xal ITCTTO^, xal ou ruepl TOU Iv elvat Ta ovTa 6 Xoyoc; earTai, auTOLc;
2
aXXa Trepl TOU fjLY)Sev,
xal TO ToicoSl elvai xal ToacoSi TauTov .
25

473 Having refuted the Eleatic hypothesis, Ar. examines the opinions
Anaxagoras o f older physicists about the principles of physical bodies. Anaxagoras
is discussed rather amply (ch. 4). He too admits, as Democritus did,

an infinite number of first principles. To this thesis Ar. opposes the

remark that the infinite cannot be known. There are several difficulties
with the doctrine of Anaxagoras. Ar. concludes that it is better to assume
A finite a smaller and finite number of iprinciples, as Empedocles did.
number of
r r
principles Phys. I 4, i88a 17 - 18 :

assumed BeXTiov TS eXdcTTO) xal 7te7repaa(Jieva XajBelv, fijuep rcoieZ E(jL7re8oxX^<;.

474 Another correct view of the ancient physicist is, that opposites
should be assumed as by apxoci. This
explained is done e.g. those who
the genesis of the elements and condensation (we know
by rarefaction
this of Anaximenes, and it is said of Heraclitus too), even by Farm.,
who assumed two principles relative to the world of doxa, and by Democr.
in his doctrine of the 7rXY)pe<; xal xsvov.
26- 30
opposite PhySt i 5 i88a :

principles
should be "OTI (Jiev
ouv TavavTta TUOX; TravTec; Ttoiouat Ta^ ap^a<;, SyjXov. Kal TOUTO
assume
e \jX6yco<; Sei yap T<X<; apx<i<; [JiYjTe i aXXvjXcov elvai {JLYJTE iE, aXXcov, xal ex
'
TOIJTCOV TuavTa evavTio^ TOL<;
TOCC; 7rpa>Toi<; uTuap^e^ TauTa, Sta (JLSV T6 7up6>Ta
elvai [Jiv] e^ SXXcov, Sia 8e T& evavTia (JLT) e^ aXXrjXcov.

How many 475 A pair of opposites, however, is not sufficient. A third principle
should be added, namely a subject, somewhat as the substratum of the
contraries.

- raiment.
"There will be no difference between quality and quantity".
 [475] PHYS.

21
a. Phys. I 6, i89a -b 3 :

21 'ETTSI 8e TOTcepaffulvai, TO LIYI TTOIEIV Suo u,6vov Syei

TLVOC Xoyo Three
a7ropif)<jsie
x ~ ,x T , ~x / / * * principles
yap av TI<; TTOX; y) 7) TCUXVOTYJS TYJV (xavor/jTa TTOIEIV TI 7re9i>xev Y)
ai)TY
ai)TY) TJV
TYJV necessary
7:uxv6TY)Ta. '0(iotco 8e xal a*XXY] oTroiaouv svavTiOTYjs ou yap 71

25veixo<; auvayei xal Tuoiet TI e auTou, ouSe TO vei!xo<; e exetvY)^, dXX*

?Tp6v TI TpiTov. "Evioi 8k xal TrXetco Xa[xpavoudLv E^ &v xaraaxeua^ouaiv

T7)v TCOV OVTWV 9\iaiv. IIp6(; Se TO^TOK; STI xav ToSe TIC; aTropTjaeisv, ei [JLTJ TIC;

ETepav UTTOTt6Y]ai TOI<; evavTtoi^ 9\iatv ou6ev6<; yap 6pco(JLev TCOV SVTOW oucrtav
x
30 TavavTta TYJV . 8* apxv)v ou xa0*
UTTOXSI^VOU Sei Xlyea8ai Ttvo^.
yap TO yap uTcoxelfievov apx*/), xal TcpoTspov Soxet TOU
apx*/) TT)<; apx>)<;'
2
yopoi)(Jtvou elvai. "ETi oux elvai 9a(Jiev ouartav evavT^av ouaia TTCO^ o5v ex

(jiY)
ouafwv ouata av ELY) >J TTCO^;
av TrpoTepov (JLYJ
;
ouata ouaia<; ELY) ;

35 Ai67rep et TI<; T6v TE Tcp6Tpov aXYjOv] vojAiCTEiEv slvai X6yov xal TOUTOV, avay-
iSgbxaiov, el (jtEXXsi SiacrcoaELv a|Ji90Tpoi)<; auTouc;, uTCOTtGsvai TI TPLTOV,

9aalv 01 (itav Tiva 9uaiv elvai XeyovTEc; TO Trav, olov SScop TQ Trup ^ TO
TOUTCOV.

Ar. seems here to come near to the conception of the older physicists
not Emped. who admitted some primary element and then differ-

entiated it by rarefaction and condensation. We shall see, however,

in the following chapters that his own theory is elaborated in a very
different way.
b. Rejection of any theory of four elements.
19 - 27
Ib., i8gb :

Ei SE TETTapcov OVTWV Suo soovTat, evavTLtoaei^, Not four

19. -20 SsTjaEt, X^P^ sxaT^pa^
uTuapxsiv ETspav Ttva fXETa^i) 9\iaiv si 8' e aXXifjXcov SuvavTai ysvvav 8\io oSaat,
f

Trepiepyoc; av YJ ETEpa TCOV svavTwoascov ELY). 'A(Jia 8s xai aSuvaTOv 7rXstou<;

slvai evavTiaxTEic; T<X<; TupcoTac;.
f
H yap ouata Sv TL ysvo<; ECTTL TOU 8vTo<;, cSaTe

25 TCO irp6Tpov xal ficTEpov SioicTouaiv aXXvjXcov aL ap^al (JLOVOV, aXX' ou TCO ysvEi
ael yap ev svl ysvei (Jiia evavTtcoatg ICTTIV, Ttaffafc TS a[ IvavTicocretc; avayedOai
Soxouatv st^ (Jttav.

476 Ar. now begins to expound his own theory of the principles of
"becoming" in the broadest sense. He introduces three principles: The three
the form (sTSo?), privation of the form (aTspTjan;), and a subject (uTroxeifxevov)
or matter (uXy)). These three principles occur in every form of production.

See the definition of ouata in Categ. 5, 2 a 11 - 13 (our nr. 438a).

Categ. 5. 3 b 25 (439a).
 72 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [476]

"
First the distinction is made between becoming'' in the absolute
sense (a7cXco<;) and "becoming this or that". The first is the coming-
into-being of substances, e.g. fivOptorcos yiyvsTai or TO p) [JLOIKIIXOV (what is

called in scholastic terminology generatio simpliciter), the latter the

arising of a certain determination of a subject which already existed

(generatio secundum quid), e.g. TOV (JLTJ (JLOUGLXOV avOpcoTrov ytyveaOat
The Now always some pre-exist-
i.
SvOpcoTiov. in all these cases, Ar. says, there is
UTUOXEtLLEVOV .
, .

ing subject.

31
a. Phys. I 7, igoa -b 10 :

IloXXaxcos 8e Xeyo|ievoi> TOU yiyvea0at, xal TCOV [Jiev ou ytyvsaOai aXXa 768531
TI yiyveaOai, a:rXeo^ 8k yiyvo~6ai TCOV outricov (JLOVCOV, xaTa (Jiev
TaXXa 9avpov
STC avayxr) UTCOxelcrOat Tt TO yLyv6(JLevov xal yap TTOCTOV xal TUOIOV xal Tupo^
Xal 7TOT Xal TCOU ytVETai U7TOXL[JLVOU Tt,VO<; SlOC TO [JIOVYJV T7]V OUCTiaV 35
xaT* SXXou XeyeaOai uTroxeijievou, Ta 8' aXXa rcavTa xaTa T^<; ouata<;
OTL 8e xal al ouatat, xal oaa aXXa a7rX(o<; ovTa e^ i)Tcoxt[JLevou TLVCX; yiveTai, 190 b
eTciaxoTTouvTt yevoiT* av 9avepov. 'Asi yap etTTi TI o uTuoxetTai, s o5 ytveTai
TO yiyv6(Jievov, olov Ta 9UTa xal Ta wa ex a7rep[JLaTO(;. FiyveTai 8e Ta yiyvo-

[jLeva aTrXcoc; Ta jxev (jLCTaa^jJiaTLcrei, olov av8pt,a<; ex /aXxou, Ta Se TrpoorO^cret, 5

f e
olov Ta au^avofJLeva, Ta 8 a^aipearsi, olov sx TOU XtOou 6 Ep(j.%, TOC 8s auvOeaei,
s
otov otxta, Ta 8 aXXoicoaet, olov Ta TpercofJieva xaTa TYJV uXvjv. llavTa Se Ta
OUTCO yivofisva ^avepov OTI e^ u7roxei(JLVG)v yivsTai. 10

it can not b \y e ma y no ^ conclude from this passage that, according to

a e
directiy
can always be directly stated. At the end of the
Ar., the uTroxetfievov
known same chapter he tells us that, sometimes, it can be known only xaT
s

avaXoyiav.
7 - 12
Ib., 191 a :

J s f
'H 8 uTioxeifAevY) 9uai<; eTcidTTjTY) xaT avaXoytav. Q^ yap 7cp6<; avSpiavTa
^aXxo<; TQ rcpcx; xXivvjv ^\iXov ^ TTpo^ aXXo TL TCOV S/OVTCOV piop97)v Y) uXv) xal
TO a[JLOp9ov ex et TC P^ V ^apstv TYJV (Jiop97)v, OUTGX; auTT) 7rpo<; ouatav e"/ l xa ^ T0
ToSe Tt xal TO 8v. .

As he himself will explain later: the substratum, being undetermined, is not

yet a "being" in the full sense: it is only potentially a being. It must be brought
to being in the full sense by the determining form.

The term c< xhe term not used in this passage. Ar. here speaks of the
uXr) is

U7roxe(jievov or u7uoxet(jieVy] 9u<n<;. In the Metaph. the term OXv] is generally

used. E.g.:
 [476] PHYS. i
73

20 - 21
Metaph. Z 3, 1029 a :

Ay<o 8* uX7)v 73
xa6* auTTjv {ATJTS rl (JLYJTE TTOCTOV (JLTJTS SXXo [ATjSfiv XeyeTai ol^
TO OV.

A
d.

y co
The
yap
classical definition of
x,,.
u X 73
v TO
%
TI
p to
~< (JXT)

T o v
occurs in Phys.
uTroxeifievov
,
I 9, 192 a
,
31 - 32

x a a T cp,
:
its classical
definition

s ?; o 5 y i v T a t T i
vu7uapx ovTO x a T a ai>{jLpe(3Y)x6^.
H* ?)

"The primary substratum of each thing, an immanent principle from which

a thing comes into being in a non-accidental way" (i.e. so that matter persists
in the object which comes into being).
See further sub 496.

10 - 23
477. Ar. continues, Phys. I 7, 190 b :

TO "io~T 89JXOV ex TtOV lp7){JlV(OV TO ytVOfJlSVOV (XTTOCV (Xel GUvOsTOV SCTTl,

OTl,

xal SCTTI [Jiev

TL yiv6(jisvov, SCTTL Se TL 6 TOUTO yivsTai, xal TOUTO SLTTOV 73 yap
TO i)7coxei[jLevov 73
TO avTixeipievov. Aeyco Se avTixefoOai [Jiev TO afjiouaov, UTCO-

15 xetffOai TOV 3cv0pco7uov, xal TTJV p,v a<7^Y](Jioc7uv7]v xal TTJV apLOp9tav xal TTJV
8^;

aTa^tav TO avTixeifJievov, TOV Ss ^aXxov Y) TOV Xi6ov 73 TOV xpucrov TOV U7coxt[jivov.
talv aiTtat, xal ap^al TWV 9\jo"t OVTCOV, &v TrpwTWv 2. the form:
Oavpov oijv ax;, etTcep ^
xal yyovacrt (JLY] xaTa o'UfJLpEpyjxoc; aXX* Sxaarov 5 XlyTai xaTa TYJV oucitav,
2o8Ti yiyvTai rcav EX T TOU i)7roxt(jivou xal TYJS (JLop^YJ^; auyxLTat yap 6 (JLOU-

aixo<; Sv6po)7ro(; ^ av6pa>7rou xal {JLOUCTIXOU TpoTrov Ttva- 8iaXuo~i^ yap [TOU;;
l
Xoyoix;] i^ TOU<; Xoyou^ TOU^ EXELVCOV .
A9jXov ouv ax; ytvoiT* av Ta yiyv6[jLva
X TOUTG)V.
For a definition of the different meanings of eI8o<; Ar. refers at the end of this
book (Phys. I 9, 192 a^-b 1 to the Metaph. Cp. our nr. 497.
)

478 a. The same passage continued, 190 b 23 - 29 :

"EaTi $ TO (JLv u7ioxt(jLvov api6[A(o (jtv 2v, i8i 8k, Suo. '0 [Jtv yap avOpco-
25 TCOC; xal 6 xpucrcx; xal oXcog 73 iiX7) apLOpLTjTTj TO yap TL [xaXXov, xal ou xaTa aspect of the
TO yi,yv6(JLvov 73 subject:
aTEpTjaic; xal 73 vavTLa>o-i<;

V 8k TO filSoc;, oloV 73 TalS 7^ 7J (JLOUCTIXT) T)

TCOV SXXCOV Tl TCOV

OUTCO xaT7)yopoi>(jLva>v.

The third principle is introduced here in very concise terms. The meaning of
the passage might be paraphrased as follows.
Things come to be, as it seems, by two principles: form and matter. The subject,
however, has two succeeding states, which might be called the terms of the process
of becoming: (i) the original state, from which it comes to be, e.g. ^.73

1
"You can analyze it into the definitions of its elements" (Hardie). About
the omission of the first TOIX; X6you<; see the commentary of W. D. Ross on this
place (p. 493).
 74 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [478]

(2) the opposite state, that which is to become, namely VLQUGIK&S. The first or
negative state is called orpT)oi (privatio), the privation of the form. The subject
is in this state; it is identical with it, but accidentally (xarot au[ipep7)x6<;), for it

makes way for the form and thus it does not enter as a constituent element into
the being which comes to be. So, in a certain sense, the tTTipyjan; is no real principle
of the generated being. E.g. a man is generated. Before there is "something un-
qualified",which is not-man.
In metaphysics the aTepyjoic; means hardly anything; but in physics, for the ex-
planation of coming to be, it takes a very important place, as important as that of
the two other principles.

29 3
b. Ar. continues, ib. 190 b -igi a :

Ai6 <m (JLEV dx; 8uo XXTOV ecm 8' a><; Tpi<; xal e<m (Jtev 30
elvai Ta^ ap^a*;,

a><; Tavavda, olov ec nq

Xeyot TO pioumxov xal TO a^ouffov TJ TO 6ep(ji6v xal
TO ^UXpOV Y)
TO Y]p[JLO<J[XVOV Xal TO avapfJLOOTOV, SCTTl 8' O> Ol>' U7T* aXXY)XcOV

yap Tracrxeiv TavavTia aSuvaTov. AiieTai 8e xal TOUTO Sia TO <5tXXo elvai TO

UTioxeifxevov TOUTO yap oux IvavTiov. "QaT OUTC TrXsiou^ T&V evavTtcov at 35

ap/al TPOTCOV TLVOC, dcXXa Suo ax; SLTCSLV TO> aptOfjiw, OUT' ai5 TiavTeXco^ 8\io Sia
TO STepov uTrap^etv TO elvai auToIc;, aXXa Tpsts eTepov yap TO avOpcaTia) xal 191 a
TO dcfJiouCTO) elvat, xal TO a(j;(7)(jiaTLO"T(o xal

479 In the next chapter Ar. states that his theory is the true solution
of the difficulties, which his predecessors were unable to solve.
23 - 34
Difficulties a. Phys. I 8, 191 a :

ofpredeces- , ,

sors solved UTI oe (zova^wc; OUTCO XueTai xai y] TCOV ap^aiwv aTropia, Xeycojiev
by this Ta tj Ta ZrjTOUvTec; yap ol xaTa 9tXoo~09tav rcpcoTOt TT]V aXvjOetav xal TYJV 960^^ 25
.

TYJV TWV 8vT(ov c^STpaTTYjaav olov 686v Tiva <5fXXY]v aTTwaOevTec; UTTO
xal 9aalv OUTS ytveoOai TOW OVTOV ouSev OUTC 90etp(jOai Sta TO avayxaiov

(jtev elvai ytyvscrGai TO yiyv6(Jivov y e^ OVTO<; ^ ex (JLTJ OVTO^, ex Se TOUTCOV

a[JL90Tep(ov aSuvaTov slvai OUTS yap TO ov ytveaOai (slvai yap ^Sv] ) sx TE [JLT] 30
OVTO<; ouSev av yeveaOai,* uTroxeicrOai yap TI Set. Kal OUTCO SYJ TO iysZjfic, aupi-
]
auovT<; ouS* elvai TioXXa 9acriv aXXa [xovov auTo TO ov. 'Exetvoi
oiliv TaoTiQv sXa^ov TY]v So^av Sta Ta tp7j(jLva.

the Eleatic aporia: what comes to be must

This is come forth either from being
or from non-being. Both are impossible. Ergo .

Ar. replies: it is possible, namely if both are admitted at the same time and in
a special sense. If it is taken in the absolute sense, then, surely, nothing springs
from non-being; but accidentally it does. For a being springs from aTpr]<ji<;, which
in itself is non-being. It springs from privation accidentally, because the pre-
existing non-being is not admitted into the being that becomes.
And in the same way being springs from being, not essentially, but accidentally.
For it is not the pre-existing being which is generated in that which comes to be.

-
lq>eY)<; aufipaivov auovTe<; they exaggerated the consequence of this.
 [479] PHYS - l
75

But the new being springs from the pre-existing, as far as the latter contained a
non-being in itself, which is now filled with a new determination.
This is expressed by Ar. in the following text.

13 - 23 solution of
b. Ib., 191 b :

i<; Xe xal auTOi 9<x(Jisv yiyveaOai [Jiev

ouSev aTcXocx; ex piT] OVTOC;, O(JLCO<; aporia

I5 (jteVroi ytYveaOai sx {JIT) OVTO<;, olov xaTa aufJipepYjxo^ ex yap TYJ<;

x
8 ecm xaO' auTO [Lr\ yiyveTai TI. 0au [lateral Se TOUTO
ov, oux evuTtap'/ovTO^
xal aSuvaTov OUTCO 8oxet, yiyveaOai Tl ^ x (^ oVro<;. '}<7auTeo<; Se ouS'
ouSe TO ov yiyvsaOai, TrXvjv xara CTUjJipejiTjxo^ OUTCO 8e xal TOUTO
TOV auTov TpOTrov, olov ei ex J^coou ^wov yiyvoLTO xal ex TLVO<; J^coou TL
2
20 ofa> v et xucov <ex xovo<; 7^ tTC7T:o(;> e^ tTUTtou yiyvoiTO .
FtyvotTO (Jiev yap av ou
(JLOVOV ex TIVO^ ^cjiou 6 xuwv, aXXa xal ex ^coou, aXX* ou^ f]
wov iTrapxei yap
TOUTO *

The above solution borrows its terms from logic: the distinction between using
a term essentially and accidentally is referred to in this chapter and illustrated by
the instance "The doctor builds a house, not qua doctor, but qua housebuilder,
and turns grey, not qua doctor, but qua dark-haired" (191 b4 - 6 ).

c. Beside this solution Ar. gives a metaphysical one: in his theory Metaphysical
of potency and act, which is explained at length in Metaph. 0. The
theory is referred to here, perhaps with reference to some older treatise.
27 - 29
Ib., 191 b :

ET<; (Jiev SYJ Tpo7ro<; OUTO<;, <xXXo<; S OTI evSe^eTai, TauTa Xeyetv xaTa TTJV
xal TTJV evepyetav TOUTO 8* ev &XXou; SicoptdTai Si axptpeia<; [JiaXXov.

480In his last chapter of this book Ar. compares his own theory This th eory

of becoming with that of Plato in the Timaeus and shows the superiority W i t h piato's
of his own theory. He reproaches Plato for not having acknowledged the
principle of orTeprjortc; : relative non-being, which is accidentally identical
with matter, but essentially different. Because Plato neglected this
distinction, he could not solve the difficulties of Eleatic philosophy:
he formally attributed to matter a kind of non-being which does not
belong to it and seems to reduce it to absolute non-being.
3 - 12
Phys. I 9, 192 a :

'Hjjieft; yap uXYjv xal orTepYjaiv eTepov 9a[iev elvat, xal TOUTGW TO
(lev [lev

5 oux ov elvai xaTa au(JL(3epY]x6<;, TTJV uXyjv, T>]V Se CTTepTjcriv xaO' auTYjv, xal TYJV

1 -
oux IvuTrdcpxovroc; "this not surviving as a constituent of the result".
2
About the insertion of the words x xuv6<; ^ I'TTTUO? see the comment of Ross
on these lines (p. 495 f.).
 76 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [ 4 80]

[zev eyyu^ xal ouaiav TUOX;, r/]v uXvjv, TT]V 8s (jTepyjcriv ouSajzco*;. Oi 8k TO
Sv TO [Jteya xal TO [juxpov ojjioiax;, ^ T& aovapi^oTepov yj
TO
"QaTe TravTeXcoc; Tepo<; 6 Tpo7ro<; OUTO<; TYJC; Tpia8o<; xaxetvo^.

Seupo TcpovjXOov, &TI Set Tiva UTroxeurOat 9uatv, Taur/jv (JLEVTOL (juav Troiouffiv 10
xal yap ei TL<; SuaSa TUOIEI, Xeycov [xeya xal (jiixpov auTYjv, ouOev TJTTOV

TY)V yap eTepav

The meaning of Ar. is clear: by introducing his third principle (the x^P a i n )

Tim. 48 6-50 d, Plato did assume a substratum, but he did not make any distinction
between the substratum as a real principle in things (see Ar.'s definition of uXyj
sub 476 d), a potential being, which can be in the full sense and only per accidens
does not do so now, and, on the other hand, a second principle, which is in itself
a non-being, namely the privation of the form which is still to be realized.
To this we might reply, that by Plato x (^P a i n t introduced at all as "matter"
in the sense of a substratum, which is an immanent principle; but only as space,
wherein coming to be happens to take place. Consequently, Ar. docs not introduce
a second principle next to Plato's principle of the Great-and-small. He introduces
two totally different principles.
It should be granted, certainly, that Plato's description of becoming is difficult
to understand and far from clear. On the other hand, Ar.'s hypothesis of a totally
unqualified substratum contains certain difficulties. It is, finally, a purely logically
construed hypothesis: a theory, which can serve as a basis for the explanation
of becoming. But what corresponds with it in the order of reality, remains
problematical.

3 THE SECOND BOOK OF THE PHYSICS

481 Ar. now begins to define "physis".
8 - 23
Phys. II i, 192 b :

What is
Tcov yap OVTCOV Ta ecra cpuaeL, Ta 8e Si' Ta TE
(Jiev &XXa<; aiTia^, 9\ia>ei, [lev
&a xal Ta auT<ov xal Ta 9i>T<x xal Ta dbuXa T&V 10
and what [xepT] aoi(jiaT(ov, olov yvj xal
is not :al avjp xal uSa>p TauTa yap elvai, xal TOC TOiauTa IlavTa
^liaei, ^ajjiev.
Se Ta p7]6evTa ^atvsTai StacpspovTa 7rp6(; Ta [XT] 9ucret cruveoT&Ta. Ta ptev yap

9
Ta piev xaTa TOTTOV, Ta Se xaT au^vjaiv xal 90Lcri,v, TCX Se xaT* aXXoicoaiv xXtVT) 15
8e xal IfiaTLov, xal et TI TOLOUTOV aXXo yvo<; e<mv, fj (Jtev TeTii^Y)xe T^C;

yopiac; exaaTYjc; xal xaO* oaov ecmv axo TexvYjc;, ouSefxiav opfjiYjv e^s
poXv)^ S(JL9UTov, Y)
8e aufipep^xev auTol^ stvai XiOivot^ y] yy]tvoi^ ^ (JLIXTOL^ ex
Definition of
TOUTCOV, 2^et, xal xaTa TOCJOUTOV, &$ OU<TYJ<; T'^<; 9UCTeco^ apx>] TIVO^ xal atTta^
'

cpuau;
TOU xiveLCT0at xal yjpefJLSLV ev & urcap^ei TrpwTox; xa0 auTO xal JJLY] xaTa CTU[JL-
s

"Nature is a principle of motion and rest for the thing in which it is immediately
present, in virtue of itself (i.e. essentially) and not in virtue of a concomitant
attribute" (i.e. per accidens).
 [481] PHYS. ii 77

The latter restriction excludes certain cases where nature comes very near
to art. With art namely the cause works from without, with nature from within.
But there are some cases where art works from within, e.g. the physician who
treats himself. Yet these cases do not come within the definition of nature, Ar.
says, for here art does not belong to the subject essentially, but per accidens.

482 32 - 34 Natural
a. Ib., 192 b :

Ouai<; [zev oijv ecrrl TO p7)0ev cpucnv 8s e'xei.

^ora TOIOCUTYJV e'xst apxV- Kal always
Icm TcavTOc TOCUTOC ouata TL xal ev U7coxeipievco earlv aeL realized in
uTuoxetfjievov yap r\ 90(71*;

"Each of them is a substance; for it is a subject, and nature is always realized

in a subject".
Mansion calls this "an expression of peripatetic realism, which indeed attributes
l

a reality to abstract principles, but on condition of finding them in a material

substratum, of which they can be separated only by thought".

These things, then, and their essential qualities are "according

b. what is

,, called
to nature .

35 - 37
Ib. 192 b :

s
Kara cpu<ri,v SE TOcuTa TE xal oaa TOUTOU; uTrapxet xa() auTa, olov T>

(pepsaOai avco TOUTO y^P 9^cri^ (zev oux Scmv, ouS' ex st 9^^^v, (priest 8e xal
xaTa 9ilcrtv ICTTIV.

483 now TWO aspects

Ar. proceeds to explain his theory of the two aspects o/
nature: (i) there is a lower nature, matter, which is undetermined and
"potential" with relation to the form; (2) a higher nature, form, which
is intelligible (because determinate) and, by its presence, brings matter
to full being (see nr. 484).

a. 10 - 21 28 - 30 Matter
Ib., IQ3a ;
;

10 Aoxel' S* Y] cpuatc; xal Y]

ouaia T&V cpuaet OVTCOV evioi<; elvat, TO TrpcoTov
2
evuTuapxov sxacrTW appuO^tarov <ov> xaO' sauTO, olov xXivv)^ yuan; TO ^liXov,
3
<xvSpiavTO(; S* 6 x<*Xxo<;. Sir][Jie1!ov Se 'AvTL9cov
^YJCTLV STI, et TLC; xaTopii^eie

xXiv7]v xal Xa^oi Suvafiiv 7] aY)7isSo>v coaTe avetvai pXaaTOv, oux av ysvecrOai
15 xXtvyjv aXXa uXov, ca<; TO [JLEV xaTa aujJLpspvjxo^ UTcapxov, TTJV xaTa vofxov
SiaOeaiv xal TTJV TEXVTJV, TT]V ouatav oucav SXSLVYJV 8* YJ
xal 8ia(jievei TauTa
juvex^?- EL Se xal TOUTCOV exaaTov 7cpo<; Tp6v TL TauTO TOUTO
v, olov 6 {lev x^Xxoc; xal 6 xpu<K> Tipo^ u8a>p, Ta 8* OCTTOC xal ^uXa 7rpo<;

1
Introd., p. TOO.
2
T& TrpcoTov evuTuapxov exaaTw appuOfziaTov <6v> xaO' aur6 - "that immediate con-
stituent of it which taken by itself is without arrangement" (Hardie Gaye). &
3
Diels, VSa 87, B 15. Cf. Zeller I 2 6 ,
pp. 1324-28.
 78 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [483]

2
yyjv *, ojjLotco^ 8c xal TCOV SXXcov OTIOUV, exeiva T^JV cpucrtv elvat xal TYJV ouatav 20

"Eva (lev o5v Tporcov OUTGX; r) (puau; XeyeTai, Y) TTptoTT) exaaTto u7toxei|JilvY) 28

liX?) TCOV e^ovTcov ev auToic; ap^v xivyjaeax; xal (ieTa(3oXYj<;.

'The immediate material substratum of things which gave in them-

selves a principle of motion or change''.

Form b 30 - 31
Ib., igaa :

"AXXov Se TpoTcov Y) ptop97] xal TO elSo<; TO xaTa TOV X6yov.

"The form and the
type, the definable form" (T& xara T&V X6yov: "which
sc. is

specified in the definition of the thing". Hardie and Gaye).

c. In the next passage Ar. explains what he means by this definition.

31 5
Ib. I93a -b :

yap Te^w) XeyeTai TO xaTcx TXV ^ V xa ^ Texvix6v, OUTCO xal

Matter with- T ^ X aTa OUTE
9uatv XlyeTai xal TO 9uo~ixov. Se exet TCCO 9aI(Jtev av

not yet /r
^]
v T ^Xv>y 3
v ^8^ v i
e ^ Suvajxet, (JLGVOV ECTTI xXivyj, (jiv)
TTCO 8* e^ei TO elSoc; TTJ<;

9uaet xXivy)<;, ouS* elvai TE^V^V, OUT* ev TOLC; 9\iaei auv terra [j(ivoi<; TO yap Suvajxei 35

oapl; ^ OGTOUV OUT' ex et ^^ T^l v eauTou 9u<riv, Tuplv av Xa^yj TO elSo? TO xaTa 193 b
TOV Xoyov, o 6pt^6(jievot Xeyofzev TI ICTTI ffap!; ^ OGTOUV, OUTE 9uasi SGTTIV.
"iiffTe aXXov Tporrov 73 ybaic; av el'yj TCOV I^OVTCOV ev auTOtc; xtvyjaefo^ ap^Yjv

73 fAOp97)
xal TO elSo<; ou ^copiaTov ov aXX* 7) xaTa TOV Xoyov.
7 5
another sense, nature is the form or type of things which have in them-
"So, in
selves a principle of motion, a form not separable from them except in thought".

484 Real things, then, are the composites of these two constituents.
5- 8
Ib. 193 b :

The To ex TOUTCOV 9uat<; ulv oux Kal aaXXov

S* e'orTt, 9uaet Se. olov av0po)7uo<;.
compositum tf \ / / / >

T^C uXvj^' exaaTOV yap TOTC XeyeTai OTav evTeXexeta 73, [jiaXXov

Relation to 485 A. Mansion, Jntrod. pp. 82-92, explained excellently how this Aristotelian
Plato's doc-
conception of nature is related to that of Plato, especially in his later works, the
trine of jim> an(j Laws. Plato* was deeply convinced that coming to be and passing away
nature
an(j ^e existence of things cannot be caused by matter. He sought a reasonable
ground for them: "that it is best for things to be as they are" (Ph. 96 a fl), and,
seeking this, assumed his "hypothesis" of Ideas. In Laws again PI. delivers a X
severe verdict on materialistic philosophy of nature the regularity of the celestial :

movement can only be caused by an intelligence, a soul. Therefore, if we mean by

3
Plato in the Tim. derived gold and bronze from water (59 b) and bones
(64 c, 73 e) from earth.
2
xe!voc - the stable element.
[485] PHYS. ii 79

"nature" what is original and wants no further explanation, we should say that
soul is "natural" (9uoei), not the material elements (981 0-892 c; our nr. 388).
In Tim. 52 d-53 b PI. describes the x^P a before the creation of the kosmos as
being filled with formless elements, in which irregular forces work and shocks
occur. So there exists, according to Plato, some irrational element, next to soul and
independent of it. But PI. does not call this physis. As to Aristotle, he starts from
such a physis and calls it by this name. But he does not adopt Plato's doctrine
of soul. Instead of this he gives another explanation above the irrational nature, :

called hyle, he superposed not soul, but a superior nature, form. This form is
not an intelligent principle, not a thinking and deliberating being, but it is intelligible :

the rational element in corporeal beings.

Thus it may be said in a certain sense that to Ar. nature is rational; only not
in any personal sense.

486 Ar. now asks himself three questions: Three

questions
(1) Where is the border-line between physics and mathematics?
For physical bodies contain surfaces and volumes, lines and points,
and these are the subject-matter of mathematics.
(2) Where is the place of astronomy? Does it belong to physics,
or not ?

(3) Since nature has two senses, form and matter, with which is the
physicist concerned?
22 - 25
a. Phys. II 2, 193 b :

^JKLf
9uau; XeyeTai, pieTa TOUTO OscopyjT^ov TLVI u n e between
SitopidToci 7coaocx&<; Y)

6 fjiaOYjjjiaTLXcx; TOU 9i>crtxou. Kal yap emTucSa xal aTepea lyzi TCX P h y s and -

\ / \ r r \ i

9001x01 crcofjiaTa xat fiYjXYj xai emyfjia^, Trepi cov axoTtsi o [jiaUY)(iaTixo<;.
math. ? \ ~<n /

26- 26 The
193 b
2. place
b. Ib., :

"ETi Y) dcaTpoXoyta eiipa 73 [xpoc TTJ<; ^OCTIXYJ^. astronomy

c. Ib., icua 12 - 13 16- n :

3. which
is the object
9601^ St/coc;, TO re elSo<; xal Y) (iXY),
8' Y] aTropyjdeiev <5cv TI?, O f natural
TOU TOU 'AXX* si rapt TOU e^ science?
Tcepl 7roT^pa(; 9UCTtxoij, \ Tcepl e^ a(jL90iv. a[JL9Otv,
xal rapl exaTepa<;. OoTepov ouv TTJ<; auTY}<; YJ &XXY)(; exaTepav yvcapt^etv ;

These questions are answered here by Ar. very shortly. They have been broadly
treated by Mansion in his fifth chapter (Introd., pp. 1 22-205).

487 The First

first question should be understood starting from Platonism.
question
a. According to Ar. in Metaph. A 6 Plato distinguished three degrees
Plato's
of being: aiaOYjTa (jiaGYjfjiaTtxa rf8i), corresponding with three kinds
of knowledge. As to the introduction of elSij an imperishable and non-
changing kind of being, on which the aia0Y)T<x depend by {jie0e^<; ,
we
 80 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [487]

gave the texts of A 6 and M 4 in our nr. 204a and b. In A 6 Ar. continues
14- 18
(987 b )
:

Se Ttocpa Ta aic67]Ta xal TOC eiS?) TOC [jiaOYjfjiaTixa T&V TcpayfjiaTCov elval
jLSTa^ii, Stacpepovra TCOV (jlv atcrOyjTcov atSia xal dxtvyjTa elvat,
TGJ

TCOV S* slS&v TW ra (JLSV TcoXX' <3cTT<x S^jLoia elvai T& 8s eZSo<; aur6 Sv Ixaorov

JJLOVOV.

We know from PL, Rep. VI, 509-511 l and VII 533-534: dialectic
this doctrine
is placed at the top; reaches up to true Reality and the Good. Next follows ma-
it
thematical knowledge, which does not extend to contemplation of the highest
Reality, because it cannot render an account of its first principles ("hypotheses").
Finally there is doxa, which is no knowledge in the strictest sense and cannot be
so, because its object is the ever-changing nature of the sensible things. Plato has
come very near to a science of nature. The essential purpose of his theory of Ideas
was to explain how rational knowledge of sensible things is possible. But in the
strictest sense PL denied it up to the end 2 .

b. Ar. gives to physics a place in the system of sciences. True

knowledge physical objects is possible, because they contain an
of

intelligible element within them, which is their essence: the form.

In physical objects this form is essentially joined to matter. In his
Metaph. we shall see Ar. occupied with the question whether there exists
any purely intelligible being, not joined to matter (what Ar. called
"separate", x^P^^ov). He answers in the affirmative. This, then, is the
1 '

object of metaphysics, which is called by Ar. "first philosophy or

"theology So we get the
.
following tripartition of sciences:

Metaph. E i, 1026 a 13 - 16 :

Ar.'s tri- ']-[ ^ yp v cpucnxY] TO pi x c P t(TT ^ H-

ev <*^' ^ x dbdvyjTa, T% 8e [/.a6r)(jiaTiX7Jc

sciences vl a 7re pi axLVTjTa [Jiev

ou x^P 1 ^^ ^ LCTGX; aXX' a><; ev uXfl Y]
Se TrpcoT?) xai
a xai axtv/jTa.

The tripartition itself is Platonic, but Ar. connects it with a different theorv
of knowledge, namely, his doctrine of abstraction. The objects of mathematics
are the result of a further degree of abstraction than are those of physics. Physical
objects, which are essentially joined to matter, cannot be separated from it, even
in thought; mathematical objects, which are according to Ar. not "separate"

1
Our nr. 294.
2
Phil. 59 a-b. In Examcn critique de I' interpretation traditionnelle du plato-
my
nisme (Revue de Mdtaph. 1951, pp. 249-268) I argued that in later platonism the op-
position of an unchanging and immovable ideal World to that of ever-changing
sensible things has been essentially broken down. If it is true that in Farm, and
Soph, motion was introduced by Plato in the ideal World as I think it was
this statement should be accepted. It does not take away the fact that, on the point
in question, sc. the establishing of the possibility of natural science, Ar. has com-
pleted what Plato had begun.
[487] PHYS. II 8l

(as Plato tho ught they are) but "somehow connected with matter", can be separated
,

from it in abstracto.
This is what Ar. explains in the next passage of Phys. II, ch. 2.

1- 7 Difference
C. Phys. II 2, 194 a :

8* av TOUTO SvjXov, et TU; exaiiptov TreipcpTO Xeyeiv TOVK; opoix;,

phys. and
xal auTtov xal T&V au(JipepY)x6TCov. T6 (ji&v yap TtepiTTOv 'a>Tai 2 xal TO SpTiov math objects
l '

xal TO euOu xal TO xafimiXov, STL 8e api6[zo<; xal ypa(jL(ji7) xal ax^f* 01 * veu
CTECO^, aap5 Se xal OCTTOUV xal <5cv0pc*>7ro<; OUX^TI, aXXa TauTa <&<T7tep pl<;
aXX'
The latter are defined like "snub nose", not like "curved". ot^6v is with Ar.
a classical instance of an accidens, and at the same time of a form which is realized
in matter. E.g. the next passage.

d. Metaph. E i, 1025 b
30 - 34
:

"Ecru 8e TCOV 6pio[jLevcov xal TCOV TI ecfTi Ta (Jiev <I>c; TO ai^ov Ta 8* a><; TO
xoiXov. Stacp^pet 8e TauTa STL TO JJLEV CTLJJLOV auveiXy][jifjLevov

(EGTI, yap TO crtfjiov xotXY] pU), '?]

8e xoiXoT7)<; aveu uXv]<;

488 What second

is the place of applied mathematics: of astronomy,
optics, harmonics? In other places mechanics, too, are mentioned.
These sciences have to do with natural bodies; they also treat the accidents
of them. Therefore Ar. calls them T<X cpuaixcoTepa TO>V {jLaGTj^arcov. E.g. his work
De caelo is a truly physical treatise. Yet the method of these sciences is a mathe-
matical one. Where, then, are they to be placed ?
Ar. answers: The position of astronomy is similar to that of geometry. Both
deal with bodies, but from a special point of view, namely, making abstraction of
corporeal reality. In the same way optics are a system of geometrical relations,
harmonics of arithmetical propositions, mechanics an application of stereometry.
But the method of astronomy is in a certain sense the inverse of that of geometry.
Ar. explains this in the passage following that which has been cited sub 487c.

7 12 The method
Phys. II 2, 194 a -
a. :

A-yjXoL 8e xal Ta 9i)aixcoTepa T&V {jLaOyjfJLaTOV, olov OTTTIXTJ xal apjjiovtxy] mathematics
xal acTTpoXoyia avaTuaXtv yap TpoTiov TLV' E^OIKTL 173 yecofieTpta. 'H [lev yap

yecofjLETpta Ttepl ypafzfxyjc; 9i>crix7J<; axoTrec, aXX* oux f] 9uaixy], YJ

8* oTruxy)
5

(jLaOY](jLaTixy]v JJLEV ypa(j.(nf)v, aXX' ou^ f) [JLaOYjjjiaTixv) aXX vj ^uatxv).

What he means to say is: astronomy etc. follow a mathematical method, but
they have to return to physical reality and there apply the mathematical relations
found by abstraction. Cp. Metaph. B 2, 997 b 14 - 35 where Ar. argues (against the ,

platonic hypothesis of an intermediate world of mathematical objects, existing

separately) that astronomy has to deal with the actual heavens of our world.

1 -
OCUT&V the subjects.
2
goTai - to be linked with dtveu

DC Vogel, Greek Philosophy II

 82 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [488]

b. On the other hand, Ar. repeatedly teaches that sciences, the

object of which is realized in phenomena and which therefore have to

do directly with concrete things, are by this very reason less accurate,
because the object is more complicated. E.g.

Metaph. 2, 982 a A
26 - 28
:

'AxpipaTaTai Se T&V STriaTTjfJi&v at (juxXiara T&V TtptoTCOv eiaiv (at yap e!;
1 2
eXaTTovcov axpipeaTepai TCOV ex upoaOeaecoc; Xsyojjiivcov ,
olov api0[ry)TixY)

yecofjieTpiac;).

Nearly the same is said in An. post. I 27, 87 a 31 .

Third 439 Which "nature" is the object of r form or matter?

J physics:
j
question
Ar. answers: both.
Both matter 12 - 15
Phys.
y II 2, ^ a
IQ4 :

and form
are the 'ETisl 8* 7} 9uai<; 8i)(co<;, TO TS elSoc; xal Y) uX*/), ax; av ei Tuepl ai|Ji6TY)TO<; CTXO-

hsics rcotfJLev T^ eo~Tiv, ouTG) OecopvjTeov. "QaT* OVT* aveu uXvjc; Ta ToiaijTa OUTS XOCTOC

Pre-socratic philosophers dealt almost exclusively with matter, e.g. Empedocles

and Democritus. To their view Ar. opposes the subordination of matter to form.
Hence follows that for the physicist form is of primary importance.

Matter and Ar. also asks the question whether the two aspects of nature
499
form are TT .

they object belong to one and the same science or to a different one. He answers
of the same that both
science?
belong to the same, and illustrates this by the analogy of art ;

e.g. the building of a house.

First a> phySf u 2 i 94 a 21 - 27 :

the analogy EL Se 7) TE^VV] (jLifjLSLTat TY]V <piicriv, TYJ<;

Se auTTJc; 7ri(TTY){Jiy]<;
etSevat TO elSo<;
of art xa ^ T^ v (jXyjv ^expt TOD (olov taTpoo uytetav xat v xa ^ 9^Y(^^7 sv o^ x^ "^

uyteia, 6(JLotca^ Se xal olxo86(Jiou TO TC sISoc; T*?^ olxia^ xal TTJV (iXvjv, OTI TcX
xal ^uXa tbaauTax; Se xal evrl T&V fiXXcov), xal TV]<; ^uaixyjc; av SLT) TO
T<X<;

Second 27 - 36 7- 8
5. Ib., 194 a. ; 194 b :

teleology in "ETi T6 ou evexa xal TO TeXog T*^ auT^^ xal oara TOUTCOV evexa 3 .
e
H 8i
nature
cpuaL<; TeXoc; xal ou Svexa oiv yap auve^ou^ TYJ^ xtvYjaew^ ouav)^ eaTi TI
4
xtvYjaeco^, TOUTO ^axaTov xal TO ou Svexa. Aio xal 6 TUOLTJTT]^

1
ai ^^ XaTT6vcov - those which involve fewer principles.
2 at x 7Tpoa0cfeco<; Xey6[ievaL - those which involve additional principles (Ross).
3 - eiusdem
T% auTvfc (sc. ^Tutarry)^^) xal ac.
4
6 7ToiY)nf)<;
- sc. Euripides, in a play unknown to us.
[490] PHYS. II

8
eiTreiv e'xei TeXeinr/jv, ^dTuep ouvex eyveTO. BoiiXeTai yap ou ?cav
elvai TO Ic^aTov TXO<;, aXXa TO piXTiaTOv e?uel xal Troiouaiv at T^^vat ^) v

uXirjv at (JLEV a7cXa><; al 8e euepy6v \ xal xP^^^a ax; Y)(i&v evexa TCCXVTCOV uicap-
'EafJLev yap TTGX; xal 7)fAeu; TXO<; Si^eo? yap T& ou sfvexa 2 . 'Ev
oov TOC<; xaTa T^VYJV ^H- 6^ Tcoioufiev T/)V uXyjv TOU Ipyou evexa, ev Se

8-9 Third
c.Ib., 194 b :

TI ~ / * ,/^ x vcs *^ f/. argument:

r/ri Ttov TTpo^ TI
7) uXv)
aXXco yap eioei aXXv) uXyj. matter and
Which means Form and matter are correlatives. They claim each other mutually.
:
form * re
But form can exist without matter (not in physical objects, but as object of meta-
physics), matter cannot without form. Therefore Ar. says that matter belongs
to the ?rp6c; TI.

491 heborder "

Hence, in the final passage of our chapter the author speaks T
about metaphysics, as it should be distinguished from physics. Phy 8 and .

metaph '

Phys. II 2, 194 b- 15
:

&7j TTOCJOU TOV 9DCJIXOV Sei etSevai TO eZ8o<; xal TO TI COTTIV ; TJ ciaTcep
veupov 7\ ^aXxea x aXxov, (i^xpi TOU. Tivo^ yap evexa exaaTOv, xal ?repl
a eaTL ^copiCTTa [Jiev etSei, ev uXy] Se. ''AvOpoTro^ yap avOpamov yevva
xal T^Xioc;. 11 ox; 8' e/et TO ^copiaTOv xal TL ICTTL, 9iXoao9ia^ TY;<; TrpwTTjc; Siopicrat

epyov.
The meaning of this passage is physics have to do with the eidos up to a certain
:

point, namely, until the physicist understands the purpose of each thing. He has
not to do with the eidos as far as this can exist in itself, not joined to matter. For
in that sense the eidos is the object of a different science: metaphysics. Physical
objects, however, are always form joined to matter. "Man is begotten by man, and
by the sun as well".- The author means to say physical generation can be explain- :

ed from itself. A metaphysical man-in-himself is of no use to it. Organic beings

generate themselves, ''together with the sun" because the heavenly bodies,
especially the sun, have an important part in the physical process of generation.

492 The next chapter (3)deals with the four causes, a subject which Chapters
iscontinued in ch. 7 and 8, where the author argues that form is properly
the cause of things. Having treated the questions of ^li^'y) and auTOfjiaTov,
which are also considered as causes of things, in chapters 4-6, he applies
in his last chapter (9) the principle of the final cause to the problem of

1
Some make the matter (from something different), others make it more
arts
serviceable when iron is melted).
(e.g.
2
From De anima 415 b 2 we know what Ar. means by this distinction: T& 8* oS
vexa SiTT6v T& ^v oft, T& 8 &. E.g. in one sense health is the oft Svexoc of the medical
art; in another sense the patient is.
 84 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [492]

the necessity of physical phenomena. This necessity does not proceed

from antecedents to consequences, but inversely: the final cause is of
primary importance.
This is the main thesis of Ar.'s natural philosophy.

the four causes 23 3

493 Phys. II 3, 194 b -I95 a :

causa "Eva o5v Tporcov atTtov XeyeTai, TO e oJi yiveTai TI evuTtapxovTog, olov 6
fjiev

TOO avSpiavTog xal 6 <5cpyupog TYjg 9iaXY)g xal T<X TOUTCOV yeVy). 25
c. formalis "AXXov Se TO eZSog xal TO 7capa8eiyp.a TOUTO 8* IGTIV 6 Xoyog 6 TOU TI 9)v
elvat xai TOC TOUTOU yevY), olov TOU Sia rcaorcov TOC 8\io Trpog ev, xal SXcog 6
l
api6(i6g xal TOC [JiipY]
TOC ev TCO Xoyco .

c. efficiens
"g Tl gQ ev ^ ^p^ ^^ jAe^apoX^g Y) TCpcoTY] Y^ TYJC; TjpefJLYjaecac;, olov 6 (iiouXeuaa*; 30

g, xal 6 TcaTYjp TOU Texvou, xal 8Xco<; TO TUOIOUV TOO Trotoufjievou xal TO
TOIJ (jteTapaXXofisvou.
c. finalis "ETL TOUTO 8* eaTi TO o5 Svexa, olov TOU TteptTraTetv Y) uyieia
TO TeXoc;
o><;

Sia T( yap TiepiTcaTsc; ^ajjLsv ova uyiaivY], xal etTu6vTe<; OUTCOC; ot6(jLs0a arco-
SeScaxevai TO atTiov. Kal oaa SYJ xivYjaavTog aXXou [jteTa^u ytyveTat TOU TeXou^, 35
*
olov TYJ<; uyieia^ Y] Lcr/vaaia r\ Y] xaOapCTi<; Y^ TOC 9ap[iaxa Y^ Ta opyava TravTa

yap TauTa TOU TeXouc; Svexa eaTi, Sta^epei 8* aXXYjXcov <o<; ovTa TOC (JLEV epya
TOC 8* opyava.

instances 494 a. Metaph. H 4,

32
1044 a -i044 b
1
:

"Ckav SYJ TIC; ^YJTT) TO aiTiov, Irel 7rXeovaxo><; Ta atTLa XeysTat, Tiaaac; Set

Xlyetv TOCC; evSex o ^va ^ occTtag. olov avOpcoTtou TIC; atTta ax; uXYj ; apa TOC xaTa-
(XYjvia ;
TI 8' cog xtvouv ; Spa TO aTiepjjia ;
TI 8* cog TO elSog ;
TO TL Y)V elvau TI
8* cog ou evexa; TO

b. Metaph. B 2, 996 b
5- 8
:

'EvS^s T^P 1-
T^> OCUTCO TravTag Toug TpoTcoug Toug TWV aiTicov
2
olov otxiag 86ev jxev YJ xivYjaig Y] Texvy )
x *l 6 oixo86(jLog, oi5 8* evexa TO Spyov ,

3
uXY] Se yYl xal Xi0oi, TO 8' elSog 6 Xoyog.

In the last example it is clear that the formal cause is identical with
the final, only seen, from a different point of view. In a sense the form is
the efficient cause, too. For the notion of "house" works as an idea which
is present in the mind of the architect and directs his activity. The

TOC Iv TCO -
the parts in the definition.
X6y<|)
Final cause the ipyov, i.e. the function of the house: "giving shelter to
is

things and bodies", as is said in the definition of Metaph. 2, 1043 a

16
(otyyetov H
7
P )^'76 xa & aeojjuxTow), and again in De anima I I, 403 b 8
.

Formal cause is the notion "house", the definition.

 [494] PHYS. ii 85

same might be remarked as to the first instance, and so

generally it is

with natural beings. For the form, which within them, is the cause of
is

their motion (growth), and it is at the same time the end.

This is expressed by Ar. in the next passage.

495 22 - 29 The three

,r,
JUrei
% *,,,,io8a
Phys. II
o
7,
~
ai aiTtai TeTTapeg, Trepi Traacov
:

N ~ ~
TOO <puaixou eioevai, xai
,*, x ,

etc;
,
non-material
Tiaaac; causes often
coincide
ocvaycov T& Sia TL dbroScoaei 9i><7ixco<;, TYJV uXvjv, TO eZ8o<;, TO xivTjcrav, TO oo
25 Svexa. "Ep^ETat Se Ta Tpia eic; ev TioXXdbac; TO [lev yap TI ecm xal TO o5 evexa
J
2v ecm, TO 8 88ev 73 xiv/jatc; TrpcoTov TW el'Set TauTo TOUTOI^; av6pco?ro<; yap

dcvOpcoTrov yevva. Kal 8Xco<; ocra xtvorifzeva xtvet' oo~a OUXSTL ^uatx^c;'
Ss (JLYJ,
5 5
ou yap ev auToic; S/ovTa xtvyjaiv ouS ap^V xtvyjascoc; xtvet, aXX (XXLVTJTOC ovTa.

496 We saw the definitions of matter sub 476c, d. Matter there

appeared as a perfectly undetermined substratum, which has to receive
its determination from the form. So matter is potential, form the ac-

tuating principle.
In other places Ar. makes a distinction between matter in the absolute Relative

sense, which is called by the scholastics materia prima, and matter matter
on a higher level, called SsuTepa uXv) by the commentators. The first
is perfectly undetermined and potential; the second, though it received

a certain (elementary) determination, is still potential in relation to a

higher form.
Thus, prime matter is the substratum of elementary bodies (fire, air, water, earth).
In a second stage these elementary substances become in their turn "matter"
for some more complicated substance of a superior determination: homogeneous
parts are formed (r) TWV 6(jLoio[zepwv 960^) in organic beings, e.g. bone and flesh.
Then, in the third and last stage, heterogeneous parts are formed ft TWV avojxoio-
jxtpaiv), such as face and hand.

12 - 24
a. De part. anim. II i, 646 a :

Tpiwv 8* oucicov T&V ai)v0aea)v 7rpa>T7)v (Jiev

av TI<; OeiT) TT]V ex TWV xa-

15 Xou[xvcav wro Ttvcav OTOixetwv, olov y9j<; aepo<; uSaToc; 7iupo<;. STI 8s peXTiov
LCTWC; sx T&V 8uva[JLea)v Xeysiv, xal TO\JTCOV oux e^ aTraacov, aXX' ciaTrsp ev ETepoi?

etpyjTat xal TrpoTepov. uypov yap xal ^vjpov xal Ospfjiov xal ^uxP ov ^^ T ^ v
auv6T6>v cjG)fjLaT6)v ecrTtv at 8* SXXai 8ta90pal TauTau; axoXouOouatv,
olov

zopapo<;xal xou90TY](; xal TTUXVOTY]*; xal (JUXVOTT^ xal TpaxuT7]<; xal Xei6TY)<;
xal TSXXa Ta TOiauTa 7ra6Y) TCOV awfjiaTCov. SeuT^pa 8e aucrTaai*; ex

7rp(OT(ov y]
TCOV 6(jLoio[Aepoiv yvGic, ev Tote; <poi<; ecTTiv, olov OCTTOU
xal TWV iXXwv TCOV TOIO^TCOV. Tpta?) 8e xal TeXeuTaia xaT* api6[iov ^ TCOV

cov, olov TrpoercoTrou xal

 86 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [496]

Therefore, matter is called by Ar. something relative (490 c: T&V 7rp6q Tt i\ (SXrj).

Reaction is essentially passive, it does possess a certain

fo Though matter
against activity. This might be inferred from the existence of monstrosities.
form j n a sense these are natural beings, because they are generated by living

beings according to a natural process. Yet they deviate from the normal
type. Why? Ar. replies: Because matter offers resistance to form and
prevents it from realizing itself perfectly.
9 - 17
De gen. anim. IV 4, 770 b :

s
"Eon yap TO Tspac; TCOV ?capa cpucriv TI, Tcapa cpiiaiv 8 ou Traaav aXXa TTJV 10

a><; ITTI TO TroXu Tcepl yap TYJV ael xal TY]V e avayxY]<; ouOev yivsTat rcapa
aXX' Iv TOI<; co<; STU TO 710X0 [isv OUTCO yLvofjtlvoic;, evSs^ojjtevoi^ Ss xal
eTrel xal TOUTCOV Iv oaoLc; au[ipatvei Tiapa TTJV TOC^IV [Jtev TauTTjv, ael [jievToi
(jLY) TUXOVTCO^;, YJTTOV eZvai Soxsl Tepac; Sia TO xal TO Trapa cpuaiv clvai TpOTrov 15
Ttva xaTa 9uaiv, Tav [Jtv] xpanfjcrfl TYJV xaTa TTJV uXy)v Y)
xaTa TO sISoc; 9\iai^.

See Mansion, Introd. pp. 114-116.

Matter
*
Generally speaking, matter sets bounds to the possibility of
c
element production of nature for not every matter can adopt every determination.
;

in nature
Metaph R ^ IO44a
i7
;

"Eo~Ti Ti oLxeta sc. iiXy) exaaTou.

Form 497 Form is used in parallel senses to matter.

*

matter Now, 'matter" is sometimes used by Ar. to indicate the corporeal

object, as our senses can grasp it. Form, then, is the intelligible type,
which is, opposite to the sensible substratum, the determining element

in the order of knowledge.

the essence with the terms
Form, therefore, is the essence. Ar. often speaks of it

T& TI 9)v elvai, ouaia and Xoyoc; (notion, definition). Cp. the passage about
the four causes (493).

a. Cf. Metaph. A 2, 1013 a

26
:

To sISoc; xal TO TuapaSeiyjjia, TOUTO &' ecmv 6 Xoyo<; TOU TL ^v elvat xal Ta
TOUTOU ysvT) etc.

Exactly the same words as in Phys. II 3.

b. De gen. et corr. II 9, 335 b

6
:

73 [Aop97) xal TO eI8o<; TOUTO 8 earlv 6 X6yo<; 6 T^ exadTou ouaia^.

In general 1/0997) indicates a visible form, elSo? an intelligible form or structure
[498] PHYS. II 87

498 a. Nature acts for the sake of an end, and it is itself an end. teleology

This is Ar.'s main thesis as to his doctrine on nature.

28
Phys. II 2, 194 a :

'H Si yvaic, TeXo<; xal o3 Ivsxa.

This view of natureis closely connected with that of Plato in Norn. and is X
directed against pre-socratic materialism, especially against Empedocles' doctrine
on the forming of organisms (our nr. llla-d).

b. Not every thing can claim to be an end, but only that which The end is

is best. We saw this in 490b (194 a32 BouXsrai yap ou Tuav elvai TO :

aXXa TO

Again in Phys. II 3, 195 a 23 - 25 :

Tex 8' ox; TO TeXo<; xal TayaOov T&V #XXoav (sc. aiTia ECTTLV)- TO yap o5
evexa peXTKJTOv xal TeXo<; T&V aXXcov eOeXei elvau
The same in Afetaph. A 2,
25 27
1013 b - .

c. An ayaOov is to Ar. always a certain plenitude of being, never always a

' J
plenitude
a non-being. of being
28 29
De gen. et corr. II 10, 336 b - :

BeXTLov TO elvai TOO [JLY]

slvai.

Hence a being never can own neve

d. strive after its extinction, nature y

striving always for "what is best", a fuller development. Ar. therefore

i.e.

finds fault with Platonism, which would lead up to the impossible conse-
quence that "the contrary would strive after its own extinction".
19 - 20
Phys. I 9, 192 a :

Tote; s (sc. nXocTowxol*;) aufjtpaivei, TO evavTtov opeyecrOai TYJS eauTOu

90opa<;.

Positive
e. Passing-away of individuals should be positively valued, as
i xu i j value of
keeping up the universal order. passing-
De b 10 away
gen. et corr. II 10, 336 :

sv tcrco XP VCI) xa>l ^ 90op<i >tal /) yvsm<; YJ

xaTa 9\i(TLv.

"The natural processes of passing-away and coming-to-be occupy

499
a. The
00
equal periods of time" (Joachim).

Ar. gives four arguments for the finality

J of nature.

stands against Empedocles' theory of the forming of

first
First
argument
for fmalitv

organisms. Ar. argues natural facts happen regularly but what happens
:
;

regularly, cannot be ascribed to chance.

 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [499]

35 8
Phys. II 8, ig8b -i99a :

IlavToc T<X 9ucrei Y)

dcel OUTCO YIVSTOCL Y) ax; em TO TroXu, TCOV 8 OCTCO TUX**)? xal
TOU auTopiaTou ouSev. Ou yap OCTTO Tux7)*? uS' OCTTO oru(JL7CT(0[JLaTO(; SoxeZ ueiv 199 a
TroXXaxic; TOU xs^&vo*;, aXX* lav UTUO xuva ouSe xaufiaTa OTTO xuva, aXX' av

Xei[jLcovo<;. Ei ouv ?) tb<; OCTTO <7U[i7rra>[jiaTO<; Soxei YJ

evexa TOU elvai, si (AY) olov
TS TauT* elvai (JLTJTS OCTTO au(JL7UTO)(JLaTO<; (JLYJT*
aruo TauTOfAocTou, evsxa TOU av 5
J
eiT). 'AXXa 9uaet y' eaTi Ta TOtauTa TuavTa
(JiY]v &<; xav auTol ^atev oi TauTa ,

XeyovTS<;. "EaTiv apa TO Svexa TOU ev TOL<; 96051 ytvojjievoi,^ xal ouciiv.

Second 8 - 15
b. Ib., 199 a :

argument
TL ev OCTOK; TeXoc; eaTt TL, TOUTOU evexa TupaTTeTai TO TcpoTepov xal TO
Ouxouv I0
vj^. ca^ TrpaTTeTat, OUTCO TT^uxe, xal w<; rce^uxev, OUTCO TcpaTTeTai
exaaTov, av (JLVJ
TL IjjiTcoSi^T]. UpaTTeTai 8' evexa TOU* xal 7re9uxev apa TOUTOU
2vexa. Olov ei oixia TWV 9uorei yivo[Aev(ov ?]v, OUTCOC; av eyiveTO a><; vuv

T^<; Texv7)<; et Se Ta 9uaei (JLYJ JJLOVOV 9uaei aXXa xal Te^vv] yiyvoiTO,
av yivoiTO I5
yj Tr^uxev. "Elvsxa apa OaTepou OaTepov.
Mansion paraphrases lines 8-12 as follows.

''With things that have a final term which is their completion,

all

the development leading to that final term is the result of an action

which aims at that term as an end. With a natural action, however,
corresponds a natural agens, and the nature of this agens shows itself
in the character of the development. Therefore, if the development
aims at an end, then the nature which is its agens, does too".

Third 15 - 20
c. Ib., 199 a :

argument r/

OXo><; Te 7) Te^vy) Ta (Jiev emTeXet a Y)

aSuvaTet aTcepyacracrOai, TOC 8e
yvaic,

(jtifjieiTat.
EL ouv Ta xaTa T/)V Te^v7]v evexa TOU, SvjXov OTI, xal Ta xaTa TT]V
9U(jiv ofJLOiax; yap e^ei, Tupoc; aXXvjXa ev TOLC; xaTa Texvvjv xal ev TOIC; xaTa
9ricriv Ta uaTepa rrpoc; Ta TrpoTepa.

Fourth 20 - 30
d. Ib., 199 a :

argument
MaXidTa Se 9avep6v em TCOV J^cocov TWV <5cXXcov, a ouTe TC^VY) OUTC y)TY)<7avTa
ouTe pouXeuaafJteva TUOiet 86ev StaTropoucrL Ttve<; TroTepov vco YJ
TIVL SXXcp epya-
S

^ovTat oi T dcpa/vai xal ol (jLup(ry]xe<; xal TOC TOiauTa. KaTa [xtxpov 8* OUTCO

Tcpol'ovTi xal ev TOOC; 9UTO^ 9aiveTai Ta au^epovTa ytv6(Jieva Tcp6(; TO TeXo^,

olov Ta 9\iXXa TY^<; TOU xapTrou Svexa arx^TTY]^. "QarT* ei 9uaet, Te Tcoieti xal Svexa 25
TOU Y) xe^^Scov TY)v veoTTiav xal 6 apaxvv]^ TO apaxvtov, xal Ta 9UTa Ta 9\lXXa

1
T(i ToiauTa Ttavra - e.g. teeth (mentioned in the
preceding passage) and other
parts of the body, which seem manifestly to have been made for some special use.
[499] PHYS. ii
89

gvexa TCOV xapTr&v xal T<X<; pia<; otix <5tvo> aXXa XOCTCO Svexa TTJ^ TpO9YJ<;, cpavspov
OTI ICTTIV 7) aMa YJ ToiauTT) ev TOI<; 9\icret yivo[Avoi<; xal
Fin aiity is
Mansion remarks might seem from the third argument, that Ar.
: It
conceives of nature, on the analogy of art, as a deliberating and consciously according to
Ar
acting being. If this were true, Ar.'s teleology would be anthropomorphist,
-

as it is usually thought to be by modern critics. That it is not so, appears

from the fourth argument to Ar. finality implies neither deliberation nor
:

intelligence. The cosmic order is intelligible, but impersonal. There is in

nature a coordination of certain activities and certain essences, in such a
manner, that those forms of activity assure to each species a regular
development, repeated in innumerable individuals. This, and nothing
else, appears to be the meaning of Ar/s teleological explanation of nature.

Nature often
500 Nevertheless, a great number of passages might be cited in which
A ^ i r x 11- x j i-
Ar. speaks of nature as of an intelligent and consciously acting being
-
i
1
represented
by Ar. as an
-i .

We togive some instances. intelligent

being
16
a. De gen. anim. II 6, 744 b :

"iicrTrsp yap oixovofJLoc; <xya06<;, xal 7] 9\i(n<; ouOev aTtojSaXXsiv eEcoOev e

&v ecm TroiYaafc TI

b. De part. anim. IV 10, 686 a 20 - 24 :

2
Tol<; (Jiev ouv SXXot<; ecm xa(X7rTo<; xal a9ov&uXou<; e/cov ,
ol Se Xiixoi
xal XCOVTE^ fiovoaTOUv TOV au/eva e'^oumv e^Xe^e yap Y] cpucns OTUCO^ rcpcx;

TTJV taxuv xpTjffLfAov auT^v excadL (jiaXXov ^ Trpo^ ra<;

33 9
c. Ib., Ill 8, 67ob -67ia :

ou TTOCVT* ^x T(^ ^ a ^^'

L
>
Soixev Y]

TOV TrXeiifJiova evatfjiov [JLOVOV, TOUTOI<; S* euXoyw^. Sia yap TYJV

UCTSWI;, Y)v e'x oucriv ev TO> (Jioptcp TOUTCO, SI^IQTLXOC TS TaijT* earl
TCOV ^coo)v, xal SetTai Tpocp^ ou (JLOVOV T^<; ^Y)pa<; aXXa xal TTJ<; uypac;
,
WCTT' e^ avayx7)(; xal TrepiTTOifxa ytvedOai TuXetov xal (xy)
TOCTOUTOV

[JLOVOV 8o~ov 6^6 TYJC; xotXiac; Tr^TTeaOai xal exxpiveaOai [XSTOC TOU Taunr)^ TTE-

ptTTcajjiaTO^. avayxT) TOIVUV elvat TL SexTixiv xal TOUTO\> TOO 7repiTTCo[JLaTO<;.

SioTcep 8(ra TrXeiifiova 2xei TOIOUTOV, aTravT* l^et xuanv.

d. Ib., IV 5, 682 a 6 - 8 .

Ar. is speaking here about insects which continue to live after they have been

1
Mansion, p. 261, notes 31-36, cites 20 passages, and in addition the whole
treatise on The Parts of Animals.
2
Sc.
 90 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [5]
cut into pieces. The reason of this is, he says, that in such insects as have long bodies
the central organ, which is the seat ot perception, consists of several parts.
BouXsTOU [Jiev yap T) cpiidic; ev Tram [JLOVOV ev 7rot,elv TO TO&OUTOV *, ou Suva-

(jLevv)
8' evepyeia TTOISL (JLOVOV ev, SuvajjLet, 8e rcXeico SvjXov 8' ev eTpoi<; erepcov
[xaXXov.

e. D0 g. anim. Ill 2,
7 11
753 a - :

2
Eoixe Se xal y] 9u<7tc; poiiXecrGat, TTJV TCOV TSXVCOV aEaOijartv eTUfjLeXYjTtxvjv

aaxeua^eiv aXXa TOI^ [Jiev xeipoat, TOUT' e[jL7coieZ f^exP 1 TO ^ fs^etv (JLOVOV,

L<; Se xal Tcepl TT]V TeXecoaiv, 6<roc Se 9povL(jia>Tpa, xal Tcepl T'^v sxTpocpYjv.

4- 9
f. Ib., IV 10, 778 a .

In the preceding lines the author has spoken about the influence of the so-called
natural periods (day and night, month and year) on the generation of living
beings. He continues:
3
BouXeTai (Jiev
ouv
TOU; TOUTCOV api0(JLou;
7) apiO(JLtv Ta^ ysveaeLc;
<pu<7L<;
4
xal TOC^ TeXeuTac;, oux axpipol Se Sia Te TYJV T*^ uXvj^ aopio~Tiav xal Sia TO

ytveaOai TcoXXac; ap^a<;, at Tag yeveaeig Tag XOCT& ^uatv xal Tag 90opag e(JL7uo-
Si^ouaat TroXXaxig aiTiat. TCOV Tiapa ^UGLV CTU^TTITCTOVTCOV eiatv.
4
Cp. Phys. II 8, 994 b : xa ^ TC^ TEpara a[JiapT7)(jLaTa exetvoo TOU 2vex TOD.

How to ex- 501 How, then, to explain this?

Mansion 5 answers, and we think he is right : The theory, expounded
in Phys. not anthropomorphistic, the application is. However, as
II, is
all those passages are of a later date than Phys. II, so that it is not possible

to explain them as expressing a more primitive stage in the thought of

Ar., while, on the other hand, the author passes extremely severe judg-
ment on Plato in the Tim., we must conclude that the anthropomor-
phistic version is with Ar. rather a form of expression, which should
not be taken too literally.

Cp. De caelo II 9, 291 a 24 :

coaTiep TO (jLeXXov IcreciOat Trpovoouavjg TYJg

"As if nature foresaw the consequences". Here it is explicitly indicated, that

we have only to do with an image. Wherever, then, the (foarcep has not been added,
we have yet to understand this kind of expressions metaphorically.
To this, M. adds the argument that anthropomorphistic expressions are especially
numerous in the fragments of Ar.'s literary works (those of II. <piX. in De caelo).

The said organ.

TXVCOV ata07)<Kv ^TUjjieXYjTLXYjv - a special sense of care for their young.
r?)v TCOV
"by the measure of these periods".
"but she does not bring this to pass accurately".
Introd., p. 262-263.
 [501] PHYS. II
91

Many instances of the same metaphorical use might be adduced from modern
writers, and this not in popular works only.
Cp. in Bergson's Evolution crdatrice the frequent use of terms like "nature has
to triumph over resistances"; she "finds" or "tries different solutions for the same
problem"
1
she "operates not in this, but in that way" 2 etc.
; ;

502 De caelo I 4, 271 a 33 :

'O 8k Oe6<; xod 7] 9\iai<; ouSev (JKXTYJV Ttotouai. De cae i

"God and nature" almost as synonyms. What does this mean?

Mansion answers: Not much, or rather nothing. It is just an expression,
a metaphor. For it does not harmonize at all with Ar.'s conception of
God in his scientific treatises on this subject (see 5 of this chapter).
Now, certainly, M. is right. Only, when we remember that in the dialogue II.
9iX. the aspect of our visible world and of cosmic order seemed to Ar. a proof for
the existence of gods 3 it might become clear to us that the author of De caelo I,
,

which is of an early date, still adhered to, or at least was not far away from, Plato's
religious conviction that a god or a divine Mind must have created the order of
the sensible world. We can imagine that, only a few years later, the same author
detached himself from this conviction.

503 Chapters 4-6 deal with chance and spontaneity (TU^ and <XUTO-
(JLOCTOV), which are generally considered as causes of many things in nature.
First, they are said to be neither the cause of things which always come to pass
in the same way, nor of those which mostly do so.
The next distinction made by Ar. is that between things which happen TIVO<;
Ivexa and others which do not. Chance and spontaneity occur in the first group.
We cite the text.
17 - 32
a. Phys. II 5, 196 b :

Twv 8k yivo^Jilvcov TOC p.ev evsxa TOD yiyveTai, T(* ^' ^ "
TOOTCOV 8k T<X JJLSV

xara Trpoatpecnv, ou xaTa Tupoatpeatv, a(Ji<pG> o ev TCH<; evsxa TOD, COCTTC

Ta S'

20 STjXov OTI xai ev TO<; Trapa TO avayxatov xat TO &$ ITU TroXu SCTTW evta Trepl
a evSe^eTai i>7uapxsw TO evexa TOD. "EorTi 8* Svexa TOD 8aa TC OCTUO Siavoia^
av TrpaxQe^ xat oVa arco 9ti(T6)<;.
Ta Sr) TOtauTa OTav xaTa (TUfJipepTjxo^ yevyjTai, OCTTO TU^^ 9afJLev slvai.
f

25 'Qa7rep yap xal- 8v IGTI TO [lev xaO* auTO TO 8k XOCTOC au(JLpepY]x6<;, OUTCO xal
aiTiov evS^eTai, elvai, olov oixtac; xa6* auTO [JLEV aiTtov TO otxoSojJiixov, xaTa
s

cru[Jipep7)x6(; 8k TO Xeuxov ^ TO [XOIXTLXOV. T6 (lev ouv xa0 auTO atTiov a>pio~(jivov,

TO 8e xaTa au[jLpep7)x6(; a6pi(iTov &Tcei,pa yap av TW evl (rufJipaiT].

1
Reason (in man) and instinct (in animals) are, according to Bergson, "different
solutions for the same problem".
2
Not by composition or construction, like a human artisan, but by division.
The "method" of nature is put in opposition to the method of man. Yet, nature
"operates" after some intelligible method!
8
Our nr. 427.
 Q2 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [503]

KaOdbrep o5v eXe^O^ foav ev TOI<; evexa TOU yiyvofjievoic; TOUTO yeV/jTai, 3
TOTS X^yeTai daro TauTOjiaTou xal OCTTO TUX*/]?. AUT&V 8e 7tp6<; #XXY)Xa TYJV

Siacpopav TOUTCOV uaTepov SiopiaTeov.

So both chance and spontaneity are in the sphere of things which

happen evexa TOU. I.e.: chance is not against the finality of nature; it
is subordinate to it, being an accidental cause.

instance 33 3
fo ft f 196 b -ig7 a : an instance of chance.

Olov gvexa TOU aruoXapelv TO apyupiov YjX6ev av, xo(juopie~vou TOV epavov,
*
el f)8ei ?]X6e 8* ou TOUTOU evexa, aXXa (juve^Y) auTco eXOelv, xal TtoiYJcrai TOUTO
TOU xo[AiaaaOai evexa 2
TOUTO 8e ou8* co<; em TO TioXu cpotTcov ei^ TO ^capiov
OUT* e^ dvayxY)<; e'cm Se TO TeXo<;, r\ xo^iSr), ou TCJV ev auTto atTtcov, aXXa TWV
TrpoaipeTcov xai, aruo Siavoia^ xal XyeTai ye TOTe OCTIO TUX^C; eXOeiv-
Definition ft 5-6
c> 157 a :

AvjXov apa OTL y) TU^T) aWa xaTa au(jLpepr)xo<; ev TOIC; xaTa rcpoaipeaiv
evexa TOU.

Automaton 504 36
~b 8
b 13- 18
a. Phys. II 6, I97a ;
:

notion than Aia^pepei 8 OTI TO auTOfiaTOv eTil TrXeiov ecm* TO (Jtev yap OCTTO TUX"/)?

tyche ^Q J

TauTOfJicxTou, TOUTO S ou Trav OCTTO TUy)^. *H (Jiev yap TU^IQ xal TO (XTTO 19?
b

TUX*/)^ ea-Ttv oaoi^ xal TO euTu^^ai av uTuap^etev xal oXco<; 7rpa^t(;. Ai6 xal

avayxY) Tuepl Ta TrpaxTa elvai TYJV TU^V S' OTI Soxet ^TOI, TauTov *
c77](jLel'ov
1
elvat TYJ euSaifjiovia Y] euTU/ia Y] eyyuc, Y)
S euSaifjiovta 7upat<; Tig euirpa^ia yap. 5
f/
liaO' oTTocroig (JLY) evSexeTai rcpa^ai, ouSe TO a;c6 TU^^ TI Troi^aaL. Kal Sta
TOUTO ouTe a^u^ov ouSev OUTC OYjpfov ouTe Trat-Stov ouSev Tioiet a7ro TU/Y^,
OTI oux e/ei Trpoaipeortv
s
To 8 auTO(jtaTov xal TO^ aXXoig ^cooig xal TroXXotg TO>V a^6x wv ?
^ ov

LTTTUOC; auT6(jLaTog, 9a(jiev, Y^XOev, STL eaa>0Y) [xev eX6a>v, ou TOU aco0YJvai 8e 15
evexa 9)XOev. Kal 6 TpiTiouc; auT6(iaTog xaTeTteaev eaTY) [xev yap TOU xaOYJcrOai
J

evexa, aXX ou TOU xaOYJdGat evexa xaTeTrecrev.

1
the reading xo^o^evou is right, we must render: "A man gets back his
If

money from his debtor who (at the very moment the other enters the market)
is receiving contributions for a feast. He could have gone to the spot for the purpose
of getting back his money, but" etc.
2
If the words TOO must be kept here, it is necessary to put a
xojjLtaaaOai 2vexa
comma after iXOetv: "But he went
some other reason, and now, (in fact), he
for
has done it for the sake of receiving his money". The expression of this idea
might seem to us rather strange. Bonitz simply ejected TOU xopUaadOat vexoc, and
this might appear to the modern reader a highly attractive solution. Yet, I do
think it possible that Ar. wrote these words. Cf. 197 b 17 (our next nr.), where he
says of the tripod that it "came to stand there so as to serve for a seat", though it
did not fall for that use.
 [504] PHYS. ii
93

18 - 22 Definition
b. Ib., 197 b :

f/
l<7T <pavsp6v 8n ev TOI^ aTrXw^ evexa TOU yivo^vot^, 8rav JJI

Svexa yv7]TaL o5 Sco T6 aiTiov, T6re OCTCO TauTOfxaTou XeyofJiev OCTTO

TOUTCOV 8aa OCTTO

TauTOfjiaTou ylveTai TCOV TtpoaipeTcov TOL^ e'xouat,

505 Finally, is necessity in nature absolute, or is it hypothetic ? Necessity

Ar. answers: the material cause is tbv oux aveu, but the final cause is

the real and decisive cause.

34 10
a. Phys. II 9, 199 b -2OO a :

To S* e avayxTjc; TOTepov e uTroOecrecoc; uTcapxet ?)

xal arcXco^ ;
vuv fjtev

zoo a yap OIOVTOCI TO e^ dvayxTjc; elvai ev T^ TOV TOI^OV e^

yevecrei, caaTcep av si TIC;

avayx7)<; yeyev^c0at VOJJLI^OL, OTL Ta [JLEV (3apea

XOCTCO Tre^uxe 9epea0ai T<X Se
xou^a IrciTToX^, Sto ol XtOot (JL^V XOCTO) xal TOC OejieXta, Y] Se y^ Svco Sta xou-
cpoTTjTa, eTiiTToXr^ Se fJiaXiaTa Ta ^uXa- xou^OTaTa yap.
5 'AXX* 8(jL(o<;
oux aveu (Jiev
TOUTCOV y^yovev, ou [jilvTGi,
Sta TauTa 7rX7]v coc; Si*
e
evexa TOU xpuinreiv aTTa xal aco^eiv. O[AOtct)^ Se xal ev T0t<; aXXoic;
uXvjv, aXX'

Traaiv, ev OCTOK; TO evexa TOU eaTtv, oux Sveu (xev TCOV avayxaiav I/OVTCOV TYJV
10 9uatv, ou [xevTOi ye Sta TauTa aXX' ^ coc; uXyjv, aXX' evexa TOU.

b. Ib., 200 a 30- 34 :

Oavepov STJ 8Tt TO avayxal'ov ev TOC^ ^uatxolc; TO co<; uXrj Xey6(xevov xal at
at TauTTjc;. Kal ajji^w [Jtev
TCO 9uaix(o XexTeai at aluaL, jxaXXov Se y]

Svexa amov yap TOOTO TTJ<; uXv]c;, dXX' ou^ auTT] TOU TeXou<;.

Mansion l concludes Finality, then, is according to Ar. the normal rule of nature,
:

a necessity of an intelligible character. What is not governed by this law is what

we call contingent, and is ascribed to accidental causes. But Ar. is not so much
interested in the accidental and contingent as in the regular order of normal
phaenomena, by which the universe is sustained in that being which is its agathon.

4 DEFINITIONS OF MOTION, SPACE AND TIME

506 Ar. now tries to define motion. The definition Motion

is preceded by
some preliminary remarks.

a. Phys. Ill i, 200 b 16 - 21 :

Aoxet S' /) xivY)ai<; elvai TCOV auve^cov, TO S* a*7reipov ejjLCpatveTat TcptoTov ev

TCO auvexet* 816 xal TOI^ 6pio(jLevoi<; TO auve^e^ aujApatvei 7rpo<jxpv)<raa6ai

TcoXXaxu; TCO X6y<o TCO TOU dbcetpou, co^ TO etc; oareLpov SiaipeTOv auve^<; 8v.
8k TOUTOK; Sveu TOTTOU xal xevou xal ^povou XLVY]aiv aSiivaTov elvat.

Introd., p. 327.
 94 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [506]

b. Ib., b 26- 28 :

"E<m 873 [TI] TO [Jiev lvTXXia JJLOVOV *, TO 8i Suva(iet xal evTeXexeta, TO

[Zv ToSe TI, TO 8e TocrovSe, TO Se TOtovSe, xal ETU TCOV SXXcov T&V TOU 6vTO<;

xar/jyopicov ojiotox;.

Definition c J^ ^ 2 OI a 10 - 11 1

73
TOU SuvafJiei o v T o <; IvTfiX^xeia, f) TOLOUTOV, x -

v Y)
a i <; aT i v.

the definition J Jb 201 a 11 - 15 :

^

OIov TOU [lev aXXoicoTou, fj aXXoicoTov, <xXXoicoCTi<;, TOU Se au^vjTou xal TOU
avTixeijjlvou 90iTou (ouSev yap ovofxa xotvov ITT' a^^otv) au^Y]ai^ xal 90t
TOU 8e Y ev7 T0 ^ xa ^ ^QapTou yeveatc; xal ^Oopa, TOU Se ^opyjTou 9opa.
)

E.g. something is actually x (stones, wood and mortar), potentially y (a house).

:

Now motion is: actualizing the y-ness (the building of the house).

space 507 a. Phys. IV 4, 212 a 21 - 22 : definition.

TOTOU 7cepi/ovToc Trepan (XXIVYJTOV ?rpo>Tov, TOUT'

S a T i v 6 TOTTOC;.

Space is
212 a 14- 20
motionless
b. Ib.,
o
f,

coaTcep TO
x ,
:

M ,

ayyetov TOTT;O<; |XTa9op7jTO<;, OUTCO xai o TOTCOI; ayyeiov

, ^ .,,..
v. Aio OTav [lev ev xivoujjievo) TI xLvvJTai xal (jLTa(3aXXy) TO SVTO<;,
olov ev 7roTa[jLcp TtXoiov, co^ ayysico ^pYJTat, piaXXov r\
TOTUCO T<O Trepte^ovTt.
BouXeTat 8* axtvv]Toc elvat 6 TOTUO^- 816 6 ?ra^ jzaXXov TroTajjio^ TOTTOC, OTL

6 Tra^.

Time 508 Preliminary remarks on time.

a. Time has to do with motion, but it is not motion.
9 - 18
Phys. IV 10, 218 b :

not= motion 'Eirel Se SOXSL (jiaXiaTa elvai xal TL<; 6 /povo<;, TOUT*
xivY)ai<; (JLeTapoXv)
av ELY) <JX7UTOV. 'H (JLV OtJV Xa<TTOU [XCTapoXY] Xal XtVYjat^ V aUTW TCO (JLTa- 10

paXXovTt [Jiovov (TTV, YJ

ou av TU/YJ 6v auTO TO xivoufjivov xal [JiTapaXXov
6 SE xp vo ? >al TuavTa/ou xal Tiapa Tcaaw. "ETL
O(JIOLCO<; jxeTapoXYj [JLv ECTTI
Traaa OOCTTCOV xal ppa8uTpa, XP^ V ^' oux CTTIV TO yap fipaSu xal Ta^u 15

Xpovco captaTai, Ta^u JJLEV TO Iv oXiyco TioXu xtvou(jivov, PpaSu 8k TO Iv TuoXXco

oXtyov 6 SE XP^ V0 ^ OU X &P&cjTat XP^ V(^ ^T T^ TTOOTO^ Ti elvai OUT TO>

(Jiv TOLVUV oux 2<iTi xiv7]ai<;, ^avepov.

1
TL is bracketed by Ross; Spengel, Bonitz and Prantl inserted T& B
after (jL6vov, a correction which has been adopted by Hardie in his translation.
 [508] MOTION, SPACE AND TIME 95

b. Ib. ii, 2i8b 21 - 23 :

'AXXa (JLYJV
ouS' <5tveu ye OTav yap
{JLeTa(3oX9j<; (jiYjSev auTol [jieTa(3aXX<0{Jiev change
TY)V Siavoiav ?) XaOa)(jiev fieTapaXXovTCc;, ou Soxei 7](juiv yeyovvai,

509 Time an
a. Time, then, appears to be a certain aspect of motion. aS P CCt f
TU d
2- 4
Ib., 219 a !
motion
Ss, sTcel y)Tou[jiev TI ecmv 6 xpw<^evTeuOev ap^o(jilvoi<;, TI

Yjasax; ecmv. "Afjia yap xivv)aeco<; a[(j0av6(jieOa xal ypovou.

10 - 14 Motion
b. Ib., 219 a :

TO xtvou(Jivov xtvetTat ex Ttvo<; el'^ TI xal Tuav (xey0o<; (ruvsxe<;, magnitude

axoXouOel' TCO [xeyeOei, TJ xtvyja^ Sta yap TO TO fxeyeOoc; elvai cjuve^e^ xal T)

xivY)at(; eaTi auve^v)^, 8ta Se TTJV xivyjaiv 6 /povo<; OCTYJ yap YJ xivyjaK;, TOCTOUTOC;
xal 6 XP^ V S && SOXSL yeyovevat.

c. Ib., 2ioa 14- 21 :

on/1
15 T6 Se S*/] TTpoTepov xal (icrrspov ev TOTTW TcpcoTov SCJTIV. 'EvTauOa (JLSV SYJ

T^ Oeaei eicel 8' ev TO) fjieyeOsi, saTl TO TTpoTepov xal uarepov, avayxv) xal ev

xivyjaei elvat TO TcpoTepov xal uaTSpov, avaXoyov TOL<; exei. 'AXXa (JLT]V
xal ev

^povco IcrTl TO TcpoTepov xal ucjTepov Sta TO axoXouOstv asl OaTepco OaTepov
20 auTcov. "EaTi Se TO TrpOTepov xal uaTepov ev not identical
TYJ xtvyicei. o ptev TIOTE ov xtvyjaic;
i ,r ~ / , / ,
with motion x
1
SGTIV TO (jtVTOi eivai auTco Tpov xat ou xtvYjai^.
-

d. Ib. 2IQ a 22- 25

'
Yetconnect-
'

, A ^ > > x / ,<, <> >

ed Wlth thC
v / X
AXXa xai TOV XP OVOV T
(JLYJV yv(opi,Qo[JLv, oTav opiaw[JLv TT^V XIVTQGIV, TO apprehension
xal xal TOTE 9a(JLev yeyovevai /povov, OTav TOO of time
TrpOTepov (iaTepov opi^ovTec;
TcpOTepou xal ucrrepou sv T^ xtvyjaei alaOTjaiv

1 -2 Definition
510 a. Ib., 219 b :

TOUTO yap ECTTIV 6 /povoc;, apL0(Ji6<; xivyjorewc; xaTa

TO TupoTepov xal (icTTSpov.
5- 9
b. Ib., 219 b :
the definition
s
l 8 aptOfjio^ ICTTL SLXCO^; yap TO aptOfjiou^evov xal TO a
(xal
Xeyofjisv, xal & apt6[JLou(JLv), 6 Ss XP^ VO<? ^ aT ^ T0 aptO(jLoii(jievov xal
& apt6fjLou(jiev. "EaTi 8
s

eTspov $ apL0(jioij(jLev xal TO aptO(jiou[jLevov.

So time "the countable aspect of movement". If an event comes to pass "in

is

time", this means that it is measurable ("countable") by time.

1
As to its substratum it is identical with motion yet
; it differs from it in essence.
 96 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [5ll]

Existence 4- 9
511 a. Phys. IV 12, 221 a :

Kal 2<m T7) xLvqaeL TO ev XP^w efvai TO

xal TO elvai auTTJS' a[ia yap TYJV xlVqaLV xal T& elvai Tyj xivyjaei
xal TOUT' e<m aoTfl TO ev XP^ V< ) elvai, TO [xeTpeLaOaL aoT>j<; TO elvaL.
!

AyjXov 8* STL xal TOL<; aXXoL<; TOUT* e<m TO ev XP^ VC elvaL, TO [jieTpet<T0aL
auTcov T& elvai UTTO TOO

Eternal b. 221 b 3- 7
Ib., :

not in time "i^crre 9avepov STL TOC ael OVTOC, f]

ael ovTa, oux eaTtv ev
TO etvai auTcov UTUO TOO XP^ VOU
UTUO xpovo^, o^Se (JteTpecTat

Se TOUTOU STL ouSe Tuaaxst ouSev OTTO TOO XP^ VOU ^^ ^ K ov^a ev
Rest, too, is
^ Jj-)j 221 b 7 - 12 :

'
8* earlv 6 xp^ v ^ pteTpov xLVYjaeco^, ecTaL xal Y]pe(jLLac; jxeTpov xaTa
Tcaaa yap y]pe[JLLa ev xpovco. Ou yap co<J7rep TO ev xLvyjaeL ov avayxY)

,
OUTCO xal TO ev xpovco ou yap XLVTJCLC; 6 xp6 v ?5 4^' apL6{ji6c; XLVY)-
ev aL0Jia> 8e

Would there 5J2 At the end of this book Ar. raises the important question
there were whether there would be time if there were no soul, i.e. if there were no
no soul?
knowing subject which could "count" or measure. He replies by saying
that, in this case, there would still be movement, which is the "sub-
stratum" of time (TOUTO 6 TIOTC ov eaTiv 6 xpovo<0, but not its measurable
aspect, which is "time".
21 29
Phys. IV 14, 223 a - :

IloTepov 8e (JLTJ ouonr)<; 4*

U X'^ S &Q ^ v XP^ VO(^ ^ ^ aTropifjaeLev av TLC; aSuvaTou
yap OVTO^ elvaL TOU apL6(ji7]aovTo^ aSuvaTov xal aptO^Tov TL etvaL, ciaTe SvjXov
OTL ouS* apLOfjLO^; apLOfjLoc; yap r\ TO Y)pLO(JL7][jLevov Y] TO apLO[XY)T6v. EL 8e (jL7]8ev
'
&XXo Tre^uxev cxpL0fJLeZv U X*) xa L ^ U
?j 4* X^
vou^, aSiivaTov elvaL xpo vov ^ U X^) ? 2 5 <

[JLY] oiia7]<;, aXX' IQ

TOUTO 6 TCOTC ov eaTLv 6 xpo v ?> ^ v e ^ evSexeTaL XLvyjaLv
elvai aveu ^uxvj^. To Se rcpoTepov xal uaTepov ev XLV/JCTCL CGTLV xpo vo<? 8e
5
TauT eaTiv v) apL0(JLY)Ta eaTLv.

5 THE THEORY OF THE FIRST UNMOVED MOVER

513 Ar. starts from the fact of movement in the sensible world.
Now whatever is in movement is moved by something else. There must,
then, be a First Movent, which unmovable. This first Movent
is itself

must be eternal, because movement and such it is, in Aris-

is eternal
totle's opinion, necessarily. It can have no parts nor magnitude, because
 [513] THE PRIME MOVER 97

in a finite magnitude resides a finite force, and this could not be the
cause of eternal motion. The firstMovent, then, is incorporeal.
Ar. finally argues that the first Movent must be at the circumference
of the world, because here the movement is quickest and therefore
nearest to the Source.
We cite the end of Ar.'s exposition, where he resumes his main
argument.
Phys. VIII 10, 267a
21
-b 9 :
the theory of
~ the Primc
>
8' ev TOU; oScriv avdcyxY) XIVYJCTIV elvat auve^vj, OCUTY) 8e (xta eaTiv, dvayxYj Mover in
ys *
8e TYJV [Jiiav fJieyeOouc; T TLVOC; elvat (ou yap xivetTai TO ajjtiyeOec;), xal ev6<;
s
xal 69' evos (ou yap SCFTOCI <iuvexY)<;, aXX exofJiivY) erlpa eTepa<; xal 8iY)pYj{jivY)),

25 TO SY] xivouv et 2v, YJ xivotifjievov xivet, YJ OCXIVYJTOV 8v. El [i^v SY] xivoufxevov,
cuvaxoAouOeLv SSYJOTEI, x xal (XETapaXXstv auTo, ajia 8e xiveicrOat UTTO Tivoq.
2
6yb ^CTTE GT/jareTai et^ T6 xtvLCT0ai UTUO axivvjTou
xal yj^ei TOUTO yap oox
3
avayxY] au[X{jLeTapaXXsi,v, aXX* aei TS SuvYjaeTai xtveov (STTOVOV yap TO OUTW
xiveiv ) xal 6fJLaXv)<; auTT) Y) xtvy]cri<;, ?) (JLOVYJ 7^ [xaXiaTa ou yap 2^ei

5 TO xivouv ouSejjLLav. Aet 8e ouSe TO xtvoujjievov irpoc; exelvo xeiv

'iva ojJLota ^ 7) xtvYjcjic;.

'AvayxY) SYJ YJ
ev (xecrco Y)
ev xiixXco elvai 4<
auTat yap al apxai 5 'AXXa Ta- .

XtarTa xivetTat TOC eyyuTaTa TOU XIVOUVTO?, ToiauTYj 8* Y) TOU oXou xivY)ai<;'
exei &a TO xivouv.

514 The conclusion

of the preceding passage leaves us with two

problems: (i) can a How

non-corporeal First Movent have its place at
the outside of the universe ? (2) How can it impart a physical movement ?
To these questions Ar. gives the answer himself in the famous words
in Meta1>h. A 7, 1072 b
3
:
it works as
a final cause
TT
mvei
.,
^
OY)
,
co<;
, ,

epcofxevov.

"It produces motion as being loved" or striven after.

Now this again leaves some difficulties: (i) If there is eternal movement, i.e.
circular movement, which is the first and most perfect of motions, why then a
First Mover ? (2) If this First Mover, whom Ar. calls God (in Metaph. A), produces
motion "as being loved", than a soul must be attributed to tne first heaven; and,

1
subject to the same conditions as
auvaxoXouGetv Se^aei- "it will have to be

that which moves".

it
2
"So we have a series that must come to an end".
3
O(>TCO - sc. [L^i oujxjxeTapdtXXov.
4
sc. T& xtvouv. v xuxXci) - at the circumference.
5
at dtpxat - sc. the first principles from which a sphere is derived. In ch. 8 Ar.
has argued that only circular movement can be continuous and infinite.
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 7
 98 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [514]

if more unmoved movers are admitted (as Ar. teaches in A 8), so for each heavenly
sphere.
Now the first point is against logic, the second against the view of modern science.

the Prime 515 What Ar. says further in Metaph. A, must be seen in connection
Metaph. A with his doctrine of matter and form and of potency and act, which
is expounded in the books Z- (see our next chapter). We met with
these principles in Phys. I-II.

(1) the indefinite, form the determining. In the physical world form
Matter is

and matter are united in the physical objects. But form can exist by itself, not in
physical, but in metaphysical reality. The highest being, which as prime cause is
at the beginning of all motion, must be pure form without matter.
(2) In order to explain the fact of physical change, Ar. assumes a potential
being. This is something real (e.g. an acorn can become an oak, never a beech),
but it must be brought to full reality (vpyeia or IvTeX^xeta) by an efficient cause.
Therefore the definition of motion, given sub 506c. God, then, as supreme being,
must be full reality or completion, and therefore absolutely necessary.

God as the a A 4 11
Metaph.' 7, 1072 b - :

absolutely _,, , T ., , , rf ._ .
,

necessary &* ouv TI xiveiTai, evoex^at xai aXXox; X eiv O)(JT ei L*)J <pop<* rcpomq
f*ev > 4,
being v pyeia ecmv, fj xiveLTat, TOCUTY) ye evSex Tai &&<**$ e'xsw, xara TOTCOV, xal
.fj

el [!>)
XOCT* ouaiav eTcel 8e 2<m TI XLVOUV auTo axivYjTov ov, evepyeia 8v, TOUTO
oux evS^x e ^ ai aXXco^ e'xstv ouSa(jL6>^. ^opa yap Y] TrpcoTY] TCOV (JieTapoXcov, rauTT)^
Sfe T] x\ixXo> Toctrnqv 8e TOUTO xivcL e^ dcvayx7)<; <5cpa SGTIV ov xal fj avayxy), 10
xaXcoc;, xal OUTCO<;

b. As absolutely necessary being, then, it is the First Principle,

on which the universe depends.
13 - 14
Ib., 1072 b :

On this x
]
ToiauTY]<; apa ap/% ^pT7)Tai 6 oupavo^ xal YJ 9\icri^.

the universe One might justifiably call this a monotheistic principle. We find it expressed
depends again at the end of the same book:

c. Metaph. A 10,
3 4
1076 a - .

In the preceding lines Ar. rejects the theory of Speusippus, who assumed mathe-
matical number as first principle, instead of the Platonic Ideas and ideal Numbers.
He rejects it on the ground, that by this theory a multiplicity of dtp/at would be
introduced.

Ta Se 8vTa ou (SouXeTai, TroXiTeiieaOai xax&<;.

0ux aya66v TuoXuxoipavtY) elc; xotpavo*; &mo.

516 Ar. now undertakes to describe the life and character of his
Prime Mover.
 [516] THE PRIME MOVER 99

1 ^ 80
a. Metaph. A 7, 1072 b :
ThtUtoo*
the Prime
, 15 AtaY<>Y^ 8* laTlv ota ^ ip(<rn) (juxpov xpovov :?)(uv. ofiTco yofcp Ael ixeivo Mover
(J)fjuv fi4v Y<fcp AStivaTov), fcrcel xal ^SovJ) ?) ivlpyeta Tofoou (xal 8ti TOUTO

J)
84 v6r]ai^ ?)
xa6* aurJjv TOU xaO* a^To iptcrrou, xal ^ (xdcXiaTa TOU fzdcXterra.

2oa6Tov Si voet 6 vou<; xaTA TOU VOTQTOU* VOYJTO<; y^P

(xsTdcXyj^tv 061 6 1
TY^" Y^^
vcov 2 xal vocov, &0Te TauT^v vous xal vo>)T6v. T6 Y^P SSXTIXOV TOU VOTJTOU
xal T?)^ oierCa^ vou^, IvepYet 84 2x o)V 5 <*>(JT> 4^*f v ou {JtaXXov TOUTO 8 8 8oxei
6 vou^ 0eiov S^eiv, xal *J) OscopCa TO i]&i<yTov xal ipiGTov. si o5v
25 xet ^^ f)(xet^ TCOT^, 6 0e6<; dcet, 0au(iaaT6v el 8e (xaXXov,
*
xal I^wy) 8 Y i^^PXet
'
fl Y^P vo ^ 4v^PY eia ^^ xeZvo$ 84 f)

'IpYsia 84 Y)
xa6* auryjv Ixetvou ^oi-Jj Aptcnry) xal dltSioc;. q>a|JL4v

TOV 6e6v elvat ^(jiov itSiov SptaTov,

1

&<iTe ^o) }) xal alciv 0uvsx^<; xal

TOUTO Y&P 6
If asked: what is the relation of this God of Ar. to the world,
the question is

our answer must be Certainly not that of Creator to creation. First, Ar. assumes
;

eternal matter; so he does not know creation in the biblical sense of the word.
Secondly, his God does not know the world. He only knows Himself, and to Ar.
this knowledge does not include any knowledge of the world 6 on the contrary, ;

it excludes it.

b. Cp. Metaph. A 9, 1074 b

33 - 36 :

AUTOV &pa vost, eteep eaTl T& xpcxTtorTOV, xal

517 We could read chapters 7, 9 and 10 of Metaph. A as a unity, theory of

in which we find one line of thought the establishment of the principle :

Of unmoved
of the Prime Mover, who is the one apxv) on which depends the whole of m vers

the universe and nature.

Ch. 8 introduces a theory, which might appear to us as harmonizing
rather badly with the preceding, namely, that, as there are 47 or 55
celestial spheres, for each of them an unmoved mover should be assumed.

1
the value of knowledge and perception in itself cp. Metaph. A i.
On
coming into contact with its objects. Cp. nr. 559b (Metaph.
1 - in
Oifydcvwv
10, 1051 b 24 1).
8
TOUTO - the actual possession of its object is rather the Setov which thought
seems to contain in itself, than "that" (xe(vou), sc. than the mere SCXTIXOV elvat
TOO VOTQTOU.
4
These words have been chosen by Werner Jaeger as a motto for his Aristotle.
Thomas Aquinas, who explained Ar. with great benevolence, found the
8
S.

way to a larger interpretation: directly the divine Mind knows only itself, but in
Himself God knows all things. ("Nee sequitur quod omnia alia a se ei sunt ignota;
nam intelligendo se intellegit omnia alia. 11 ) So also in Brentano, who christianizes*
Ar. even far more than S. Thomas did.
100 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [5*7]

a. Metaph. A 8,
14 16
1073 a - a^-b 1
; :

IIoTepov 8k fjuav OETOV TTJV TOtaiinqv ouatav T) 7rXe[ou^, xal Tc6<ra<;, SSL

JJL7)
XavOavetv x .
15
'H [Jiev yap ap^T) xa ^ T0 rcpcoTov TCOV SVTCOV OCXIVTJTOV xal xa6' auTo xat xaTa
dUfjipepYjxoi;, xivouv 8e TTJV TUpcoTTjv atSiov xal p,iav xtvTjmv ?cel Se T& xivoii- 25

(jievov avayxT) UTCO TIVOC; xivetaOai, xal TO TrpcoTov xivouv axtvvjTOv slvat xaO*
auTo, xal TTJV atSiov XIVYJCILV OTTO al'Stoo xivetaGaL xal TTJV fjLiav 69* ev6<;, 6poJ(JLev
S^ Tuapa TTjv TOU rcavTog TYJV a7rX9jv ^opav, *^v xtveiv ^a^xev TTJV TrpcoTTjv ouaiav
xal axCvyjTov, SXXac; ^opac; ouaac; TCX^ TCOV TcXavyjTcov aiStou<; (atSiov yap xal 30
aaraTov TO xuxXci acajjia SeSeixTai 8* ev TOL<; 9uaLxot<; x Tiepl ToiiTwv), avayxTj
xal TOUTCOV exaaTYjv TCOV cpopcov UTU* axtvyjTou Te xtvetaOat xa6* auTYjv xal
al'Stou ouatac;. 73 Te yap TCOV <5caTpo>v 9\i(TLc; atSto<; ouata TI<; o5aa, xal TO xtvoov 35
atStov xal 7rp6Tpov TOU xtvoufji^vou, xal T& 7Tp6Tepov oua(a<; ouatav avayxatov
slvai. <pavep6v TOLVOV STI ToaauTa^ TE ouata<; avayxatov elvat TYJV TC cpiicriv at'Stou^
xal dxivY]Tou<; xa0* auTac;, xal aveo (jLeyeOou<; Sta TYJV etpYj^vyjv aLTtav TcpoTCpov. b

b. The numbers of these substances, then, must be determined

by astronomy.
1-8
Ib., 1073 b :

fjLev o5v etalv outrtai, xal TOUTCOV Ti TrpcoTT] xal SeuTepa xaTa TTJV ao
Ta<; 9opat<; TCOV &<TTpcov, ^avepov T& Se TrXYjOo^ i^Sy] TCOV ^opcov ex

9iXoaocpia TCOV [jLaGyjfjLaTLXcov eTTKTTTjfJLcov axoTiecv, ex TYJC; 5

Set

aaTpoXoyta<; auTT} yap ruepl ouatac; aia6y]T7j<; fjiev ai'Stoo Se TcotecTai TTJV Oecopiav,
at S* &XXat Tiepl ouSe(JLia<; ouaiac; 2 , olov T^ Te Trepl TOIX; apiOfJioix; xal TTJV yeco-

c. Astronomical calculation leads Ar. to the following result.

Ib., 1074 a 10 - 16 :

*O STJ aTraaoyv TCOV Te 9epouacov xal TCOV aveXtTTOuacov 3 TauTa^ 10

api6jjLo<;

TrevTTjxovTa Te xal rcevTe. et Se TTJ aeXTjVT) Te xal Tcp TjXtco [JLTJ TcpoarTiOeiT) TLC;
a; eiTiofjLev xLVT]crei<;, at Tcacrat ^atpat eaovTat eTUTa Te xal TecraapdxovTa.
TO jiev o5v 7rX^6o<; TCOV <79ai,pcov CCTTCO TOCFOUTOV, ciaTe xal T<X<; ouatac; xal T<X<; 15
dpxa<; Tac; (XXLVTJTOOC; [xal Ta<; aLa0T)T<x<;] ToaaiiTa<; eoXoyov
1
Cf. Phys. VIII 8, 9; De caelo I 2, II 3-8.
2
Ar. states here without mathematics have no ouaCai as
any hesitation, that
their object. In E
sub 487b) the formula is by no means so categorical.
i (cited
Our passage, then, seems to have been written rather late, at any rate at some
posterior date than E i.
3
dbraacov - sc. TCOV a9aiptov, both those which move the planets and those which
"roll them back", counteracting the motion of certain spheres admitted by Eudoxus
and Callippus, so that the first motion is restored. Vid. Heath, Aristarchus of Santos,
p. 217 ff.
 [518] THE PRIME MOVER IOI

518 This chapter x is generally considered as being of a later date wce Of

than the rest of book A. Jaeger, who devotes a whole chapter to this
2
question estimates the interval at some twenty years at least Mansion
, ;

does not think it so long.

The question has been treated lately in an original way by Ph. Merlaii in Traditio
IV (1946), pp. 1-30. The author argues that Ar. was not concerned with the question
of monotheism or polytheism at all that indications for the latter might be found
;

in Phys. VIII 6 and in De caelo I 9 8 as well, and that Metaph. A 8 harmonizes

perfectly well with its surroundings. This chapter, therefore, should not be considered
as a later addition. The unmoved movers of Ar. have taken the place of the ideal
Numbers of Plato, as is clearly shown in the beginning of A 8, where Ar. finds
fault with PI. for not having determined the number of these beings with any
satisfying argument.

Metaph. A 8,
14 23
1073 a - :

IIoTepov 8e [juav BETOV TYJV TOIOCUTTJV ouaiav vj TrXsiouq, xal Troaou;, Set [JLYJ
4 aXXa
15 XavOaveiv [JLS{jLV7J<rOat xal TQC<; TCOV <3tXXcov a7co9a<7ei<;, OTI Trspl 7rXy)0ou<;
ou0ev sipvjxaa-iv 6 TI xal <ra9e<; etTretv. 7) JJLSV yap Tiepl TOCC; t&ea<; u7u6Xyj^i,<; ou&e-
(juav xei <ixe^iv iStav (apiOfjioOc; yap Xeyoucri TCX<; tS^ac; ol Xeyovrec;
20 Tcepl Se TCOV apt,0(jicov OTE (Jtev cog Tcepl aTCSLpcov Xyoucn,v OTE e co^
5
copio'fJL^vcov Si* Y)V 8* aiTtav TOCTOUTOV TO TrXyjOoc; TCOV apt,0(JLcov,

XeyeTai {JLETOC aTrouSyjc; aTroSeixTLxyjc; ) T)(JLLV S" ex TCOV uTcoxeifJLevcov xal

v XexTeov.

Then follows the rest of the text given sub 517a.

Now there can belittle doubt that, in Phys. VIII too, Ar. admitted of more
axvv)Ta. But (i) this book is not of an early date, and (2) chapter 8 of Metaph. A
makes the impression of a later addition. So probably Mansion is right in supposing
that there is some interval between this chapter and its surroundings, but not
as long a one as Jaeger thought.

31 88
Except the passage 1074 b - ("Ort 8i etc; oopavo<;, 9<xvepov E.q.s.), which
1

seems to be an early fragment, embedded in a chapter written rather late in Ar.'s life.
2
Aristotle, p. 342-367.
3
The reference is
to 279a 19 - 24 where Ar. speaks of -rdcxet, i.e. that which is outside
,

the heaven, as being above place and time, immutable and immovable.
4
This part of the opening sentence has been cited above, sub 517a.
5
We
dealt with this text in 366.
 FOURTEENTH CHAPTER
THE METAPHYSICS
i THE OBJECT OF METAPHYSICS
519 What is the object of metaphysics (in Metaph. A indicated by
the term ac^ia) ? Ar. answers in the opening chapters of this book:
Wisdom is knowledge of the first causes.
21 23
Metaph. A, i and 2, 980 a -g83 a :

Value of
knowledge ,
IIavTe<; avOpcoTroi
,
r
xai yap
TOU eiSevai opeyovTai
N

x^P 1 ^ Ty)^ XP
, ,
cpiiaei.

ia ^ ayaTrcovTai dt
*,%/*
crYiuetov 8' YJ

xat (jtaXidTa TCOV

ainra<;,
TCOV aLcr6y)<Tetov 9 8
~ a21

#XXcov 7)
Sia TCOV 6(jL(jiaTCov. ou yap {jiovov tva TupaTTCofjiev aXXa xal [Ji7)8ev [

TtpaTTeiv TO opav atpou(jLe6a OCVTL TTOCVTCOV co<; SITCSLV TCOV #XXcov. atTiov S* STI 25

(jiaXicTTa Tuoiel yvcopi^ecv Y](Jiac; ai>TY) TCOV alaOvjcrecov xal 7roXXa(; SyjXo
*
Its genesis
O\iaei (JLSV
o5v aLa07](Tiv lx ovTOC ytyveTai TOC ^coa, ex Se TaiJT7)(; TO<;
auTcov oux eyytyvsTai (JLVYjfr/), Tot<; S* eyyiyvsTai,. xal Sia TOUTO TauTa

[icoTepa xal fjLa07)TixcoTpa TCOV [JIT] SuvafJtevcov [xvYjfxovetisiv CIT, ^povifia JJLEV

(Stveu TOU (jiavOaveiv oaa (JLYJ

SuvaTai TCOV <];6cpcov dcxoiietv (olov [xeXiTTa xav et

TI TOIOUTOV SXXo yevo<; ^cocov SCTTI), [JiavOavei S* 8aa ?rp6<; T|j (^VY](JL7]
xal Tarinqv 525

Ta (jLsv o5v aXXa Tat<; cpavTaaiaK; ^ xal Tai^ (jLVY)[JLai(;, sfjuretpta*; Se

[jLixpov TO Se TCOV avOpcoTucov yevoc xal tiyyfi xal Xoyidfjioi^. ytyveTat 8* ex

TY)^ fjLVYjfjLY)^ efjLTueipia TOU; avOpcoTTO^; at yap TroXXal (jtv^at TOU auTOu 7rpay(Jia-
TOS {xia(; efJiTreipia^ 8uva[JLi,v aTcoTeXoucriv. xal Soxei axeSov e7ri<TT7)jJLY] xalgSia
T ^XV 7) O(AO^OV elvai xal efjucetpia, aTuopaivei 8' e7uwiTY)(JL7] xal T^X^ Sia TYJ(;
2
e(ji7reipCa<; TOIC; avOpcoTcoic; 7) (jtev yap ejjiTreipia T^XVY V ! eTuotyjcrev, clx; 97]crl

TlcoXoc;, Y)
8* aTretpta TUXY]^- 5
Difference 3
FtyveTai 8e T^X^ ^<*v ex TcoXXcov TYJ<; efiTreiptac; evvoYjfJtaTCOv [ila. xaOoXou
experience yvY)Tai Trepl TCOV ofjtotcov UTCoXyj^K;. TO [Aev yap exeiv UTroXyj^tv OTI KaXXfa
and science voaov ToSl auv/jveyxe xal ScoxpaTet xal xa0* SxadTov OUTCO
xajjivovTi TYjvSl TYJV

1
The following passage should be compared with Anal. post. II 19 (our nr. 465) .

See also 457a.

2
dcTropocfcvei 8& -
Tot? dtvOpcoTtoi? : "but really science and art come to man through
experience".
3 -
T. {jwreipfoes ^vvoyjfjtaTa empirical notions.
 [519] THE OBJECT OF METAPHYSICS 103

s, efi7reipfac<; SCTTIV TO 8 8ri rcacri TOL<; ToiofoSe xaT* eZ8o<; ev a90pia6etcrt,

xajivouat TYjvSl TYJV v6<iov, auvyjveyxev, olov TOI^ 9Xey(jiaTa>8eaiv ?) x^^ e<Jt

[7^] TrupeTTOuai, xauaG), TX VY)'

Ilpo<; {JL^V o3v T& TcpaTTSiv ejjuueipia Txvy3? ouSev Soxel 8ia9peiv, aXXa
* 2
xal (laXXov eTUTuyxavoixnv ol 2(jL7ceipot T&V Sveu TYJ<; s|ji7retpta<; X6yov
15 IXOVTCOV (aiTiov 8* 6ri y) fjiev IjjiTueipla T&V xa9' exaar6v SCTTI yv&aris 7)
8e

TexvTj T(ov xa06Xou, ai 8k Tupa^ei? xal at yev^aetc; Traaai Tuepl T6 xa6* 2xacrT6v
etdiv ou Y^P SvOpcoTrov uyta^et 6 taTpeuwv aXX* ^ xara au(jipepY)x6(;, aXXa
3
20 KaXXiav ScaxpaTTjv Y) TWV SXXcov TLVCX TO>V OUTO> Xeyop^vtov 4> (TUfjipepTjxev )
7^

av0pa)7cco elvai eav o5v &veu TYJ<; ejiTuetpta^ S^lf] TI? TOV Xoyov, xal TO xaOoXou
J

[Asv yv<opty) TO S sv TOUTO> xa0* exaaTOV ayvofj, TioXXaxtc; SiapiapTYjasTai TYJ^

6spa7rea<; OepaTueuTOv yap TO xa0* SxacTOv )

TO ye etSevai xal TO dcXX' ojia)^

257rateLv T^ TEXVY] TYJ^ e(jL7reipia(; uTcapxeiv otojieOa [JiaXXov, xal ao<pa>Te'pou<;

TOIX; TexviTa^ TCOV efjiTreipcov UTroXa[jLpavo|jLev, we; xaTa TO eiSevai (JiaXXov
s
axoXouOoucrav TTJV cro9iav Traat TOUTO 8 STL ol fiev TYJV atTtav taaari-v ol 8* 08.

ol TO STL SIOTI 8* oux laaCTiv ol 8s T^ SIOTI xal Science

[Jtlv yap e'|iTceipot, [JLSV to~a<7L, TYJV
knows the
, t

3oaiTiav yvcopi^oudtv. causes

Ai6 xal TOU<; apxtTexTOva^ Trepl exadTov Ti(xtcoTpou<; xal (jiaXXov

taaatv (TOIX; 8', axiTrcp xal T&V a^ux^v evta TCOLS! (Jiev, oux el86Ta 8e
(
Troiet, olov xatet, TO
Tcijp (Jiev
ouv a^uxoc 9uo~ei Ttvl Tuotelv TOUTWV exaaTov
T<X

5Toi><; 8^ x L P OT^Xva ^ ^ l> ^O ?)? &$ ^ xaTa TO TipaxTixoix; elvat (T09<OT^pou<;

He wno
8vTa<; aXXa xaTa TO Xoyov ex eLV auToix; xal T<X<; aiTiae; yvcopi^eiv. oXw^; TE

cjyjfjLelov TOU etSoToe; xal (JLTJ etSoTO^ TO SiivaaOat, StSaaxeiv eciTtv, xal 8ia TOUTO teach

TYJV Tlx v<y

3
v T^? efjLTcetptac; Y)you[jLe6a (xaXXov iTutcrTYjpLyjv elvat SiivavTat yap,
ol Se ou SuvavTai StSaaxsiv.

10 T&V al(T0Y)creci)v ouSe(jLiav vjyoufjLeOa elvai ao9tav xatTOi

*'ETI 8e
5

y* elalvauTai TWV xa0* SxaciTa yvaxrei^ aXX ou X^yoixri TO Sia TL Trepl ou

olov Sia TL Ospfjiov TO Tcup, aXXa [AOVOV STL Oepjiov. TO p.ev ouv TrpcoTOv etxo^; TOV
4
eup6vTa TEXVTJV Trapa Ta^ xoiva^ ataOifjcrsK; Gaufia^edOai UTCO Toiv
OTroiavoiiv

15 avOptoTicov {!}) (JLOVOV Sia TO xp^^ v stvai TL TWV eupe0evT(ov aXX' cae; ao9ov
xal 8ia9epovTa TCOV SXXtav TcXeiovcov 8' eupicrxofjisvcov Texveov xal TCOV (iev

- "hit the mark", succeed.

2 -
X6yov theory.
3
co aujjip^Yjxev Ross rightly - remarks that it is "of course not an accident of
Callias, as opposed to his essence and he is a man". The term
his properties, that
is used simply to indicate that it is not directly "man" that the doctor cures, but
directly Callias and indirectly man because C. is a man.
4
Trocpa
- that went beyond the common perceptions of man.
 104 METAPHYSICS [519]

x
rcpog Tavayxata TCOV e Ttpog Siaycoy/jv ouacov, ael ao9coTpoug Toug TOioircoug
exetvcov u7coXa(jipavea0ai Sia TO (173 Tcpog XP^ atv e ^vat - T(*<? e7ut<7TYj[jiag auTcov. 20
Purely "OOev YjSYj TravTCOv TCOV TOIOIJTCOV xaTeaxeuaaruevcov at LIT) Trpog YiSovYjv tnnSe
theoretical , , ~ , , A , , ,. , ,

science was rcpog Tavayxata TCOV eTuaTYjjicov eupevbjaav, xat rcpcoTov ev TOUTOig TOig TOTCOig
invented Sio Tuepl AiyuTtTov at {jLaOvjfiaTtxal rcpokov
ofoep ecr^oXacrav
aav, exet yap a^eiOv) crxoXa^eiv TO TCOV tspecov
2
EtpYjTai, [jiev o5v ev TOI<; Y)Oi,xoL(; T^ Sia9opa T^xv<y)? xa ^ ewiaTYJpiY]^ xal TCOV 25
<5cXXcov TCOV ofjioyevcov ou 8' evsxa vuv TcoiotifieOa TOV Xoyov TOUT* SCTTIV, OTL
3
LevY]v ao9tav Tuepl TOC TrpcoTa a?Tia xal T<X<; ap^a<; UTcoXapLpavouat
xaOaTrsp etpyjTat TupoTepov, 6 JASV l[X7rsipoc; TCOV oTTOiavouv
COSTS,

aiaOTjciiv elvai Soxst ao^coTepoc;, 6 Ss TSXVITYJC; TCOV e^Tteipcov, Xei P" 30

4
TS^VOU 8e apxtTSXTcov, at Se 0ecopY)TLxaL TCOV TTOIYJTIXCOV [xaXXov. STI (lev
o3v Y] ao9ia Tiepi Tiva^ cxpxac; xal ama<;
With what 'Ercel 8k TauTYjv TYJV TOUT* av
e7rt,(TT7)fjLY)v ^yjTOUfJiev, eLY) axeTCTeov, Y] ?cepl

wisdom is TCOLa<; atTia<; xal rcepl 7ioia<; apx^ e7cicrTY)pLYj ao9ta eciTtv. et SYJ Xapoi TI<; Tat; 5
concerned TOU 00901!, Tax' av ex TOUTOU 9avep6v yvoiTO (JiaX-
67coXYj<J;eig ag e'xofjiev Trepl
5
Xov. u7coXa[xpavo[JLev SYJ rcpcoTOv (xev em(7Ta<70ai TravTa TOV <ro9ov cog evSexsTai ,

[XYj
xaO' SxaaTOv e'xovTa eTriaTYjfJLYjv auTcov efaa TOV TOC x^XeTra yvcovai Suva- 10

[zevov xal HYJ paSia av0pco7rco yiyvcoaxeiv, TOUTOV ao9ov (TO yap aicr0avecT0ai
TravTCOv xoivov, Sto paStov xal ouSev ao9ov ) eTi TOV axptp^CTepov xal TOV
SiSaaxaXtxcoTepov TCOV aiTicov (T09coTepov elvai Trepl Ttaaav eTriaTYjjjiYjv xal
TCOV e7TicTTYj(jLcov 8e TYJV auTY^g evexev xal TOU eiSevat X^P tv atpeTYjv oucjav [xaXXov 15
elvai O09^av TQ TYJV TCOV a7ro(3aLvovTcov evexev, xal TYJV apxixcoT^pav TYjg

TouoYjg [xaXXov co9iav ou yap 8eiv eTTiTaTTeaOai TOV cro9ov aXX*

xal ou TOUTOV eTepco TceiOeofiai, aXXa TOUTCO TOV ^TTOV ao9ov.
Tag (Aev ouv ujcoXYj^eig TOiauTag xal TocrauTag exo(Jtev Tcepl TYJg ao9iag xal 20
TCOV CT09COV TOUTCOV Se TO TravTa eTTLCTTaaOat TCO [AaXicTTa SXOVTI TYJ xa06Xou
[lev V
6
avayxatov UTrapxetv (ouTog yap olSe Trcog TtavTa Ta UTCoxeifzeva )
e7UiaTYj(JLYjv ,

axs86v 8e xal x a^ 7i: ^ TaTa ^a^^a yvcopi^eiv TOtg avOpcoTroig, T<X (jiaXicTTa
xa06Xou (TUOppcoTaTCo yap TCOV atc0Yjaecov eaTiv), axpip<JTaTai 8e TCOV 711-25
ciTYjfjLcov at [JicxXiciTa TCOV TrpcoTcov etaiv (at yap e eXaTT6vcov axptpldTepaL
7
TCOV ex 7ipoaOaecog XeyojJievcov ,
olov api,0(jLYjTixYj yecojjieTptag ) aXXa [JLYJV

xal SiSaaxaXixYj ye YJ
TCOV aiTicov 0ecopYjTixYj (jtaXXov (O^TOI yap SiSaaxouariv,

1 -
7up6<; Staycoyvjv Tupog TO eu ^TJV.
3
Eth. Nic. VI
Ii3 9 b *-ii 4 i b.
1
3,
8 - elsewhere called first
T. 6vo(jLa^o(jLV7]v oo9^av philosophy.
4
T. TuoirjTixtov - those which produce concrete results.
6 ~ as ^ar as
cog ^V^XSTOCI possible.
6 TuAvTa Ta wroxetiieva - all the instances that fall under the universal.
7
We explained this sentence sub 488b.
 [519] THE OBJECT OF METAPHYSICS IO5

30 ol T<X<; aMas XyovTe<; rcepl exaaTou), TO 8* eiSevai xal TO eTUCTTaaOai auTCov

1
Ivsxa [JiaXiaO' UTcap^ei 17) TOU (AaXicTTa eTacmqTou e7ticmf)[jiY) (6 yap TO eTtt-
982b cTTacrOai, SL* auTO alpoupievo^ TYJV (jiaXicTTa 67rtaTY)(JLY)v (laXurra alpvjaeTat,
TOiaUTY) 8* e<mV Y) TOU (JLOcXtCTTa eTUCTTTJTOu), (JiaXl<7Ta 8* 7tt(TT7]Ta T<X TTpCOTa
xal T<X ama (Sia yap TauTa xal ex TOUTCOV TaXXa yvcopi^eTai aXX* ou
58ia TCOV UTTOXEI^VCOV), apxtxcoTaTT) 8e TCOV eTiicmqiJicov, xal (xaXXov apytxY) TYJ<; Especially
u7n)peTOU<n)<;, 7) yvcopi^ooara TIVOC; svsxv SCTTI rcpaxTeov exaaTOv TOUTO 8* final cause
ICTTI TayaOov exacrTOu, 8Xco<; 8e TO (SptcrTov ev T^ ^uarei Traayj 2 .

*E^ aTcavTCOv o5v T&V slpTjfievwv em TYJV auT7]v e7ci(JT7)(jiY)v TciTTTet TO J^TJTOU-

(jtevov ovofxa Set yap TauTTjv TOW 7rpa>Ta>v ap^wv xal aiTLtov elvai 6ecapy]Tix7)v
10 xal yap Taya66v xal TO ou evexa ev TCOV aiTtcov earTtv.

OTt 8 ou TCoiYiTixv]. SviXov xal ex TCOV TTOCOTCOV oiXoaocpyiCTavTCov Sta yap phil no
s
f/
-

n ^ >Y c n ~ ,/ ~ y r X v ~ >r , ~ Science with

^ v
TO UaofjiaQeiv ot avUptoTioi xai vuv xai TO rupcoTOv yjp^avTO 9iXocro9eiv. e^ apxv)<; practical use
3
(jtev
T<X TTpo^etpa TCOV OCTOTCCOV OaufjiaaavTei;, elTa xaTa [xtxpov OUTCO Tcpoi6vTe<;
15 xal Tuepl TCOV (xet^ovcov SwcTropyjcravTec;, olov Tuepi Te TCOV TYJS aeXYjvY]^ 7ua07]fjLaTCOv
xal TCOV Tiepl TOV -J^Xiov xal aaTpa xal ?repl T^C; TOU rcavToc; yeveaeco^. 6 8'

dcTiopcov xal Oaufxa^cov oi'eTai ayvoelv (816 xal 6 cpiX6[jiu6o<; 91X0^096^ TTCOC;

ecTTiv 6 yap [jLuOo^ auyxeiTat, ex Oaufzaatcov )

COOTT' etTrep Sia TO 9etiyeiv TYJV

2o&yvoiav e9iXoa69y)CTav, 9avep6v OTI 8ia TO etSevat TO eTTtaTaaOai eStcoxov xal

4
ou xp^<Jew<; TLVOC; evexev. (jiapTupei 8e auTO TO aujipe^xo^ a/eSov yap TTOCVTCOV
.

U7uapx6vTCov TCOV avayxatwv xal 7cp6<; pa^TCovyjv xal Siaycoyyjv y) TotauTY] 9po-
s
5
vvjcTtc; ^p^aTO ^7)Teia6ai .
SvjXov oOv cbs; 8i ouSefjuav auTTjv ^YjTOujxev xpeiav
25 eT^pav, aXX' coaTuep av6pco7ro^, 9aaev, eXeuOepo<; 6 auTou evexa xal [JLYJ
aXXou
OUTCO xal auT7]v coc aovinv oucrav eXeuOepav TCOV Thereforethe
cov. e7ri<7TY]u.cov LLOVTI '
vapr
l

c t, , , only free
aoTY) auTY)c; evexev ecmv. science
Ato xal Sixaico^ av oux av6pco7rivY) VO(JLI^OITO auT7]<; r) XTTJ^K; TroXXaxf) yap
30 Y) 9ucn^ SouXyj TCOV avOpcoTccov ecrav, COCTTC xaTa SifxcoviS^v 0eo^ av (JLOVO<; TOUT*
6
yepac;u, avSpa 8* oux aEt-ov (JLT)
ou ^yjTelv TTJV xa6* auTOV eTucFTTjfjnqv .

wv vxa = pursued for their own sake.

2
On
the primary importance of the final course see nrs. 492 fif., 498 ff.
3
Ta 7Tp6xetpa TCOV OCTOTTCOV - Alexander of Aphrodisias cites the following examples :

why amber attracts chaff-like substances (a question which interested Thales),

the nature of the rainbow (discussed by Anaximenes and by other early thinkers),
and other meteorological problems.
4
T& CTU(jLpepY)x6; - what really has happened; "the course of events".
6
I think TCOV must be inserted: in 981 b 27 two groups are mentioned, namely

(T^vat) at (JL^V Trpcx; Tavayxata, al 8k 7rp6<; Siaycoyyjv oSaai, the last being partly for the
material, partly for the spiritual or mental s& 9jv (xal 7rpo<; paaTcovYjv x. Siaytoyviv).
quotation, known to us by Plato's Protagoras
8 - The
(5tvSpa 8* oux <5cl;iov e.q.s.
341 e, continues: <5tv$pa 8* oux m
(r/) ou xax6v ^(levat (Edmonds, Lyrici II, p. 284).

oux a'Siov - "it is unfitting". Ar. again refers to this question in Eth. Nic. X, at
 io6 METAPHYSICS [519]

et SYJ Xfiyoucri TI ol TroiYjTal xal TTE^UXE 90ovstv TO 0stov, inl TOUTOU

l
[jiaXiaTa ix6<; xal SUCITU^EIC; stvai TcavTac; TOU<; TtsptTTOuc; dcXX* OUTS TO 0tov .

90ovp6v EvS^XETai elvai, aXXa xaTcx TYJV 7rapoi[A(av TroXXa ^suSovTai aoi8o,
the most *

OU T T 9j<- TO iauTY)<; iXXYjv ^pY) vofxtt^Eiv TifxicoT^pav. Y) yap OEIOTOCTYJ xal Ti[xicoTa- 5
divine and
honourable f7 ) TOiauTY)
; ^\^~^\>/
av oix^^ ELY) JJIOVY)
/ f? \ ^
TE yap (JLaXiarT av o UEO*; EXO^, oEia TCOV
YJV
>-AA\/ /\/ ~

TCIOTY)(JLCOV EGTl, XOCV Et TL<; TCOV 0tCOV EtYj. (JLOVY] 8* aUTY) TOUTCOV (X{JL90T^pCOV
2
TETUX^XEV 8 TE yap 0o<; SOXEC TCOV atTtcov Tcaaiv filvai xal apx*/) TI^, xal

TYJV TOiauTYjv YJ (jLovo<; Y) {jLaXiaT* av ^ot o OEO^. avayxaioTspai (JLEV o3v Tracrai 10
I > / <N

TauTYjc;, ajxsivcov 6
Its final 3
Aet [xevTOL TTCO<; xaTacTTYJvai TYJV eic, TouvavTtov YjfjLtv
TCOV
result
^rjTY)<Tcav. apxovTai (Jiev yap, coarcep ,
OCTTO TOU Oaujia^siv
4
ec OOTCOJ; g^e ^ xa0a7rep <7cepl> TWV uTOfjtaTa [TOIC; (jnfjTueo
TE-

0eopY)x6<Tt TYJV aiTiav] Y) Trepl Ta^ TOU Y]Xiou Y) TYJV TY]<; Stafx^Tpou aaujji- 15
5
[jteTptav (0au(JLa(TTOv yap slvai Soxei Tca fjLY)7ra> TeOecopYjxoai TYJV
atTfav> ei TI TW eXaxtaTW [JLYJ
Sei Se
sic; TouvavTiov xal T& 4[xeivov

xaTa TYJV 7rapoi(juav xaOaTrep xal sv TOIJTOK; 8Tav

ou0v yap av OUTCO^ 0au(jtacTiEv avYjp yEcofXETpixoc; co<; EL y^voiTO Y) 8ia{ATpo<; 20

6 crxoTcoc; o5 SSL Tuy/avstv TYJV ^YjTYjanv xal TYJV oXYjv {Jt^OoSov.

520 After having given an account of earlier philosophy (the rest

of book A), Ar. now proceeds to state the main problems of metaphysics.

Metaph. B i,
24
995 a -9g6 a
17
:

x
List of ETcsXOsEv
'AvayxYj 7rp6<; TYJV ETU^YJTOUJJIEVYJV ETTLCTTYJIJLYJV Y)[Jia<; TtpcoTOv TUEJ
dbtopiai
cLv aTropYJaai SSL rcpcoTov TauTa 8* Ecrrlv oaa TE ruspl auTcov <XXco<; U7riXY)9aai 25

Tive^, xav i TI X^P^ TOUTCOV Tuyxavsi TcapEcopafAsvov. CTTI SE Tote; EUTropYJaat

pouXo[JLvoi(; Tcpoupyov TO StaTcopYJarai xaXcoc;* YJ yap ucrTSpov EUTCopia Xiia^

TCOV TcpoTEpov aTTopoufilvcov EOTi, Xustv 8* oux ^'cTTiv ayvoouvTac; TOV SsarfJLOV, 30
aXX* r, TY)? 8iavoia<; aTtopia 8Y)Xoi TOUTO HEpl TOU TCpayfiaTOc; fj yap aTTOpet,
?i:7tov0 Tolq SESsfjiEvoic; a8uvaTOv yap <x(ji90Tpco<; TuposX-

the end of ch. 7 (ii'77b 26 ): *O 8& TOIOUTCK; av etrj PIO? xpeiTTtov y) xaT* <5tv6po)7rov,
where he answers to this objection: Ou xpyj 8i xara TOU<; TrapaivoOvrac; av6p<omva
9povetv <5tv0p<o7rov 6vra ouSe OvrjTa T^V 6vY)T6v, aXX* 9* oaov IvSe^eTai aOavaT^eiv xal
TravTa TCOIEIV 7cp6<; T^ ^rjv xara T& xpaTiarov TWV ^v auToi (nr. 606b).
1 - "all those who
Travra^ TOIX; 7reptTTou(; occupy themselves with things which
do not concern them".
2 -
rraoiv of all things.
3
Set xaTaaTTJvat - must end in.
4 -
Taur6jjiaTa marionettes.
6
The incommensurability of the diagonal of a square with the side.
 [520] THE OBJECT OF METAPHYSICS 107

Oetv ei<; TO 7up6cr6ev. 816 Sei TOC; Suaxepeiac, TeOecopYjxevai Ttaciac, TcpoTepov,

Totacov TS x<*P lv xal Sia TO TOU<; y)ToovTac. a*vi> TOO SiaTcopYJcrai TtpcoTOv 6(Jio(ouc

35eZvai TOIC, Trot SSL pa8t^iv ayvooucri, xal Tcpoc, TOUTOIC, ouS' e? TCOT TO frrjTOii-
)5b (jLvov stfpYjxsv Y) (JLYJ yiyvcoaxEiv
TO yap TfiXoc, TOUTCO (JLSV ou 89jXov TCO 8e rcpo-

YjTuopYjxoTi 89jXov. STL 8e p>.Tiov avayxY) ey etv Tupoc. TO xpivai TCV coaTisp avTiSCxcov
xal TCOV aiA-mcr^YjTO'JVTCov ) OYO>V axrjxooTa TcavTOjv. EOTL 8* aTuopia rcpcinr)
5 {x^v Tiepl 5iv ev TOL<; Trerppoi^tad^voic; 8iY)7Uop7)(ja[jLev, 7r6Tepov (jtia^ Y)
TcoXXcov

eTUiaTYjfJicov Oswpyjaat, T<X<; aiTiaj;

xal rcoTSpov TOCC; TYJ^; oucr[a<; ap/ac; TOC<; TCparca^
ECTTI Tvjc; eTutcrTYjfJLTjq I8stv [JLOVOV 7j xal TTipl TCOV apx&v IE cT)v Seiy.vuouat 7cavTe<;,

olov TtoTspov evSex2 ^* TauTO xal v a(j,a ^avai xal aTrooavai vj ou, xal 7C*pl
1-

10 TCOV iXXcov TCOV TotouTCov et T' cm Trspl TY)V ouaiav, TOTepov (jia TUSOI :ryaa(;

Y) TrXeiove^ eicn, xav el 7u?\eiovs(; TCOTS^OV ajuaaai auyyevcLc YJ TOC^ aev cooia;
Ta; 8e &X>o TI XexTSov auTtov xal TOUTO 8* auTO TCOV avayxaCcov eoTl CYjr^aai,
15 7u6Tspov Ta? aicr0Y]Ta^ oiaria^ slvai ptovov ^aTeov YJ
xal Tuapa TauTaj; aXXa;, xal

TOTEpov [jiovaxco^ Y) TtXeiova ycvY] TCOV ouaricov, olov 01 TCOIOUVTS^ Ta TS SL^Y] xal
Ta (jLaOYjfjiaTtxa (JieTa^u TOUTCOV TS xal TCOV ai<j9Y)Tcov. Tcepi TS TOUTCOV o5v,

xaOajcep 9a[xev 7 eTridxeTCTeov, xal TcoTspov Tiepl Tac; oucrtac; Y] Oecopia (JLOVOV
20 eaTtv Y) xal Tcepl Ta G\j[Lfi$r xoTa xa6* auTa Talc ouaiai^, 7>;p6<; Ss TOUTOL; Tcepl
TaoToij xal STepou xal ofjiotou xal avojioiou xal svavTLOTYjTOc., xal icepl TupoTSpou
xal ucTTepou xal TCOV aXXcov aTuavTcov TCOV TOLOUTCOV Tcepl ocrcov ol 8taXexTixol

TUStpCOVTat aXOTTSLV SX TCOV IvSo^COV (JLOVCOV 7UOlO\i(jLVOL TY]V CTX^IV, TIVOC, EGFTl

25 OccopY^crat Tcepl TOXVTCOV STI 8s TOUTOL^ auTotc. 8cra xa0* auTa <ri){jij3e[3Y]xev,
xal

fZY] fzovov TI <TTI TOUTCOV sxadTov aXXa xal apa sv svl svavTiov xal TUOTepov al

ap^al xal Ta crrotxeta Ta ylvY] <TTlv y) LC, a 8iaipiTai ivuTcap^ovTa xao*Tov

xal t Ta yVY), TUOTCOOV 8aa TO'^ aT6(JLOt^ XyTa& TiXUTaZa Y) Ta TCpcoTa,
ETUC

30 olov TuoTEpov J^coov Y] av9pco7Toc, ap^Y) ^ xal (xaXXov <TTI Tuapa TO xaO' xac7Tov.
the chief
xal TupayaaTSOTEOv TUOTpov (TTt Tt Tuapa TYIV uXYW atTtov
problem
xa6* auTO Y^
TOUTO x^p^^ov '0 oii, xal 7uoTpov v Y] TcXsico TOV dcptOfiov,
ou, xal

35 xal 7COTpov ICTTL TI rrapa TO criivoXov (Xyco 8k TO criivoXov, OTav

Tl TYJC. UXY)^) Y] OUOV, Yj TCov {JLV TCOV 8' Q(), Xal TUOta TOiaUTa TCOV OVTCOV. Tt at

96aap^al TcoTepov apt,6(Jicp Y] L8i coptcr[JLvai, xal at v TOIC; Xoyoi; xal at v UTCO-
xi[xvco; xal TCOTEPOV TCOV cpOapTcov xal a90apTcov at auTal Y) eTepai, xal
th most
TcoTepov (fopOapTOi Tcacrai, Y) TCOV ^OapTcov cpOapTai; STL 8 TO TcavTcov x aX7cco- f

5 TaTov xal TcXeicrTYjv dcTcopiav E^OV, 7roTpov TO Sv xal TO ov, xaOaTCEp ol OuOayd-
pioi xal nXaTCOv SXyv, ou^ Tpov Tt ECTTIV aXX* oucrta TCOV SVTCOV, Y) ou,
aXX* Tpov TI TO u7coxL(Jievov, codTuep 'EfjLTcsSoxXYJc; ^Yjcn cpiXtav &XXo(; 8i TIC;

Tcup 6 8e uScop Y) aepa xal 7c6Tpov at ap^al xa06Xou eicrlv Y) co<;

Ta xaO' exaaTa
10 TCOV 7cpay(JiaTcov, xal Suvajiei
Y) Evepyeia'
ITI TtOTepov a"XXco<; YJ xaTa XIVYJGIV
xal yap TauTa aTioptav av Tcapaaxoi TioXXYjv. 7Tp6^ Si; TOUTOIC; TcoTepov ol apiOjiol
 I08 METAPHYSICS [520]

'
xal T<X [iY)XY] xal ax QlJLaTa xaVl a 1 ffTiyfial ouaiai Tive"<; etcriv Y) oO\ xav el
T<X i

ouatat, 7r6Tepov xex^pia^vai TCOV aldOyjrwv YJ evuTrapxouaai ev TOIJTOK;; Tcepl 15

yap TOUTCOV arcavTtov ou (Ji6vov /vXenov TO euTropYJaai TYJ<; aXY)0eia<; aXX* ouSe
T& SiaTtopYjaai T& Xoyto pciSiov xaX&<;.
These questions are dealt with throughout the following work.

521 There is a science which investigates being as being, and is

different from the sciences that investigate special parts of being.

21 32
Metaph. r i, 1003 a - :

Philosophy "EaTiv TOUTW UTrap/ovToc xa0' auTO.

eTci<yTY)[AY] TIC; YJ Oecopet TO ov xai, T<X
of being aunrj S* eaTiv ouSepiia TO>V Iv {jLepei Xeyo(JLevcov TJ auTY) ouSe(JLia yap TCOV (iXXcov
as such ETuaxoTret xa66Xou Tiepl TOU OVTO^ fj ov, aXXa auTou Tt a7uoTS(ji6(JLevai 25
(Jiepo<;

Tuepl TOUTOU 0ecopouat TO <ru(JLpepy]x6^, olov al {jia67)jjLaTixal TO>V e7riaTYj(jicov.

7Tsl Ss Tac ap^a^ xal T<X<; axpOTdcTac; atTiac; ^7)Tou[JLv, 89jXov roc; ^uaecix; TIVO?
auTac; cxvayxaiov elvat, xa6* auT*/jv. SL ouv xal ot T<X aTo^s^a ^ v OVTCOV ^YJTOUV-

Tec; TauTa<; Ta^ ap^a<; I^YJTOUV, avayxv] xal Ta aToixe^<* T0 ^> OVTO<; elvai {JLYJ 30
5
xaTa aufjipepYjxoc; aXX /] 6V 8to xal 7)[JLtv TOU OVTO<; f) ov Tac; TipeoTa^ aiTia<;

522 Ar. continues speaking about the manifold senses of the term
"to be". As, then, science everywhere deals chiefly with that which is
primary, the philosopher has first to do with substances.
16 - 19
Ib. 2, 1003 b :

substances IlavTa^ou 8e xupio)^ TOU TcpcoTou Y) 7uaTY)(j.Y), xal e ou Ta #XXa

the first >
xa L
>
g X^yovTai. et o5v TOUT' ecrrlv av Seoi
L
Y] ouarta, TCOV ousio>v Ta<;

phil. xal TOC<; atTta^ ex etv TOV

523 a. The philosopher must also consider the things that are in
mathematics called axioms, for these are true of all existing things, and
therefore no special science inquires into their truth.
19 -b 2
Metaph. T 3, ioo5a :

Phil, must AexT^ov Se TOTCpov ^ cTepa^ e7:i<TTY)(jLY)^ Trspt TS T&V ev TOL? (jLaOYjfjLacri
|ua<;
the axioms xaXou(Jievcov a^icofjiaTtov xal Trepl TYJ<; ouaiac;. ^avepov SYJ OTI |jua<; TC xal TYJC; 20
TOU cpiXoa6<pou xal Y) Trepl TOUTGW eaTl oxe^i^;* aTcaat yap UTcap^ei TOLC;
aXX' ou yevei Tivl x^pk ^ta TCOV <5cXXtov. xal xpto^^aL (lev TuavTec;, OTL TOU OVTO<;
eaTlv TI 6v, exaciTov Se TO yevo<; ov em TOCTOUTOV Se xp&VTai 9* oaov auTot^ 25
ixavov, TOUTO 8' ICTTIV oaov iniysi TO yevo<; Trepl o5 9^pouat Tat; ocTuoSet^eig*
COCTT' eTtel 89jXov STI YJ 8vTa urcapxet Ttacri (TOUTO yap auTOi<; TO xoiv6v), TOU
 [523] THE OBJECT OF METAPHYSICS IOQ

Tcepl TO Sv yvcopt^ovToc; xal Trepi TOUTCOV ecnrlv 7) Oecopla. Siorcep ouOelc; TCOV xara
30|Jiepo<; emaxoTcouvTcov eyxeipet Xeyeiv TI Trepl auTcov, el 4X7)09] 7) [lyj,
OUTS yeto-

fjilTpTjs OUT* api6[ji7)TLx6<;, aXXa TCOV 9uaixcov e'vioi, elxoTcoc; TOUTO SpcovTe^-
fji6voi yap $OVTO Trepi Te TTJ<; 8X7)<; <puaeco<; crxoTtetv xal Trepl TOU OVTO^. ercel
8* ecmv STL TOU 91x11x01) TL^ avcoTepco (ev yap TI yevo^ TOU SVTOC; 7] 9iiart^),

35 TOU xaOoXou xal TOO Trepl TTJV Tcpa>T7]v oucnav OewpTjTixou xal 7) Trepl TOUTCOV
av etTj axl^K; eVci Se ao9ta TLC; xal 7) 9uaix7) aXX* ou T

b. He must also study the law of contradiction, which is the most

fundamental principle of all.
5 - 23
Ib., 1005 b :

o5v TOU 91X0(1690^ xal TOU Tcepl Tracnrj^ TYJS oucrtac; OetopouvTO^ and the law
f/

6 OTi fzev

^ TT^uxev, xal Tcepl TCOV auXXoyLCFTixtov ap^cov eaTlv eTuiaxe^aa0aL, STjXov diction

TrpocTTjxei Se TOV (jtaXiaTa yvcopi^ovTa Trepl exaaTOv yevo<; ^xs^v Xeyetv

I0 pepaioT<xTa<; ap^a^ TOU Trpay[xaTo<;, coaTe xal TOV Trepl TCOV OVTCOV TJ
ovTa
TcavTCov pepaioTaTac;. ecm 8' OUTO^ 6 9iXoao9oc;. pepatoTaTT) 8* apx
Sia^euaO^vai aSuvaTov yvcopifjicoTaTTjv Te yap avayxaiov elvai TTJV
Ttepl T)V

TOtauTTjv (Trepl yap a [JLTJ yvcopt^ouaiv aTcaTcovTai TiavTec;) xal avuTtoOeTOv.

15 V Y^P avayxatov ^xeiv TOV OTLOUV ^uvievTa TCOV SVTCOV, TOUTO oux UTCoOeaic;'
8 8e yvcop^eiv avayxatov TCO OTIOUV yvcopt^ovTi, xal TJxeiv ^x VTa avayxatov.
s
OTI [lev oijv pepatOTaTT) 7] ToiauTT) rcaacov apx^, 89]Xov vl$ 8 Scrav auTTj,

[JieTa TauTa TO yap auTo a[xa uTcapxetv Te xal (JLTJ uTtapxetv aSuvaTov
X^ycofjiev.

20 TCO auTco xal xaTa TO auTo

'

auTT) STJ Traacov ICTTL pepaiOTaTT] TCOV apxcov

yap TOV etpTjfjievov Siopicr^ov.

In the following chapters of this book the law of contradiction is established
by proofs, and objections to it are refuted.

524 In E i Ar., having first divided all intellectual work into three
main groups theoretical, practical and productive x
,
next divides the
theoretical sciences into three other provinces: physics, mathematics
and first philosophy or theology 2 the last having the axivT)To<; ouaia ,

as its object.

Metaph. I i, 1026 a 18 - 32 : First phii.

or theology
Tpet<; av elev 91X0009^1 OecopTjTixai, Aa (h)(JLa/u x7)i t 9ucrix7), GeoXoyixT) has the im-
20 (ou yap mutable8ub "
SSTjXov OTI et TTOU ib 6etov uTrapxet, ev rfi TOiauTT) 9ucrei uTuapxeO^ xal
TTJV TijxicoTaTTjv Sei Trepl T& TijJLicoTaTOv yevo<; elvau at [xev o5v OecopTjTtxal TCOV object
fiXXcov e7rtaT7](jLcov alpeTcoTaTai, auTT] Se TCOV OecopTjTixcov. aTropTjaete yap Sv

1
Our nr. 432a. a
432b.
 110 METAPHYSICS [514]

TL^ i:6Tep6v 7:06*?) Ttpcanr) cptXoao9(a xa66Xou ecruv ^ Ttepi TI y^vo^ xai, 9\i<nv
Ttva {Atav (ou yap o airi^ rp67co^ ouS* ev Tat<; |jLa6y](jiaTixaZ, aXX* T) (jiiv yeco- 25

[jieTpia xai aoTpoXoyla rapt Tiva cpiiaiv etaiv, Y) Se xa06Xou icaatov XOIVYJ )
el (JL^V o5v (JL7)
'CJTI TLS erlpa ouaia ruapa ra^ ^lioei auveaT)Qxu[a(;, ^ cpucrixTj
av e'tY] TrptoTY] 7CLaT7)|jL7) et 8* <TTI TI^ ouaia axtv7}To<;, aiinr] TcpoT^pa xai 91X0-

ao9ia Tupcory],xai xaOoXou OUTOX; ort 7vpci)T7] a xai Tcepl TOU 8vToc; f;
6v rauTY)^ 30
av etyj Oecopyjaai, xai TL EGTTI xai ra uTrap^ovTa fj 8v,

There might seem to exist a contradiction between this definition of

the object of metaphysics and that of F i (cited sub 521). Duns Scotus 2 ,

who had the interpretations of Avicenna and >Averroes before him, re-
garded them as a dilemma: Avicenna, who follows F i, says that being
as such is the object of metaphysics, Averrocs, according to E i, teaches
that this object is God and the intelligences. Duns Scotus, after a long
hesitation, takes the part of Avicenna. Aristotle himself, however, seems
not to have considered the two views as contradictory in F 2 (cited sub :

522) he gives, if not a synthesis, yet a transition from the first to the
second.

2 PLATO'S THEORY OF IDEAS CRITICIZED

Chapters 525 I n Metaph. A () the author gives an outline of the theory of Ideas :

the introduction of supra-sensible Forms as the true object of knowledge,

because sensible things are always changing 3 the assumption of mathe- ;

matical objects as existing between Forms and scnsibles 4 and the theory ,

of first principles, the One and the great-and-small, from which the
Numbers were deduced 5
. He compares this doctrine with that of the
Pythagoreans, from which distinguished by a few features, and
it is

concludes that Plato knew only the material and the formal cause 6 .

In ch. 9 of the same book he gives a more elaborate criticism of the

theory.

Metaph. A 9, 9goa -b
First 33 8
526 :

llepl (JL^V o5v

TWV IluGayopEuov d^staOco TOC vuv (txavov yap auTcov
TOCJOUTOV ) ol 8k Ta<; I86a<; aiTiaq Ti0e[Jievoi rcpcoTov [xev ^TJTOUVTEC; TtovSl TCOV b
8vTov Xapetv ra<; atTta<; Irepa TOUTOL^ taa TOV apiOjjtov exojiiaav, coarrep et TI^

1
"and it will be universal in this sense, because it is first".
2
Quaeshones in Metaphysicam Aristotelis 1, qu. i (Ed. Wadding, t. IV, p.
510-518).
3
Our nr. 204a; cp. 204b and 268a.
4 5
Nr. 362b, with n. i. Nr. 365a. 365b.
 [526] PLATO'S THEORY OF IDEAS CRITICIZED in

api6(JLYJaai (3ouX6(ievo<; eXaTT6vcov [Aev Svrcov OIOITO JJIT] SuvrjaeaOat, TtXetco 8e

TcoiYjaa^ aptGjjioiT] (a^eSov yap taa y)
oux eXaTTco earl TOC etSy) TOUTOI^
5 Trepl cov y)TOuvTec; Ta^ aMac; ex TOIJTCOV ITT* exeiva TcpoijXOov xa0* Ixacrrov
yap ojxcovufjuSv TO Icm
xal Trapa TOC<; ouota<;, TCOV TC dcXXcov J
Icrav ev ITCI TroXXcov,

xal e:rl ToiaSe xal inl TOI<; ai8ioi<; 2 ).

8 - 17
527 Ib., 990 b :

3
8e xaO* ou<; Tp67iou<; 8eixvu(jLev STI IdTL Ta e'tSv], xaT* ooOeva 9a(veTai examined
ev[cov JJLSV yap oux avayxY] yiyveorOat auXXoyi<T(i6v, ei; evicav Se xal

&v 4
oi6fjte0a TOUTCOV etST) yiyverai . xara TS yap TOUC; Xoyou<; TOUC; ex TCOV
6
icov etSY) ScTai TUOCVTCOV oacov 7ri<7T7J[iai eiat, xal xara TO Iv em
6 7
TcoXXciv xal TCOV a7ro9aaecov, xaTa 8e TO voetv TI 96apevTO^ TCOV <p6apT&v
8
15 9avTaa[Jia yap TI TO\!)TCOV ecjTtv. STI Se ol axpip^aTepoi TCOV X6ycov ol p.ev
9
TCOV ?rp6c; TI TTOIOUCTIV iS^a^ cLv ou cpa[j(.ev slvai xaO' auTo y^vo^, ol Se TOV
,

10
Xeyouatv.

528 22 - 34 There should

Ib., 990 b :

xaTa [lev TYJV UTcoXyj^Lv xa6' YJV elvat 9afJiev Tac; tSeac; ou (Ji6vov TCOV ideas of
ouaicov ^GTat etSy) aXXa rcoXXcov xal eT^pcov (xal yap TO voy)(JLa Sv ou (Jt6vov substances

1
TCOV TE aXXov - "so also in the case of all other groups", i.e. even for those
things other than substances.
2
TOU; &lSioi$ - i.e. the heavenly bodies.
3 -
8exvu(/.ev "we", disciples of Plato.
4
"others would prove the existence of Ideas of tilings of which we Platonists
think there are none" (Ross).
5 The argument "from the sciences" would imply the existence of Ideas of
artefacta, which were probably not recognized by the Platonists of Aristotle's time.
The arguments here referred to are given in a very concise form. We need the
comments of Alexander of Aphrodisias to understand their sense fully.
6 T& v ini TroXXwv is the argument for the existence of Ideas from the existence
of groups of particulars.
xal TWV a7T09dtaecov - On the positive sense of negations according to Plato, see
Soph. 257 d-258 b (our nr. 342). W. D. Ross comments: "There was no need to
suppose bare negative Ideas; anything that could be explained by participation
in a negative Idea could be explained more simply by non-participation in the
positive Idea".
argument from the fact that it is possible to think
7 - the
T& voetv TI 90apvTo<;
an object even when the thing has perished. Ar. argues that according to this
argument there must be an Idea of each perishable thing.
8
ol dxpip&rrepoi TCOV X6ywv - Ross, citing Jackson, explains: Ar. has previously

pointed out certain consequences of Platonic arguments he now points out certain ;

implications actually stated in Plato's more accurate arguments, though unwelcome

to his successors.
9 Phaedo the Idea of TO ECTOV (74 a-77 a).
TWV rrp6<; TI - e.g. in the
10
TOV TP(TOV <5tvOpw7rov - See on this argument Farm. 132 d-i33 a (our nr. 327c).
 112 METAPHYSICS [528]

Trepl TOCC; ouaiac; aXXa xal xaTa TCOV SXXcov eaTi, xal eTTicrojjjiai ou [/,6vov T% 25
ouaia<; elalv aXXa xal eT^pwv, xal iXXa 8e (jiupia aufjipaivei TotauTa) xaTa Si;

TO avayxaiov xal Tac; 86a<; Tac; Trepl auTcov, ei ecm (ie6exTa Ta e?S-yj, TCOV

ouaicov avayxaiov iSeac; elvai [Jiovov. ou yap xaTa aujjipepyjxoc; (xeTexovTai l

aXXa Sel TauTfl exacrrou [Letiyjzw fj [JLT]
xaO* i>7roxei[xevou XyeTai 2 (Xyco 8' 30

olov, el TL auToSiTrXaaiou (JLETS^SI, TOOTO xal atStou (jieTexei, aXXa xaTa au(jt-
TCO SiTrXaatcp ai'Sto) eivai), &CTT' IdTai ou<j(a T

529 Ar. now presents his main objection: Forms do not contribute
anything to sensible things, nor to our knowledge of them.

of no use IlavTCov Se ^.aXiaTa SiaTtopyjaeiev av TI<; TI TCOTS oufjipaXXeTat Ta el'&Y)

TCOV aiaOvjTcov 3
73 TOLC; yiyvo^evoti;
xal 96eLpo(jLevoic; otae yap XLVYJ- I0
OUTS [ieTapoX9j<; ouSe(jLia^ laTiv alria auToic;. aXXa (JIYJV OUTS 7rp6<; TYJV
ouOev poy)OeL TYjv Ta>v aXXcov (ouSe yap ouata exetva TOUTCOV ev
TOUTOK; yap av ^v), OUTE ei^; TO elvai, [JLYJ evuKap^ovTa ye Tot(; (jieTx oU(ytv
*

OUTCO fjtev yap av taco^; aiTia So^etev elvat toe; TO Xeuxov [jie[jLiy[ievov TCO Xeuxco,
j^
aXX* OUTOC; (Jiev 6 X6yo<; Xiav euxivv)Toc; 4 6v 'Ava^ayopac; ^ev 7rpcoTO(; EiJSo^o^ 6
,

S* (io~Tepov xal aXXot TIV^<; eXeyov (paSiov yap auvayayetv TroXXa xal aSuvaTa
Tcpo^ T7)v ToiauTYjv So^av).

b. Ib., a 19 -!) 1 :

5
'AXXa (JLTJV
TaXXa xaT ouOeva Tp6?rov TCOV eico00Tcov 2 o
ou8' ex TCOV et8cov eaTt

X^yeaOai. TO 8e Xeyetv TcapaSeiyjiaTa auTa elvai xal pieTe^eiv auTcov TdcXXa xevo-

Xoyetv ecm
xal [zeTa9opa<; X^yetv TroivjTtxa^. TI yap edTt TO epya^6(jievov 7Cpo<;
'
6
Tac; i8a^ aTropXercov evSx Ta ^ T xa L elvat xal ytyveaOai OJJLOIOV OTIOUV
;

7
xal etxa^6(Jtevov Tcpoc; exetvo coaTe xal OVTO<; ScoxpaTOU^ xal (JLYJ OVTOC;
(JIT) ,
25
yevoiT* av oloc; ScoxpaTT]^ 6{AOtco(; 8e SvjXov OTL xav ei 9jv 6 ScoxpaTYjc; atSioc;.

eaTai Te TtXeico 7rapa8ety(JiaTa TOU auToO, cocrTe xal el'&yj, olov TOU avOpcoTrou

1
"for participation per accidens does not exist".
2
"but a thing must share in its Form as in something not predicated of a sub-
ject".
3
T. di8fcot<; TWV at<j073To>v
- as in 526: the heavenly bodies.
4
Xav ux(vY)Toc;
-
easily refutable. On the doctrine of Anaxagoras referred to,
see our nr. 124.
5
Eudoxus of Cnidus, the famous astronomer, who spent long years in Plato's
Academy ( 365), seems to have taught that the Ideas are immanent in things,
though he held that they are substances. On the last point he did not agree with
the (later) theory of Ar.
6
These words refer to the Demiurgus in Plato's Timaeus.
7
"without being copied from it".
 [529] PLATO'S THEORY OF IDEAS CRITICIZED 113

coov xal TO Steouv, &[Lo. 8k. xal TO auToav0payrco^. STI ou p.6vov T<OV aiCT07)Tcov
x
T<X e87j aXXa xal auT&v, olov TO yevo<;, <b<; yvoc; elS&v
T& auTo eaTai TrapaSeiyfza xal eixaw.

530 1- 9 How can

Ib., 991 b :

So^etev av aSuvaTOV elvai X^P^ /r^3 v ouaiav xal oij 73

ouaia- ciaTC separately?
av at i8ai, ouafai TCOV 7rpay[JiaTOov oScrai
cbc; xal ToO elvai xal TOU yiyveoOat aiTta Ta 1873 eaTtv xatTot TO>V
eiScov OVTOV fifjtcoc;
06 yiyveTai Ta {jLeTS^ovTa av (JLY) ^ TO xivyjaov, xal TroXXa

STepa, olov oixia xal SaxTuXio^, 6v ou 9a[xev etSy] elvai COCTS S^Xov
l T$XXa xal elvat xal ytyveaOai Sia TOtauTa^ aiTtaq ota^ xal

Ta pY)6lvTa vuv.

9- 21 If Ideas are
531 Ib., 991 b :

eforep eialv aptOfJiol T<X etSv), TTCO<; aiTioi SaovTai TcoTepov STI ^Tepoi how can they ;

ioapi0[zot dm Ta ovTa, olov (jiiv <6> 681

apiOjAoc; &v6pa>7ro<; 681 8e ScoxpdcTYjc; 681 be causes?
Se KaXXta^ ;
TL oSv exelvoi TOUTOI^ atTiot eidiv ouSe yap et ol (Jiev atStoi oi ;

2
Se fjiy],
ouSev Siotaei. el 8* OTL Xoyoi dtptOfjicov TavTa\50a, olov 7]

S^Xov STL eaTlv ev ye TI 5>v eial Xoyoi. et SY] TOUTO 73 6X73, 9avepov OTI xal
I5 ol api0(jLol Xoyot Ttvec; ecovTat eTepou Trpo^ eTepov. Xeyco 8* olov, et SGTLV 6
KaXXiac; Xoyo<; ev apiOfjLotc; Tuupoc; xal xal (JSaToc; xal aepo<;, xal &XXcov y%
TLVCOV uTcoxeifievcov e'aTat xal 73
ISea cxpiOfio^ xal auToavOpcoTro^, etT* api0(Ji6(;
SaTat Xoyo^ ev api0{JLOL<; TIVCOV xal oux apL0jxoc;,
[JIT), 8{JLO><;
ouS*
8ta TauTa api0[i.6c;.

532 Ar. repeats his main objection to the theory of Ideas, and
a.

reproaches the Academy for having abandoned the chief task of philoso-
phy to seek
: the cause of sensible phenomena.
Ib "' QQ2 a24- 29 '
'
Ideas do not
^-^
3 explain
"OXeo<; Se y)TOUCT7]<; TTJ<; (TO9La^ Tcepl T&V 9avepcov TO atTtov, TOUTO (lev phenomena
eiaxajjiev (ou0ev yap Xeyofiev rapl TTJ? aiTtac; oOev 73 apx'/j

TTJV 8* ouatav oiofjievot Xeyetv auTwv eTepa^ (lev ouaiac; elvai ^ajjiev, OTCOX; 8'
4
exetvai TOIJTCOV ouaiai, Sta xev7]<; Xyo(Jiev T^ yap (jLeTe^eiv, waTrep xal TupoTepov
eLTcojxev, ou06v eaTiv.

-- Ou8e

2
b. Ib.,

873
a 89-!) 1
:

87uep Tac<; e7n,aT7j(JLai(; 6pa>[/,ev ov atTiov, 81

In the sense of genus of various species.

X6yot dtpiOjzcov
- ratios of numbers.
o xal 7ua<; vou<; xal
They have
nothing to do
w ith the final
cause

8 -
T. 9<xveptov sensible things.
4
8i& xevTfc Xyo[*ev = xevoXoyoG(jtev (is empty talk).
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II
 114 METAPHYSICS [532]

9uai<; TTOICI, ouSe TaiiTY)<; TYJC; aiTia^, Y]V <pa[jiev elvai, [jtiav TCOV
1
ouOev aTCTETai TOC el'Sv), aXXa yeyove T<* |Jia0Y)[iaTa TOI^ vuv Y) 91X0009^,
9aax6vTtov &XXcov x^P LV aura Seiv

3 SUBSTANCE

533 ~~ a Mrfa M- z i. 1028 a 10- 20 29 - 31

'
,
:

primary To 6v XyTai TtoXXaxto*;, xaOdarep SteiXo^eOa TCpOTepov ev TOL<; rcepl TOO 10

sense is 2 3
cjY)[jiaiveL yap TO (JLSV TI ecm xal ToSe TI TO Se Troiiv ^ jcoafcv ^
7t
aax&<; ,

TCOV <5cXX(ov IxaaTOv TCOV OUTCO xaT7]yopou(Jivcov. ToaauTa^coc; 8e XsyofJivou

TOU 6vTO<; 9avepov OTI TOUTCOV rcpwTOv 6v TO T e<mv, oTiep cnr][jiaivei TTJV ouatav
(STOCV (Ji^v yap etTrw^sv Tuotov TI ToSe, ^ aya66v Xeyojjiev ?) xaxov, aXX* ou 15
TplTUYJ/U ^ (5cV0pt07UOV OTav OU XeUXOV OuSe OspfJLOV OuSe TptTTT)^?
Tl IcTTtV,

aXXa SvOpaiTtov vj Oeov), TCX 8' aXXa XeyeTat ovTa TCO TOU OUTCD<; OVTOC; Ta
4
[jL^v Troo-OTTjTec; elvat ,
Ta Se TcoLOTTjTe^, Ta Se TcaOyj, Ta 8e aXXo TI. A^Xov 20
5
oSv STL Sia TauTTjv xaxeivcav exaaTov ECTTIV, ciaTe TO TTpcoTox; ov xai ou TI
8v aXX* ov a7cXco<; TJ outrta av SLY].

Substance is
Jj. IO28 a 31 -b 2
Ib., :

definition, IloXXax&c; ptev ouv XeyeTai, TO TupcoTOv O(JLCO<; Se TTOCVTW^ YJ ouaia TrpcoTOV,
in knowledge xa Xoyco xal yvcoaei xal ypov6>. TCOV (JLSV yap aXXcov xaTYjyopTj^aTCov ou0ev
and in time \\ / ~ VN\/ / >/ ~ > / \

v, auTY] oe (JLOVYJ xat TCO Xoyco oe TOUTO jcpcoTov (avayxY) yap ev TCO
exaaTOU Xoyw TOV TYJC; ouatac; evuTcap^ei-v) xal siSevai Se TOT' ol6[jLeOa SxaaTOv 35

[xaXiaTa, fiTav TL ECTTIV 6 avOpco7ro<; yvcojjiev Y]

TO ruup, [xaXXov ^ TO TCOLOV Y] TO
7UOGOV Y^
TO 7TOU, 7TL Xal aUTCOV TOUTCOV TOTS SXaCTTOV LdJJLSV, TaV Tt SCTTt T& b
TTOdiv Y^
TO 7TOIOV yVCO(JLV.

The eternal c Ib., 1028 b 2 - 4 :

'What is Kal SYJ xal TO TcaXai TS xal vuv xal asl ^YJTOUJJLSVOV xal asl aTropoujJievov,
being" T [ T ^ g v TO ^ T Q aTl T [^ oucria.

----
-Jj
means
"What is
substance" i
T0 ^
v ^v _ yjlc Deference is certainly to Speusippus, head of the Academy
since the death of Plato.
2
Sc. in A 7.
3
T[ <m xai T/>8e TL - It should be noticed that the author, before coming to his
definitive conception of ouaia, in the beginning of this very book uses the term in
exactly the same way as it is used in Categ. 5 (our nr. 438a), namely, not only
in the sense of essence or quiddity (TI ICTTI), but also in the sense of the individual
being.
4
TOO - clvai: "by the fact that they are, some of them, quantities of that which
is in this primary sense, others qualities of it", etc.
5 -
8ta TatjTYjv sc. T. Tuptonqv xarrjyopCav.
 [534] SUBSTANCE H5

534 first qualified ooaia as T eari or as T68s TI, Ar. now

Having
proceeds to ask whether, then, natural bodies and their parts are sub-
stances (as he seems inclined to admit *), or something else next to them
(e.g. Ideas and mathematical objects), or even not these but some other
things.
8 - 15 Are natural
Metaph. Z 2, 1028 b
A~VO</</ ~ /**
:

v- bodies and
Aoxsi o Y] ouaia uTcapxeiv cpavepcoTara (lev TOU; aoo^aaiv (oio Ta TE (,coa their parts
/ / \ /

10 xal TOC 9UT<x xal Ta (Jt6pia auT&v oudia<; slvai 9a(xev, xal Ta 9i>aixa crcofjiaTa, substances?
olov mip xal uScop xal yyjv xal T&V TOLOUTCOV sxaciTov, xal oaa y) {Ji6pta y)

TOUTCOV yj
ex TOUTCOV eaTiv y) fioptcov y) TUOCVTCOV, olov 8 Te oupavoc; xal Ta [Jt6pia

auTou, (SccTTpa xal aeXyjvy] xal 7]Xio<; ) TcoTepov Se aJ)Tai (/,6vaL oudtai eialv y)
xal
15 SXXai, y)
TOIJTCOV TIVE<; y)
xal &XXai, yj
TOUTCOV [lev ou0ev eTepai Se TIVE^, axsTUTeov.

535 a. Four possibilities must be considered.

Four
Metaph. Z
33 - 36
3, 1028 b :

i 8* y) oidia, EL {ly) taTa xa ^ Y*P of the term

7cXeova^to<;, aXX' ev
T^TTapat y e ^^ "

TO Tt yjv elvai xal TO xaOoXoo xal TO jivo^ ouata Soxet elvai exaaTOU, xal "substance"
TOIJTCOV TO UTTOXetflEVOV.

b. 1028 b 36 -I029 a 2 Canthesub-

Ib., :

T6 8* uTcoxELfJisvov EGTI xa6* o3 Ta &XXa XsysTai, EXELVO 8e auTO (jLyjXETi substance?

*
&XXou 816 TipcoTov Tcspl TOUTOU StopicjTEov fzcxXtaTa yap SOXEL slvat
T6 UTCOXstfJLEVOV TUptOTOV.

c. Now matter is defined as that which is nothing in itself: neither

a definite being, nor a quantity nor any other thing by which being is
qualified (our nr. 476c). "For there is something of which each of this is
predicated". . .

26 - 33
Ib., 1029 a :

*Ex o5v TOUT<OV 0o>pouai cuixBaivEi ouaiav slvai TYW uXinv aSiivaTOv 8' In fact tnis
M-SV

xat,
x xi
yap TO ^wpicrrov xai TO TOOE
x x x /5, e , *
TI uTrap^stv ooxsi (jiaXtdTa T/J
~ /. ~ , , ^x consequence
x

ouaia, oto TO | S impossible

xal T& it, a(jL90iv oiata SO^EIEV av slvai fxaXXov T^ i)Xy)<;. Tyjv [JLEV TO[VUV
3 E a{JL9otv ouartav, Xsyci) S^ TY)V 2x TE

yap xal SyjXyj 9avspa 8 TCCO^ xal y) uXyj vrspl 8s T^^; TpiTyj<; CTXETCTEOV,

yap

now He Substance
536 Ar. proceeds
r to study
J essence. begins with some logical as essence
remarks.

1
Note the expressions 9avepwTaT<x JJL^V and 9<x(iev.
 Il6 METAPHYSICS [536]

a. The first question is: What is the Tt 9jv elvat?

Metaph. Z 4, 1029 b
13 - 16
:

*
Meaning of aT t T0 T [ fy etvoci sxaaTOU S XeysTat xa6' auT6. ou yap ecm TO aot
elvat TO [Aouatxcp elvat ou yap xaTa crauTov el (Jiouatx6<;. 6 (Spa xara <raur6v.

b. Only those things have an essence whose account is a definition.

It belongs .
T, 6- 7
fi
Ib., IO 3 O a :
only to things
which can T0 Tt* ^ v sfoat eaTtv fiacov 6 Xoyo<; IGTIV
be defined
E.g. "white man" cannot be denned, because it is a compound of substance and
another category, the essence being "just what something is".

Species only 7 14
c Ifo., 1030 a - :

C s

definition 0ptc7(jt6 8 scmv oux av ovo(xa Xoyw TOCUTO ayj^aivy) (TravTS^ yap av elev OL

Xoyot opof SaTai yap 8vofjia OTCOOUV Xoyw, ciaTe xal 7) 'IXiac; 6pia(ji6<;

aXX* eav Trpcorou TIVO^ f]

rotaura 8* ecrrlv oaa Xeyerai SXXo xar* SXXou I0
JATJ
TCO

XeyeaOai. oux eaTai, &pa ouSevl TWV JXTJ yevouc; siS&v UTcapxov TO TI 9)v etvai,
aXXa TOUTOLC; [JLOVOV (TauTa yap Soxec ou xaTa {jLeTO^V XlyeaOai xal 7ca0o^
ouS* d)

Other things 14 32
d. Ib., 1030 a - :

secondary 'AXXa X6yo<; fxev e'aTai exaaTOU xal TCOV aXXcov

Tt a7](JLatvei, eav ^ ovofxa, STI
sense T0 e T ai8 e facapxei, ^ avd Xoyou aTrXou axptfieCTTepO(; opidjAO^ 8' oux
ouSe TO TI 9jv elvat. ^ xal 6 6pi<T(jLo<; wcrTtep xal TO TI eaTt TuXsova^eo^ XeyeTai ;

xal yap TO TL ECTTLV eva piev TpOTrov avjfjiatvei TTJV ouaiav xal TO T68e TI, fiXXov
8e SxaaTOv T&V xaT7)yopou(Jivcov, TCOOOV TTOIOV xal 8ca aXXa TOtauTa. &<TTCEP 2 o

yap xal TO saTtv UTcap^eL TiraaLv, aXX* ou^ 6[jiotcoq aXXcx TW JJLSV TrpcoTOi^ TOI^
8* ETCO(JLVO)^, OUTCO xal TO TL scmv aTuXa)^ (JLEV Tyj ouaia TTOX; 8e TOIC; aXXotc;*
xal yap TO TCOLOV lpoi(jLe6' xal TO TTOIOV TCOV TI eaTiv, aXX*
av TL ECTTLV, O><TTE

TtXtos, aXX* coaicep eTil TOU (JIT) OVTO^; Xoytxcoc; 9aai TIVS<; elvai TO (JLT) ov, 25

arcXto<; aXXa piY] ov, OUTCO xal TO TTOLOV. SEC JJLEV ouv CTXOTUELV xal TO TUCO<;
Set Xsysiv TOpl sxacjTov, ou (JLTJV (jtaXXov ys Y)
TO TICOC; EXEI 816 xal vuv ETTEL T6

Xsy6[Xvov 9avEpov, xal TO TI 9)v elvat o^otco^ uTrap^et TrpcoTcoq [isv xal aTuXco^
TYJ ouata, elTa xal TOI? <5XXoi(; coaTcsp xal TO TI saTtv, oux aTrXco^ Tt ^v elvat ^
7

aXXa Tcotco 75 uoaqi Tt ^v slvat.

conclusion e g o j n f ac ^- definition and essence belong primarily to substance,

secondarily to the other categories.
4 7
Ib., 1030 b - :

*Exetvo 8e 9avspov oTt 6 TipcoTCoc; xal aTrXco^ optcyfio^ xal TO Tt Tjv elvat TCOV
oucrtcov eaTtv. ou fjtrjv aXXa xal TCOV &XXcov 6(jto[to<; eaTt, TrXvjv ou TcpcoTco?.
 [537] SUBSTANCE ii7

537
In the next chapter (5) Ar. deals with some difficulties concern-
ing the definition of ra ou^ arcXa, aXXa duvSeSuao-p^va, such as (iifi6TY)<;,
where the definition of "snub" always implies a reference to the sub-
stance to which it belongs ("nose"). Ultimately all terms in categories

other than substance are shown to be in principle of this type, the de-
finition of them being ex TrpoaGeaetoc;, i.e.
involving a reference to the
substance to which they belong.
The
Metaph. Z
1 5 defi-
5, 1031 a - :

nition of
A ~^ / r/ / > / > f < / x x ~ ,/.
AyjXov TOIVUV OTI [JLOVTjc; T7)<; oucyias eonriv o opui[jio<;. ei yap xai TCOV aXXcov compounds
*
xar/jyopicov, avayxyj ex 7upoa0e<ieco<; eZvai, olov TOU t^oioijt * a & TrepiTTou- always^
ou yap #veu apiO^ou, ouSe TO 09jXu aveu coou (TO 8e ex TrpoaOeaeco^; Xeyo) ev aeco;
i^ TO auTO Xeyetv cidTuep ev TOUTOK;).

538 Ar. now raises the question whether a thing is identical with
its essence. He answers: Not always. E.g. not in terms formed by a sub-
stance coupled with an accidental predicate, such as "white man". But
in terms xaO' OCUTO they are the same. E.g. "the Good" itself cannot
differ from its essence, nor can "living being".

15 - 18
a. Metaph. Z 6, 1031 a :

IIoTepov 8e TOCUTOV ecruv 7) eTepov TO T ^v elvou xaL exadTOv,

g<m yap TI ?rp6 epyou 7up&<; TTJV Trepl T^ outrtac; crxe'jav IxaorTov Te yap oux
aXXo Soxec elvaL T^<; eauTOu oucrta^, xat TO Tt 9jv elvai XeyeTat eZvat 7]
exacrTou
oucr^a.

19 - 24 Not in the
b. Ib., 1031 a :

'Em [jiev TWV

Xeyo(Jiev6)v xaTa cri)[JLpep7)x6<; So^eiev av eTepov eZvat, olov accidental
8y)
unities
Xeuxcx; eTepov xal TO Xeoxo> avOpwTTCi) eZvat. ei yap TO auTO, xal TO
(5cv0pa>7T;o^

av0pa>7uc> eZvat xal TO Xeuxco avOpcoTrco TO auTO TO auTO yap av0pa>7ro<; xal
Xruxoc; dcvOpcoTuoc;, ca<; cpaaiv, cidTe xal TO Xeuxw avOpcoTcw xal TO avOpcojucp.

30 'Em
c. Ib.,
28 4 11 16
1031 a -b b -
8e TCOV xaO' auTa Xeyojjievtov
,
:

avayxv) TauTo eZvai, oZov et Tive^ subsistent

ap'
^ Jj j^
eialv ouaiat cLv eTepat (JLYJ elalv oucnai fjtTjSe 9u<reic; ?Tepai rcpoTepai, ota^ 9aal beings

b Ta<; t8ea<; eZvat Tive<; ; ei yap e'crrai eTepov auTO TO ayaOov xal T6 ayaOco eZvai,
xal ^wov xal TO ^cl>cp, xal TO OVTL xal TO ov, ecrovTat (SXXai, Te oudiai xal cpuaei<;
xal iSai Trapa T<X Xeyojievac;, xal TupoTepat oucriat execvai, et TO Tt 9jv eZvat
2
ouata eaTtv. xal el [Jiev a7coXeXu(jivat aXXifjXcov, TCOV (jtev
oux eaTai e7tiaT7)[iY)

1
TTOIOU codd. Bonitz conjectured
2 - the ouaiai.
TCOV (JL^V
 Il8 METAPHYSICS [538]

l
T<X 8* oux gcTTai 8vTa. 'AvayxY) <5cpa ev elvat T& <xya66v
xal xaXov xal xaXco elvat, <xal> 8aa (JLTJ xar* #XXo XyeTai, aXXa xaO* aura
xal TcptoTa' xal yap TOUTO Ixaviv av forapxif), xav fry) f) eiS?), (jtaXXov 8* lcrco<;
xav

other 18 22
d. Ib., 1031 b - :

for the "Ex TS 873 TOUTCOV TCOV Xoycov Sv xal TauTO ou xara (TU(jLpep7)x6<; auiri Sxaarov
x
identity xa ^ T ^ T ( )j
xa t g Tli y T ^ eTCidTacjOai exaarTov TOUTO sari, T& rt ?)v elvai
v e |;vai9
2
xal xaTa TYJV ex0eatv avayxy] Sv TI elvat <

The case of e Jb
accidental
terms (
T& 8J: xara (TUfjLpepTjxi^ Xeyojxevov, olov TO [JLOUCTLXOV 73 Xeuxov, Sia TO
cnrjfjLaiveLv oux aXvjOec; elTtetv co<; TauTO TO TL Y)V elvat xal auTO xal
3
yap & au[x(iep7)xe Xeux6v xal T6 cru(ipepY]x6<; ciaT* ECTTI [lev a>c; TaiVnSv, ,

^ ou TauTO TO TI TJV elvai xal auTO TW [jiev yap avOpcoTuco xal TW Xeuxq>
4
oo TauTO, TCO 7ua0L Se TauTO ).

Conclusion 4 6
f 15^ 1032 a - :

"OTL (lev ouv inl TCOV TupcoTcov xal xaO' auTa Xeyo[Aevcov TO exaaTco elvai
xal SxaaTOv TO auTO xal ev ECTTI, 89]Xov.

Essence and 539 After a digression on the various kinds of becoming (ch. 7-9),
Ar. now raises the question as to what belongs to the essence, and there-
fore to the definition. Should the definition of a whole contain the de-
finitions of the parts?

whole and 20 28
a> Metaph. Z io, 1034 b - :

'
5
e 6 6pi<T(jLo<; X6yo<; eorTt, 7ta<; Se Xoyos (Jtepv) e^et, cb<; Si 6 Xoyo^ 20

7rp6<; TO 7rpay[jLa, xal TO jxepoc; TOU Xoyou 7rpo<; TO {Jtepoc; TOU 7rpay(jLaTo<; 6(jiotco<;

S/ei, aTuopetTai, ^8y) rcoTepov Sec TOV TCOV X6yov evuTcapxetv ev

(iepcov TCO TOU
8Xou Xoyco Y)
ou. ITU' evtcov {xev yap 9aivovTat evovTec; evfcov 8* 08. TOU [lev yap
xiixXou 6 X6yo<; oux S^et. TOV TCOV T(JL7)(jiaTcov, 6 Se TTJ<; auXXapyj<; S^et TOV TCOV 25

cTTOt^eicov xaiToi SiaipetTat xal 6 xuxXo<; ei^ Ta T{jL7)[xaTa cocrTrep xal Y)

elc; T<X

Ta 8^- the Ideas

themselves, e.g. the Good.
Itbecomes clear by the exhibition of instances.
"For both that to which the accidental quality belongs, and the accidental
quality, are white" (Ross).
But it will be the same as the quality "white".
Ross translates "formula", with reference to De interpr. 16 b 26 (our nn 442 a).
 [5393 SUBSTANCE IIQ

b. Then, are the parts prior to the whole ?

Ib. 10^4 b 28 - 32 Are thc P arta

'

\ 7 / f ^ < prior?
,
SE el TrpOTEpa Ta [JLEpY]
TOU oXou, TY)<;
8s 6pOYJ<; Y] o^sta [Jtepo^ xal 6 Sax-
TOU coou, TupoTSpov ocv SLY] Y) o^ela TYJ<; 6p(JY)^ xal 6 SaxTuXo^ TOU avOpto-
s
TTOU. Exsiva sivai TupOTEpa TCO Xoyco yap XsyovTai E
Soxet 8 sxstvwv a xal ,

2
Toi elvai 8s &VEU aXXifjXcov TrpoTepa .

540 Why, then, is man

prior to the linger and a circle to its segments,
whereas individual are prior to the syllable? Ar. answers:
letters
material parts are not prior, parts of the form are.

1 - 12 Material
a. Ib., 1035 a :

i s i \ y ,/ parts not
El o5v s<m TO (JLEV uXY] TO Ss slSo^ TO 8 EX TOUTWV, xal ouaia Y)
TE uXY] xal prior
TO ElSo? Xal TO EX TOUTCOV, ECTTt [JLEV &C, Xal Y) liXY) [JLEpO^ TLVOi?XyETai, SaTl 8*
3
<o<; ou, aXX' s!; ^>v 6 TOU stSou^ Xoyo<; olov .
T% (Jisv xoiXoTY)TO<; oux EGTI (Jispo^

.5Y] aap^ (auTY) yap Y) uXY) 9* fa yiyvETat), TYJ^ 8s CJIIJLOTYJTOC; [Jtspoc;- xal TOU
5

(jisv auvoXou av8p!,avTO(; (Jtspo^;

6 xaXxoq TOU S co<; si'Souc; Xsyo[Jivou avSptavTOc;
4
ou (XEXTEOV yap TO sT8o<; xal J] sI8o(; E/EL ExaaTOv ,
TO 8' uXixov ouSsTTOTS
xa6' auTO XEXTEOV 5 ) 810 6 [JLEV
TOU xuxXou Xoyo<; oux tiyjzi
TOV TWV TfJtYjpiaTCOv,

TY]<; auXXap-?];; ey^ei TOV T&V aTOi-/icov

106 Ss Ta (JLEV yap aTOi)fla TOU Xoyou
[JLEpY]
TOU Et8oU^ xal OU^ liXY), Ta SE T(JLYj(jtaTa OUTOX; (JLEpY) d)^ liXY] 9* ETCt- %
yiyvETai.

b. So parts of the definition are prior. E.g. the acute angle is not
a preceding part of the right angle, but the right angle is logically prior.
For the acute angle is defined as being smaller than the right angle.
4- 8 E g the
1035 b
' '
Ib., :

acute angle
"Oaa [JLEV yap TOU Xoyou [JLEpY] xal el<; a SiaipeiTai 6 Xoyo<;, TauTa TrpoTepa
6
Y)
evta* 6 Se T% 6pO% Xoyo^ ou SiaipetTai, st<; 6^eta<; Xoyov ,
dcXX* <6>

TY]<; o^etac; els opOiQv xP^ Tat -

T^P opL^OfjLevog TYJV o^etav Tyj 6p09] eXaTTCOv((

yap wopO^a Y] o^eia.

1
The parts
are explained by reference to the whole (e^ exeivcov Xeyovrat).
2
"in respect also of the power of existing apart from each other the wholes
are prior to the parts" (Ross).
3
aXX' IE, <ov etc. - but only the elements of which the formula of the form exists.
4
T& el&oq xal /] elSoc s^ei - "the form, or the thing as having form, should be
said to be the thing".
6
T& 8' uXixov ouS^TTOTE - "but the material element by itself must never be said
to be so".
8 The formula of the right angle does not include the formula of the acute angle.
 120 METAPHYSICS [540]

9 14
c. Other examples and conclusion. Ib. 1035 b - :

p * r* 8 p*
the 8e xal 6 xuxXo<; xal TO Y){JUxuxXiov 'xou<nv TO yap YjfjLixiixXiov TCO
'OfjLoioc;

prior xuxXco 6pieTai xal 6 8axTuXo<; T& oXco TO yap TOi6vSe [zpo<; av0pco7rou
SaxTuXos. waO* 8aa piev [JtlpY] ax; uXv) xal ei^ a SiaipetTai a> uXYjv, uarepa
8cra 8e (oc; TOU X6you xal TYJ<; ouaia*; TYJ<; xara TOV Xoyov, TtpoTepa YJ Ttavra

^ Svta.

d. Thus in living beings, too: parts of the soul have priority,

material parts have not.
Sointhecase 14 22
Ib. f 1035 b - :

beings "ETtel Se ^cocov ^DX*/) (TOUTO yap oucrta TOU IJJL^UXOU) Y) xara TOV
T]
T&V
Xoyov oudta xal TO eZSoc; xal TO TL Y^V elvat TCO TOiaiSe acofjiaTi (IxaarTov youv 15
Ti [iepO(; eav 6pty)Tai xaXco^, oux aveu TOU epyou opietTai, o ou^ UTuap^SL <5cvsu

alaOTjaea)^), ciare Ta Taiiryjc; [Aepvj TrpoTepa YJ

TravTa Y^
evta TOU auvoXou ^coou,
xal xaO' exaaTOV SYJ ofioico^, TO SE ac5[ia xal Ta TOUTOU [xopta udTepa TauT7)(; 20
TT]<; ouCTiac;, xal SiaipeiTai eit; TauTa co<; et^ uXyjv ou^ v] ouata aXXa TO auvoXov.

541 To the question whether matter should be admitted into the

definition of physical beings, these being essentially composed of form
and matter, Ar. answers: no, matter does not enter into the definition.
27 31
a. Ib., 1035 b - :

matter the Q 8' <5cv0pa>7ro<; xal 6 xal Ta OUTCO<; em TO>V xaO' exaaTa, xa06Xou 8e
ITUTCCX;
individuating, ^ ,
\ , 7 , ^., , J - , c

principle otj >^ EGTLV ouaia aXXa aruvoXov TL ex TOUOI TOU Xoyou xai TY]arot, TY]<; uXY]<; c

s
xaOoXou- xa0 exaaTov 8' ex TY^<; eaxaTYji; uX7)<; 6 SwxpaTY)*; Y)8y) eaTiv, xal
erel TCOV aXXcav

In the last sentence (xaO* exacrrov Se e.q.s.) matter is qualified as the

principle of individuation "As to the individual, immediately after :

the ultimate matter Socrates comes in".

parts of the Mpo<; fiev ouv earl xal TOU eiSouq (elSoc; 8e Xyco TO Tt T^V elvat ) xal TOU
definition CTUV 6Xou TO (j x TO [> eJSou^ xal TY^ uXY)^ <xal TYJC; uXY)<;> auTY)<;. aXXa TOU Xo-
you [JLepY] Ta TOU et8ou<; (Jiovov e^Ttv, 68e X6yo^ earl TOU
xa06Xou TO yap xuxXc) elvai xal xuxXoc; xal ^u/Y) elvai xal

Concrete 2 8
Ct Jb ^ 1036 a - :

definable Tou 8e auv6Xou i^SY], olov xiixXou TOuSl xal TWV xa0* SxadTa TIVO<; Y^ ata0Y)Tou

ITC! TWV xaO' exaoTa etc. - terms which are thus applied to individuals,
but universally.
 [541] SUBSTANCE 121

VOYJTOU Xey<o 8k VOTJTOIK; [Aev olov TOIK; (jia07][iaTixou<;, aia07)Tou 8& olov
Yj
'
a 1 TOU uXlVOU - TOUTCOV 8s OUX SffTlV OptCTfJLO^, <xXX(X (JLT(X
*
ai(70Y)aeoa<; yvcopi^ovTat, dcTieXOovTec; Si ex T% svTsXexeta; ou

89jXov TTOTepov ei(jLv 7]

oux eiaiv aXX* asl XeyovTai xal yva>piovTai, T& xa06Xou
Xoyw.
8 12
d. Ib., 1036 a - : SXTQ

'H 8' ($XY) (icyvworTOc; xa0' auTTjv. uXr) Ss YJ {jiev ai<T0Y]TY) SCTTLV YJ Se VOTJTY), {Jx

ata97]TY) (JLEV
olov ^aXxoc; xal uXov xal ocry] xivyjTY] uXy), VOYJTY) Ss Y] ev

aia07]Tot<; uTuap/oucra (JLYJ ^ atdOyjTa, olov Ta (JLa0Y)(JLaTixa.

is identified by Alexander with extension.

542 Ar. now proceeds to discuss the question why that, the account
of which is a definition, is one.
E.g. : "two-footed animal" one and not two ? "Man" and "white" are two
why is

when the one does not belong to the other, one when it does. But in "two-footed
animal" one element does not share in the other; the genus does not share in the
differentiae (else it would share in contraries at the same time). And even if it
were to share in its differentiae, the same difficulty would arise, for the differentiae
of man are more than one: possessed of feet, two-footed, wingless. Why, then,
are these one ?
Ar. answers: o>ov is the genus, SITTOUV the differentia. But this difference is to be
divided again, and again, until the indivisible species is reached. The last difference
will be the substance and definition of the thing.

16 20
Metaph. Z 12, 1038 a - :

OUTOX; dcel poiiXeTai (3a8ieiv sax; av e'X0fl ei$ TOC a&id^opa TOTS 8'

ToaaijTa e&Y) TtoSoc; ocraiTisp at Stacpopai, xal ra

SL Sy] raura O($TG> S^et, <pavepov STL 73
TeXsuraia Siacpopa YJ
otiaia TOU
xal 6
So the last difference constitutes the unity of the subject of a definition.

543 The author now comes to his conclusions from the preceding
points (ch. 13-17).

a. First, the universal cannot be a substance.

Z 8 - 16 No universal
Ib. 13, 1038 b :

"Eoixe y^P aSiivarov elvai ouaiav elvat OTIOUV TCOV xaOoXou Xeyo^vcov.
10 First
IlpcoTov [Jtev yap ouaia exaaTOU r\ io\o<; exaaTq), Y) oux uTrapxet a"XXcp, r6
Sk xa06Xou xoivov TOUTO yap XeysTat xaOoXou 8 TuXeioatv uTrapxetv 7re9uxev.

TIVO^ o5v ouata TOUT' saTai ; ?) yap TTOCVTCOV rj ou8evo<;, TTCXVTCOV S* oux olov TS

x TTJ<; ^vTeXexeta^
- as soon as they are no more actuated by
or by ata0Yjai<;.
 122 METAPHYSICS [543]

8* ei &TTOCI, xal TaXXa TOUT' eVrai* cov yap [jua YJ

ouaCa xal T6 T y^v elvat

2v, xal auTa ev.

Second "E Tl oua ( a XeyeTai TO xaO* uTtoxeiaevou. TO 8e xaOoXou xaO' uTtoxeiaevoo
reason -
ay) ^ ^ 15
, , , ,

Ttvo<; XeyeTai, aet.

b. No substance can consist of substances.

3 - 10
Ib., 1039 a :

No substance >
ASuvaTov yap ouaiav e oucncov elvat evuTiap^oucrcov TOC
co<; evTeXe/eia yap
substances Suo OUTCO<; evTeXe^eia ouSeTTOTe ev svTeXe/eta, aXX' lav Suvafjiei Siio ^, eaTai 5
sv (olov Y)
SiTcXadta ex Suo Yjfjuastov Suvaaei, ye- /] yap
COCTT* el oux eaTai e^ ouai&v evuTrap/ouacov xal xaTa TOUTOV TOV
7]
ouaia ev,

TpOTTOv, 6v Xeyei AvjaoxpiTO^ opOw<; aSuvaTov yap elvat 97jaiv ex Siio ev y) e

ev6<; Suo yeveaOai. 10

544 The next consequence concerns the theory of Ideas.

Absurd con- 30 6
b 17 - 1<J
Metciph. Z 14, 1039 a -b ,
:

sequences as , , , / (

to the Ideas Et o5v ecm TL<; avOpcoTro^; auTO<; xaO* ai>Tov ToSe TI xal xe^wpKraevov, avayxv)
xal iE, <&v, olov TO J^coov xal TO Sfeouv, ToSe TL xal elvat ^
(TY)[JiaiveLV

xal ouaiac; coaTe xal TO J^coov. el [Jiev ouv TO auTo xal ev TO ev TCO LTTTTCO xal TCO

avOpcoTTco, cocTTrep au aauTco, TTCOC; TO ev ev TOL<; often, x 03 ?^ ^ v ecr^at, xal Sia TI b

oii xal X CO P^ auTOu eciTat TO J^eoov TOUTO ;
ercetTa et aev (jteOe^et TOU StTUoSoc;

xal TOU 7roXu7ToSo<;, aSuvaTov TI au(jL^aivei, TavavTta yap aaa UTrap^ei auTco
evl xal TtoSs TLVI OVTI ei 8s (JLT), TL^ 6 Tpo7ro<; OTav eiTTY] TI^ TO o)ov elvat SITCOUV 5
y)
7ie6v ;
aXX* LGTG)^ auyxetTat xal aTTTeTai y) (jiefJiiXTai aXXa rcavTa &T07ca.
Therefore, ][ ^ aSuvaTov OUTCO^ e^eiv, SyjXov OTI oux ecTTtv ei'Sy) auTCov OUTCO(; &<;

substances TIV? cpaaiv.

545
Another consequence concrete individual beings are not definable :
;

therefore, the Ideas, which are said to be separate particulars (!),

cannot be defined.
individual a 20 - 31
Metaph. 7, 15, 1039 b :

beings not f / /

definable ouata eTepa, TO Te auvoXov xal 6 Xoyo<; (Xeya) 8' OTI y) (Jiev OUTCOC; 20
'Ercel 8' yj
s
e<mv ouata, auv T^ GXyj (ruvetXy](jL[JLevo<; 6 Xoyoc;, y] 8 6 Xoyo^ oXco<;), 6aai [Aev
oSv ouTG) XeyovTai, TOUTCOV [xev eaTi 96opa (xal yap yevecri*;), TOU 8e Xoyou
oux ecmv (ouSe yap yeveai<;, ou yap yiyveTai TO oixia
OUTCOC; coaTe 96etpec6ai,
elvat aXXa T^ TyjSe T^ olxta), aXX* aveu yeveaeax; xal 90opa^ etcrl xal oux 25
etoiv Se8eixTai yap (m ouSelc; TauTa yevva ouSe Ttoiet. Sta TOUTO Se xal TCOV
ouaiwv TCOV aia6y]Tcov TCOV xaO' exacJTa ouTe op 1(7(0.6^ ouTe dbroSeii;^ SCTTIV,

OTI S^ouaiv uXyjv fa yj 9uaic; Toiaury) COGT' evSe/eaBai, xal elvai xal [JLTQ
816

TcavTa Ta xa6' exa<TTa auTcov. 3

 [545] SUBSTANCE 123

8 9 Therefore,
b. Ib., 1040 a - :

Ou& XT) tSav ouSe[Juav Icmv optaaaOat. TCOV yap xaO* exacrTov 7) iSea, O f ideas
cog cpaafc, xal
A very strange conclusion, which, really, does not redound to the credit of its
author.

546 Two wrong views about substance.

5 10 Most
a. Metaph. Z 16, 1040 b - :

so-called
5 OavEpov SE OTL xal TCOV Soxouacov Etvat ouatcov at TcXeZarai 8uva(JLt<; siai, substances
TOC TS [lopta TCOV cocov (ou0v yap xs^coptafjtEvov auTtov <mv oTav 8k )

xal TOTS ovTa co<; uXv) TcavTa ) xal y9j xal rcup xal ayjp ouSsv yap auTcov 2v
s

,
aXX olov acopoc;, Trplv ^ 71296^ xal yevvjTaL TI e^ auTcov sv.

b. Ib b 16 - 27 '
Unity and

8k TO ev XeyeTai coaTcep xal TO ov, xal 7]

oudia YJ
TOU svo^ (Jiia,
xal substances
x
cbv [Lioi api,6(JLCo ev api6fjLc7> , cpavepov OTI OUTS TO ev OUTS TO ov evSs^eTai ouaiav
elvat TCOV 7upay(jiaTCov, coa^sp ouSe TO aToixs^^ elvai, YJ apxf]
*
aXXa ^YjTOUfjiev
2
20 TL^; o5v 73 ap^T), Lva e^ yvcoptfJicoTEpov avayaycofjLsv. [jLaXXov [isv o5v TOUTCOV
ouata T^ ov xal ev YJ YJ
TE ap'/rj xal TO aTOL^el'ov xal TO atTiov, OUTTCO Se ouSe

TauTa, eiTiep fjLYjS*

SXXo xoivov oucrta
[JLYJ^SV ouSevl yap uTcap^si 7) ouata aXX*

257) ai)T^ T Xal TCO E/OVTt aUTTjV, OU (TTtV OUGta. Tt TO Iv TtoXXa^ OUX OCV tY]

a(Jia, TO SE xotvov afia 7uoXXa*/9j U7rapxf COCJTE SyjXov 6Tt ou5v TCOV xaOoXou
i)7uap^t Tcapa Ta xaO* IxaaTa
To the question why a thing is, and why it is one, Plato answered: because it
participates of being and of unity. Ar. rejects this answer, for the "one" and
"being" are no substances. They are xotva, being predicated of all things.

547 Ar.'s final view of substance: substance is "form" or "quiddity".

a. Ar. now again asks the question: Why is a thing what it is?

E.g. why are these stones etc. a house ?

26 - 32
Metaph. Z 17, 1041 a :

Ata Tt TaSt, olov TuXtv6ot xal Xt0ot, otxta <7Ttv; cpavpov TOtvuv OTt /)Tt TO what it is?
TOUTO 8' CTTl TO Tt 9JV EtVat, tb<; t7CtV XoytXCO^, in EVtCOV [JLV CTTt

VXa, olov t(TCO<; 71* OtXta<; ^ xXtVY)<;, ETC* EVtCOV 8k Tt XtV7)(T TIpCOTOV
3atTtov yap xal TOUTO. aXXa TO [Jiv TotouTov atTtov inl TOU ytyvd0at
xal 90tp(j6at, 0aTpov 8k xal em TOU lvat.

sv apt0(jico - as things whose substance numerically one are

1
JJv is
\d(x. dlpiOfjLco

numerically one,
2
TOUTCOV - partitive ly: of these concepts.
 124 METAPHYSICS [547]

b. The question really means: why is this material a certain thing ?

Because the 4 9
Ifr 1041 b - 1

belongs to it 'ETrel &e Set e^ew TS xal UTcap^etv TO elvat, SvjXov 873 8rt TYJV uXYjv y)Tet
Sta Tt <Tt> eoTiv olov otxta TaSl Sta Tt; OTI uTrapxei 6 9jv olxta elvat. xal &V
OpcoTroc; To8, Yj
TO aco(ia TOUTO ToSl S^ov. OXTTE TO a'mov y)TstTai TYJ^ uXY)<;
J J

(TOUTO S ecnrl TO eZ8o<; ) & Tt e<mv TOUTO S Y] oiaia.

This, then, is Ar.'s final answer to the question: what substance is.

4 POTENCY AND ACTUALITY

548 a. A definition of "potency" in its primary sense ("power")
is given in
Primary 1046 a
11
sense of the
Metaph.
r i, :

, ^ , ,, ,,

term apx*/) (JLTa[3oXY3(; ev (kXXcp 7] Y)

aXXo.

i<a source of change in another thing, or in the thing itself qua other".
b. From this primary sense the author derives (a) the potency of
being acted on by another or by the thing itself qua other; and (b) in-
susceptibility to change for the worse by the agency of another thing, etc.
11 - 16
Deriyated Jb., 1046 a :

f
H fjtev yap TOU TuaOetv eaTt &uva(ju<;, Y)
ev atJTa> TCO Traa^ovTi ap^*?)
UTT' SXXou r\ vj dcXXo Y)
S* KJL$ aTraOetac; TYJ^ ejul TO x e ^P ov x
TYJC; UTT* &XXou TI ^ aXXo UTC' ap^v]^ (JiSTapX7]TLx9j(;. ev yap TOUTOK; eveaTi Tcaai

Tot(; opoic; 6 TYJS TCpcoTYj^ Suva^eax; Xoyoc;.

Ar. wants to distinguish the notion of "power" of the term 8\iva-
c.

[LI<;
from the notion of "potentiality". This sense of the term is explained
in ch. 6 of the same book,
Potentiality 32 - 36
1048 a :

A^yo(jtev 8e 8uv<i(Jiei (sc. uTrap^eiv TO Tcpayfia) olov ev TOJ !;oXcp *Ep[jiY]v xai
ev T^ oXy] TTJV 7](jL((reiav,
STI a^aipeOetv] av, xal e7rto"T7](jLova xal TOV (Jtv) OecopouvTa,
av SuvaTO^ fj Oecopvjaau

549 Ar. continues speaking on potency in the sense of "power".

Rational and 36 9 15 - 20
non-rational
Metaph. 2, 1046 a -b ,
:

, , , , , , ,

powers liiTreL o at (lev ev TOL^ a^u^oi? evuTrap/oucriv ap^at TOtauTai, at o ev TOI^

efJL^^X ^ xa>L ^ v 4* U X^ xa ^ T ^? ^ U X^ ^ v T ^ Xoyov e^ovTi, Sv^Xov OTI xal TCOV b

Suvajjiecov at (lev eaovTai iXoyoi at 8e (jteTa Xoyou Sio Traaai at T^vat xal at

TiotYjTtxal e7tiaTY)(Aat Suva[JLet^ etdtv ap^ocl yap (jieTapXY)Ttxat etatv ev fiXXco YJ

fl
4XXo. xal al (lev (AeTa X6you Tracrai TCOV evavTtcov at auTai, at Se aXoyot (Jtta
 [5491 POTENCY AND ACTUALITY 125

olov TO 0ep(ji6v TOU 0ep|xatveiv [ji6vov Y)

8e laTpixY) voo~ou xal uy.e[a<;.
afaiov 8e STL X6yo<; eonrlv 7] cTuanfjfry), 6 8Xoyo^ 6 auTo? STjXoZ TO repay [ia xal
rJ)v CTTlpyjaiv. 'Ereel 8 Ta evavTia oux eyyiyveTai ^ v T V auT&, y] 8* eTuaTYJi///)
Siivajjus TCO X6yov e'xetv, xal YJ ^ux/] xivyjaecoc; e'xei, apx>)v, TO [lev uyieivov

17 uykiav [x6vov TTOIEI xal TO 0ep(JiavTix6v OeppionqTa xal TO ^UXTIXOV

6 8* 7uanf)|iG>v

550 The existence of any "potential being" when there is no actuality,

1
is denied by the Megarian school . Ar. defends his theory against this
attack.
29 - 33 The attack
a. Metaph. 3, 1046 b :

2
Eial 8 Tive<; 01 9aatv, olov ol MeyaptxoC, 8Tav evepy^ (JLOVOV 8\ivaa0ai , r i a n school

6Tav 8e 1

(X }] evepyij ou S\ivaa6ai, olov TOV f/,7) oixoSofzouvTa ou 8\ivacr0ai oixoSo-

(Jieiv,
aXXa TOV olxoSofiouvTa OTav oixoSo^ ofiotcag Se xal em TCOV &XXcov.

ol(; Ta au[JLpa(vovTa STOTra ou x a ^ TCOV ^Setv.

b. 33 17 Absurd
Ib., I046b -i047a :

A9]Xov yap OTI OUT' olxoS6(jLoc; eaTai eav (JLTJ oixoSofiyj (TO yap olxo&opuo O f this theory
35 elvai TO SuvaTW elvai eaTiv otxoSofJieLv), 6(Jtotcoc; Se xal eTrl TOW &XXo)v Te/vcov.
ei oSv aSuvaTOv TOC^ ToiauTac; xeiv T^Xva<^ ^ (^aOovTa TTOTC xal Xa^ovTa, xal

^xetv (AY] <x7co(3aX6vTa TTOTC (^ yap Xif)0y) YJ

TraOei Tivl ^ XP^ V( ) }
"
ou Y^P ^
TOU ye 7rpay[juxTO<; ^OaplvTOi;, ael yap eVrtv), OTav TrauayjTaL, oux 25ei TYJV

^XVY V 3 >
TC *^tv 8* euOuc;TTW^ Xapcov
otxoSofjLrjaet ;

5 Kal ouTe yap ^uxpov OUTC 0eppi6v OUTC yXuxu OUTS

TOC (Sc^uxa Sv) OIJLOLOX;
3
8Xcoc; a[a0Y)Tov ou0ev SaTat (JLT) ataOavofjievov coerce TOV IIpcoTayopou Xoyov

au{JLpY)ceTai Xyetv auTotc;. aXXa JJLYJV ou8' al'crOTjaiv e^et, ouSev av (JLY) aiaOav/jTai

(JLY]8' evepy^. ei o5v TucpXov TO {JLYJ ^x ov o^v ? 7re<puxo<; 8e xal OTe 7re9uxe xal ITL

10 8v, ol auTol TU9Xol eaovTat rcoXXax^ TYJ^ Y)|ipa<; 7

xal xco^oi.
>;
ETI ei aSuvaTov TO eaTepy)[jLevov Suva^eox;, TO (JLY) yiyvofjievov aSuvaTOv
SaTat yevla0ai T& 8* aSiivaTov yevearOai 6 Xeycav ^ elvai >j eaeaOai ^euoeTai

15 ( TO Y*P aSuvaTov TOUTO eCT7)(JLaivev), ciaTe oijTOi ol Xoyoi, e^aipouai xal XLVYJCTLV
xal yevecrtv. ael yap TO Te eaTTjxcx; eaTYj^eTai xal TO xa0y)(Jievov xaOeSetTai
ou yap avaaTTjaeTai av xaOl^yjTaL aSuvaTov yap eaTat avaaTYJvat o ye fir)

8\ivaTai

551 Ar. now proceeds to explain what actuality is. Actuality

a. Metaph. & 6, 1048 a

30- 32
,
35 :

1
See our nrs. 234 and 235.
2
6T<xv vepyfj (x6vov SuvaoOat
- "that there is only &uva(ju<; when there is vpyeia".
8
T&V IIpcoTay6pou X6yov - see our nr. 171.
 126 METAPHYSICS [551]

"E<m 8r) evepyeia TO uTtap/etv TO 7rpay(jta [JLY) OUTOX; <&<j7cep Xyo[jt,ev 8u-
2
Ti 8e evepyeta.

b. The author wishes to explain the thing by instances, not by

definition. He apologizes for this method.
Explained Jb ^ 1048 a 3 M) 5 !

A9jXov 8* ercl TCOV xaO' exacrra Tyj eTraytoyrj 8 pouX6|jLe6a Xeyeiv, xal ou 8el 35
7cavTO<; opov ^YJTSLV aXXa xal TO avaXoyov auvopav, STL ax; TO oixo8o[Jiouv
3
Tcpo^ TO otxoSo[JLtx6v xal TO eyp7)yop6<; npbc, TO xa6eu8ov, xal TO op&v Tupoc; b
,

'
TO (jiuov [jiev o^iv Ss ^x ov xa L T ^ aTroxexptfjL^vov ex T^ uXv]^ Tupoc; TY)v liXvjv, xal
>

TO aTreipyaapL^vov ?cp6^ TO avepyaaTOv. TauTY]<; Se T^ Sta'-popac; OaT^pa) fiopUo

7] evlpyeia a^wptGrfievy] 6aTpco
Se TO SuvaTov. ^

Difference 552 Potential being must be actualized by a moving cause; but

movement movement as such is not really action, or not complete action. It is
and actuality ac t uaiity only when the end is present in it.

Ib., 1048 b 18 - 36 :

'ETcel Se T&V Trpa^ecov &v S<TTI Trepa^ ou8e(jua TsXo^ aXXa TCOV ruspl TO T^Xoc;,
4
olov TO icr^vatvsiv taxvacria [auTo], auTa 8e
YI OTav Ear^vatvT] OUTCO^ IdTtv ev 2 o
6
xivvjaei, (JIT) UTrap^ovTa cov Svexa YJ XLVTJCJ^
oux ecm TauTa 7rpa^L(; ^ ou TeXeia
,

ye (ou yap TeXoc;)' aXX' IXEIVYJ <TJ> evuTrap^ei TO TeXo<; xal [YJ] Trpa^i^. olov

6pc a(Jta <xal ecopaxe>, xal 9povei <xal Tce9p6vy)xe,> xal VOEL xal VSVOYJXSV
aXX' ou [JiavOavei,xal fjie[ia0Y)xev ouS' uyta^eTai xal uyiaaTai. e3 ^yj xal s5 25

ajjLa, xal euSaipioveL xal euSaijxovYjxev. et 8e (JLYJ, e'Sei <Sv TCOTS TraueoOai
Tav laxvaivT), vuv 8* ou, aXXa ^ xal e^Yjxev. TOUTWV SYJ <Sei> T<X(; fiev

Xyeiv, Tac; 8* evepyeta<;. rcaaa yap xtvyjai*; aTeXTjc;, t(Txva<T ^ a H-a6yj(Tt<;

olxoSofJLYjaic; auTat STJ XIVT)<TL<; xal aTeXeZ^ ye. ou yap a(jia paSt^ei ^
?

xal pe[3aSixev, ou8' oixoSofJiet xal cpxoSo^vjxev, ouSe yiyveTai xal yeyovev r)
xivetTai xal xexiv/jTai, aXX' eTepov, xal xivec xal xextv7)xev ecopaxe 8e xal
opa afjia TO auTO, xal voei xal vevoyjxev. TYJV [jiev o5v TOiauTYjv evepyeiav Xeyco,
exeivYjv 8e XIVYJCTLV. ^^

553 When is one thing the potency of another? E.g. can we say
that earth is potentially a man, or even that sperma is ?

Here follows the description of the Suvafzei o v , cited sub 548c.

The thing which stands in contrast to this.
- that which
T& obco8o^ix6v is capable of building.
<XUT<X Si - the bodies.
(jL-yj tiirdpyovToc etc.
- without being already that at which the movement aims.
 [553] POTENCY AND ACTUALITY 127

37 5 when does a
a. Metaph. 7, 1048 b -iO49 a :

IIoTe Se SuvajJiei eo~Tiv exaonrov xal TCOTC ou, SiopiCTeov ou yap oTTOTeouv. potentially?
olov 7) y?) ap' ecm Suvapiei a* v0p COTTON 73 ou, aXXa (jtaXXov OTav 7^873 yevTjTai
;

aTiepfJia, xal ouSe TOTC taeo^ ; ciaTrep ouv ouS' UTCO taTpLx^^ a^rav av uytaaOetTj
ouS' a7co TUX*/)?, aXX* SaTi TL 6 SuvaTov eaTi, xal TOUT' eo^Ttv uyiatvov Suvajxei.

b. Ar. distinguished two ways of passing from potentiality into

actuality: (i) dbro Siavoia^, i.e. by art, (2) in natural beings by an immanent
principle (ev auToi TCO
5 - 12 In products
Ib., 1049 a :

5 "Opoc; 8e TOU (Jiev OCTTO 8iavota<; evTeXexeia yiyvo(jtevou ex TOU 8uva(Jtei 8vTO<;,
Tav pouXTjO^VTO^ ytyvTjTai (Ji7)0ev6<; xcoXuovTO<; TCOV exTO(;, exei 8* ev TCO uyta-
^o(jievcp, 8Tav (jL7j0ev xcaXuTj TO>V ev auTO) 6(jLofco<; Se Suva^et xal otxta ei

(jLTjOev xoXuei TWV ev TOUTW xal TTJ uX/3 TOU yiyveaOat oixtav, ouS' eaTtv 8 Set
10 TCpoayeveoflai aTToyeveaOai 73 (jLeTapaXetv, TOUTO SuvafJiei oixia-
7)
xal inl
Ttov SXXcov cacrauTOx; 8acov e^wOev 73 apXTJ TT)<; yeveaeax;.

13 - 18 In natural
C. 1049 a
Kal
Ib.,
8<icov STJ ev auTO) TCO
:

X ovri
* n v " "r " ' ^ beings

arai St* auTOu olov TO a7cep(jLa OUTCO) (Sei yap ev aXXw <7ueo~eZv> xal

i5paXXeiv), OTav 8* 73873 8ia TYJ^ auTou ap/73<; fj TOLOUTOV, 73873 TOUTO
l
exelvo Se eTepa^ ap/7J<; SetTat, coaTcep 73 y9j OUTCCO av8p!,a<; Suva(Jiei

yap e'crrat

554 Actuality is prior to potency in tlv? broadest sense.

4 - 12
a. Metaph. 8, 1049 b :

^or^uT
2
'ETrel Se TO TupoTepov StwptaTai Troaax&s X^yeTai , cpavspov STL TipoTepov potency
5 evlpyeia SuvafJieax; eaTiv. Xeyca Se 8uva(Jieco<; ou [JLOVOV TTJ<; capiajjievT}^ 73
X

pXTjTixTj ev aXXco 73 r\ aXXo, aXX' oX<o<; 7uaa7j<; apx^? XIVTJTIXTJ^ 73

%. 9uai^ ev TauTw [ytyveTat ev TauTco yap] yevet TTJ Suvafjiei,

xal yap 73

10 apX^l T^P KWTJTIXT), aXX* oux ev aXXo) aXX' ev auTW ^ auTO. TKXOTTJC; 873 TTJ^

TOtauTTj^; vrpoTepa ecrTlv 73 evepyeia xal Xoyco xal T^ oucrfa Xpovw 8' Sari
(lev <&(;, SaTi Se coc; ou.

12 - 17
b First it is logically prior. Ib., 1049 b : i. logically

Tw X6yco (lev o5v STL TrpoT^pa, S^Xov (TW yap ev8exeo~0ai, evepyTJaai SuvaTiv
eaTi TO TcpcaTox; 8uvaT6v, olov Xeyco oixoSo[JLix6v TO Suvajievov otxoSojjieLv,

1
xetvo 8^ - in the former state.
namely, in A n.
2 -
SicopiaToci
 128 METAPHYSICS [554]

xai opaTixov TO opav, xal opaTov TO SuvaTOv opaaOai' 6 8* auTO^ X6yos xal 15
ercl TCOV a*XXtov, COCTT' avayxT) TOV Xoyov Trpoihrapxetv xal TTJV yvcoaiv TTJS yvto-

aetoc).

c. Next, it is prior in time in the following sense.

17 - 27
2. in time Ib., 1049 b :

TCO 8e XP^ VCP rcpoTepov coSe TO TCO etSei TO auTO evepyouv TrpOTepov, apiOfjico
8* ou. Xyco 8e TOUTO OTI TouSe [xev TOU dvOpcoTiou TOU 7^87) 6vTo<; XOCT' eve'pyeiav 20
'
xal TOU GITOU xal TOU 6pwvTO<; TrpOTSpov TCO XP^ VCP ^ ^^ xa 1 T ^ ^TtepM-a xal TO

6paTix6v, a Suvajiei (JLCV EGTIV avOpcoTioc; xal <JITO<; xal opcov, evepyeia 8* OUTCG)
aXXa TOUTcav TrpoTSpa TW XP^ VCP ^ T P a ovTa evepyeia e 5iv TauTa eyeveTO

ael yap ex TOU Suvajjiei OVTO<; ytyveTai TO evepyeta 6v UTTO evepyeia 8vTO<;, 25
olov a*vOpa>7ro<; e^ avOpcojcou, (Jiouaixoc; urco (jLouaixou, ael XIVOUVTO<;

7Cpa>TOU TO Se xtvouv evepyeta 7^87]

in d. in substance. Ib., 1050 a 4 - 10

3-
substance >A\\
AXXa
\/ prior
Thirdly,
xai ouata ye, rcpcoTOv
[JLY)v
it is
\ ~ / \ ~/c\
[jiev OTL Ta TJT) yeveaei uaTepa TCO etoet xai
/ r/
:

TtpOTepa (olov avyjp 7rai86<; xal avOpo^7ro<; a?rep[JLaTO(; TO (jiev yap

TO eI8o^ TO 8* ou), xal OTL a?cav in ap^v paSi^ei TO yiyvopievov xal
l
(apx^ yap TO ou evexa, TOU TeXouc; 8e evexa YJ yeveat^; ), TeXoc; 8* r) evepyeia,
xal TOUTOU x^P tv "h 8uva[Jii<; Xa[ji(3aveTai.

Actuality 555 a J can either be in the obiect

Actuality J
which is made, or in
either in the
object, or in the agent.
the agent Tl n u3
30
Ib., 1050 a -b :

f/
0acov
(jiev
ouv eTepov TI eaTi Trapa TTJV xp'^ tv TO yiyv6|Jievov, TOUTCOV [jiev 30
:
y] evepyeia ev TCO Troioufjievco eariv (olov r\
Te oixoS6fJiY]ai^ ev TCO o 1x080 (Jioufji^vco
xal y) U9avaic; ev TCO U9aivopievcp, 6(jioico<; Se xal eTul TCOV aXXcov, xal 6Xco<; r\

xivrjaic; ev TCO xivoupievco ) oacov Se (JIT]

eaTiv aXXo TI Spyov Trapa T-/JV evepyeiav,
ev auTOic; UTrapxet v] evepyeia (olov 7] opaaK; ev TCO opcovTi xal Y) Gecopia ev TCO 35
2
OecopouvTi xal 7] ^COTJ ev Tyj ^U/YJ, 816 xal T] euSai(jiovia ^COTJ yap Troia TIC;

eaTiv). coaTe cpavepov OTI 7)

ouaia xal TO eiSo^; evlpyeia eaTiv.

In time, one actuality precedes the other, straight back to the

b.
First Mover.
the First 3 6
Mover first
Ib. ; 1050 b - :

, > f/ > ~ / > cs

actuality KaTa Te 07) TOUTOV TOV Xoyov 9avepov OTI TrpoTepov TTJ oucria evepyeia ouva-

principle, i.e. an end.

1 - to a
apxrjv ... xal TXO<;
IT:
2
That eudaemonia is an "energy" of the soul, is the starting-point or basis
of Ar.'s treatise on the virtues in the Eth. Nic. See our nr. 566 (EN I 7, 15, logSa 16 - 17 ).
 [555] POTENCY AND ACTUALITY 129

1
&<ntep efaofjiev ,
TOO xp6vou ael 7rpoXa{i|3avet vpyeta frrlpa rcpi

TTJ<; TOU ael xtvouvros 7Epa>T6>$.

c. The eternal is always actual. It cannot be potential, for the

potential is contingent, and therefore perishable.
6-14 16- 17 18 : Eternal
Ib.,1050 b ; ,
beings
*AXXa jrJjv xal xopicoTpa> Ta [i,iv yap atSioc 7ip6Tepa Tfj ouata T&V 98apT&v, always
actual
lart 8* ouOiv Suvajjiei atStov. Xdyo$ Si 6Se Traaa SivajJits a*[xa TYJS avTi9aae<o
loiemv TO p,iv yip V^l SuvaTiv UTuapxstv oix cUv tiraip^eiev ouOevf, TO SuvaTiv
Si Ttav lvS^xSTat V^ ^vspystv. T6 fipa SuvaT^v elvat ivSlxe^ai xal slvai xal (JL^J
elvai- T6 auT& 4pa SuvaTiv xal elvai xal (JLTJ slvat. TO 8e SuvaTov pfy elvat

14, 16 ivSe^eTai (JL*?)

elvai TO Si ivSe^H-svov {JLTJ
elvai 98apT6v. OuOiv <Spa T&V
eo^ Suva[Jit ICTIV aTtXco^. 'Evepyeta 4pa

556 4- 15 The good

a. Metaph. 9, 1051 a :

actuality
"(Hi Si xal xal TijxicoT^pa TYJ<; a?couSata^ Suva(jiea)^
(3sXT(cov iv^pyeia, *?) more
valuable
5 Ix TwvSe S^Xov. 8aa yap xaTa TO S\ivaa0ai X^yeTai, Tafa6v IGTI SuvaTiv Tdcvav- than the
Tta 2 , olov TO SiivaaOai Xey6(ievov 6yia(vetv TauT6v eaTi xal Ti voaetv, xal good
8 potency
4(Jia Y] aur?) yap Stivajxt^ TOU uyiatveiv xal
xal Tjpe^etv xal xivewrOai, XOCJJLVSIV,

10 xal otxoSofxetv xal xaTajBaXXeiv, xal oExo8o(xeti<i8ai xal xaTa7c7CTStv. TO (Jiiv

oSv SiivaaOai TdcvavTta &jia uirapxet Ta 8* svavTfac dcpta iSivaTov, xal Ta^ Svep-

yeta^ Si 4(xa ASivaTov iTcdcp^eiv (olov uytatveiv xal xdtfjtvetv), <&OT' avdlyx>)
TO^TCOV OdlTepov elvat Taya06v, T6 8i StivaaOat 6(xotco<; ajj^Tepov 73 oOS^Tepov

4pa Ivlpyeia peXTfwv.

b. Ib.,
16 19
1051 a - :
A bad
actuality
'AvAyxiQ Si xal Ircl T<OV xaxcov TO T^Xo<; xal T-Jjv Iv^pyetav elvat xe^P v worse than
TO yap Suvafievov Tafai TdcvavTCa. SvjXov ofix bad
8uva{JLe<o$ fificpa) &pa 6*Tt

T6 xaxov Tcapa Ta Tcpdty^aTa *

ucrrepov yap T^ ^tiaret TO xax6v

c. From this fact the author draws an important conclusion,

namely, that there is no evil among eternal things.
19- 21
Ib., 1051 a :

Oux pa ouS* v TOL^ i% apX^ xal TOt^ dftStou; ouOiv aTtv ofiTe xax6v ofiTS eternal
4
a(jLapTY)[xa oOTe 8te90ap(jiivov (xal yap *J) 8ta90opa TCOV xax&v

1
Vid. supra (554b, the end).
*
"Ooa ydtp etc. - "Everything of which we say that it can do something, is alike
capable of contraries" (Ross).
8
xal &(ia - "and it has both potencies at one and the same time".
4 - -
&i98ap{j^vov perverted; 8ta90op<i perversion.
De VogeJ, Greek Philosophy II 9
 130 METAPHYSICS [557]

5 BEING AND TRUTH

557 In the last chapter of Metaph. the author gives his definition
of truth, which has become so famous in the history of human thought.
It is presented as follows.
Metaph. Q 10,
34
1051 a -b
9
:

'ETTCI Se TO 6v XlyeTai xal TO JATJ 6v TO [Jtev xaTa TOC a^^aTa TCOV xaTYjyopi&v,

TO Se xaTa 8uva[juv YJ evepyeiav TOUTWV Y) TavavTia, TO Se [xupicoTOtTa 6v] b

aXY)6e<; Y) <peu8o<;, TOUTO S* ercl T&V TipayfJiaTcov eaTi TC> auyxeiaOat, yj SiYjpYJaOai,
Definition & CTTg a X e e e v 6 TO SiY)pY)[jLLVOv
Y)
ii i
oi6p.evo<; S
(JL p i
Y) YJ
-

a a xal
i TO auyxeijjievov auyxscia8ai,<j;suaTai Se 6

evavTia><; l^cov ^ TOC TrpayfJiaTa, TTOT' eaTtv y oux S<m TO

Xey^fxevov 73 ^eijSo<; ;
TOUTO yap axsTCT^ov TI X^yojiev. ou yap Sia TO Yj^a^
oteaGai aX7)6w<; ae Xsuxov elvai el au Xeuxo<;, aXXa
Sia T6 a e elvai Xeuxov e 01 7) (A
t c; 9avTe TOUTO a X v) -
<;

e u o (A
e v .

558 In Metaph. E 4 Ar. separated truth from the province of

a.

Metaphysics, because truth and falsity are not ''in things", but merely
a TraOos TY]<; Si

E 4 '
I02 7 b25 - I028al:
eluded
from met a- Ou yap eo"Tt TO ^euSoc; xal T6 aXTjGe^ ev TOL<; TrpayfAaaiv, olov TO(Jiev aya06v

physics in E 4 T 6 8e xaxov euOu^ ^euSoc;, aXX' ev Stavota, Trepl Se Ta aTiXa xal T<X Tt
dcX7)Oe<;

ecTiv ouS' ev Stavota 8aa (Jtev

oSv Set Oecop^aat Tuepl TO OUTO^ ov xal (AY)

ov, uaTepov erctaxeTUTeov ercel 8k. 73 aufiTcXoxif] eaTtv xal r) Scatpeo*t^ Iv Siavoia 30
aXX* oux ev TOCC; 7cpdy(Jiaai, TO 8' OUTWC; ov eTepov Sv T&V xupico^ l (73 yap TO
T( eaTtv Y] o*Tt TTOIOV TI oTt Tioaov 7] Tt <5fXXo auvaTUTet v) SiaipeZ YJ Stavoia), T6 (Aev

<5><; aufjLpepY)xo<; xal T6 6)^ aXY)6e<; ov a9eTeov TO yap afaiov TOU (Jiev aopiaTOv
TOU Se r/i$ Siavoia(; TI
To this new element, namely that, with the
view our passage in 10 adds a
aufjiTrXoxY) in thought, a must correspond.
OUJJLTUAOXT) in reality
The same view has been expressed with some emphasis by Plato, at the end
of his Sophist, as a solution of the difficulty concerning <peu8$)<; 86Ea. See our nr. 343.

b. That truth and

falsity depend on combination, is also said in
Categ. 4, Immediately after having enumerated the ten
at the end.

categories, with a few instances of each, the author continues (Categ. 4,

2 a 4- 10 ):

1
T& oi>T<o<; 5v repov TCOV xup(co<; - since which is in this sense is a different sort
of "being" from the things that are in the full sense.
 [558] BEING AND TRUTH 131

"ExaaTOV 8 TCOV a&To xa8* ai>TO ev Truth and

elpY){j(ivcov (Jiiv ouSefiicx xaTa9<xaei
XyeTai, rfl ^
rcp6<; <5cXXy)Xa TO\JTCOV aujjurXoxyj xaTo^acrtc; $ &n6<p&ai$ yiveTai. depend on
Soxet combination
<5c7raaa yap xotT^aats xal a7u69aai<; qToi, aXTjOvjc; >) ^euS-yjc; elvat TCOV 8
XOCT<X {jt.7)Se(Aiav au[i7uXox7)v Xeyoplvcov ouSev OUTS aXY)0e<; OUTS <JjeuS6<; e<mv,

olov <5cv6p COTTON, Xeux6v,

559 In
10 Ar. develops the consequences of this view.

Considering first truth and being in the case of "composites

l
he states: "Being ,

is being-united; not-being is not-being-united. About things which may be either

united or divided the same opinion is at different times false and true not so with ;

regard to things that must be as they are" (Ross).

9 - 17 Truth and
a. Metaph. 10, 1051 b :

s
Et SY) Ta (Jiev ael auyxei/rai, xal aSiivocTa 8iaipe69jvai, TCX 8 act Si*/)p7)Tat, case of
10 xal aStivara duvreO^vat, TCX 8* evSex^^at rcxvavTia, TO JJLSV elvod ICTTI TO auyxetorOat composites
xal ev elvat, TO 8e [JLYJ
elvat TO (JLTJ auyxsLaOai aXXa TrXeico elvai Tuepl (Jiev
o3v
2
TCX IvSexoH-sva Y) auTY] ytyveTai ^e^Syj^ xal aX7]0v)<; 86?a xal 6 Xoyoc; 6 auTO<;,
1 5 xal evS^x^at OTE [Jiev aXyjOeueiv OTE 8e ^e\i8eaOai- irepl Se TCX cxSiivaTa c2XXto<;
ou yiyveTai OT^ (Jti:v cxXyjOe^ OTS 8k. ^e^So^;, aXX* ael TauTcx cxXy)6y) xal

Bonitz (Metaph. 409) remarked that the meaning of "composites" in this passage
is not "quae ex pluribus elementis coalucrunt" and in this he was right but
"in quibus cum substantia coniungitur accidens aliquod, veluti homo albus, homo
sedens, diagonalis irrationalis et similia". Now, if this last point were true, the
whole class of composites would consist of IvSexVeva, and those things which
"are always composed" or "cannot be divided" could not belong to them. By
ouvGeToc then is rather meant: judgments, in which a subject is copulated with a
predicate, be it accidental or not; so that the "truth" intended here is what is called
the veritas logica by the schoolmen (adaequatio rei et intellectus) .

Since being and non-being, truth and falsehood then depend on

b.

combination, the question arises: what is being and non-being; what

truth and falsity, in the case of incomposites.
17 30 Truth and
Ib., 1051 b - :

Ilepl Se T<X aa\iv6eTa Tt TO elvai, elvai xal TO aXY)6e<; xal TO <J;ei>8o<;; Ca8e O f i n _
Y) (JLYJ

ou yap ecm auv0STOV, Tav auyxe7]TaL, (JLTJ elvai, 8e eav Si^pyj- composites
WGTE elvai fjiev

(Jievov f], axjTrep T& Xeuxiv <TO> ^\iXov 5) TO aa\i(JL[JieTpov TTJV SiafJLSTpov
20 T& aXvjOec; xal Ti ^eu8o<; ofioiax; STI UTrap^et xal ETT* exetvaiv. >j &a7csp

1
For the meaning of this term see our explanation under the text. It has been
suggested to the author by Mr. L. M. de Rijk, who deals with it in the first chapter
of his thesis, The Categories of being, Assen 1952.
2
consisting of a
-
T<3t
v8ex6jieva "contingent things", i.e. composed things,
substance and an accidental attribute, e.g. "white man".
 132 METAPHYSICS [559]

TO X7]0&s inl TOUTCOV TO afrro, OUTGX; ou8e TO elvat, aXX' SCTI TO jxev
*
^ ^euSoc;, T6 [xev OtyeZv xal 9<xvai aXy]6e<; (ou yap Tatai xaT&paai^ xai
TO 8* ayvoeiv (JLYJ Otyyaveiv (aTraryjOYJvai yap Ttepl T& T eaTiv oux 'aTiv aXX' vj 25
xaTa <ju(Jipep7jx6 ou yap SCTTLV
ofzotax; Se xal Trepl T<X<; {JLYJ <7uv9eTa<; ouoia<; 7

a7caT7)0YJvai xal Ttaaai elalv evepyeta, ou SuvajJLei, eyiyvovTO yap av xal e^Oet-

POVTO, vuv 8^ TO Sv auTO ou ytyvsTai ouSe 90e(psTai, Ix TIVO<; yap 5v eytyvsTo). 30

By dtaiivOeToc, is meant: being as the object of think-
as opposed to the ouvOsTov,
ing, before the act of judging; being as the object of simple apprehension.
i.e.

Thought "grasps" a thing without any affirmative or negation. This apprehension

is called by Ar. OiYyavetv. Rightly he says that, strictly speaking, there is no

question of falsehood in this case: things do not lie (i.e.: they do not cause an
untrue image of themselves in our mind). "Truth" may then be spoken of here as
far as things are the causes of images in our mind. This is what is called by scholas-
tics veritas ontologica.

c. The author concludes: About all things that are essences and
"actualities" (i.e. actually existing beings) we cannot err. Either we know

them or we do not.
In this case J^ 105 1 b 30- 33 !

excluded "Oaa Sr) ecmv Srcep elvai TI xal evlpyeiai, Trepl TauTa oux '<mv aTtaTYjOyjvai
aXX* YI
voetv 75 (JLYJ
aXXa TO TI e<m y)TLTai Ttepl auToiv, EL ToiaoTa EGTIV YJ (JLY).

So "being" in the sense of truth, and non-being in the sense of

d.

falsity, isone group (depending on combination) the other (that of the ;

acTuvOeTa) is "true" only in this sense that it is known, the opposite

being not "falsity" or "error", but "ignorance".
33 4
Ib., 1051 b -io52 a :

To 8e elvai cb^ TO aXTjOe^, xal TO (JLYJ

elvai T6 &<; TO ^euSo^, Iv [lev EOTTIV 2 ,
3
el aiiyxetTai, aXvjO^^, T6 S' et (JLYJ aiiyxeiTai, ^e^Soc; TO S^ 2v , etrcep 8v, OUTCOC; 35
eaTtv 4 el Se [JLY] OUTGX;, oux SGTLV ; TO Se aXY]0^(; T^ voetv TaijTa TO Se
oux eaTtv, ouSe dcTraTT), aXXa ayvoia, oux ^ a f) TU9XoTy)<;- 73 [Jt^v yap
ICTTLV ox; av et TO VOYJTLXOV 8Xa><; JJLTJ e^ 01 Tl(?'

560 As
to eternal being, something has been said of it in the books
on Substance (Z H) and in that on Potency and Actuality. The existence
and nature of the unmoved Movers is dealt with in A 6-10. We have
treated this part of Ar.'s first philosophy in connexion with Phys. VIII
(nrs. 515-518).
1
Otyetv
- Ar. means by this: an apprehension which is infallible and direct.
2
2v piv - is one group.
3 -
TO Sfc v the other .

4 -
ofrrcoc <rctv it exists in the sense as indicated supra.
 FIFTEENTH CHAPTER
THE PRACTICAL SCIENCES
i THE THREE ETHICS AND THEIR INTERRELATION
561 The three Ethics of the Corpus Aristotelicum are first mentioned Threc w ? rks
as works of Ar. by Atticus, a Platonist in the days of Marcus Aurelius, attributed
cited by Eusebius, Praep. Ev. XV 4, 9, p. 795 d :
to Ar -

at youv "ApiaTOTeXoix; Trspl TOCUTOC Trpay^aTeiai, EuSTjpisLOt TS xai Nixo-

i xal MeyaXcav 'HOix&v e7ctypa96(JLevaL . . .

562 a. Five books of Ethics are mentioned in the list of Aristotle's

works in Diog. Laert. V I, 23:
'HOix&v a' 0' y' &' e'. the Eth. Eud.

By these five books the Eudemian Ethics must have been meant.

b. A work on ethics in ten books is mentioned in the list of Hesy- the Eth. NIC.

chins: the Nicomachean Ethics.

From these data we may infer that books A E Z of the Eud. Eth., which are
identic with Eth. NIC. E Z H, belonged to the last work, and not to the Eud. Eth.

563 That the Eth. Nic. were in earlier Antiquity generally con- who is the
a.

sidered as a work of Ar., may be inferred from Cic., De fin. V 5, 12. these works?

(One should not concede too much space to Fortune, the author says; for in
doing so you encroach upon the force and dignity of virtue).
Quare teneamus Aristotelem et eius filium Nicomachum, cuius accurate
scripti de moribus libri dicuntur illi quidem esse Aristoteli, sed non video
cur non potuerit patri similis esse films.

b.In later Antiquity traces may be found here and there of the
opinion that Eudemus and Nicomachus were the authors of the works
named after them. E.g. Diog. Laert. VIII 88:
97]<rl S' auTov sc. E88oov Nix6(/,axo<; 6 'ApiaToreXou^ TTJV y)Sovy)v

Here a passage from Eth. Nic. X is referred to under the name of N.

 134 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [564]

Difference 554 Th e reason why these works have been attributed to different
in character
authors, may have lain in the fact that they show a remarkably different
conception of life. we find a platonic view of life, of a
In the Eud. Eth.
clearly religious character. Philosophy is directed to the contemplation
of the highest Being, the Good. And it is this contemplation which endows
man with the force and the power of acting virtuously. On the other
hand, in the Nic. Eth. the bond with religion is severed: moral life
depends on itself.
See for this difference Jaeger, Ar.> p. 238 ff. Of great importance is the meaning
of the term 9p6vy)ai<; in both works. In the Eud. Eth. it means philosophical insight
into the highest Being, while in the Nic. Eth. it indicates practical wisdom, which is
not even limited to man, but may be attributed to animals too. Cp. our nr. 42 Oa,
remark II.

Modern 555 a jjie authenticity Eud. Ethics was first defended by

of the
J J
judgment
about the P- von der Miihll (Gottingcn next by E. Kapp (Freiburg
thesis, 1909),
authenticity thesis, 1912). W. Jaeger adopted Kapp's results and determined the place
of the Eud. Eth. as a platonizing work of Ar.'s early years, between the
Protr. and the Nic. Eth.
This view has been generally accepted, e.g. by Ross and by A. Mansion.
Recently E. J. Schacher, Studienzu den Ethiken des Corpus Aristotelicum, Fader-
born 1940 *, has come back to the ancient hypothesis which makes Eudemus the
author of the Ethics named after him. Schacher tries to prove by a comparison
of the passages on cpiXta, that the Eud. Eth. depend on the Nic., not inversely,
and that the Magna Mor. were written before the Eud. Eth., this work being
apparently unknown to the author of the M. M. The arguments used by Sch. are
for the greater part not conclusive. Yet he has re-opened the discussion on the
authenticity of the Eud. Eth., and further inquiry must decide whether his solution
is correct.

b. As to the Mor., modern research has led to reliable

Magna
results: this work dates from the first generation of the Peripatetic

School, the years of Theophrastus and before the influence of the Stoa.
The question has been hotly debated by W. Jaeger and H. von Arnim, during
the years 1924 - 1929. This discussion has been amply reported by A. Mansion,
AutouY des Ethiques attributes a Aristote, in the Revue Ndoscolastique de Louvain,
1931, p. 80-107, 216-236 and 360-380.
E. J. Schacher, in the first of his above-cited Studies, begins with Schleiermacher
and deals too with the studies of Brink (an analysis of the style of the MM, Berlin
thesis, 1933) and Theiler (1934).
If any doubts were still possible as to the date of the MM, they have been

definitely removed by the thesis of Brink.

1
Studien zur Geschichte u. Kultur des Altertums, herausgeg. von der Gorres-
gesellschaft, XXII. Band, i. u. 2. Heft.
 [566] ETH. NIC. I-III 135

2 THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS. FORMAL PRINCIPLES

(the Books I-III 5)

566 Ar. qualifies all human action as being directed towards a purpose,
and defines the final purpose as well-being (eudaemonia), which consists
of an activity of the soul in accordance with reason, i.e. in accordance
with virtue.
20 AH human
Eth. Nic. I, 1-7, 1094 a^iogS a .

Ilaaa Te/vY) xal Tcaaa ^OoSo^, OJJLOIGX; 8k 7rpa!;i<; TC xal Tipoaipeau;, ayaOou ai m at
l some od
TIVO<; e9iecrOai Soxei 816 xaXcoc; dbrecpYjvavTO TayaOov, ou TUOCVT' e9ieTai.
Ata^opa 8e TI<; cpaiverai TCOV TeXcov T<X [xev yap eiaiv evepyeiai, Ta 8e Trap*
r J

5 auTa^ epya Tiva. Qv 8 eial TeXY) Tiva Tiapa TOC<; Trpa^eu;, ev TOUTOK; peXTico

evepysicov TOC Spya. HoXXwv 8e Trpa^ecov oucicov xal Te^vcov xal

TcoXXa yiverai xal Ta T^Xy] laTpix9j<; (lev yap uyieia, vauTryjyixvjc; S^
0aai S etdl TCOV TOIOU- A hierarchy
f/ J
Se VLXTJ, otxovo[JiixY](; Se 7rXoijTO(;.

IOTCOV UTCO (Jitav Ttva S\iva(Jiiv, xaOaTusp UTUO TYJV

6aai aXXai TWV ITTTCIXWV Spyavcov eiatv, auTT) Se xal Traaa TroXefiixT]
6716 TYJV crTpaTTjyixYjv, Tov auTOv 8e TpOTuov aXXai 69* eTepa^, ev

15 SY] Ta TCOV ap^iTexTOVLxciv T^Xr) TravTcav ecrTlv atpeTcoTepa TCOV UTU* auTa. TOUTCOV

yap x^P lv ^axeZva SicoxeTai. Aia9epei, 8* ouSev Ta<; evepyeia? aoTa^; elvat Ta
TCOV Tcpa^ecov ^ Trapa TaiJTa^ SXXo TI, xaOaTrep inl TCOV XexOeiacov im-

Ei SY) TI TeXo(; lari TCOV TupaxTcov o Si' auTO pouX6[JLe0a, Ta SXXa Ss Sia TOUTO, The sPme
20 xal (JIT)
TravTa Si* eTepov aipoii[Jie0a (Ttpoeicri yap OUTCO y' eic; aTteipov, COGT'
elvai xevY]v xal [JiaTaiav TTJV ope^iv), SyjXov co<; TOUT' av eiTj TO ayaOov xal TO

apidTOV. *Ap' TOV PIOV Y) yvcoan; auTOU (jieyaXYjv S^ei poTTYjv,

oijv xal 7rpo<;

xal xaOaTuep To^OTai axoTrov SX OVTS ^ (^aXXov av Tuy^avoifjisv TOU SSOVTO<;;

25 Ei S' OUTCO, TreipaTeov TUTICO ye TrepiXa^eiv auTO TI TIOT' eaTl xal TIVO^ TCOV
8' av TYJC; xupicoTaTY)<; xal (jtaXicTTa apx^TexTOvi-
Jt is th
Y) Suvajjiecov. Ao^eie

ToiauTY] S' -/] TioXiTixY] 9aiveTai. Tivac; yap elvai XP COV TC^ V e7TiaTY)(jLcov politics
2
Tai<; TioXecri, xal Tcoiac; exao~Tou<; fiavOaveiv xal (xe^pi TIVOC;, auTY] SiaTaarcrei

6pco(Jiev Se xal Ta<; evTi[xoTaTa^ TCOV SuvajJiecov UTUO Tarir/jv oCaa<; 7

olov

1
W. D. Ross rightly remarked that, according to the division of Traaoc Siavota
in Metaph. E i, we might have expected that Ar. would have distinguished between
productive and moral activity, the first being TrotrjTLXY], the second TcpaxTixr) and ;

that, if this distinction had been made, a very different system of ethics would
have resulted.
2
of the sciences should be studied in a state, and up to what point they
Which
should be learned, is a question which has been dealt with at length in the Republic
of Plato. To a disciple of the Academy it was indeed a major point of politics.
 I3& PRACTICAL SCIENCES [566]

yixYjv otxovofjiiXYjv py)ToptxY)v. Xpcofievvj^ Se Ta\jT7)<;

TCOV eTUCTTyjplCOV, Tl Se VOfJL00TOUaY)^ Tl Set TTpaTTElV xal T&VCOV VL"KiyZGQLl *, 5
TO Tiept^ 01 av T<X TCOV <5cXXcov, COGTS TOUT* av eiY) TO avOpcomvov
TauT7)<; TeXo<;

aya06v. El yap xal TauT6v ecmv evl xal TuoXei, (Jiei6v ye xal TeXei6Tepov T&
TYJS 7c6Xeco<; 9a[veTai xal Xa^eiv xal aco^eiv ayaTTTjTOv [lev yap xal evl (jtovcp,
xaXXiov 8e xal OeiOTepov eOvei xal TioXeaiv. 10
Different <jj ^ v O jv ^QoSo^ TQUTCOV e9feTat, TuoXiTixY] TIC; o5aa- XlyoiTO 8* av txavco<;,

precision in et xaTa TYJV u7Uoxei[jLV7)v uXTjv Siaara^YjOetT). T6 yap axpi(3e<; oux OJJLOICOC; ev
different ( J Tca(y l T0 ^ Xoyoic; eTT^TjTYjTeov, &(T7rep ev tol<; SYjfjLioupyoufJtlvot^. Ta Se xaXa
xal Ta Sixaia, ?uepl &v yj TroXiTtxv) axoTueiTai, ToaauTTjv e'xet Sia90pav xal 15

TuXavyjv codTe Soxeiv vofjico (JLOVOV elvat, 9uaei Se (JLYJ. ToiauTTjv S Ttva TcXavyjv

e^ei xal TayaOa SL<X TO rcoXXoi^ aujjipaivetv pXa^ac; arc* auTtov ^Sv) yap Tivec;
aTTcoXovTO Sia TrXouTov, eTepot Se Si* avSpetav. 'AyaTrvjTov o5v ?repl TOIOIJTCOV
2 3
xal ex TOIOUTCOV XeyovTa^ Tiax^Xcoc; xal TUTCCO TaXY)Oe^ IvSeixvuciOaL, xal ?repl 20
TCOV cb<; e?rl TO rcoXu xal ex TOIOUTCOV X^yovTag ToiauTa xal (TU|jL7repatve(r0ai 4 .

Tov atJTov Se TpoTrov xal aTcoSexeaOat XP (^ V s^acTOv TCOV Xeyo(jievcov 7ue?uai-

5

Seufjievou yap eaTiv inl TOCTOUTOV Taxpipec; eTTi^TjTeLv xa6 exaaTOv yevo<;, e^'
8aov Y)
TOU TcpayfjtaTO^ 9\ia^ eTriSexeTai* TcapaTrXrjaiov yap 9aiveTai ^873-25

[laTLXoG Te TTtOavoXoyoiivTo^ aTcoSexsaOai xal pTjToptxov aTuoSet^et^ aTraiTecv.

"ExaaTO<; Se xptvei xaXco^ a ytvaxrxet, xal TOUTCOV e<TTlv aya06<; xptTYj<;.
The student KaO' exaaTOv
r- ^ Aio KXH
apa 6 TreTraiSeurjievoc, aTrXcoc 8* 6 Trepl Trav TreTraiSeupilvoc. vj
should have M ; ~ , , x , , , N

reached ^7]^ TCoXiTixY)^ oux ecjTtv otxeLOi; axpoaTYjc; o veo<; aTretpo^ yap TCOV xaTa TOV
riper years ex TOUTCOV xal "ETI 8k TOL^
p[ ov ^pa^ecov, ol Xoyoi 8* Trepl TOUTCOV. TcaOecrtv

axoXou0y)Tix6<; cov [xaTaico^ axouaeTai xal avco9eXco(;, eTreiSv) TO TeXo<; eaTlv 5

ou yvcoCTts aXXa Trpa^t^. At,a9epei 8* ouSev veoc; TYJV yjXtxiav 73 TO ?)0o^ veapoc; ou

yap Tcapa TOV XP^vov Y) ^'XXet^K;, aXXa Sia TO xaTa 7ua0o^ ^TJV xal Stcoxetv IxaaTa.
Tot<; yap TOLOUTOIC; av6vr]TO(; YJ yvcoatc; yiveTai, xa0a7rep TOL^ axpaT^at TOI^
Se xaTa Xoyov Ta^ 6pe^et(; Trotoufjievot^ xal TupaTTOuat 7coXuco9eXe<; av etr) TO 10

Trepl TOUTCOV eiSevai.

What is the
supreme
j a ^gp^
ffOto TOdauTa'
^ X poaTou, xal
8'
TTCO<; aTtoSexTeov, xal T[ 7cpOTi0[JLe0a, 7ce9pOLLLia-
xal 7cpoaipeat<;
Ttacra yvcoat^
good? Xeycofjiev avaXap6vTe<;, eTceiSy)

aya0ou TIVOC; opeyeTai, TL eaTLv ou Xeyojjiev TY]V TcoXiTixyjv e9iea0ai xal TL TO 15

TravTCov axpoTaTov TCOV TrpaxTcov aya0cov. 'Ov6[xaTi |iev o5v axe86v UTUO TCOV

1
''What we are to do and what we are to abstain from" has been minutely
prescribed in the Laws of Plato. Ar. again shows himself a true disciple of the
Academy in regarding this point as the normal task of legislation.
2
x TOIOUTCOV - with such premisses.
3 -
Troc/uXtof; roughly.
4
It is a basic law of the syllogism that the conclusion cannot contain more
than the premisses.
 [566] ETH. NIC. Mil 137

ofjioXoyeiTai TTJV yap eu8ai[Jiovav xal ol TroXXol xal ol

Xlyouaiv, T& 8* e3 9jv xal T& eu rcpaTTeiv rauTOv u7roXa(j,pavoi)cri TCO euSaifJiovetv
20 Tcepl 8e TTJS eu8ai[Jiovia<;, TI ecmv, a^LdpyjTOiiaiv xal city 6[iouo<; ol rcoXXol TOU;

ao90i ajcoStSoacriv. 01 [Jiev yap TCOV evapycov TI xal cpavepcov, olov 7)8ov7)v

7]
TrXoijTOv 73 Ti|nf)v, (SXXoi 8* aXXo, TToXXdcxi^ 8e xal 6 airroc; erspov (vocryjcra^

25 p,ev yap uytetav, n;ev6[Jivo<; Se TuXouTOv), oruveiSoTSc; 8' eai)Toi<; ayvoiav TOU?
{iya TI xal UTtep auTou^ XeyovTac; Oaufjia^ouatv qiovTo vrapa Ta IVIOL 8*

TToXXa TauTa ayaOa aXXo TI xaO* aura elvai, o xal ToTaSs Traatv atrtov eari
TOU elvai ayaOa. 'ATracrac; (xi:v
ouv e^eTa^eiv Ta<; S6^a<; (JiaTaioTepov LCTW^ ecrrfv,

3olxav6v Se
A methodical
Tac; (JtaXtdTa eTTiTroXa^ouGra^ >] Soxoiiaac; /eiv Tiva Xoyov. MYJ XavOa-
2 2
VSTCO 8* 7)[Jia<;
STI 8La9epoucrtv ol ATCO TCOV ap^wv Xoyoi xal ol ercl Ta<; ap/a<; .

E5 yap xal DXaTcov YjTropet TOUTO, xal e^rei TOTCpov dbro TCOV ap^cov
3
io95bT<x<; ap^a(; IdTtv T) oSoc; coaTrep ev TW aTaSico dbuo TCOV aOXoOeTcov STUI TO
,

^ avaTuaXiv. 'ApXT^ov (lev yap arco TCOV yvcopi(Jicov, TauTa Se SLTTCO^ Ta (Jiev
4
yap TjfJLiv Ta 8* a?rXco(; .
"lacoc; o3v Y][JLCV ye apxTeov OCTTO TCOV Y](JLLV yvcoptfjicov.
5
5 Aio Set Toii<; IBeaiv ?jx ai xaXcot; TOV Tuepl xaXcov xal Stxatcov xal oXcog TCOV
TroXtTtxcov axoua6(jievov lxavco<;. 'Ap/yj yap TO OTL- xal ei TOUTO 9aivoiTO

apxoilvTCO^, ouSev TupocrSeyjdet TOU SIOTI. '0 8e TOLOUTO<; 7^ 6^ei 7^ Xapoi av

T
apxa<; pa8tco<;
6
. Q 8k (jiTjSeTepov uTrapxet TOUTCOV, axouoraTco TCOV 'HaioSou 7 -

10 o5TO^ [Jiev TOXvapwrnx; 8^ auTO^ rcavTa

s

eaOX6<; 8 au xaxeivoc; 8^ e3 CITTOVTI 7ri07]Ta

5

o^ Se xe fjiTjT auToc; voey] (JLTJT*

aXXou axoiicov
ev 6i)(jLco paXXyjTat, 6 8' aijT* axpTjtoc; avTjp.

8e X^ycojjtev 86ev Trape^^Tj^ev. To yap aya96v xal TTJV euSai(xo-

i5vtav oux aXoyco^; eotxaaiv ex TCOV PLCOV UTroXa^paveiv. 01 (Jiev
TCoXXol xal

1 -
ol x a P^ 8VTe ?
people of superior refinement.
2
"Arguments from the first principles" are deductive or apodeictic arguments;
those to the first principles are inductive. See our nrs. 447-455.
3
Ross points to Rep. VI 511 b, the passage about the avuTrdOerov (our nr. 294,
p. 203). But in fact, neither Plato's ascent from the hypotheseis, used as dpx<xt,
upward to the anhypotheton is anything like Aristotle's deductive argument,
nor is his descent from the anhypotheton back to the inferior etSyj of the same kind
as a X6yo<; ini Ta? ap/a? with Ar. Mark also the use of the imperfect: 7)7r6pet and
IftrJTei. Evidently there are frequent X6yoi inl T<X<; apxa? in the Socratic dialogues.
And whenever things are explained by participation in Ideas, what else is this
than a X6yo<; dc7r6 TCOV &p/cov ?
4
On the distinction between yvtopijjLcoTepa Y)(itv and yvtopifxcoTepa a7rXco<; see our
nr. 406, n. 5.
5
"must have been brought up in good habits".
8
The man who is trained by good habits possesses moral principles implicitly.
7
Erga 293, 295-297 Rzach.
 138 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [566]

Three main xcoTOCTOi 816 xal TOV (3(ov ayaTC&ai TOV a7roXau<mx6v.
Tvjv YjSovYjv Tpei? yap
elai [xaXiaToc ol 7tpox VT ^ 8 TS vuv eipY)[Jievo<; xal 6 7roXmx6<; xal Tptao<; 6
1
. 01 (Jiev o5v TroXXol TravTeX&c; av8pa7ro8e!>8ei<; 9aivovTai POCTXT)- 20
[JLOCTCOV (3iov Tipoaipoufjievoi, Tuy^avouCTi Se Xoyou Sta TO 7uoXXoi!)<; TCOV ev
2 3
eoua[ai SapSavaTraXXco
6(j.oio7ra6ev 01 8k ^apfevTe*; xa>

TtfjtYJv.
Tou yap TtoXmxoij fiiov a^eSov TOUTO TXO. Oatverai 8* e7U7uoXai6Tepov
elvai TOU y)TOU[Avou Soxet yap ev TOI<; TLJA&CTI [JLaXXov elvai Y^ ev TO> Ti(JL(0(JLevc), 25
s

TayaOiv S OIXELOV TI xal SuaacpatpeTOv slvai (lavTeuofxeOa. ^ETI S* sotxaai TTJV

Ti(jL7)v
Siwxeiv tva TciaTeuataaLv eauTOix; ayaOoix; elvai* ^Y)Touai youv UTO TOW

9povi(jio)v TifjiaaOai, xal Trap* ol<; yivcoaxovrai, xat CTC' apeTy) 89jXov ouv 8ri
xaTa ye TO\iTou<; 7] apeTV) xpsiTTWv. Ta^a Se xal jxaXXov Sv TI<; TeXo<; TOU TcoXiTi- 30
xou PIOU TauTTjv uTToXapot. OaiveTat 8k aTsXeaTlpa xal auTT) Soxet yap evSI-
^saOai xal xaOeuSetv e^ovTa TY]V apeTYjv ^ onrpaxTeLv Sta PIOU, xal Tipic; TOUTOK;
xaxoTcaGeiv xal aTi)x^v ^a jxeyiaTa' TOV 8' OUTO)<; J^covTa ou8el<; av euSaifjio- iog6a

vicetev, et (JiY) Geatv 8ia9i)XaTT6)v. Kal Tcepl [xev TOUTCOV aXt<; (ixavto<; yap xal

eyxuxXtoK; eLpvjTai Trepl auTwv ) TpiTo<; 8* eaTlv 6 OewpTjTtxo^, uxep

e7rioxed/iv ev TOIC; e7ro[jievoi<; 7Coi7)(j6(JLeOa. '0 Se ^p7][AaTi<jTY)(; (3tai6<; T[C; 5
4
,
xal 6 TrXoijTOc; STjXov STI ou TO ^Y)TOU{Jievov ayaOov ^pvjcrifjiov yap xal
1
Ar/s three (3tai are clearly of Pythagorean origin. Cp. our nr. 4.
2
Athenaeus mentions two epitaphs of Sardanapallus (336 a and 530 b, c). The
first is :
"EaOie, rctve, rual^e ox; T#XXa TOUTOU oux &5ta, sc. TOU dcTcoxpoT7)(jiaTO<;

(is not worth a snap of the fingers).

The second was probably cited by Ar. in his Protrept., and by this quotation
it became famous in Antiquity. It runs. :

*
Ketv' x<> ^ aa
9<xyov xai ecpuppiaa xal {JLET*
groxOov Ta 8i rcoXXa xal tfxpia Tuavra
T^pTcv*
Cic. translates it in Tusc. Disp. 35, 101 V :

Haec habeo quae edi quaeque exsaturata libido

hausit; at ilia iacent multa et praeclara relicta.
He adds to it these lines of Ar., which Jaeger thinks were taken from the Protr. :

"Quid aliud, inquit Ar., in bovis, non in regis sepulchro inscriberes ? Haec habere
se mortuum dicit, quae ne vivus quidem diutius habebat quam fruebatur".
He refers again to it in De finibus II 32, 106.
3
See p. 137, note i.
4
The text as we read it contains some difficulties. Modern interpreters mostly
supply pto? with xpYj^aTicmfe and translate: "The life of money-making is a life
of compulsion" or "constraint"; by which they mean either that this life is under-
taken only under compulsion (Ross), or that in this life a man cannot follow his
natural inclinations, or perhaps both. Yet there remains some doubt as to the
question whether the text is sound. We have no other instances of xp^aTicrnfe used
adjectively. And even if this is right, I think it would be better to supply the
word <pto<;> after xp^aTioTY);, because in copying it could be easily dropped be-
fore ptaio?.
A
former generation made some conjectures. G. Ramsauer in his edition of the
Eth. Nic. of 1878 proposed to write pdcvai>(j6<; TI? instead of fUai6$TK;. James Watt,
 [566] ETH. NIC. I-III 139

iXXou X<*P tv ' A&6 [JtaXXov ra TupoTepov Xex6vTa TXYJ TK; av

yap ayaTraTai. OouveTai, 8e 008* exeiva xaiToi rcoXXol Xoyoi 7cp6<;

ulv o5v acpeia0co TO 8e xaOoXou 1

BlXTiov fajcoc e7uaxd>acr6ai xal The Good *

~ , / , ~ / ,
Plato
i TWO?
XeyeTai, xairap TrpoaavTOix; TYJC; ToiauTYjc; c,y)TY]aeeo^ yiyvo(Aev7)<; criticized
Sta TO 91X01)^ #vSpa<; eiaayayeiv T<X eESrj. A6eie 8' av I'aax; (^XTLOV elvat xal
2
15 Seiv ercl aamjpia ye TYJ<; aXY]0eta<; xal Ta otxeta avaipeZv (SXXox; TS xal 91X0- ,

3
Ot 8e lm Ar ^ u "
yap OVTOLV 9^Xoiv fiaiov TcpoTtjjiav TYJV aXvjOeiav
[jL9oiv .

JV So^av TauTTjv oix STTOIOUV iSeac; ev ol<; TO vrpoTepov xal fidTSpov the doctrine
4 of the
gXeyov (SiOTrep ouSe TWV aptOpicov ESeav xaTeaxeuaJ^ov ) TO Se aya06v XeyeTai
20 xal ev TW TL xal ev TW TUOIW xal ev TO> Tupoc; Tt, TO Se xaO* auTO xal V)
ouaia
5
7cp6Tepov T^ 9uaei TOU Tcp6(; Tt (7rapa9uaSt yap TOUT* Ifotxe xal
>;
TOU OVTOC; ) OXTT' oux av etT) xoivv] TIC; em TOUTCOV tSla. ETI 8* ercel TayaGov
iGOLySx; X^yeTai TO) OVTI (xal yap ev TCO TI X^yeTai, olov 6 6eo<; xal 6 vou<;, xal
25 ev TCO TTOio) al apeTai, xal ev TCO TTOCTCO TO [jieTptov, xal ev TW 7rp6<; Tt TO XPV
ai{JLOv, xal ev XP ^
xaip6^, xal ev TOTTW StaiTa
6
xal eTepa TOiaijTa), 89jXov
ax; oux av eiT) xotvov TL xaOoXou xal ev ou yap av IX^yeTO ev TcaCTai? Tat<;
30 xaTTjyoptatc;, aXX' ev [jua {Jtovyj. "ETI 8' e?rel TCOV xaTa fxtav iSeav (jtta xal ITU-

followed by Burnet, read the text as it stands in this way: PLOC OCTI? Icrav ("the
business-man is by compulsion whatsoever he is"). C. M. Mulvany (in Class. Quart.
XV 1921, p. 85-98) suggests that pfouoc; should be explained as pai6<;: little, trifling.
He translates: "The business-man is a little person" sc. of minor importance
towards happiness.
1
T6 Si xaOoXou - sc. aya06v. In the conception of Ar. the Platonic Ideas are
"univcrsals", which are abstracted from the concrete things or phenomena. In
this case "the good" as a universal should be abstracted from many concrete dyaOa.
But this is impossible, Ar. says since these good things fall under different categ-
;

ories, no xotv6v could be found here.

2
Ta oixela dvatpetv - to sink our personal feelings.
3
This maxim, which has become famous by the above words of Ar., has been
expressed as clearly and explicitly by Plato in criticizing Homer: 'AXX' ou y^P ^P^
ye TTJS dXyjOetac; TI^YJTSCK; avr)p (Rep. X, 595 c).
4
Plato and his followers do not admit of Ideas of things within which they
recognize a priority and a posteriority. Well, Ar. says, this is exactly the case
with the categories: substance is prior to the others. He means priority in the
hierarchy of being: like two presupposes the monad and three the dyad; again,
like body presupposes the plane, and plane presupposes the line. In the same way
to Ar. the more primitive soul has priority of being over the more developed soul :

the vegetative soul over the sensitive, the sensitive over the rational. And that is
why there does not exist a "soul" in general, which is a reality in itself (De anima
A i, 402 b 6 - 8 B 3, 414 a 29 -b 19 ). So it is with substance and the other categories:
;

substance can exist without the others, not inversely.

5
See the doctrine of the categories in 437b and 438a.
6
S(cura is used here for the good in the category of place. Heliodorus explains :

v eu Sidtyo^ev.
 140 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [566]

crr/jp) *, xal TCOV ayaOcov dbravTcov ?jv av [jifoc TI<; emery) fry) vuv 8 del TioXXal
xal TCOV UTTO [jdav xaryjyopLav, olov xaipoo, ev TuoXejjicp [xev yap orpaTYjywa)
s
ev voaco 8 focTpixy), xal TOO (jLerpiou ev Tp09fj [/iv laTpixv) ev TTOVOI^ Se yufiva-
2- "Man" <v TI TTOTC xal poiiXovTai Xeyeiv
crnxy). 'ATcopTjcreie 8* Tt<; auToexaaTOV, efaep 35
himself" Sv re auToavGpcoTcco xal av6pco7ccp xal 6 auTO<; Xoyo<; ecniv 6 TOU avOpcoTrou. iog6b
sic;
J

Y " P *v8pw7uo?, ouSev fcoteooaiv el 8 ofiTCO?, ouS' J aya66v. 'AXXa (JL^V

-

ou8 TW
atSiov elvat [JiaXXov ayaOov Icrrai, etTrep [X7)8^ Xeuxorepov TO TcoXu-

Xp6viov TOU e^Yj^pou. FliOavarrepov 8i eoLxaatv ol IluOayopeLoi Xyeiv

2
auTOu, TiOevTec; ev T^J TWV ayaOcov auaToixia TO ev ol<; Sv) xal
Distinction
iTtaxoXoue^aat SoxeL
primary and 'AXXa Tiepl [Jtev
TOUTCOV (5cXXo<; eaTca Xoyo^, TOL<; 8e XexOetCTi
secondary . 3
Tt( u7T09a[veTai Sia TO [XT) Tcepl TravTOj; ayaOou TOIX; Xoyoix; TcoieLaOat, XlyeaOai
8e xa0' ev eZSoc; Ta xaO* auTa Sicoxofxeva xal aya7rco[JLeva ?
TOC Se 7roL7]Tixa TOUTOV 10

y 9i)XaxTtxa TTWC; r^
TCOV evavTicov xcoXuTixa Sia TauTa Xyea0ai xal TpoTuov
dfXXov. A9jXov ouv OTI SLTTCO^ XeyoiT* avTayaOa, xal Ta [lev xa6' auTa, OaTepa
8e 8ia TauTa. XcopiaavTe^ o3v aruo TCOV cb^eXificov Ta xaO' auTa c7xe^ci(jLe0a ei 15

XyeTat xaTa (iiav iSeav. Ka6' auTa 8e Troia OeiY] TL^ av *H oaa xal (jLovoiifjieva ;

SicoxeTat, olov TO ^povetv xal opav xal yjSovai Tive^ xal TLjjiat TauTa yap ei ;

xal 81 aXXo TI SicoxofJiev, 8(Jico<;

TCOV xa6* auTa ayaOcov 0ehq Tt^ av. *H ouS'
4
fiXXo ouSev TcXvjv TTJ^ iSea^; ;
"QaTe {xaTatov ecrTat TO eZ8o<; . Et 8^ xal TauV 20
J
5
eo"Tlv TCOV xa0 auT<x, TOV TayaOou Xoyov ev aTuacriv auTot^ TOV auTov i[L<p<x.i-
No common VaQ ai K<d ^(xuOico TOV 8e
8eyj<yg^ xaOdarep ev x^ vt TTJC; XeuxoT7)TO^. Ti(jiy)(;

xal <ppovy]oreco xal TjSov^ eTepoi xal 8ia<pepovTe<; ol Xoyoi TauTT] fj ayaOa.
Oux SCTTIV apa TO ayaOov xoivov TI <xal> xaTa [Jitav iSeav. 25
Whence '
AXXa TCCO^ 8v) XeyeTai Ou yap Soixe TOL^ ye dbro TU^V]^ 6{icovii(xo^. 'AXX* Apa
;

6
homonymy ? y e t& &<?' &*<>> elvai ^ Tupoc; ev aTiavTa auvTeXetv, y [jiaXXov xaTa avaXoytav 'flc; ;

1
a Platonic principle. Cp. Laches igSd-igga; Parm. 134 a.
This is
2 - See our nr.
v T^ TCOV dcyaOcov auaToixta42, the Pythagorean table of opposites.
Ar. means it is more acceptable to range the one in a series of good things than to
:

identify it with the Good itself.

f/
So this text of the Eth. Nic. provides evidence for the identification of the Ev
and the 'Aya66v by Plato. Cp. our nr. 364c.
3
dc(jL9tap7)T7)a^ TI<;
- room for dispute.
4
"QcjTe jidraiov - "In that case the form will be empty".
5 -
X6yov notion, definition.
6
Ar. distinguishes three kinds of homonymy. The first is what is called in
scholasticism equivocation: mere identity of names, the notions being different
(see our nr. 436a). The second is what is called by Ar. T& 9' v&<; xai 7up&<; gv things :

are called by the same name because they are related to the same object or the
same idea; e.g. we speak of a healthy person (who possesses health), a healthy sleep
(which is a symptom of health), a healthy climate (which preserves health), etc.
 [566] ETH. NIC. Mil 141

yip Iv cr<o(Jt,aTi 8^t<;, Iv <|;uxfl vou$, xal 4XXo S-J)

Iv &XXej>. 'AXX*

30 <peTlov TO vuv, laxpi|3ouv yap uTtlp auT&v &XXY)<; Sv etiQ <pt,Xocro<pta$ otxetfoepov
6[iota> SI xal Ttepl T% ISea^. Et yip xat UCFTIV v TI xat xotvyj xanqyopoufAevov

aya6ov $ x w P lorT ^ v Tt auTO *6' auTO S 89jXov ox; oux Sv stv) TtpaxT
35 XTYJTOV dvOpcoTccp vuv 8k TOIOUTOV TI CqTeiTai. Ta^a 81 Tcp 86eiev Sv

yvwpl^stv auri Ti
xal TCpaxTa T<OV ayaOcov olov ydcp 7rapx-
7rp6(; XTTJTOC

8siyfjia TOUT' ^OVTSS {AaXXov elaofxeOa xal T& ^[Jilv aya6a, xav elStofiev, STCI-

Teu6(Ae6a auTcov. IIiOavoTYjTa (JL^V o5v Tiva S^ei 6 X6yoc;, Soixsv 8 Tatc;
2
jiat(; 8ia<povetv :raarai yap ayaOou TIVO<; s^ilfisvat xal T6
3
TrapaXeiTcouat TYJV yvtoatv auTOu Ka^Toi po^Oyjiia T
.

ayvosiv xal [XYjS* STT^YJTSOV oux eSXoyov. "Arcopov 8k xal

5
avTT)^ ^ T^XTCOV 7rp6<; TTJV auTou T^VIQV el8<i)^ auTo TO aya66v,

COC; laTpixcoTspo^ 73 aTpaTY)ytxcJ)Tepo<; larTai 6 rqv tS^av auTTjv Te6ea{Jtvo

6
<l>aiveTai (Jtlv yap ouS^ TYJV uyteiav o5T<o^ iTiiaxoTcstv 6 laTp6^, dXXoi: rJ
J

(iaXXov 8* feco<; TYJV Tou8e- xa6 SxaaTOv yap EaTpeuei.

Kal TcaXtv 8
s
Return *
15 rcepl [xv TOUTCOV Ini TOGOUTOV slpif)o*6o) ^TcavlXOtofxev eTtl TO

aya66v, T TCOT* av fiivj.

OalveTai (jtlv yap SXXo ev SXX-jQ 7rp<4i;a xal What is the

Y^P ^v taTpwcyj xal aTpaTYjyix^ xal Tai^ XoiTiat^ optotca^. TL

o5v xa<TTY)<; Taya06v;
J/
H o5 x^P tv T<^ XotTta TrpaTTSTat; TOUTO 81: Iv EaTptxfj Good?
s
20 [xlv uyteia, sv aTpaTYjyixy) 8e VIXTJ, Iv oixoSojjuxyj 8 olxta, ev <5cXX<p 8* dtXXo, Iv

a7r<4o~jf)
8k,
Ttpdc^si xal rcpoatpso'ei TO T!XO<; TOUTOU yap Ivsxa TOC Xotira TcpaTTOuo't

7cdcvTS<;. "QaTe et TI TCOV TupaxTcav a?ravTtov larTl TlXo^, TOUT* Sv styj TO TrpaxTov

In the same way the word "medical" indicates that which is relative to the medical
art, the doctor because he possesses it, a treatment because it is a function of it, etc.
u Z 4, 1030 a aa -b 3 ). In scholasticism this is called analogia
(Metaph. T i, 1003 a -b
38
;

attributionis. This third kind is the analogia proportionalitatis. It is denned in Poet.

16
21, 1457 b ff. as a transference from
analogy, which is possible "whenever there
are four terms so related that the second (B) is to the first (A), as the fourth (D)
to the third (C) for one may then metaphorically put D in lieu of B, and B in lieu
;

of D." E.g. old age is to life as evening is to day. Now evening may be called old
age of the day, or old age the evening of life. It seems to be the author's intention
to qualify the good as homonymous in the second sense.
1
"Even if the good is universally predicable, or if there is a Good existing
separately and absolute",
Souilh6 rightly remarks that the first and the second part of the sentence are
not the same a thing might be a common predicate but not an Idea. The ^ then
:

must be understood disjunctively, not in the copulative sense.

"But it seems to clash with the procedure of the sciences" (Ross).
"But they do not trouble about the knowledge of the ideal Good" (Rackham).
- sc. if it existed.
poif)6YjfjLa rjqXixouTov
- as in Plato's Cratylus.
- "not in this not in abstracto.
. .
O#T(O<; way", i.e.
 142 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [566]

The8U P reme
dya06v, el 8k TuXetco, TauTa. MeTapatvcov Sir) 6 X6yo; ei; TauTov
supreme end TOUTO 8k STL [laXXov 8iaaa97Jaai TieipaT^ov. 25
'Ercel 8e TrXetco ^aiveTai TOC TlXv), TOUTCOV Si aipoupie0a Tiva Si' Srepa, olov

auXou; xai 8Xco; Ta Spyava, 89jXov co; oux e'cmv TravTa liXeiof T& 8'

Te*Xeiov TI 9atveTai. "}CTT' el [Jiev

e<mv ev TI fx6vov Te*Xeiov, TOUT* av

e?7] TO >)Tou[j,evov, ei Se TrXeico, TO TeXeioTaTov Toiircov. TeXsioTepov Si XlyoH-ev

Si* ^Tepov xai TO [XYjSeTTOTS Si' <5cXXo alpeTOv TWV <xal>
TO xa0' auTO SIOXTOV TOU
xaO' ai>Ta xai Sia ToijG' alpeTtav, xai aTrXcot; SYJ TeXeiov TO xa0' auTO
Happiness a [ e xa ^
^-yjS^oTe Si' 4XXo. TOIOUTOV S' Y] euSaifjiovia (JLaXio-T* elvai Soxei'
end TauTTjvyap aipoifieOa del Si' auTYjv xai ouSeiuoTe 81' <5cXXo, TI(JLY)V 8e xai YjSovyjv
xai vouv xai Traaav apeTYjv alpoujjieOa jxev xai Si' auTa ((jiY]6ev6<; yap

VOVTO^ eXo[[jie0' av 2xao*Tov auT&v), aipo\i[jLe6a Se xai T^C; eu8ai(Jiovia<;

Sia TOUTCOV UTCoXajxpavovTec; eu8at(jLOV7jaeiv. TTJV 8' euSai[iov[av ouSelc; aipeiTai 5
s

TOUTCOV X^P LV > OU S' 8Xco^ 8i &XXo. OaiveTai Se xai ex T% auTapxeia^ TO auTO

au(Jipaiveiv. T6 yap TeXeiov ayaOov auTapxe<; elvai Soxei. To Se auTapxec; Xlyo-

[jiev
oux auTco (jL6vco TCO ^COVTI piov [JLOVCOTTJV, dcXXa xai yoveuci xai Texvoic; xai 10
yuvaixl xai 8Xco<; Toig 91X01; xai TcoXiTai^, eTueiSv] 9uaei TroXiTixov 6 avOpcoTio?.
TOUTCOV 8e XvjTUTeo^ 8po; TI<; eirexTeivovTi yap CTCI TOU; yovet; xai TOU; a7ioy6-
vou; xai TCOV 9iXcov TOU; 9iXou; ei; arueipov TTpoeiaiv. 'AXXa TOUTO (Aev elaau-

61; eTciaxeTTT^ov, TO 8' auTapxe; TiOe(jiev o [xovoufxevov alpeTov Tioiec TOV PIOV 15
xai [T/jSevo; evSea- TOIOUTOV Se TTJV eu8ai(jioviav oiofieOa elvai, eTi Se TCOCVTCOV
2
aipeTCOTaTTjv auvapi6[jiou[jievyjv
(JLYJ SuvapiOfzoufjLevyjv yap S^Xov co; aipeTco-
.

3
T^pav TOU eXa/tcrrou TCOV ayaOcov uTrepo^v) yap ayaOcov yiveTai TO
[jieTa

7cpoaTi0e(jievov, aya0cov 8e TO pteit^ov aipeTcoTepov aiei. TeXeiov STJ TI 9aiveTai 20

xai auTapxe; 7] euSaijiovia, TCOV TrpaxTcov o5aa TeXo;.
What is
'AXX' iaco; TYJV jjiev euSaifxoviav TO apiaTov Xeyeiv 6fioXoyou[iev6v TI 9aiveTai,
TcoOeiTai 8' evapyecrrepov TI eaTiv eTi XexO^jvai. Ta^a SY) yvoiT* av TOUT' ei
XY]90eiY] TO gpyov TOU av0pco7iou. "QaTrep yap auXTjTy] xai ayaX(jiaT07roicp xai 25
Travel TexviTf), xai 8Xco; cLv CCTTIV epyov TI xai Tipa^i;, ev TCO ^'pyco Soxei Taya06v
elvai xai TO e5, OUTCO So^eiev av xai av0pco7uco, eiTcep ecTi TI fe'pyov auTou.

1
"So the argument has by a different way reached the same point" i.e. the

same as in ch. namely, that the supreme good is identical with the supreme end.
i,

"By a different way" in ch. i the argument was: "Every art and every inquiry
etc. aims at some good; therefore, the supreme good is the supreme end, which is
aimed at by every human activity". Here the argument runs: "The good and the
end are identical in all individual cases; therefore, the supreme good and the
supreme end will be also identical" (the stress being laid on Tl oSv i x 6. a T TJ ; Tdlya v ^
and TWV TrpaxTcov aTuavTwv).
2
(XY) auvapiO^oujjL^vrjv
- "without being counted as one good thing among
others" (Ross) i.e. not as a number of a series.
;

8 -
jxera by the addition of .
 [566] ETH. NIC. Mil 143

o5v TXTOVO<; fxlv xal crxuT^c^ lartv Ipya TIVOC xal Trpdc^eis, avOpcircou
5
30 8 oiSlv t<mv, dcXX' apyiv rc^uxsv ; ^ xaOdcirep 6<p0aX|Jio5 xal xe &P& *al ttoS6<;

xal 8Xa> IxaaTOU T<OV (zoptwv 9atvsTaC TI Spyov, OUTCO xal av0pc(>7Tou rcapa
TtavTa TauTa 0eh) TL$ av Ipyov TI Tt o5v Si] TOUT' av etv) TOT T6 [xlv yap ^v
; ;

xotviv elvat <pavgTai xal T<H<; <puTOt^, ^Tetrai S^ t6 tSiov. A9opiatlov Spa
zogSa nfjv TS OpsTTTix^v xal T)JV ai^iQTtx^v J^coifjv *. *E7tO(Ji^v>) SI aJaOTjTtxif] TI? Av eliq, defined l>y
SI xal auTYj xoivJ) xal farcy xal ^ot xal -nravrl 4>(j>. AetTCSTat Si) the special
T i $ TOU X6yov SXOVTOI; (TOtiTOO SI T& (zlv ax; e:n7rsi6lc of man
2
S* d>^ lx ov xa ^ Siavoo6[Jtevov ) SITTC!)^ SI xal

rJjv xar* evlpyetav 0eT^ov xupicorepov yap a5ry) Soxet X^ysaGat. El S* Icrrlv

Spyov av0pa>7cou ^u^^^ ev^pysia xara X6yov

^ (ji-J) Sveu
8
X6 yo u,
T& S* aur6 ^afxev Ipyov slvat Tq> yvsi rouSe xal TouSs (TTiouSatou ,
10 &cncep xiOaptcTTOu xal orTiouSatou xiOapiaTou, xal obrX&s SYJ TOUT* eirl TidcvTCov,

TJ^ xaT* dtpST/jv UTcepo/^ ^P^^ ^^ Spyov (xt0api<TToij [xlv yap

07couSaou SI T& s5)* et S* otfTox;, dcv0pa>7rou SI Ti6e(Xv Spyov

ijcoyjv Tiva, TaiTTjv SI ^uxvj<; evpyeiav xal Trpa^ei*; (iSTa Xoyou, aTcouSatou 81
15 AvSp6<; e5 Taura xal xaXcoc;, Sxaarov SI e5 xara TYJV olxetav ape'rijv aTcoreXetTai
et SYJ ofiTCo, 16 dvOpcoTCivov aya06v ^ux^<? ev^pyeta ytverai xaT* Definition

apeTYjv, eJ SI TuXetou^ at apsTat, xaTa T^V apt<TT7]v

xal TeXeiOTaTTjv. v ETt 8* ev pcj> reXsCto. Mfa
Sap oO Tcotet, ouSI (zta ^(Jtlpa
f
O(>TCO SI ouSI (jtaxcxpiov xal suSa((xova
068*

567 Book II deals with moral virtue in general. It is engendered in

us not by nature, but by habit. By nature man possesses a capacity to
receive virtues; he receives them actually by the habit of right action.

a. Eth. Nic. II, no3a 14-b 2 :

7<; S1 1% apet% o8<n)<;, TVJ<; (Jtlv StavovjTix^ T% SI -?)0ix%, ^ [jilv

Sia-
T& irXetov ex 8i8aorxaX(a<;
xal XP 6vou
xet xa^
8 ^ tfiw*l *5
<r
^l
v Y^ VS<TLV
^o u
xa ^ ^ aS^artv, 8t67rep Moral virtue
4
60sv xal res " lt* from
"0 <; TcepiytyvsTat , .

*E^ o5 xal SvjXov

x. a6T)Ttxifjv etc. - See De anima II 3, 4i4a29 -b

6
;
1 7
415 a - on the
,

faculties of the soul (our nr. 639).

8
This parenthesis has been condemned by Burnet. Rackham follows him
somewhat hesitatingly, and declares the sentence to be "an irrelevant anticipation
of ch. 13, 9". SouilhS defends it.
s T& $* <x,M 9a^ev Ipyov elvai etc. - "and if we acknowledge the function of an
,

individual (TOU&C) and of a good individual (roOSs (nrou8atai>) to be genetically the

1 '
same (T& aOr6 T$ ylvei).
4 -
iteptyCyvsrat results from,
 144 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [567]

STL ouSefuoc TCOV r)0ixtov apeTtov 9\Jcrei 7)(uv eyytyvETai* ou0v yip TCOV 9\iaei

8vTcov fiXXcoc; eOt^erai, olov 6 X[0o^ cpuaei XOCTCO 9p6(jivo<; oux av s0ia0eb} 20
&vco 9^pea6at, ouS* av [U)piaxt<; 01^7) TI<; &vco ptaTcov, ouSe TO Tcup XOCTCO,

ouSe $XXo ouSsv TCOV aXXax; TW^UXOTCOV aXXco^ av eOiffOety). OUT' Spa 9\Jo~ei
OUTS Trapa 9uaiv syyiyvovTai ai apETai, aXXa n:e9ux6at [jt^v yjfjitv 8l5ad0ai25
S/

auTas, TsXetoufJisvoK; Se Sia TOU eOouc;. ETI 8aa fiev 9\iaei Y)[JLLV TrapaytveTat,
Tac; SuvafjLCK; TOUTOV TipOTepov xop.i^6{jLe0a, (iaTepov Se T<X<; evepyetac; aTroSi-

SofJiev, OTusp em TWV alo0Y)ae(ov SyjXov (ou yap ex TOU TroXXaxL^ ISetv ?j 7uoXXaxi<;
axouaat Ta<; ata0y)aei(; eXa(3o[zev, aXX* avaTuaXiv S^ovTec; exP Y ]
a<^(JL ^a) ^ 3

Xp>)crafjievot ea^Ofxev ) T<X<; Ss apsTa^ Xajjipavofxev evepy/jaavTSt; TipOTepov,

ciaTiEp xal 7cl T&V dcXXcov TE^VCOV.
rt
A yap SSL (jta06vTa<; Troietv, TauTa TroiouvTet;

|zav0avo(jiev, olov otxoSojjioiivTe^ olxoSofioi, yiyvovTai xal xi0apiovT<; xi0a-

piGTaL OUTW Se xal Ta (JLEV Sixaia TipdcTTOvTec; Sixaioi yiv6{Jie0a, Ta Se aco9pova 11035

aco9pove<;, Ta S* avSpeta avSpelot.

b. Since, then, virtue results from habit, and habit is formed by

action, it is incumbent on us to exhibit activities of a certain quality.
Practical 22 - 26
Jb., 1103 b :

consequence
Aio Set TOU; evepyeta^ 7roia<; aTuoSiSovai xaTa yap Ta<; TOUTCOV
axoXouOouaiv at E^SK;. Ou [jttxpov ouv Sta9ept TO OUTGX; T] OUTCO^ euOix; ex
ve*6)v I0i^eo"0at, aXXa 7ra{jL7uoXu, fxaXXov 8k TO ?rav.

568 How, then, are we to act rightly? Ar. answers this question

by developing his theory that virtue is the mean between two extremes.

Moral a Efa jvic. II 2, no4a n - 27 :

destroyed HpoJTov [xev o5v TOUTO OewpvjTeov, OTI T<i TOiauTa 7ce9uxev UTT* evSeta^ xalno4a
by excess and u7re 90Lpea0aL (Set yap uTrep
l
TCOV a9avcov TOU;
ppoX9j<;

), coa7Tp ITU! TYJ^ la^uo^ xal TYJ<; uyiia<; 6pco(jLv Ta T yap u

XovTa yufjivaata xal Ta eXXEircovTa 90tpi TTJV tCT^v, OJJLOLCO^ SE xal Ta TCOTOL 15

xal Ta atTta xal sXaTTco yiyv6[jiva 90ipi T'/JV uytsiav, Ta SE au{JL{ATpa

TrXEtco

xal TTOIEL xal aust xal CTCO^EL OUTCOC; ouv xal 7ul aco9poauvy3(; xal avSpsta^

E^si xal TCOV SXXcov apETcov. "0 TE yap vravTa 9tiycov xal 9opou(jivo^ xal 20

fjLYjSEv i)7uo[JLvcov ^EiXo? ytyvsTai, o TE (JL7)8v 8Xco<; 9o^ou[jLvo^ aXXa 7cpo<;

TravTa ^aSt^cov Opaauc;, ofJiotcoc;

SE xal 6 [JLEV 7racTY]c; Y)8ovYJ<; aTioXaucov xal

fjL7)S(jLia(; a7rx6|jLEvo(; axoXaaToc;, 6 SE 7raaa<; 9uycov, cocrTrsp ol aypotxot,

avaicr07]T6<; TIC; 90stpTai SYJ YJ c7C09pooruvY] xal 7) dvSpEia UTUO TTJC; U7tp(JoXY]s 25
xal T% IXXEL^ECOC;, UTTO SE TYJC;

- in illustration of.
 [568] ETH. NIC. I-III 145

b. Not only man becomes virtuous by acting in a certain way, but

virtue is also exercised by the same actions.
27 -b 3
Ib., II04a :

excised in
'AXX* ou jx6vov at yev^areu; xal au^yjaeu; xal al 96opal ex TCOV auTcov xal the actions

30
,..
em
TCOV auTcov vtvovTai, aXXa xal at evlpyeiai ev TOLC auToic ScovTai xal yap by which Jt
_ , T
TCOV aXXcov TCOV 9avepcoTepcov OUTCOC; e^ei, olov
>
em % ~ /

LCT^O^- ytveTat
TTJC;
/

yap ex TOU TroXXvjv Tpo^vjv Xa(Jipaveiv xal TcoXXoi^ TTOVOU<; uTiofjisveiv, xal [JiaXtdTa
SivaTai TauTa Tcoietv 6 laxopo^. OUTCO S* e^ei xal evrl TCOV apeTcov ex Te yap
TOU aTrexeaOai TWV yjSovcov yiv6{xe0a aw^pove^, xal yev6(Jievoi [xaXicrTa Suva-
35 [JLe0a a?rxe<y0at auTtov. *0{JioLCo<; 8e xal em TTJ^ avSpeta^ eOi^ofjievoi yap
[ i O4b xaTa9povetv TCOV 9o(3epcov xal uTcofJieveiv auTa yivofJteOa avSpeiot, xal yev6-

8uv7)<y6(JLe6a uTcofjtevetv Ta

569Pleasure in acting virtuously is a sign that the virtuous disposition

has been acquired. For there is an essential connexion of moral virtue
with pleasure and pain.

a. Eth. Nic. II 3, 1104 b 3 - 11 :

Pleasure

8e Set TroietaOat TCOV eecov TTJV eTutyivofxevyjv YjSovy]v ^ XUTCTJV TOI<; the test of
virtue
5 Ipyoi^ 6 fxev yap aTce^o^evoc; TCOV acofiaTixcov yjSovcov xal auTCp TOUTCO x^Lpcov
aa>9pcov, 6 8* ax66(JLevoc; ax6XaciTO<;, xal 6 [xev uvrofjievcov TOC Setva xal ^atpcov
$ (JLY) XuTcoilfievoc; ye avSpetoc, 6 8e XuTcoufJtevoc; 8eiX6<;. Ilepl ^Sovac; yap xal
loXiiTca^ eaTlv 73 y)0ixy] apeTY). Aia (xev yap TYJV TjSovyjv TOC 9auXa TupaTTOfxev, Sia
Se T/]v X\i7c>)v TCOV xaXcov

b. Again, this view leads to a practical consequence.

Ib., II04b
n- 13 :
Consequence

Ai6 Set ^X^ a ^ Ktos eu6u<; ex ve*cov, co<; 6 IIXaTcov 973crtv, tocrre x a ^P lv T xa>L education
olc; Set* r) yap opOv) TraiSeta ai>TY] IGTLV.

570 Against Ar.'s theory that a man becomes virtuous by doing

virtuous actions, the objection could be made: How can anyone do just
actions when he is not yet just, or temperate when he is not yet temperate ?
On the contrary, if he does just actions, he is already just. To this
objection Ar. answers: No, only by doing just actions a man is not yet
just. Three other conditions must be fulfilled.

Eth. Nic. II 4, 1105 a 17 - 33 How can a

A/a.
co* / f/ct~\\ct/
:

man do just
ATTopiQcreie o av TU; rcco^ Xeyofjiev OTI oei Ta [xev oixaia TrpaTTOvTa^ oixaiou? actions when
/ ^/
Ta 8e aci)9pova crco9pova^. EE yap TrpaTTouaiv Ta Sfxata xal TOC crco- heisnot i ust?
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 10
 146 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [570]

9pova, 7^873 eial SCxaioi xal aco9pove^, coanep el TOC ypa|i[jiaTixa xal TOC [Jiou- 20

aixa, ypajJifjiaTixol xa ^ [AouaixoL *H ouS* ercl TCOV Texvcov O(>TCO<; 'xei ;

'EvSI-

XSTai yap ypajjifjiaTixdv xal &XXou U7io0e(jiivou.

TI TCOITJCTOCI xal OCTCO TUX"*]?
T6TE o5v eVrai ypa[Ji{JiaTix6?, eav xal ypa|ji[JiaTix6v TI TcoiTjay] xal ypa(ji[JiaTixco
TOUTO Si ecra TO xara TYJV ev auTco ypafZfjuxTtxyjv. "En ou $' 8[*oi6v ecmv eTrl 25
TGiv TSXVCOV xal TWV apSTCov. Ta fjilv yap 6^i ^wv Tex^wv yiv6(jLeva Ti e5 ?xeL
ev ai>Tot<;, apxel o5v TauTa TCCO<; 2x VTOC yeva6af Ta Se xaTa T<X<; dpeTac; yiv6-
[jieva oix eav auTa TCCO^ SxTJ^ 8ixao>^ ?) a6>9p6vco^ TrpaTTeTai, aXXa xal eav 6 30
TrpaTTCov TCWC; lx <ov T^paTTyj, TcpcoTov (xev eav eiSco*;, STUSIT* eav
xal 7tpoaipou[jievo<; Si* auTa, TO 8^ TptTOv eav xal ^epaicoc; xal af

9 - 18
Conclusion b. Ib., II05b !

E3 ouv X^yeTat STI ex TOU TOC Sixata TtpdcTTeiv 6 Sfxaioc; ytveTat xal ex TOU bio
TOC aco9pova 6 aco9pcov ex Se TOU |xv) TcpaTTeiv TauTa ouSel^ av ouSe fjteXXvjaete
yevlaOai dya06^. 'AXX' ot TcoXXol TauTa [xev ou TcpaTTOuaiv, eTil Se TOV Xoyov
xaTa9euyovTe<; otovTai 9iXocro9ecv xal OUTOX; SaeaOai ciTrouSacoi SJJLOIOV TI
TcoiouvTe^ Tot^ xdcfjivouatv, ot TCOV laTpcav axououai (Jtev e7ci(jieXco<;, TTOLOUCTI 8* 15

ouSev TCOV TTpoaTaTTOjJi^vcov. "QdTcep o5v ouSi: exetvoi eu S^OUCTLV TO acofia

OUTCO 0epa7ceu6(Jievoi, ouS' oSTOt TYJV 8 TCli 9iXoao9ouvTe<;. ^xV
571 Ar. now proceeds to define virtue.

a. Its genus is: a state of character, not a passion, nor a faculty.

defined
Eth ' Nic ' H 5 '
II0 5 bl9- IIo6al2:
Its genus T s
8 eaTiv YJ apeTY) e^? axeTCTeov. 'ETrel oSv TOC ev Tyj ^^Yl yivojjieva Tpfa 20
ICTT!, 7ca0Y] 8uva(Jiei<; eei, TOUTCOV <5cv TI etY) 7] apery). Aeyco S^ TraOy] {xev

(xiav opyyjv 96pov Oapao? 906vov x a pav 9iXiav [iiao(; TioOov ^vjXov SXeov, SXax;

olc; SrceTai YjSovv] TJ XUTTY) 8uva(iei<; 8i xaO* a<; Tca07)Tixol TOUTCOV Xey6(Jie0a,
olov xa0' a^ SuvaTol 6pyiCT09jvat ^ Xu7ry)09jvai ^ eXevjaai Ifyzic, Se xaO* a<; ?rp6^ 25
Ta 7rd07) e^ofjiev e5 75 xaxco<;, olov 7rp6<; TO opyiaOyjvai, et (iev a9o8pco<; 73
avei-

[JLVCO<;, xaxco<; Sxo[iev, ei Se (ji^acoc;, eij, ofjtotco^ Se xal ?up6<; TaXXa. FlaO?) (Jtev

o5v oux eialv ou0' at apeTal o80* at xaxiat, STI ou Xey6(Jte0a xaTa TOC 7ca07)

GTcouSaiot y 9auXoi, xaTa Se Ta<; apeTa^ 7) T<X<; xaxta<; XeyojieOa, xal STL xaTa 30
JJLCV
Ta
TraOY) ouTe e7Tatvou(jLe0a ofiTe ^ey6(xe0a (ou yap eTiatvetTai 6 9opou[xevo<;
ouSe 6 6pyi6[jievo<;, ouSe ^lyeTat 6 obrXco*; 6pyi^6[jLevo(; aXX' 6 TCCO^), xaTa Seiio6
Ta^ apeTa^ xal Ta^ xaxla^ e7raivou(jie0a ^ ^ey6(Jie0a. "ETI 6pyi^6(Jie0a {xev xal

9opou[Jie0a obrpoaipiTco^, at S* apeTal TcpoaiplaeK; Ttves $ oux &veu 7rpoatpaeco<;.

IIpo^ Si TOUTOK; xaTa (lev TOC TraOy) xivela0ai Xey6(jte0a, xaTa 8 TOC^ apeTa^ 5
xal TOCS xaxiac ou xivetaOai aXXa Siaxeia0ai TUCO^. Aia TauTa Se ouSe Suvaptet^
 [57*] ETH. NIC. I-III 147

eiortv ofiTS yap dyaOol Xey6(xe0a TCJ) SiivacrOat Traaxetv dbrX&s OU*TE xaxof,
ouY ercatvoiifxeOa ofire ^ey6[Ae0a. Kal STI SuvaTol fxev ea^ev 9uo~et, ayaOoi Si
10 Y}
xaxol ou yivofjteOa 9\iaet efaoiiev Se Trepl TOUTOU TrpoTepov. Ei o5v

7rd0Y) elalv at apeTal [AYJTE Suva[xei<;, XstTtETat l$st<; auT<x<; slvat.

b. Its differentia: it is a disposition to choose the mean between

two extremes.
Ib. 6, 1106 a 12-no7 a 8 :

"0 ouv IffTtv TO) ysvst Its

TI {JLEv Y) dpETY), E?pY)Tat Sst SE (AY) [JLOVOV OUTO? ewrsiv,

15 STL S^K;, aXXa xat TTOIOC TL<;. 'PrjTsov o5v OTI Tiacra dpSTT), o5 av % apery], auT6
TS eS S^ov arcoTeXeL xal TO epyov auTou e5 aTcoSiSwciv, olov Y] TOU 6(p6aX(jLou
TOV TE 6<p6aX(ji6v (TTrouSatov Tiotet xal TO epyov auTou T^ yap TOU o98aX(jLou virtue *

TJ
eu 6p<o(jiev. 'OjJioLcoc; 7]
TOU LTCTCOU dpeTY) ITTTTOV Te crTiouSatov rcotei xal

2odya06v SpajJiEtv xal eveyxelv TOV ETrtpdcTYjv xal [Jieivat Tout; 7toXe[Atouc;. Et SYJ

TOUT* ETcl 7ravTO)v ouTOx; E^st, xal TOU av0po)7uou apETY) s

Y]
t
Y)
a v Virtue of man

2 t <;
(X9* 9j c;
dya o <; <5cv0po)7i;oc; y v s T a xal a 9' t t
?) t; s5
TO eauTou spyov a ?r o S o> a s t .
Ilcac; SE TOUTO SaTat, Y^SYJ [JLEV

25 etpY)xa(jiv, fru SE xal &S* laTat 9avspov, sdv 0o>pY)ao)[jisv Trota Ttc; saTtv Y)

9\latg auTYJ*;. 'Ev rcavTl SYJ auvexEt xal StatpSTto IGTI Xa^scv T& [IEV TrXEtov
s
TO 8* SXaTTOv TO 8 taov, xal TauTa Y)
xaT* auTO TO Trpayjjia YJ 7up6<; Y)(jia<;
TO SE
taov [JL^CTOV Tt u7CppoXY)<; xal EXXst^sox;. A^yco Se TOU [Jiev 7rpdy(JiaTO<; [ilaov

30 ^o foov aTTe^ov a9' exaT^pou TCOV fixpcov, oTrep ecrTlv ev xal TO auTO Tcaatv, 7rp6<;
Y)[Aac;
Se o [AY)Te TrXeovd^et [jtY)Te eXXetTief TOUTO 8* ou/ ev, ouSe TauTOv Traatv.
Olov et Ta Slxa TroXXa Ta Se Suo oXtya, Ta 1% [Jilca Xa{i(3avouat xaTa TO
yap taa> TS xal U7repxe/r<*t TOUTO 8e [xeaov eaTl xaTa TYJV
U7tepxet
*

3^ TCpayjxa
apt0[jLY]TtxY]v avaXoytocv. T6 8e ?rp6<; YJJJLOCC; ou^ OUTO) XYjTCTeov ou yap ei TCO

[jtvat 9ayetv TuoXu

Suo Se oXtyov, 6 dXe^TUTYjc e [Jivac; TrpocTa^et SaTt yap
xal TOUTO TcoXu TO) XYj^ofxevo) Y) oXtyov MtXeovt [Jiev yap oXtyov, TO) 8e

apxo[xvo) TWV yufjivaaricov TioXii. '0[Aoto)<; em

Spofiou xal TcaXYjc;. OUTCO SYJ 7ia<;

j e?rtaTY][jto)v TYJV uTieppoXYjv [lev xal TYJV iXXet^tv 9eiiyet, TO Se [I^CTOV t^YjTet xal
Tou0* atpetTat, (JL^CTOV
Se ou TO TOU TrpayfjtaToc; aXXa T^ Tupo^ Yjfjtac.
Et SY] Tcaaa

|TCICTTY](JLYJ OUTO)(; TO epyov e3 eTctTeXet, rrpoc; TO (Jteaov pXeTiouca xal etc; TOUTO
Ta Spya (80ev etcoOaotv e?ttXyetv TOL^ eu e^ouatv Spyot^; 8Tt ouTe

SaTtv ouTe 7rpoa0etvat, we; TYJC; [Jtev urceppoXYJc; xal TY^C; eXXet^eo)c; 90et-

pouaYjc; T6 e5, TYJC; 8e (xea6TY)TO<; acp^ouoYjc;), et SYJ ot ayaOol Te/viTat, we; Xeyofiev,

Tcpic; TOUTO pX^TOVTec; epya^ovTat, Y] 8e apeTY) 7iao~Y]c; TXVV)<; axpt^eaTepa xal

earTlv woTcep xal Y) 9iiotc;, TOU |JL(TOU av etY) aTOxacrTtxYj. Aeyw Se TYJV
u seeks the
I5 ajjtetvcov
J)0txY)v auTY) yap eaTi Tiepl 7ud0Y] xal 7cpae;etc;, ev Se TOUTOte; SaTtv u7rep(3oXY)
xal SXXet^tc; xal TO (xlaov. Olov xal 9opY]0Y^vat xal OappYJaat xal
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [57l]

xal ipytaOYJvai xat IXeyjaai xal 8X(0 YjaOyjvai xal XurtYjGYJvat, &m xal fxaXXov 20
xal -JJTTOV, xal dfjt^Tepa oux e5, TO 8& free Set xal 69* ol$ xal rcp6<; ou$ xal oS
Ivexa xal a>$ Set, (ji<rov Te xal fipioTov, feep earl T% apeTYjs * 6[io[<o<; Se xal

rcepl TOC<; 7rpaei O*TIV 67cep(3oX:J) xal {XXci<ju xal TO (jilaov. *H 8* apeTY)

xal 7rpa^ei<; I<TT(V, Iv ol<; y) (Jtiv uTceppoX ^ a|iapTaveTat xal

4

7ca0Yj

i, r6 8k piaov iTraweiTat xal xaTop0ouTat rauTa S* 4^90) T

I< $pa ecrTlv ^ apeTY], dTOxaaTtxT] ye oCcra TOU JJI^CTOU. ''ETi, ti (JL^V
x
7toXXa^co<; SCTTLV (Ti yap xaxiv TOU a7te(pou, <*>; oi IluOayipetot
etxa^ov, TO Si; dya6ov TOU TreTrepacfjiivou), TO Se xaTopOouv (jiovax<><; 81630
xal T6 (iv ^Stov TO 84 xaXer:6v, 4o* tov (JL^V TO aTcoTuxetv TOU O-XOTOU,
Sfe TO iTciTuxetv. Kal Sta TauT* o5v TT); fxv xaxLa^ ^ UTteppoX }) xal 73
1

[Jtiv yap a7tX&<;, TcavToSaTtcoc; S^ xaxot 2 . 35

Definition of
moral virtue r
"EaTiv Spa
^
Y)
. . ~ ^
2^K
TCpoaipeTtxV). ev aea6TY)Ti
dpeTY]
ouaa Tyj ?rpo<; yj (A a coptajAevy] X6yct> xal co<; av o 9po-no7a
,
/ / \ c e /

vt[xo<; 6p[aete.Meo-6TYj^ 8k Suo xaxtoJv,T^c pt-^v xa6*

u7cep(3oXy]v T>J^ S^ xaT* IXXei^tv* xal STL TCO Ta<; pt^v eXXebcetv
Ta<; 8k u7cep(3dXXetv TOU S^OVTO^ 2v Te TOI^ TrdOeai xal Iv Tat^ Trpdc^eoi, TV^V 8k
ipeTYjv TO [ilcrov xal eupiaxeiv xal atpetaOau Aio xaTa fxv TTJV ouatav xal T^V 5
X6yov TOV T6 rl ^v elvai X^yovTa [xecr6T7]<; eaTlv Y) apenf], xaTa Se T6 <5piaTOv
xal T^ e

572 This definition applied to the particular virtues.

Eth. Nic. II 7, no7a 33-no8b 10 :

rableofmor-
fjepl ^v o5v ^6pou? xal OdtppYj avSpela [Jieo6TY)<; TCOV S* o7teppaXX6vTcov 6no7b
means V>kv rft d<po(3[a dvcivufjio^(TroXXd laTiv avcovufxa), 6 S* ev T(p 6appeiv u?tep-
S'
between two
p^^v Qpacru?, 6 8k tq> (iev epopetcrOai uTrepjJdXXwv T(p 8^ 6appetv
8etX6<;. Ilepl Y)8ova<; 8^ xal XuTtas ou Tcdaa^, Y^TTOV 8k xal Tcepl Ta<; XuTra^, 5

Yj
8 dxoXaafa. *EXXe(7tovTe<; 8k
5

Yj8ova<; ou TCOCVU ytvovTaf Siircep ouS 6v6(jiaTO(; TeTUXY)xa<ytv ouS^ ot TOIOUTOI,

2crTCoo*av 84 dvato^YjTOt. Ilepl 8e S6atv xp^^aTto^ xal XYJ^IV [Jiea6TYjc jiiviXeu-
8^ xal IXXei^ii; dcrcoTta xal dveXeu6epa. *EvavT(co<; 8* ^v 10
8eptoTY)<;, uTrepjioXy)

auTai; UTueppdXXoucrtv xal iXXetTuoucrtv 6 (*v yap 4aa>TO^ ev (jiiv Tcpo^cret

UTreppdXXet ev 81 X^ei IXXeteet, 6 8^ dveXeuOepo^ iv ptiv XYJ^CI 6rceppdXXet ev
8k 7cpoaei IXXeC^ei. Nuv (x^v ouv TUTTCO xal e?rl xe9aXa[co Xlyofzsv, dpxoufjtevoi

1
See our nr. 42, the table of Pythagorean opposites.
1 A quotation of unknown origin.
 [572] ETH. NIC. I-III 149

15 auT& TOUTOJ Gcrrepov Se axpifie'crTepov Trepl auT&v 8iopwy07)creTai. Ilepl 8k TOC

XpintAaTa xal &XXai Sia0aei<; eioi, [jie<r6T7)<; jjiev [jieyaXoTupe>cei,a (6 yap fjieya-

XoTrpeTC7)<; Siacplpci eXeuOepiou 6 [Jiev yap Trepl [jieyaXa, 6 Se Tuepl (juxpa),

*
UTceppoXy] Se aTueipoxaXta xat pavauata, XXeii]si So (juxpoTrpeTteia Swc^epouai
20 S' aSrai TCOV Tcepl TTJV eXeu0epi6T7)Ta, TCJJ
8e Sia^epouarLv, uaTepov p7)07)o-eTat.
Ilepl Se TifXYjv xal ocTifJitav [Aea6T7)<; jjiev (jieyaXo^u/La, OTceppoXv) Se xaovdryjc; TIC;
XeyofJievv), gXXetipic; Se jxtxpo^ux^a ax; S' eXeyo^ev xetv 7rpo<; T/JV [jieyaXo7rp-
25 Tcetav TYJV eXeu0epi6T7jTa, ?repl fjttxpa Sta^epouaav, OUTCO^ e'^et TI^ xal 7rp6<; TTJV

(xeyaXo^uxiav, Trepl TifjLTjv oSaav fjLeyaXyjv, aoTT) Tiepl (jitxpav oScra- SCTTL yap
ax; Set 6pyea0aL TipL9j<; xal (jtaXXov
Set xal 3JTTOV, XeyeTai S' 6 [jiev UTceppaXXcov
YJ

pe^eai 9iXoTt[JLO(;, 6 Se eXXeiTrcav a^t-XoTLfJioc;, 6 8e (jLeaoc; ava)vujjio<;. 'Ava>-

Se xal al Sta0eaet^, TcXYjv 7) TOU 9tXoTt[jLOu 9tXoTt(jtia. "OOev eT
2
ot axpot T7]<; tzla7j<; x^P a ^ t
xa ^ >)H,SL^ Se SCTTI [xev STC TOV f

xaXou[xev SCTTL S' ore a9iX6Ti{JLov, xal Scruv ore [xev ercaivou^ev TOV 9iXoTi[jLOv
8* ore TOV <X9iXoTi[JU>v. Aia Ttva S* atTtav TOUTO 7iotou[Jiev, ev TOLC; e^Tj^

vuv Se Tcepl T<OV XotTraiv Xeya)[zev xaTa TOV u97jyY](jievov Tporcov.

"EaTi Se xal Trepl TYJV opyvjv uTceppoXy) xal eXXei^L^; xal (jtecroTT)^, a^eSov Se
5 avcovu[jLa)v OVTO>V auTtav, TOV [jieaov Trpaov XeyovTec; TTJV {jteaoT7]Ta TcpaoTTjTa
TCOV S' Sxpaw 6 [Jiev uTceppaXXcov opyiXo^ e'crrto, 7) Se xaxta 6p-
6 S' eXXetTTCov aopyTjTOi; TI<;, r)
S' eXXec^^ aopyyjcrta. Etai Se xal
10 &XXai Tpetc; (JLeaoTTjTec;, Sxouaat [Jiev Tiva ofjLotoTYjTa Ttp6<; aXXrjXa^,
S' aXXvjXtov Tcaaat jiev yap etori Tcepl Xoycov xal Tcpa^ecov xoLvcoviav,
Se OTL 7] (Jiev eo~Ti Trepl TO aXyjOe^ TO ev auTotc;, al Se Tuepl TO Y]S\i TOUTOU Se TO

(jiev
ev TcatSta TO S' ev Tuaai TOt^ xaTa TOV PIOV. 'PyjTeov ouv xal Trepl TOUTCOV,
1 5 Eva (JiaXXov xaTiSco^ev STL ev Tra<riv YJ jjieaoTYji; eTtaiveTov, TOC S* axpa OUT'
6p6a OUT* eTcaiveTa aXXa 4>exTa. "EaTi [jiev o5v xal TOUTOOV TOC TrXeia> ava>vu(Jia,
TreipaTeov 8*, cocrTtep xal em TOiv fiXXcov, auToix; 6vo[JiaTOTuoieiv
Svexa xal TOU euTrapaxoXouOvjTou 3 Ilepl fjiev oi5v TO aXYjQed; 6 (Jiev.

20 TK; xal 73 (jieaoTTjc; aX7)Oeia XeylaOco, 7] Se TrpoCTTcoiTjoric; T] (lev STTI TO (Jiec^ov

aXa^oveia xal 6 e^cov auTTjv aXa^cov, TJ Se inl TO e'XaTTOv eipoveia xal etpcov.
Ilepl Si T& TjSu TO [Jiev ev TraiSia 6 [jiev fjieaoi; euTpaTceXo<; xal 7) SiaOeo^Lc; euTpa-
25 TreXta, Se uTceppoXTj ^cofjioXoxta xal 6 e'xtov auTTjv pco[jioX6xo<;, 6 S' eXXetTccov
TJ

aypotxd^ TI? xal 73 e^tc; aypoixta- Tcepl Se TO XOLTCOV 7)Su TO ev TCO (3ico 6 (lev
4
to<; Set TjSix; cov 9(Xo; xal 7) [jiea6T7j^ 9tXta, 6 S* uTreppiXXtov, et (Jiev ouSevcx;

1 - tastelessness.
dc7reipoxaXa
a
7tt8i,xaovTai etc. - the extreme characters lay claim to the middle place.
3
TOO euTrapaxoXouOifjTou (Svexa) - so that we may be easily followed.
4 - amiable.
9^X0?
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [572]

Ivexa, Speaxo^ *, el 84 a><peXeia<; T% ainroij, x6Xa, 6 8* eXXetacov xal ev Ttacriv

Means in
xal SiiaxoXoc. Etal 84 xal ev TO<; TraOeai xal ev TOLC Tuepl T& 30
fafifa StiaepU Ti * *
the passions ; f ,

TraoT) (jLedOT7]Te<; 73 yap aioco<; apeTT) ^v oux ecrav, eTratvetrai oe xal o

s

(jLwv. Kal yap ev TOUTOIC; 6 (Ji4v Xeyerai [xao<;, 6 8 u7rep(JaXX<ov, &$ 6 xaTi
6 TiavTa ai8oiS[jLevo^, 6 8* eXXetTccov 73
6 [jL7)S4v 8Xcoc; avaiaxuvTo^, 6 84 (JL(JO? 35
2
aiSyjiAcov. Nefieo-u; 84 [JiecroTT]^ ^Oovou xal e7rixaipexaxta<;, e[al 84 Trepl XUTCTJVIK

xal Y]8ovy]v TOC^ ercl TOL<; <Ti)(jLJ3aLvoi)(TL TOI^ TceXa^ yivojjt^va^ 6 [Aev yap ve[Jie-

C7jTix6<; XuTreiTat STCI TOL<; ava^Cco^ e5 TrpaTTOoaiv, 6 84 ^Oovepi^ uTceppdcXXcov

s
TOUTOV ITTI Traai XuTueiTai, 6 8 eTu^aipexaxcx; ToaouTOv eXXeteei TOU XuTcetarOai 5
xal x a ^P tv ' 'AXXa Trepl (x4v Toiireov xal SXXoOt xaipoc; eaTai* Trepl 84

S, eTtel oox aTrXcoc; XeyeTai, (JLeTa TauTa 8ieX6{Jievot Trepl exaT^pa?

epoujjiev Trco<; jjLeCTOTTjTec; eiaiv 6[ioico^ 84 xal Ttepl TCOV Xoyixcov apeTtov. 10

The author presented this table to his students in a 8iaypa9Y). It may

have been a scheme such as this:

province excess mean defect

x. <0pd(jo<;> dvSpeia
Opocaoc;
ovat x. dxoXaaia

x.

<aacoTOt;> <eXeu0epLo<;> cxveXeuOepoc;

id. (juepi (jieyaXa) (dtTreipoxaXia/

d7reip6xaXo<;,
x. dtTi(Jt(a ((leyaXat ) Xauv6TY)
Xauvo?
id. ((uxpa) < normal attitude -
towards honour >
dtopyrjafoc

aXa^oveia elpcovsCa
x.7tpaeo>v xoLvcavia etpcov
T6 ^)8i> T& aypoixta
aypotxos
8u T& 4v TCO pica <dcpaxeia TJ xoXa- SuaxoXia
xe(a>
(Jcpecixo? $i 9^X0? , SuaxoXo?
a Trepl T&

id., sc. XUTTY) x. , at

:ul TOU;
yiv6(jtevai

1 -
(Jcpeoxo? obsequious.
1
righteous indignation. In this instance the application of the theory
-
vi^eau;
of the mean is very unfortunate.
 [573] ETH. NIC. I-III 151

573 a. theory the author is led to a remarkable conse-

By this

quence, namely, that the opposition between the extremes (being two
vices) is sharper than that between virtue and vice.

Eth. Nic. II 8, 1108 b 11 - 15 ,

26 - 30
.

no8b Tpuov SYJ 8iaO<recov ouatov, Siio (JLSV xaxt&v, TYJ<; [Jilv xa0*
s
T* eXXei<|>iv, [jua<; S apeT% TYJ<; [ASCTOTYJTOC;, Traaa
at [xev yap Sxpat xal Tyj [xeoY] xal dXXY)Xai<; evavTiai siaiv, YJ
Ss
The
15, 26Tai<; a*xpai<;.
.
e<m
- -
OUTCO<; 8e avTtxeiaevcov aXXinXoK; TOUTOV, TrXeidTT] evavTiOTinc
.;,..*,,, I , ,

TOL<; axpoic; Trpoj; aXXYjXa >J Trpo^ TO fieorov TcoppcoTepco yap Taura a9eaT7)-
ix opposition
between the
xev aXXyjXcav ^ TOU [JLSCTOU, cicnrep TO TOU xal TO (itxpov TOO (isyaXou extr emes is
(ji^ya (JLixpou

30 >] fifjicpco
TOU taou.

b. Sometimes the excess, sometimes the defect is more opposed

to the mean.

Ib., iio8b 35-iK>9a 19 :

noga IIp6<; 8e TO (xecrov avTixctTat (jiaXXov 69* 2>v (lev r] lXXsn|;i?, 9* civ Se

73 uTreppoXr), olov avSpeta fiev ou^ 7) OpaaiJTY]^ uTreppoXY] ouda, aXX* r)

SstXta

SXXei^ic; ouaa, T^ 8e aa)9poaiivv]

ou^ avaiaOyjdia ouaa, YJ "/)
SvSeia aXX*

5 axoXaaia uTreppoXr) oi5aa. Aia Siio 8* aiTta<; TOUTO <ru(jij3aivei, [xiav (lev TYJV s?
auTOu TOU 7ipay(jwcTo<; TW yap eyy\STepov elvai xal 6[JLOtoTspov TO eTspov fixpov
TW (JLeaco, ou TOUTO aXXa ToivavT^ov avTiTiOefiev [xaXXov, olov eTcei 6(JLOtoTpov
Soxet Tyj dvSpeta YJ 6paa\iTYj<; xal eyyuTCpov, avofJioiOTepov 8* Y) SetXia,

(jiaXXov avTiTiOefjiev Ta yap aTr^/ovTa TiXetov TOU (jteaou svavTitoTepa

Soxet elvai. Mta (Jtev o5v aiTia auTY), e^ auTOo TOU TtpayfJuxToc;, STepa 8e e^

Y][jLwv auTtov a yap auTol fzaXXov 7re9uxa[tev TTCO^, TauTa (jiaXXov evavTta
Trpo^;

I5TW {jLECTCji ^atveTai. Olov auTol jxaXXov 7re9uxa[JLev :rp6(; T<X YjSovac;, 816

euxaTa90pot eofJiev (jtaXXov 7rp6(; axoXaatav Y) Trpoc; xoo~|Ju6TY)Ta. TauT* oi5v

{JiaXXov IvavT^a Xeyojiev, 7up6^ a Y) sTriSoo-K; (JiaXXov yivsTai' xal 8ia TOUTO

Y]
dxoXaata uTieppoXY] ou<ra evavTtwT^pa e<m TYJ <ra)9po(iuvY).

574 In the next chapter Ar. gives some practical rules for attaining
the mean.

30- 33 Three niies

a. Eth. Nic. II 9, 1109 a :

30 Aei TOV CTTOxa6(Jievov TOU (Jilaoo rcp&TOv fiev aTro^copeLV TOU fiaXXov evavTiou, attaining
the mean
xaOdcTrep xal YJ KaXu^d) Trapaivet

TOUTOU fiev xaTivou xal xufxaTO^ !XT&<; Sepye

vYJa.

33Tcov yap a*xpcov TO (Jtev eaTtv ajzapTCoXiTepov TO 8' Y^TTOV.

 152 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [574]

1-7
b. Ib., b :

SxoTretv 84 Set Tupoc; a xal auTol euxaT<x9opo ecr(Jiev SXXoi yap rcpo

Trecpiixafjiev. TOUTO 8* edTai yvcipijjiov ex TYJC; Yj8ovYJ<; xal TYJ<; X\iTCY)<; TYJ? yivo-
[JIVYJ<; Trepl Y)(Jias. Eu; ToivavTiov 8' eauToix; acplXxeiv Set TcoXu yap dbcayovTes 5
TOU ajjiapTavsLv ei^ T& (Jiiaov ^ofjiev, Srcep ot TOC Siecrrpamjieva TCOV i;tiXa>v 6p-
TTOIOUCTLV.

c. Ib., b 7 - 12 :

J
Ev TtavTL 84 (xaXiCTTa 9i>XaxTeov TO YJOU xal TYJV YjSovyjv ou yap a8xaaTOi

xpivofJLev auTY)v. "OTiep o5v ol 8v)[jLoyepovTe(; STcaOov ?rpo^ TYJV 'EX^vyjv, TOUTO
8ei TuaOeiv xal r)(jiai; Tcpcx; TYJV yjSovyjv, xal ev Tcaai TTJV exeivtov ETCiXlyetv ^COVYJV 10

yap auTTjv a7ro7re(jt7r6[jLsvoi JjTTOv a[jLapTY](i6(jLe0a.

Conditions of 575 jn ^QQ^ jjj^ ^ j.^ j^e conditions of responsibility for action
sibiiity
are defined. First, the action must be voluntary (exouaiov), i.e. done (i)
for action
no t un der compulsion, and (2) with knowledge of the circumstances.

Ul *' IIO 9
involuntary Tyj^ apsTYJc; Sv] Tcepl 7ua0Y) Te xal Tupa^e^ ou<n)(;, xal iid TO!<; exoufftoi^ 30
ETraivcov xal ^oyov yivoptevcov, evil 8e TOLC; axouatoi^ di>yyvco[jLY)(;, EVICTS 84
xal sXou, TO exoiiatov xal T& axoriatov avayxalov tacac; Siopiaai TOL<; Tcepl

apeTYJ^ eTttaxoTrouo't, xp^^fjiov 8e xal Tot^ vo(Ao8sTouai Trpot; TS ri? Ti(xa?

xal Ta^ xoXaaeu;. 35
Aoxet 8e axoucria elvai Ta (3ta Y]
Si* iyvoiav yiyvofJieva. Btaiov 8^ o5 fjinoa
ap^Y) l^caOev, TOtauTY) oJiaa sv ^ jjiYjSev au(j,paXXeTai 6 TrpaVrcov y)
6 Traax^v,
olov ei Trveufjia xo^taai TTOI TJ a"vOpa>7roi xiiptoi 8vTe^.

Compulsary b. Ib., IIIO b 1- 5

,
9- u :

Ta SYJ Tiota 9aTeov (Staia ; y a7rXco<; {ilv, OTTOT' av 7]

aiTia ev TOI<; EXTO^ ^ xal mob
6 TipaTTcov (JLY]8V <TU(jLpaXXy)Tat ;
"A 8e xa6* aoTa (xev axoutna eaTt, vuv 84
xal avTl TcovSe alpeTa, xal YJ ap^Y) ev TCO TrpaTTOVTt, xa6* auTa [Jtev axouaia

i,
vuv 8e xal avTl TcovSe exoiiaia. El 81 TL<; Ta Y)8a xal Ta xaXa ^atY) 5 9
elvat (avayxaJ^eiv yap S^co 8vTa), TravTa av eiY) OUTCO ^laia' TOUTCOV

yap X^P IV TtavTec; TravTa

Acts done c< Jb., mob 18 - 24 :

ignorance To Syvoiav oux exouaiov (lev fijcav eaTiv, axouaiov 84 TO

84 81'
are 20
xal ev aeTaaeXeta 6 yapr Si* aVvotav TTpdcSac OTIOUV. LtYjSlv TI Suayepatvwv Inl
' J

involuntary .. ; \
exwv
% , ',
ou TreTcpaxev, o ye
? y\ i
ouo au axcov,
t y /
only when Tfl Trpa^et, fxev [JLYJ jjoei, (JLYJ

regretted
yg ToO SYJ Si' iyvotav 6 fiev ev |jieTa(JieXeia Sxcov Soxel, 6 84 |ZY)

e:rel STepo^;, IGTW ou^ exa>v eTiel yap 8ia9pei, P^XTIOV 8vo(za Sxeiv t8iov.
 [575] ETH. NIC. I-III 153

d. Ib., niob 30-iiii a6 :

T6 8* axouatov (SouXeTat Xyea0at oux et Tt<; ayvoei Ta au^lpovTa. Ou stances

yap 7) ev Tyj 7cpoatpaet <yvota aMa TOU axouatou aXXa TYJS {jiox0Y]pta^, ouS' Y] re Q uired

xa06Xou (^yovTat yap Sta ye TauTYjv), aXX* Y]

xa0* ixaaTa, ev ol<; xal irepl Si

TTpa^ti; ev TOUTOt? yap xal 6Xeo<; xal auyyvco(jiY) 6 yap TOUTCOV TI ayvocov

axouatco? TrpaTTet. "Iaco<; oSv ou x lp v Stoptaat auTa, Ttva xal Tioaa eaTt,
T[<; Te SYJ xal Tt xal Tuepl T Y) ev Ttvt TtpaTTet, evtOTe 8 xal Ttvt, olov opyavcp,

5 xal Ivexa T[VO<; olov acoTY]pta<;, xal 7uc7><;,

olov Y)pe"(Jia Y^ a9o8pa.
e. Ib., inia22- 29 , b 1 -3 :
Voluntary
acts
''OvToc; 8* axouatou TOU ^ta xal Si* dcyvoiav, TO exouatov 86^etev av elvat
o5 Y) dtpXY) ev auTco et86Tt Ta xaO* IxaaTa ev ol<; Y) Trpa^tc;. "lacoc; yap ou xaXco<;

25 XlyeTat axouata elvat Ta Sta 0u(Ji6v YJ

8t* e7rt0u(JLtav. HpcoTov (xev yap ouSev ITI

TCOV iXXcov cpcov exouatco<; Trpa^et, ouS* ot 7ratSe<; elTa TioTepov ouSev exouatco<;
TCOV St* e7TtOu(jLtav ^ OUJJLOV, YJ
Ta xaXa [iev exouatco^ Ta S*

axouatco<; ;
"*H yeXotov evoc; ye atTtou SVTO^ ;
Soxet Se ou^ YJTTOV

iiiibav0pcomxa elvat Ta <5cXoya, coaTe xal at Trpa^etc; TOU dv0pco7rou a7r6 OUJJLOU
xal e7it0ufjtta<; &TOTTOV SYJ TO TtOevat axouata TauTa.

576 Moral virtue further implies that the action is done by choice.

a. Eth. NIC. Ill 2, inib 4- 10 : choice

Atcoptafxevcov Se TOU Te exouatou xal TOU axouatou, rcepl Trpoaipeaecoc; iTteTat

5 SteX0etv otxet6TaTOv yap elvat Soxet Tyj dpeTfj xal [jtaXXov Ta fftf] xptvetv TCOV
Tipa^ecov.
C
H 7rpoatpeat<; SYJ exouatov fjiev 9atveTat, ou TauTov Se, dXX' e:il

TrXeov TO exouatov TOU (zev yap exouatou xal ;rat8e<; xal Ta SXXa coa xotvcovet,

10 7rpoatplaeco<; 8* ou, xal Ta e^a^vY)^ exouata (Jiev Xyo(xev, xaTa Trpoatpeatv 8* ou.

Illlb 10- 19 It is neither

b. Ib., :

01 Se XyovTe(; auTYjv eTTtOupitav YJ 0upt6v Y) pouXY)atv Y]

Ttva 86av oux eotxaatv passion
opOcoc; Xeyetv. Ou yap xotvov Y) Trpoatpeatc; xal TCOV aXoycov, e7u0u(Jita Se xal

0u[jt6^. Kal 6 axpaTY)<; evrtOuficov (xev TipaTTet, 7rpoatpou|zevo<; S* ou 6 eyxpaTY)<;

158* avaTiaXtv Tcpoatpoufxevoc; [ilv, e7ut0u(jLcov 8* ou. Kal rcpoatp^aet (jiev eTrtOujxta

evavTtouTat, eTrtOuptta 8* eTrtOufjtta ou. Kal YJ (lev e?itOu(jLta Y]8o^ xal eTitXuTuou,

Y) Trpoatpeat^ 8* ouTe Xu7TY)pou o56' Y)8eoc;. U(JLO; 8* ^Tt Y^TTOV Y^xtaTa yap
TOC 8ta 0u|jLOv xaTa rcpoafcpeaiv elvat Soxet.

C. Ib., nub 19 30 - : Neither wish

20 'AXXa [JtYjv
ouSe ^ouXYjaC^ ye, xabtep auveyyu<; 9atv6(jtevov. IIpoatpeat<; piev

yap oux SaTt TCOV aSuvdcTCOv, xal et Tt<; 9atY] TtpoaipetaOat, SoxotY) av

elvat pouXY]at<; 8* eaTl TCOV aSuvaTCOv, olov dOavaata^. Kal Y) [jtev p

xal Tcepl Ta (jLY)8a(Jtco<;
8t* auTOu Trpa/OlvTa 4v, olov urcoxpiTYJv Ttva vtxav
 154 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [576]

$ aOXyjryjv TcpoaipetToct, 8k T<X TOIOCUTOC ouSet^, aXX' 6cra oleTai yevlcrOat av 81 25

auTOU. "ETi 8k y) pilv pouXyjaii; TOU TXOU<; Ecni (jiaXXov, y)
8k 7tpoap<H<; TCOV 7rp6^
T& T*Xo<;, olov uyiaiviv pouX6[i0a. IIpoatpou{JLS0a 8k 81* cov uytavoufiEV, xal
>

euSaifjiovetv pouX6(jie0a [JIEV xal 9a(i v. IIpoaipou(ji0a Se Xyiv ou^ ap[x6^ei'

8Xco<; yap Soixev yj Trpoaipeai^ rcspl ra eq)' YJ(JLIV elvai. 30

nor opinion d. Ib. IIII b 30 -III2 a 11

:

OuSi: Srj So^a av et?).

e
H [lev yap S6a Soxet Tuepl Travra elvai, xai ou8v3o, 31

Tcepl TOC atSia xal Ta aStivara Y)

Ta 89* Y][JLIV
xal TW 4euSel xal dXYjOsii
f/

i,
ou T<O xaxw
xal ayaOw, Y) Tcpoaipeaic; Ss TOUTOK; (xaXXov. OXo)(;
ouv 86y) TauTov iaco(; ouSe Xeyei ouSeu;' aXX* ooSs TIV[. Tw yap 7rpoat- III2a

rayaOcx y) TOC xaxa Tuoiot Ttveq eafjiev, TW S^ So^a^etv 08. Kal Tupoatpoii-
fjte0a [Jtev Xapetv y) 9uyetv yj
TI TCOV TOIOUTCOV, 8oao[Jisv Si: TL SCTTIV yj
TVI
7rco<;Xapetv Ss y) 9uyciv 06 ?uavu So^a^ofjiev. Kal y) (Jiev 7rpoa[pecrt<;
5

TCO elvai o3 Sel [xaXXov y^ TCO 6p6&<;, y] Si S6?a TCO co<; aXyjOto^. Kal
Tcpoatpoii[JLe0a (JL^V ayaOa ovTa, Soao{jLev Si: S ou Tuavu icrfiev.
a (xaXia-Ta tcrfxev
AOXOUCTL TE oux oi auTol TTpoatpeLcrOai TS &piCTTa xal 8oaeiv, aXX' eviot So^a^etv
I0
[xsv a(jLLvov, Sta xaxiav S* alpetaOai ou^ a Ssi.

Choice e< Ib iii 2 a 13 - 17 :

defined
T ouv y)
TCOIOV TI eaTiv, sTreiSy] TCOV eipy](jivcov ooSlv ;
*E x o u CT i o v (xev
J5
& SE EXOUCJIOV ou ?rav 7rpoaipTOv. 'AXX' apa yTO 7rpoppou-
XUfXvov; *H yap 7rpoafpcri? fjtTa Xoyou xal Siavoiac;. 'YTTooyjfJtaivEiv
8* SOIXEV xal Touvofjia coc; ov rcpi ET^pcov alpETOv.

577 Choice having been defined as "the Voluntary preceded by deli-

beration", the question arises: on which objects does deliberation bear.

Ar. answers: (i) We deliberate about things that are in our power and
can be done; (2) not about ends, but about means.

Eth. Nic. Ill 3, 1 1 12 a 18 - 34

a . :

object of BouXuovTai S ?r6Tpa TUOCVTCOV, xal Trav pouXEUTOv Icmv, y) ?upl v(cov oux
deliberation g CTTl ou 20
p x^ ; AEXTEOV & foco<; pouXUTiv ou^ u7Tp o5 (iouXEuaatT' Sv TI? yjXiOioc;
y) (jLaiv6(jivo^, dXX' UTCp &v 6 vouv Sxov.
ou8l<; pou- Ilfipl 8k. TCOV al'Stcov

XUTat, olov 7Tpl Tou xocTjjiou

yj Tf\c> StafilTpou
xal Tyj(; 7tXupa<;,
&TL aau(i-

[XTpoi. 'AXX' ouS 7Upl TCOV Iv xtvy)di, afil 8k xaTa TauTa ytvoj/ivcov, tT*

^ avayxY]<; ^T xal 9\l(ji y) Sta Tiva ataiav SXXyjv, olov TpoTrcov xal avaToXcov. 25

7Tpl TCOV #XXOT (5tXXcO<;, olov aU/(JLCOV Xal 8(JLppCOV. -

OuSfi 7Tpl TCOV aTCC)

<;,
olov 0y]aaupou up<ico<;. 'AXX* ouSfi 7Cpl TCOV avOpcomxcov TKXVTCOV,
olov 7cco(; av SxiiOai fipiaTa 7ioXiTioivTO ouSfilc; Aax8ai(xovcov pouX\jTai.
Ou yap y^voiT* av TOUTCOV ouSfiv Si* y](jicov. BouXu6[i0a 8k ?cpl TCOV 9* 30
 [577] ETH NIC- - i-ni 155

Y)|juv
xal TrpaxTcov TauTa Si xal SCTTL XoiTra. AErCat yap Soxoucnv elvai 96(1^
xal avayxY) xal To^fy ^TI 8 vou<; xal Tuav TO Si* av9pco7roo. Tcov 8* av6pco7rcov

SxaaTOi pouXeiiovTai Ttepl TCOV 81* auTcov TupaxTcov.

b. Ib., III2b n - 21 :
We deliberate
ni2b BouXeu6[jie6a 8* ou Trepl TCOV TeXcov aXXa rcepl TCOV Tcpo? T<X TXYJ. OSrs yap ends, but
about means
laTp6<; (SouXeiieTai el uytaasi, OUTS ^YjTtop el Tcetaet, ofire TroXmxcx; el eivofjitav

i57COL7](Tei, ouSi: TCOV XOITTWV ou8el<; Tcepl TOU TlXou^- aXXa 6[jLevoi T^Xoc; Tt,

Titos xal Sta TLVCOV IdTat axoTrouoriv, xal 8ia TuXetovcov [xev <paivo|xvoi>

Sta TIVOC padTa xal xaXXiara eTriarxoTrouai, St* ev6<; 8* e7UTeXoo(jivo\>

Sta TOUTOU Scrrai xaxetvo 8ta Sox; av ^XOcoaiv
r6 Tupcorov atTiov, 8
TIVOC;, eTcl

20 ev T^ eopeaei Sa^aTov eaTtv 6 yap pouXeu^pievo? Soixev ^Y)Telv xal avaXieiv

T&V elpyjfiivov TpoTrov caaTrep 8iaypa[jL(jLa.

578 After these preliminaries choice can be defined more precisely.

Eth. NIC. Ill 3, 1113 a 9- 12 :

Final
,,^ ^
oe
~ - o ~ > ~ ~
TOU TrpoaipeTOu pouXeuTOu opexTOi) TCOV e^ T](/.tv, xai Y) Tcpoatpeaic;
, c ~ x c ,
definition
UVTO<; O f choice
av etr) pouXeuTixv) 8pe^t<; TWV 9* TJJJLIV ex TOU pouXeuaaaOai yap
6pey6[jLe6a xaTa TTJV

579 a. Since, then, good and bad actions depend on choice, virtue
and vice are in our power.
Eth. NlC. Ill 5, III3 b 3 - 16 :

re^ons'ible
ni3b "OvTOc; ST) POUXYJTOU (Jiev TOU TeXouc;, ^ouXeuTCOv 8e xal TipoaipeTCOv TCOV 7rp6<; for good and
5 TO T!XO<;, at Tuepl TauTa 7rpa!;ei<; xaTa Tcpoatpeaiv av elev xal exouaioi. Al 8e 'or bad

TCOV apeTcov evepyetat Trepl TauTa. '9* TJJJUV 8y) xal r\ apery), ofioicoc; 8e xal

Y)
xaxia. 'Ev olc; yap 69' y)[uv r6 TipaTTeiv, xal TO (JLYJ TTpaTTetv, xal ev olc; TO

jx^, xal TO vat TO TrpaTTeiv xaXov ov 69* -/jfJiZv eo-Ti, xal T& piY) TTpaTTeiv
cotiTe el
10 So-Tai alcrxpov 8v, xal el T& JJLY) TupaTTeiv xaXov 6v
9* Y](JLLV 9' ^(JLLV, xal TO

TrpaTTetv ala/pov Sv 69* El 8e 69* Y)(JLOV TOC xaXa TupaTTetv xal Ta alcr/pa,
Y)(julv.

6(JLOLCO<; 8^ xal T& (JLY) TcpaTTetv, TOUTO 8^ ))v TO ayaOoi? xal xaxoi<; elvai, 9'

Yjfjiiv <5cpa TO eTtieixeci xal 9a\iXoi$ elvau To 8e Xeyeiv co<;

x
ouSel? excov 7rovY]p6<; ouS* &xcov fiaxap

Ifoixev TO [jtev ^euSet T6 8e aXyjOet. Maxapto^; (jiev yap oo8el$ fixcov, ^ 8^ f

exoticnov.

1
With this ancient Greek wisdom (the verse may be of Solon) the Socratic
maxim that "nobody does wrong willingly" is implicitly condemned. Cp. our nr.
204c, d.
 I5& PRACTICAL SCIENCES [579]

b Ib '' II][ 3 b21 - 30:

reposed
by legislation TOUTOK; 8' Sotxe (JLapTUpetdOai xal tSla 69' exasTcov xal UT:' auTcov T&V
vofJtoOeT&v xoXa^oucrt yap xal Tt(jta>poiivTat TOU<; Sp&vTa? (jio^Oyjpa, 8aot 25

[AY] pta Y)
81 iyvotav ^ p] auTol afaioi, TOUC 8e ra xaXa 7rp<xTTOVTa<; Tt(iG>atv,

co<; TOUS fjiev 7rpoTp^ovTes TOIK; 8e xeoXucovTe^;. KatTot 8aa (jtyjTe 69* Y][Jttv

sari (jiY]Te exoiata, ou8el<; TipoTp^TreTat rcpaTTetv, &$ ouS^v 7cp6 Spyou 6v Ti
(JLYJ 6sp[jia[vea6ai dXystv
?] 73 TreivTJv TQ
oTtouv a*XXo T<OV TOIOUTCOV
TTOV TretaofJieOa aura. 29, 30

580 a. The truth that character is formed by action is not contra-

dicted by the fact that a vice once formed cannot be thrown off at will.

9 - 31
Ib., 1114 a :

T6 ouv ayvoetv 8rt ex TOO evspyetv Tcepl Sxaara at 2Eei<;

10
{Jiev yivovrat, xofju-

avaicOyjTou STL 8e SXoyov TOV aSixouvTa (r/) (ioiiXeaOat iSixov elvai ?) TOV
873

axoXaaraivovTa axoXadTov ei 8& {JLYJ ayvowv TI^ TupaTTei e^ &v gaTat &8ixo<;,
Vice cannot j x ^ v 4S
IXO<; J v e ^. Q6 LLYIV lav ye Bo\iXy)Tai, <$8ixo<; &v Tcauaerat xal
'
be thrown ^ - ^
, , , , , ,

off at will, oixatcx;. Ouoe yap o voarcav uytTj^, xat ei OUTCO^; eTU^ev, excov voaet, axpaTW(; 15

butisformedp lOTlj (ov xa ^ aTceiOcov TOIC; taTpoi^ r6re (Jiev

o3v e^9jv auTO) (JLY] vocretv,
8* ouxe*Ti, wairep ouS' a^^vn XiOov eV auTov Suvariv avaXa^eLv aXX' Sfiax; ITC*

aura) TO (JaXetv xal pi^ai 7] yap ap^

1

/]
ev auToi. OUTCO 8e xal TW a8ixco xal TOJ
axoXaaTw e^ 20
apx^t; (xev e^vjv TOIOIJTOI; [JLYJ ytvea0ai, 8t6 exovTe? eiaiv yevofifvoic;
8' ouxeTi e^ecrTiv [JLYJ
elvat.
5
Ou (JLOVOV 8e at TT)^ ^i>x% xaxtai exoiioioi eiaiv, aXX evioi<; xal at roi5 (jw-

ol^ xal e7itTL(Jicl){Jiev TOI^ fjtev yap 8ta 9ucrtv atcrxpotc; ouSels erctTtfjia,

8e St* ayujjLvaatav xal a^Xetav. 'OfJLotax; 8e xal rcepl aaOvetav xal TTYjpcocrtv 25

yap av ovetStaetev TU^XCO 9U(ret ?] ex vocrou y ex 7cXy]y9j(;, [jtaXXov aXXa

eXevjaaf TO> 8e e^ oivc^Xuyta*; y &XX7)^ axoXaata^; Tra^ av evrtTtfJiYjcrat. Toiv
s

SYJ Tcepl TO aeofjia xaxtcav at 69* YJJUV eTctTtfjicovTat, at 8^ (JLYJ 9* Y]|Jtiiv oi>. Et 8

OUTOX;, xal eTtl TWV aXXcov at e7rtTt[xa)(JLevat TCOV xaxtcav 69* YJJUV av elev. 3

T b ' Ib " I3:i 4 a31 " b25:

donthat"
conduct is EE 8 Tt^ Xyot OTt 7cavTe<; e9tevTat TOU 9atvo[xvou ayaOoii, TYJ^ 8k 9avTaata^ ni4b
determined Xtipioi, aXX' 07rot6<; 7T00' exaaTO? eaTtv, TOtouTO xal TO TeXoc;

character auTq) et [zev o5v SxaaTO^ auT(5 TYJ^ S^eax; eaTt TTW? atTto^, xal TYJ<;
s

Tuax; auTO<; atrio?, eE 8e [JiTjSelc;

auTto atTto^ TOU xaxo:rotetv, aXXa 8t

Syvotav TOU TeXou? TauTa Trparret, 8ta TOUTWV ot6(Jievo; auTqi TO

loeaOat, y) 8e TOU TXOU^ e9eat^ oux au0atpeTo?, aXXa 9\jvat 8et
, ^ xptveZ xaXwc; xal TO xaT* aXy)0etav aya06v alpyjcreTat, xal
& TOUTO xaX<o<; Tc^uxev (TO yap ji^ytaTov xal xaXXtcrrov, xal 8
 [580] ETH. NIC. III-X 157

)
ol6v Te Xa(Jeiv [iy)S& (jiaOeiv, aXX* olov 90 TOIOOTOV Sei, xal TO e5
xal TO xaXtoc; TOUTO ra9uxvai y)
TeXeta xat aXyjOivyj Sv eEyj ewputa), ei Sy) Talk'
ecmv aXyjOyj, TI (/.aXXov yj aperf) TYJC; xaxta<; SaTat exouaiov ; 'Aficpoiv yap 6(Ao(co<;,
TCJJ ayaOco xal TCO xaxco, TO TXO<; 960^1 y) oTccoorSyjTcoTe 9atveTai xai xefaai,
XoiTra 7rp& ava9povTe^ TrpaTTOuatv oTccjcrSyjTroTe. BITS SY] T6 T^Xo^
TOUT'

(AY] 9tiaei exaaTco 9a[veTat otovS7]7COTe aXXa TI xal Trap* auTov saTtv, el/re TO
?

[X^v T^Xo^ 9\jaix6v, T<> Se Ta XoiTra TcpaTTeiv exooaiax; TOV aTtouSaiov y) apery)
'
exouaiov saTtv, ouOev ^TTOV xal y) xaxfa exoiiatov av etrj. 'Ofzoiax; y^P xa 1
20 TCO xaxcp UTrap/ei TO Si* auTov ev Tat<; Tcpa^ecrtv xal el (JLVJ ev TO> TeXet. El o5v,

wcrTuep X^yeTai, exoiiatoi elcriv at apeTat (xal yap TWV e^ewv auvaiTtoi TCCO<;

auToi ea(JLev, xal TCO Troiot Ttvec; elvai TO T^Xoc; Tot6v8e TiO^jieOa), xal at xaxiai

25 exouortot av elev OJJLOLOX; yap.

30 3 Actionsand
C. Ib., III4b -IH5a :

states of cha-
\ / 9 i f \ /

6(Jio[ci)^
Se at Tcpa^ei^ exouaioi elai xal al eJ;i<; TCOV fxev yap TrpaEecov racter not in
;
xupioi ea|iev, eiSoTe<; TOC xa6* Sxacrra, TCOV e^ecov 8k tne 8amc

ni5a Tyj? apx>)<;, xaO' exacrra 8k yj 7cp6a0eai; ou yvcopi(jLO, tocnrep im TCOV appcocmcov voluntary
aXX' STL 9' y)|juv ?)v OUTCOC; y) fju) O^TCOC; xP Q aaa ^ ai ^ L(* ^O^TO exouaioi.
1
7

3 THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS. A PHENOMENOLOGY OF VIRTUE

(Books III 6-X)

581 Ar.'s treatment of courage gives a good instance of his method

in defining moral virtues. It has been rightly remarked by Ross that this
method the reverse of that followed by Plato. Plato tends to interpret
is

every virtue so widely that it is essentially identified with virtue as a

whole we have seen this in the Laches concerning courage (our nr. 210),
and again in the Republic concerning justice (nrs. 284-285) ; by Ar.
the spheres of the particular virtues are narrowed as much as possible.

a. Eth. Nic. Ill 6, 1115 a 6 - 35 :

Courage
defined
Kal TrpcoTov Trepl
r/
OTi (Jtev
ouv (iea6Ty)<; ecra irepl 9opou<; xal 6appy), y^Syj 9avepov yeylvyjTat,
9opo\i[JLe0a Se 8y)Xov6Ti T<X 9o(3epa, TauTa &' ecmv co<; aTrXcoc; stTcetv xaxa-
810 xal T^V 9oj3ov op^ovTai rcpoaSoxtav xaxou. Oopo\i|i,e6a (JL^V o5v TraVra
5
10 Ta xaxa, olov aSo^tav Tueviav v6aov a9tXtav OavaTov, aXX 06 Trepl TravTa Soxec
6 avSpeio^ elvaf Svia yap xal Set 9o(ieuj6ai xal xaXov, TO Se (iyj ataxpov,
olov a&oi;av 6 (JL^V yap 9opoii(/,evo<; e7cieixy]<; xal atSyjfJtcov, 6 8k jrJj 9opoii[xevo<;

15 avataxuvTO<;. AlyeTai S* u?r6 TIVCOV avSpeto? xaTa fjLTa90pav S^et yap Tt

8(jiotov TCJ) avSpefcp ^90^0^ yap TI$ xal 6 av8peto<;. Ilevtav 8k tacos ou Set
 158 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [581]

<popetcr6ai ouSI; v6cov, 008* 8Xto<; 8aa (r>j

arco xaxta<; fjiYjSe
Si* auT6v aXX' 068*
6 Trepl TOCUTOC dkpopos avSpeloc;, Xyo|zev 8e xal TOUTOV xa6' 6(ioi6TY]Ta. "Evict

yap Iv TOC<; TcoXefiixois xivSiivoic; SeiXol fivTec; eXeuOpiot eiai xal Trpo<; xp^H-aTCOv 20
aTco(JoXY]v e66ap<rco<; lx ouaiv OuS^ SYJ ei TIC fipptv Trepl TuaiSac; xal yuvaZxa
6vov Y]
TI TCOV TOIOUTCOV, SeiX6<; ecmv ouS* el Gappet (jilXXcov
M
dvSpeio<;. Ilepl Trota o5v TCOV ^ojJepcov 6 avSpetoc;; H Trepl

; OuOeU Y*P uTcofieveTixcoTepot; TCOV Seivcov. OopepcoTaTOv 8* 625

6avaTO<; yap? >^al ouSev STI TCO Te6vecoTi Soxet otfTe
?r^pa<; aya06v oSTe xaxiv
ecvai. A6eie 8* av ouS^ Tuepl OavaTov TOV ev TcavTl 6 avSpetoc; elvai, olov ev

>] v6aoi^.
'Ev Tiaiv o5v; "H ev TOL^ xaXXiaTOic; TOIOUTOL 8k ol ev ;

ev [leyitTTCp yap xal xaXXtOTco xivStivco. 'OfJioXoyot 8e TO^TOK; elal 30

xal al Ti(Jtal al ev Taic; Tc6Xeat xal Trapa TOC<; (jLovap^oic;. Kuptcoc; SY] X^-

yoiT* av avSpeto^ 6 Trepl T&V xaXov OavaTOv a8e7]<;,

xal 8aa OavaTov e TC i
9 e p e i 6 TC 6 y u i a 8vTa- TotauTa
8efJiaXtcrTaTaxaTaTc6Xe(iov. 35
16 - 24
b. Ib. 7, iiisb :

FiveTai SY) TCOV ajxapTicov Y) [lev STL 8 ou Set, Y]

8e STI oi^ coc; Sec, Y]
8e STL 1115
C

oux 8Te, YJ
TI TCOV TOIOUTCOV 6(JLoio)^ 8e xal Trepl Ta OappaXea. (JLev
o5v a Set bl 5
xal o5 Ivexa xal ^opoufjievo^, xal coc; Set xal 8Te, 6[jLoico<; 8e xal
uTrojjievcov

Oappcov, avSpeto? (xaT* a^tav yap, xal co^ av 6 X6yo<;, Traci^et xal TcpaTTei 6
its motive
(JvSpeio^ TeXo<; Se Tracnjc; evepyeiac; eaTl TO xaT<i TYJV eiv, xal TCO dvSpeicp 8e2o

nobility T) dvSpeta xaX6v TOIOUTOV SYJ xal TO TeXo<; opi^eTai yap exaaTOv TCO TeXei.
KaXou SYJ Svexa 6 dv8peio<; uTcofJilvet xal TcpaTTet TOC
xaTa TYJV avSpeiav.
Again, W. D. Ross l
has made an interesting remark here : in his actual treatment
of the virtues, he says, Ar. somewhat forgets his formal view; (namely, that all
human action aims at an end other than itself) he nowhere attempts to deduce
;

the necessity of any single virtue from the supreme end to be attained. He
treats the agent as being moved to action by the con-
templation of the "fineness" of the good act itself,
and thus becomes in his detailed treatment an intui-
tion s t. i

582 a. The sphere of temperance is limited to the pleasures of

touch and taste, but especially to those of touch.
Temperance Eth. Nic. Ill IO, 1117 b ao-IIl8 b 1 :

Ilepl [Jtev o3v avSpeta^ em TOCTOUTOV eipifjaOco (T( 8* ecnrtv, ou ^aXeTrov T\jTrco J* 1 ?

ye TreptXapetv ex TCOV etpYjfjLevcov) (xeTa 8e Taur/jv Trepl aco9po(ruvY)<; Xyco[Jiev.

Aoxoucn yap TCOV aXoycov (jtepcov afoai elvai at apeTaL "()TI fxev o5v

1
Aristotle, p. 204/5.
 [582] ETH. NIC. III-X 159

25 earl Trepl Yj8ovd<; Y) ora>9poa\ivY), eEpyjTat Yjfitv (Y^TTOV yap xal

Tcepl Ta^ XuTras ecnrlv) ev Tot auTOt$ 8e xal YJ

dxoXaata ^atvsTau Ilepl Ttotas
o3v TCOV YjSovcov, vov a90pfara>(Jiev. A^pTjaOcoaav SYJ xal at aeojjia'nxal xal al

l, olov 9iXoTt[jia 9tXo(ia0a exaTepo<; yap Totacov xa &P l 5 9tXY]Tix6<;

v, ouSev Traa/ovTOS TOU arco[jiaTO<;, aXXa [JiaXXov TYJ<; Stavotac;. 01 8k Trepl

Tac; TOtauTa<; YjSovac; otfTe aa^povec; ofiTe dx6XaorToi XeyovTai- 6(jioa><; S^ ouS'
ol Tuepl TOC<; (SXXac; 8aai (JLY) acojAaTixat etatv. Touc; yap 9iXofJiu0ou(; xal 8iY)yY)Tixoij<;

35 xal Trepl TGJV TU^VTCOV xaTaTptpovra*; Ta^ Y](jLpa^ aSoX^cj^ac;, axoXaaTOU^ 8*

inSaou Xlyofxev, ouSe TOU^ XuTcouf/ivoix; ini xp^^aiv 75 91X01^. Ilepl 8 TOCC; ao>-

(xaTLxa^ etT)
av YJ (Tco9poauvy],
ou rcaaa^ 8e ouSe TauTa<; ol yap ^oupovTe^ TOI(;
Sia TYJS o^/eax;, olov xpw^acrt xal ax^aaL xal ypa9yj, OUTB ad>9pove(; ofrre
5<xx6XaaTOi XyovTai xatTOt So^etev av elvat xal ax; Set xa ^
xal xa6* u7cep(3oX7)v xal SXXei^iv. 'OfJiofco^ 8e xal ev TOLC; Trepl T/JV axovjv

yap UTueppe(3Xy](jL^vci)^ xa ^P OVTa<? {^eXeaiv ^ uTroxptaet ou0el<; axoXdcrroiK; Xeyei,

ouSe TOU<; a><; Set cra>9pova<;. OuSe TOIX; ?cepl TTJV 6a(jLY)v, TcXrjv xaTa aufjipepYjxoc;
IOTOU<; yap /aipovTac; (jiYjXaiv YJ poScov YJ OufiiafJiaTCov oajiaZ^ ou Xyo[xev dxoXa-
aXXa (JiaXXov TOU^ (Jiiipcov YJ 8^6)v xatpouai yap TOUTOIC; ol dxoXacrroi,
Sid Toiircov dvd[JLV7)oi<; yiveTai auTOt^; raiv e7ri6u(jiY)Tcov. "ISoi 8* #v TI^; xal

ou<;, orav Treivcoot, x a ^P OVTa(^ Ta^ T ^ v Ppw(JiaTa)v 6a[j,at<;' TO 8e

i5TOioiJTOi<; xa ^P LV dxoXaCTTOU. TOUT(O yap e7U0u(ji7)Ta Taura. Oux
ouSe TOC^; &XXoi^ ^coot<; xard raura^ Ta^ aLdOrjaeic; YjSovv] 7cXy]v xard au[Ape
OuS^ yap Tat^ carats TCOV Xaycpwv at xuve<; xa ^P oucrtv )
*^a Tyj Ppcocret, TYJV
20 8* afoOrjatv 73 oafiY] ercoiYjaev ouSe 6 Xecov Tyj 9cov7J TOU (3ooc;, aXXa Tfj eScoS^
Tt 8* eyyii^ ecrt, 9a)V7](; f^aOeTo, xal x a ^P slv
Sid TYJ^ TauTY) 9atveTat ^
6(JioUo<; 8* ouS* t8o)v 'Xa9ov T) Syptov alya, dXX' OTI popdv l^ei. II e p I T d c>

TOtaoTac; SYJ Y]8ovd(; aco9poor6vY) xal dxoXaata 7) YJ

eaTlv &v xal Ta Xot?ud oia xotvwvet, oOev dvSpaTco-

258co8etg xal OvjpicoSetc 9atvovTat- a^Tat 8* etcrlv
xal yeuatc;. OatvovTat Se xal T^ yeuaet e:rl [Jiixpov ouOev y)

TYJ<; yap yeiiareci^ ecrTtv TJ xptatc; TO>V x^^wv, oTcep Trotouatv ol TOU<; otvou<; 80-

xtp.d^ovTe(; xal TOC 8^ a dpTiiovTec;' ou Tuavu Se yoLipouGi TOUTOt<;, y) oify ot ye

3odx6XaaTot, aXXa Tyj aTcoXaiiaet, yj ytveTat Tcaaa St* by^t; xal ev CTtTtotc; xal ev

TcoTotc; xal At6 xal Yju^aTo TK; 6^09ayo^

Tote; a9po8iatai<; Xeyo[jivoi^. a>v TOV

9apuyya auT$ [xaxp6Tepov yepdvou ytva0at, ax; Y)86(jLevo<; T

b. Ib., n, in8b 27 - 28 1119 a 5- 11 ,

:

uiga 'H
[Jiev
o5v Ttepl Tac; Y)8ova<; uTreppoXv) BTI dxoXaata xal ^SXTOV, SyjXov.
5 'EXXetTcovTe^ Se Ta Trepl Ta^ YjSovac; xaC Y^TTOV Y) Set xatpovTe^ ou Ttdvu ytvovTat.

Ou yap avOpcoTUXY) eaTtv YJ TOtauTY) dvaLoOYjata. Kal Ta XotTcd ^qia Staxptvet

 160 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [582]

TOC ppco|JiaTa, xal TOI<; [liv xafpet TOI<; 8' oS el 8i TCO fry)0v ECTTIV v^Si fiy)8e

8ia9epei Irepov erpou, 7c6ppa> av e&q TOU &v0pa>7co elvai. Oi T^Teuxe 8* 10

6v6{jiaTO 6 TOIOUTO^ Sia TO [rJ)

Tcavo yiveaOai.

W. D. Ross 1
this passage: "Apart from the excessive
remarks on
narrowness of the conception of temperance, the main point to be noted
here is the breakdown of the doctrine of the mean".

583 The crown of virtues is, according to Ar., that particular virtue
which he calls "greatness of soul". It is described as follows.

Ethm Nic ' IV 3 '

II2 3 a34 - II2 5 al6:

'H 8e [xeyaXo^uxta Trepl [jieyaXa (Jtev

xal ex TOU ovojiaTO^ Soixev elvai, Tcepl
Troia 8* ecrrl Trpcorov Xa^cofAsv. Aia^epei 8* ouSev rfjv e^iv Y]
TOV xara T7)v

S^LV axoTrelv. Aoxet 8e jjLeyaXo^uxo^ elvai 6 jieyaXcov

auTOv a^tcov 4 ^ i o ^ wv- 6 yap ^7) xaT* a^tav auTO TTOIWV rjXlOio^,
2
TWV 8e xaT* apeT7]v ouSelc; r)Xi6iO(; 008' avoTj-ro^. MeyaXo^uxoc; {Aev o5v 6

stp7)(zevo<;. (6 yap jzixpcov SL^KX; xal TOUTWV a^twv saur^v adxppcov,

8* oii ev (isyeOei yap Y) (jtsyaXo^uxta, coa:rep xal TO xaXXoc; ev (jteyaXa)
J

ot [Jiixpol 8 aaTetoL xal cru[jL[jLTpoi, xaXol 8* 06) 6 8e (xeyaXcov eaoTov a^icov

xa ^ VO(^ (o ^ e (xet^ovcov i^toc; ou x a ^ vo ^ ) eXaTTOvwv ^

'
ava^toc; a>v r] Trac; 6 JP
I0
(Sc^toc; (xixpo^uxoc;, eav TC [JieyaXcov eav TS (jLCTptwv, eav TS xal p.ixpcav #105
cov ITL eXaTTOvcov aurov a^tot- xal (jtaXidTa av 86eiev 6 (JteyaXcov dc^to^' T(

yap av eTcotet, et (JLT)

TOOTOUTWV v^v dc^io^;
"EorTL SY) 6 (jLeyaX6^oxo<; TW (JLEV |ieye0ei fixpoc, TCO 8e ax; 8et fxe<io<; (TOU

yap xar* a^iav auTOv a^ioi)' uTreppaXXouai xal eXXebrouaiv.

ol 8' 15
El 8e SYJ (jteyaXcav eauTov a^toi <5^io<; civ, xal [zaXiora TOJV [Aeytdrcov, Tcepl
ev (jLaXidTa av et>).
e
H
8* a^ia Xeyerat 7rp6<; ra IXTO^ aya6a (jLeyiarov 8e TOUT*
av OetTjfJtev 8 TOL<; 6eoi<; a7cove(JLO(Jiev, xal o3 [AaXiaT* ecptevTai ol Iv a^wojJiaTt,
xal TO errl TOL^ xaXXiaTOi<; aOXov TOIOUTOV 8* y) TI(JLT) (filyiaTov yap STJ TOUTO 20
It is related
T v | XT ^^ ayaOcov ) ?repl Ttfiac; 8r) xal aTi(jLtac; 6 |jLeyaXo^ux6(; ecmv dx; Sec.

and Kal aveu Se Xoyou 9atvovTat ol [JteyaXo^uxot Trepl TL|JLY]V elvat TIJJLTJC; yap [la-
disgrace XiaTa ol (xeyaXoL d^iouaiv eai)Tou<;- xaT* diav 8e. '0 8e (jLixpoipuxo^ eXXehrei
xal 7rp6<; eaDTov xal 7rpo<; TO TOU [jLeyaXo^uxou a^icafia. '0 Se x a ^ vo ^ ^rpic 2 5
eauTov (jtev uTceppaXXei, ou (JLYJV TOV ye jJieyaXo^uxov.
'0 Se [jieyaX6^uxo<;, etTiep TCOV {JteyiaTOiv &^io<;, &puiTO<; av etv)' (Jie^ovoc; yap
ael 6 peXTiov S^LO^, xal (jteytaTcov 6 <5pionro<;. Tov ax; aX7)0a><; Spa (ieyaX6^i>xov
Set ayaOov elvai. Kal 86eiev 8* <av> elvai [xeyaXotj^xou ^ & exaaTyj apeir^ 30

1
Aristotle, p. 207.
8
TCOV xaT* dcper/jv - sc. dcStoOvTcov
 [583] ETH. NIC. III-X 161

Ou8a(ico<; T' av ap[ji6oi |ieyaXo^ux<p 9etiyeiv wapaoBlaavri *, ou8'

aSixeiv T[VO<; yap ^vexa 7rpdei alcrxpa & y* ou8ev (iya; Ka6* gxacrra 8*

emaxoTiouvTi TtdfJiTCav yeXoioc; (patvoiT* av 6 [xeyaXo^uxoc; [JLYJ dyaOo^ tov.

35 Oux av ouSe Tipjc <5;io<; 9auXo<; cov TYJ<; apeTYJs yap 0Xov YJ TifiY), xal
eiY) 8*

24aa7cov|JLeTai TO 15 dya0oi<;. "Eoixe [lev o5v Y) (xeyaXo^uxia olov xoo~[io<; TI<; elvai
A crown of
the virtues
TWV apercov [xel^ou^ yap aura^ Tcoiei, xal 06 ytveTai Sveu exetvov. Aia TOUTO
XaXeTiiv T^ aXvjOeia [jieyaX6^uxov elvat ou yap ol6v TE a"vsu xaXoxaya6(a<;.
MaXiaTa [xev o5v rrepl Ti[/,a^ xal aTtfxta^ 6 (xeyaXi^uxoc; SCTTIV, xal eTrl [lev Attitude
5
towards
(xeyaXai<; xal u?c6 TCOV aTrouSaicov fjieTpico^ YjaOTjaeTai, cat; T&V oixetcov honour
' '
cov ^ xal eXaTTOV<ov apeT^<; yap TcavTeXoo^ oux av yevoiTo a^ta TIJAY)
ou aXX* a7ioS6^eTat ye TG> (JLY) 2xeLV *^oi? [xei^to auToi aTiovefjieiv TYJ^ 8e
TCOV TI>XOVTCOV xal em (Jtixpotc; TcajiTcav oXiytoprjaei, ou yap TOUTCOV &^io^
*

8e xal aTi(jLtac;, oo yap Sarai Stxaicoc; Tcepl auT6v.

MaXiara ouv eaT^v, codTcep etpyjTai, 6 pieyaXi^uxo^ ?repl TtfJiac;, ou (JLYJV towards
[lev
other
aXXa xal Trepl TrXoijTOV xal SuvaaTeCav xal Traaav euTUX^av xal <XTi>xav {xeTpiax; external

i, STTOX; av ytvY]Tai, xal oure euTUXcov Ttepixapyjc; Sarat ov>Te OCTUXCOV Tcept- goods

C;. OuSe yap Tuepl Tiptyjv OUTCO<; exet co^ {iyicrTOv ov (at yap Suvacrreiai xal 6

TirXoimx; Sta TYJV

TifJLYjv eaTtv alpeTa
youv ^xovTe<; ol auTa Ti[Aaa6at St*
^ouXovTai) cL SY) xal Y) TifiY) jjLixpov ecrTtv, TOUTCO xal Ta &XXa. Aio u
20 Soxouaiv elvai. Aoxei 8e xal T<X euTux^aTa aujjipaXXeCTOai Trpoc; (

01 yap euyevet<; a^touvTat TI[JL^ xal ol SuvaaTeiiovre^ Y) TrXouTouvTe^ ev u?repo-

X^ yap, TO 8* ayaOco UTiepexov Tcav evTi(Ji6Tepov. Ato xal TOC ToiauTa [xeyaXo-
25 ^uxoTepoix; Tcoiei Ti^covTai yap UTTO TIVCOV. KaT* aXY)6eiav Se 6 dya66<; [ji6vo<;

TtjiYjTeoc; & 8* 4fji9to uTcapxei, (JiaXXov a^touTai, TL(JLY]^. 01 8* <5cveu apeTY^c; TCX

ayaOa 2x VTe<5 ^ Te 8ixatco^ eauTou^; (jieyaXcov d^Loudt

ovTai. "Aveu yap apeTYJc; TravTeXouc; oux 'aTi TauTa, u
30 8e xal OppioTal ol Ta ToiauTa ?x ovTe ^ aya6a yiyvovTai. ''Aveu yap <xpeTYJ<; ou
pcjlStov 9^peiv e{JL{JieXco<;
TOC euTux^fJiaTa ou Suvdfievoi 8e ^Ipeiv xal oi6[zevoi TCOV
I2 4t>SXXa>v
U7rep^x stv exetvtov [jiev xaTa9povouaiv, auTol 8* 8 TI av Tuxcoaiv TrpaT-
TOUCTLV. MifjLouvTai yap TOV (jLeyaX6^uxov oux S^o^ot 8vTe<;, TOUTO 8e Spcoatv
ev olc; SuvavTat- Ta (Jiev
o5v xaT* apeTYjv ou TrpaTTOuatv, xaTa9povouai 8e TCOV
sSXXcov. 'O (lev yap (ieyaX6<|;uxo<; Sixatcoc; xaTa9povet (So^a^ei yap dXYjOco^),
ol 8e TroXXol TUx6vTco.
Oux ^CTTIV 8e [jLixpoxiv8uvo<; ou8e 9tXoxiv8uvo<; 8ia TO oX^ya Tijiav, (jieyaXo- towards
danger
xtvSuvo^ 8, xal 8Tav xivSuveuyj, a9ei8Y)? TOU (3iou co^ oux i^iov 8v TravTco^ YJV.
in
ioKal olo^ e5 rcoielv, euepyeToujievo*; 8e ataxuveTaf TO yap U7repx<mo<;, andconferring
(lev
receiving
TO 8* uTiepexojJL^vou. Kal avTeuepyeTix6<; 7rXet6vcov OUTCO yap Trpoox^XYjaet 6 benefits

1
"swinging his arms by his side".
-
TcapocoetoavTi

De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II

 I&2 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [583]

xal &JTOU s5 7C7rov6a><;. Aoxouai 8k xal (Av>)[iovUiv ou<; av TroiYJcrcoatv

U7cap5;a<;

e3, <U9*> &v 8' av TuaOcocnv 08 IXaTTcav yap 6 TiaOcbv eS TOU 7coiY|aavTO<;,
8* u7TpXtv. Kal T<X JJLEV YjSlax; axouEi, Ta 8* dajSw^' 816 xal rJ)v 15
s
ou XyLv Ta<; suEpyEaia^ TG> ALL ou8 01 Aaxoavsc; 7rp6<; TOU<;

aXX* a 7ce7r6v6e<rav s5. MEyaXo^u^ou ^e xaXt T0 H->)8ev6(; ScicOai

TSIV 8e 7rpo0u[jL(o<;, xal 7cp6<; {xev TOIX; ev a^tcofjiaTL xal eoTUxfatc; (jteyav elvai,
'

7cpo<; 8s TOUC; (Jieaoix; (i^Tpiov T&V yap U7rpx

[xev lv Xa^ e7U ^ v xa 1 <reHv6v, TCOV 20
8e paSiov, xal ETC* EXELVOK; fxev aefJivuvejOai oux ayevv<;, ev 8e TOL<; Ta^sivot^;
J
9opTix6v, caaTcep el^ TOVK; acrOevet^ Icr^upt^ecrOai. Kal etc; TOC SvTijia [JLY]
ivat ,

TQ
ou TrpcoTeuoocriv aXXot xal apyov elvat xal (jLeXXY]TY]v dcXX' >J
STTOU TtfjiY] aeyaXv)
7] epyov, xal 6Xiy(ov {Jiev rcpaxTixov, {leyaXwv 8e xal ovojjLacTtov. 25
in speaking TO yap Xav6avtv
'Avayxalov Se xal 9avp6(jucrov elvat xal cpavpocpiXov
openly 9opoufjilvou. Kal (XXiv TYJ^ aXYjOfiia^ [AaXXov ^ TTJ^ So^v)^, xal Xyiv xal

yap 8ta TO xaTa^povfiiv. Ai6 xal aX7]0UTixo<;,

oaa [JLYJ
Si* ip(ovtav etpcova SE rcpoc; TOO^ TroXXouc;. Kal 7cpo<; aXXov (XT) 30
2
SiivaaOaL YJ ^iXov
vjv SouXtxov yap, 816 xal TCOCVTEC; ol xoXax<; 6v)Tixol
dXX'
xal ol xoXax(;. OuSs: 6au|JLaaTix6<; ouSfiv yap (Jiya auTto Ecrdv.
TOCTrcivoi

OuSs (jivyjcrtxaxo^ ou yap (jtEyaXo^u^ou TO a7ro(jLVY3(jLovUtv, &XXco^ TE xal

3
xaxa, aXXa [jtaXXov Tcapopav. OuS' avOpcoTtoXoyoc; OUTE yap TiEpl auTou 5

spt OUTE Trepl ET^pou OUTS yap tva ETraivYjTai [JL^XEL auT(p ouO* OTCGX; ol SXXot
^lycovTai, ouS* aO 7raivTLx6<; EGTIV StoTtsp ouSg; xaxoXoyoc;, ouSs TCOV ^6pcov,
EI [AY]
81' fippiv. Kal 7ipl avayxaicov 73 (iixpcov Tjxio'Ta oXo^upTtxo^ xal 87]Ttx6<;
a7cou8aovTO<; yap OUTCOC; /eiv TTcpl TauTa. Kal oloc; xEXT^aOai (jiaXXov Ta xaXa 10
xal <5cxap7ra TWV xapTTifjtcov xal cI)9Xt|JLa)v aoTapxouc; yap [jtaXXov.
Outward Ka X ivY]<Ti^ SE ppaSsca TOU
[JLyaXo<];uxou SOXEL elvai, xal 9covy) Papia,
xal X^ 1 ? o'TaatiJLO^ ou yap aTcsuaTixo^ 6 Tcepi oXiya arrouSa^cov, ou8s GUVTOVO<;
6 (JLTjSEv [XEya oi6[jLvo(; YJ 8' 6u9covta xal rj Ta^uTYjc; 8ca TOUTCOV. 15
We share the impression of Ross, who states that "as a whole the picture is an
unpleasing one".

Justice 584 Book V of the Nicomacheun Ethics devoted to justice. Contrary

is

to Plato, Ar. follows the common use of language. Doing so, he distin-

guishes two main senses of the terms "just" and "unjust".

TWO senses pjfa jyic. y i,

'just" and AOXEC 8s 8 TE 7rapavo(zo<; a"Sixo<; Elvai xal 6 7uXovlxT7)<; xal O'VLOTOC;,

"unjust" ---------
1
etc Ta SvTLjia (JIT)
Uvat - he does not strive after the things commonly held in
honour.
2
living at the will of another.
(ScXXov -
TJV 7up6<;
3
AvOpcoTToX^yo?
- a gossip.
 [584] ETH. NIC. III-X 163

873X0 v STI xal 6 Sbcaioc; Satai 8 TS v6[U(jio<; xal 6 iao<;. T6 |iev Stxatov Spa TO

v6(xi(JLOv xal TO Eaov, TO 8' a*8ixov T& 7iapdvo|Jiov xal T& a*vi<iov.

585 In the first sense "justice" is perfect virtue, containing all other
virtues and displayed in society.

Ib., H29b n -ii3oa 8 :

Justice in

8* 6 7rapavo(JLOc; &8ixo<; YJV 6 8e VOJJLI(JLO<; Sixaioc;, STjXov STI TravTa TOC sense
v6(JLi|xa eaTt TUO? Sixaia- Ta TS yap copiajzeva UTC& T% vo[AoGeTixYJ<; v6[Ai[jid

laTt, xal Ixaarov TOIJTCOV Sixaiov elvai cpa(jiv. 01 Se vo^xoi ayopeuouai ?cepl

i5a7uavT(ov, crToxa^Ofxevoi TQ
TOU XOIVYJ ai>[i<ppovTO Traatv TQ TOLC; xuptoi^, Y)
xaT*

apeTTjv y)
xaT* <5cXXov Ttva Tporcov TOIOUTOV COCTTE eva (JLSV Tp6?rov SUaia Xeyo^ev
Ta TcotTjTixa xal ^uXaxTtxa eu&ai,|jLOVLa<; xal TWV (jiopuov auTYJc;

xoivcovia. FIpodTaTTei 8* 6 vopio<; xal Ta TOU avSpstou epya Tuoielv, olov

2oXetaeiv T*y]v Ta^iv (jLY]8e 9iiysiv (JLY)S piTTTetv Ta o?cXa, xal Ta TO
olov (JLY) [Jioixetaw (JLY]8e uppt^eiv, xal Ta TOO Trpaou, olov (JLY]
TUTTTSIV

xaxvjyopeiv, 6(jLOico^ 8^; xal TOC xaTa Ta^ aXXag apSTac; xal (jiox9Y)pta<; Ta
25xeXsia>v Ta 8* aTrayopeiicov, opOwc; [JLEV
6 XEI[JIEVO<; 6pOco<;, xe^P ov ^'
x
8iaa(Jtevo(; .
AUTY) (Jiev
oOv Y] StxaiocriivY) apeTTj (JLV eaTtv TsXeia, aXX*
aXXa 7rp6<; ^Tepov. Kal Sia TOUTO TroXXdxtc; xpaTtaTY] TCOV apeTwv elvai Soxet

Y] SixaiooruvYj, xal ouO* ecrTrepoc; OUTS ecoo<; OUT<O OaufJiaciTo^ xal Tcapoifxia-

2
30 ev 8e StxaiocruvYj (juXXYjpSYjv Tuacr' apeTY] evt .

Kal TeXeia jidXiaTa dpeTY), OTL TYJ<; TeXeta^ dpT^ xP^ a ^ SCTTIV, TsXeta 8* e

8Ti 6 S/cav auTYjv xal Trpoc; STepov 8iivaTai

TY) aper^ xP^^ai, JJLOVOV xaO* dXX* ou
auT^v TcoXXol yap ev T^ dpsT^ SuvavTai xpYJaOai, ev 8k, TOL^ 7rpo<;
(jtev TOL<; OLXELOU;

ii3oa eTepov dSuvaTouaiv. Kal Sia TOUTO eu Soxet e^eiv TO TOU BiavTO<;, STI, wap^a avSpa
8e^ei(( 7rp6<; eTepov yap xal ev xotvcovta YjSY] 6 ap^cov. Aia Se T^ auTO TOUTO xal

dXX6Tpiov dya06v Soxet elvat YJ StxaioauvYj [JLOVYJ

TCOV dpeTcov, 8Ti Tipoc; ^Tepov

5 IdTCv (ScXXco yap Ta ou(JL9lpovTa TrpaTTet, Y] (ip^ovTi Y)

xoivcavw. Kaxio~TO<; (JLSV

o5v 6 xal :rp6<; auTOv xal TTpo^; TOUC; 9tXou<; %p&[Levo<; rf\ (jLO/OYipta,
8* ou/ 6 Trpoc; auTov Tyj dpeTf] dXX* 6 Tupoc; eTepov TOUTO yap epyov

586 a. There also exists a sort of "justice" in a special sense, which

is a part of virtue in general.
Eth. Nic. V 2, 1130 a
14- 34
:

S ye TYJV ev (Jilpet dpeTYjc; SixaioauvYjv. "EaTi yap TU;, ax; 9a^v. *""sense

1
dt7ceoxe8taa(jtvo<;
- if it has been made at random.
8
Theognis, 147.
 164 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [586]

Si xal rcepl 8ixla$ T% xaTA {x4po$. STJJXCIOV 8* &n lartv

ra<; &XXa<; ftox&qpta^ 6 ivepyGv aStxet |/iv, rcXeovexTei 8* o&8v, olov &
V icntlSa Side SeiXiav ^ xax& efoc&v 8i& xa^STC 6TiQTa ^ ^ po^OiQaa^

aveXeoOeptav 6Tav Si rcXeovexTfj, rcoXXdcxis xaT* ou8e(jtav TOW

*
Si*

{i"rjv
,
ou84 xairi wdtaa^, xaTA rcov7)p(av Si y e TIV(^ (^^Y0(xev yip ) 2
aXXci

xal xaT* AStxCav. "Eariv 4pa ye 4XXiQ Tt? iStxia <o$ (xipo^ T^C 6X73^, xal SStx6v
TI iv (Jtpei TOU 6X00 aSixou TOU rcapa TOV v6(jiov. ^Eri el & (i^v TOU xepSaCveiv
Ivexa (jioixeuet xal 7cpo<rXa(JL(3avcav, 6 Si TtpoaTtOelc; xal iQ(zioO(4Svo St,' ^iOu- 25

filav, 081:05 pi^v 4x6XaaTO<; 86^ctev av elvat jxaXXov ?) TrXeovlxTY]*;, 4xetvo<; 8*

8ixo^ 4x6XaaTO^ 8* ofi. A9jXov

9 <$pa STI 8iA T^ xepSatvsiv. "ETC Trepl (xiv rA
4XXa TiavTa dc8ixif)|xaTa 617* 1 y^ ^ocvayopa
^1
47t( Tiva (jtoOx^P^v aet, olov et

JTI' ixoXacrtav, el ^
YxaT lTCV T^ v TcapaffTaryjv, 4?ul Se&Xiav, 130
9

,
inl ipyifjv, el S& Ix^pSavev, in ou8ejjL(av (zoxffyptav 4XX* ^ err*

i. diatribu- b justice in this sense is divided into two kinds: (i) distributive,

*.corrtive{2) corrective.
Ib., H3ob30-ii3i a1 :

Si xari (zipo^ 8txato<r\iv7]<; xal TOO xar* aur))v Sixabu Iv (i^v ICTIV

xotvovoGcrt T% 7coXiTeta<; (Iv TOUTOK; yap ICTTIV xal #viaov

Irepov erpou), v 84 r6 ev TOI$ m>vaXXay{Jia<jt 8iop0a)Ttx6v.

corrective c Corrective justice again is subdivided into two divisions.

justice T, 1 10
subdivided Ib., 1131 a -*:
ToiiTou Si |iip7j 860 TCOV yap ouvaXXayfJtciTCOV ri fiiv Sxotiata ^GTW Tot Si 113

,
exotSata jjtiv Ta ToiaSe olov rcpaffis, cl>vy), 8avei<r(i,6<;, lyyivj, XP^^^*
(Jxoiata Si Xiyerat, STI YJ Apx^) T&V auvaXXayfxaTcov 5
), |jt(a6<i)0i<;

totkov lxoi<rio<;), TCOV Si axouattov r<i fiiv XaOpaia, olov xXoTnf),

x
9ap(jtaxe(a, Ttpoaycoyeta , SouXaitaTta, SoXo90va, ^eu8o(AapTupla, TA Si
olov atxCa, 8eafJL6<;, OdcvaTO^, apTtayy), Tryjpwaic;, xaxTjyopia,

587 In a .certain sense justice may be called a mean between two

extremes. First distributive justice is considered.

Eth. Nic. V 3,
8
1131 a*- *:
'Ercel 8* 8 T* 48ixo<; 4viao^ xal T6 48txov 4viaov, SvjXov STI xal |iaov Tt IOTI 10
TOU Avtaou. TOUTO 8* icrrl Ti tcrov 4v 67ro(? yip Tcpdl^ei 4<rrl Ti 7tX4ov xal T&
iXarrov, ICTT! xal Ti laov. El o5v T& $8ixov fiviaov, T& Stxaiov Eaov 87iep xal

1
Prostitution.
 [587] ETH. NIC. III-X 165

4veu X6you Soxei Ttaoiv. 'Excel 8e TO foov (jiaov, TO 8xaiov (JL<TOV TI Sv etrj.

i5"EaTi 8e TO taov ev eXaxffToi 8ua(v. 'Avayxr) TO(VUV T& Sixatov {/iaov TE xal
taov elvat xal 7rp6<; TI xal TKT(V, xal ^ ^iv [liaov, TIVOW (rauTa 8* earl TtXetiov
xal IXarrov), fj
8' tcrov e<rrl, Suoiv, fj 8& 8xaiov, Tiaiv. 'Avayxrj <5cpa r6 8(xaiov
v XaxtaToi<; elvat TeYrapaiv ol<; re yap Stxaiov Tuyxavei 8v, 8\io <JT[, xal
20 Iv [TawpayiJtaTa],
olc; r]
8\io. Kal a&TYj Sarai E<j6T7)q, xal ev ol^- ax; yap
oT<;

Ixetva 2xet T<* ^ v OUTCO xaxetva 2^ei

> ^ et yap [JLTJ taot, oux tcra l^oudtv, aXX*

evTeCOev at (xaxat xal Ta eyxXr)|iaTa, OTav Y)

taoi (JLY)
laa Y^ (JLTJ
taot taa 2x coai xa ^
25 v^fjieovTat. "Eft ex TOU xar* a^iav TOOTO S^Xov T& yap Sixaiov ev Tai<; Siavofxati^

ofJioXoyouai 7cavTe<; xar' a^iav Tiva Setv elvat, TYJV [JL^VTOI aEiav ou TTJV auTYjv
7ravTe<; uTtapxeiv, aXX* ol [xev SyjiioxpaTixol eXeuOeptav, ol 8* oXiyapxtxol

ot 8e euy^veiav, ot 8' api<TTOxpaTtxol apeTYjv. "EaTiv <Jpa TO Sixaiov * 80rt of

30 avaXoyov TU T6 yap avaXoyov oo [i6vov earl (lovaSixoo apiOfiou tSiov, aXX*

api6|xoi>' Y) yap avaXoyta Ea6T7]<; edTl Xoycav, xal Iv T^Trapcrtv eXaxt<JTOt<;.

E.g. : the wages of A and B should be in proportion to the merits of A and B.

Thus a :
p = y 8, and a y : = p 8. Now a
:
= (a + y) (P 4- SK
: : :

This is called geometrical proportion.

588 Next, corrective justice is to be dealt with. Here the proportion

is arithmetical, the same being rendered for the same.

Eth. Nic. V 4, 1 131 b 23-! 132 a 19 :

In correctiye
justice the
25 T6 o5v ev eI8o<; TOU Stxatou TOUT' eaTiv, T6 8e XOLTTOV Iv TO 8top6(OTtx6v, proportion is
(jiev

8 ytyveTat ev TOI^ auvaXXaynaaiv xal T0t(; exouatot(; xal T0t axouatot^. TOUTO arithmetical
8e T& Stxatov 4XXo eZSoc; S^ei TOU TrpOT^pou. To {xev yap 8iave|iY)Tix&v Stxatov
TWV xoivcov ael XOCTOC TTJV dvaXoytav eaTi TYJV eipyjjxevTjv (xal yap a^i XP YllJLaT(OV
30 xoiv&v eav ytyvYjTai YJ 8iavo|iY), laTai xaTa TOV Xoyov TOV auTOv ovTrep Sx ouai

7cp6<; SXX7j>a T<X etaevexOevTa xal TO <58ixov T& avTixeifxevov TW Sixatto TOUTCO

TO Tcapa TO avaXoyiv eaTtv ) Ti 8* ev TOI^ auvaXXay[iaai Sixaiov IdTt [xev taov

ii32aTi, xal T& fiSixov dcvtaov, aXX* ou xaTa TTJV avaXoyiav exeivrjv aXXa xaTa TYJV
api0(jLyjTixy)v. OuSev yap Sia^epei, et eTTietxr^ 9auXov aTrecrTlprjciev y) 9auXo^

ercieixY), 008* ei ejjioixeuaev eTcteLXTjc; y) 9auXo<; aXXa 7cpi<; TOU [3Xapouc; TYJV

IJLOVOV pX^Trei 6 VOJJLOI; (xal XP^) Tai ^^ foot*;), ei 6 fjtev

aSixel 6 8*
f/

i, xal ei 6 (lev SpXa^ev 6 8e p(3Xa7rrai. QaTe T6 SStxov TOUTO Xviarov

ov icra^etv TceipaTai 6 8ixaanryj<; xal yap 8rav 6 fiev TrXrjyT) 6 8e TtaTa^Yj, rj

xal xTeivvj 6 8* aTroSavYj, SiyjpYjTai Ti 7ra9o^ xal rj 7rpa^i<; ei<; Svtda aXXa rcetpaTat,

IOT7J ^Yjfiia laa^etv, d^aip&v TOU xp8ou<;. (A^yeTat yap J><; aTcXwc; etTtetv ercl
T0t<; TOIOUTOK;, xav el fiY]
TICTIV olxetov Svojia etiQ,
T6 xIpSo^;,
xal 7] ^yj(x(a TCJ) 7ca86vTi aXX* Tav ye (jieTpyjOy) T& 7ta6o<;, xaXetTai

ri 8e xp8oc;. ) "QciTe TOU (Aiv TtXeCovo^ xal iXaTTovo^ T^ foov fiicrov, TO 8e

 i66 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [588]

In this case, X|p8o$ xal TO TrXsov TO SE gXarrov IvavTiox;, TO TOU ayaOou 15

7) C/jfJil'a (JLEV [JLEV

is a mean TcXsov TOU xaxou 8s eXoarov xsp8o, TO 8 svavTLOV y)fJL(a

&v ?jv (Jilcrov T&

icov, o Xsyofjisv elvai Sixaiov <&OTS TO ETravopOomxov 8focaiov av SIT) T& jxlaov
xal xp8ou<;.

589 'EjuEixELa and the ETTLELXES. #&. Me. V 10, H37a31 -b 27 :

Equity Ilepl 8k ETTLELXELac; xal TOU ETTLELXOU*;, 7rc5<; E^EL 7) [/Iv eiueixeia Trpoc; Sixaio-

(7uv7)v TO 8 ITTISIXC^ 7ip6<; TO Sixatov, ^6[jiv6v ECTTIV etTcetv o()Te yap <o^

aTrXcoc; OUTS eTepov TCO yvet 9aiveTat axoTcoufjtlvot^, xal OTS; (JLSV T^
ox;

xal SvSpa TOV TOLOUTOV, WCTTS xal ETCI Ta <3cXXa eTraivouvTS? 35

OCVTI TOU dya0oij, TO STrteLxeaTepov OTI ,8eXTiov SyjXouvTS^, OTE
TW Xoyco dxoXouOoiJat 9aivsTat STOTTOV et TO e7cietxe<; Tiapa TO Stxai6v TI ov
7raivTov (JTLV 7] yap TO Sixaiov ou cnrouSatov, 7) r6 eTrieiXE? ou Sixaiov, i
&XXo- Y)
i
#[190 a7rou8aa, TauTov ECTTLV. *H [JLEV
oijv aTcopia ax^Sov aru[jipaivi 5
Sii TauTa Trepi TO eTcieixe^, S^et aTcavTa TpoTuov Tiva opOco? xal ouv
U7TvavTiov lauTott; TO T yap ETCIELXEC; Sixaiou TIVO<; ov P^XTLOV ECTTI Stxaiov,

xal oux coc; aXXo TI ylvoc; ov ^IXTtov ECTTL TOU Stxatou. TauT^v Spa Sixatov xal

7uiix<;, xal a(ji9olv aTrouSaioiv OVTOIV xpLTTOv TO 7utix(;. IToiEc SE TYJV 10

aTTOptav OTL TO 7citx(; Sixaiov (jiEv ECTTtv, ou TO xaTa vojxov SE, ocXX' 7rav6p-

Oco(jta vo(jii[jLoi) SLxatoi). ALTIOV 8* OTL 6 [JLEV vofjio? xaOoXou Tca^, Tcspl EVIWV 8s

ou/ olov TE opOcoc; EITTELV xaOoXou. 'EvxaOoXou, ol<; ouv avayxT) (JLEV
EITTEIV

(JIT)
olov TE SE opOojc;, TO Xa^pivEi 6 VOJJLOC;, oux ayvocov T6 15
<o<; STCI TO TiXfiov

d(jiapTav6(jLvov. Kal EOTTLV ouSsv ^TTOV 6p8c5^ TO yap afJLapTYjjjia oux Iv TO)

v6(jLw ouS' EV TO) vopLoOETYj aXX' EV Tyj 9UCTt TOU 7rpay(jLaTO<; ECTTIV suOu^ yap
TOiauTT) 7)
TCOV TrpaxTcov uXTj EdTiv. "OTav o3v
v6[JLO(; xaOoXou, XsyT] fJLEV
6 20
8* TOUTOU Trapa TO xaOoXou, TOTE opOco^ l/st, ft TcapaXstTCEi 6
ETil

xal 7][JLapTv ajcXoJx; EITUCOV, ETiavopOouv TO XXi90v, 8 xav 6 vo(AoOT7)<;

Xt TCapOJV, Xal EL ^8sL, VO[JLoOT7](7EV. ALO SlXaLOV [JLV ECTTLV, Xal (3sXTl6v

Sixaiou, ou TOU a7cXco<; SE dcXXa TOU SLCX TO arcXtoc; ajjLapTTjfjLaTO^. Kal 25

auTT) 7) 9\icTL(; 7]
TOU ETTLEIXOU^ ETravopOeofxa VOJJLOU, ^ EXXsiTCEi 8ca TO
xaOoXou.

The intellec- 590 According to the definition of virtue given sub 57 Ib, the 9po-
treated in vL[xo<; has the arbitrium in determining the (JLECTOTT^. Therefore, the in-
book vi tellectual virtues, ao9ia and have to be dealt with, too.
9p6v7)dL(;, They
are treated in Eth. Nic. VI.
The author two faculties in the rational part of the soul, namely
distinguishes
the (which has to do with that which is of necessity, and therefore
l7rtoT7)(jLovtx6v
eternal and invariable), and the Xoyumx^v (a deliberating faculty, which has to
do with the contingent). The latter has a task towards practical action, since
choice must be preceded by deliberation.
 [590] ETH. NIC. III-X I67

There are five qualities by which the soul reaches truth :

vou<; and oo<pa. The having been defined as demonstrative know-

first

ledge of the necessary and eternal, and the second as a rational

quality, concerned with producing, which reasons truly
X6you dcX7)Oous TTOIYJTIXY]), <pp6vY)ai<; is considered in the following passage.

VI 24 - 33
b 20 - 21 What is
a. Eth. Nic. 5, 1140 a ,
:

H4oa Ilepl Sk cppovyjcreGx; OUTOX; av Xapoi[Jiev, Oecop-yjaavTSc; Tivac; Xlyojisv TOU<;

25 9povi(jiou. Aoxet
8 YJ 9 p o v ( (JL o u e I v a TO 8 u v a or a i x a X & t,
<;

pouXeuaraaOai Tcepl T a a u T & ay a a * a I

au(ji9epovTa 7

o u x a T a (jiepoc;, olov TCOUX Tcpoc; uytstav YJ 7rp6<; ta^v, a X X a TT o I a

7T
p 6 TO E U Y)
V X 6) *. 8' oTt xal TOUC; Tuepi TI 9povi(jioi;<;

3oXyo[Av, OTav 7ipo<; TeXo<; TI 5 XoyiercavTai, 6v (JLTJ

ICTTI

xal 8Xa><; av ELY) 9p6vi|io<; 6

8' ouOel<; Trepl TCOV
defined
b 20 (Jilvoov auT(5 upa^ai. "QaT* avayxY) 9p6v7)atv evai
(jiCTa Xoyou a X Y]
6 o u <;
TT s p I Ta avOpcoTciva a y a a Tupax-
T i x Y] v.

b. It is neither an art, nor a purely intellectual quality.

21 - 30 It is neither
lb.,1140 b :

an art.
'AXXa fJLYjv T^VY]<; [lev ICJTIV apeTY), 9povY)<reco<; 8* oux Kal ev

xa
Tcepl T<X<; apeTa<;. AYJXOV o3v OTI apETY) TIC SGTL xal ou
25 AuOLV 8* SvTOLV (JLEpOCV TY]^ ^X"'] ? T ^ V ^-Oy ov
1

X^ VTCl)V (3CV
ELY]

TOU So^acmxou Y^
TS yap S6S;a Tcepl TO ev8ex6[JLvov SXXwc; xal YJ 9povY)CTic. quality
*
AXXa fjLYjv
ouS* s^^ {jLSTa Xoyou [lovov <TY][jLeiov
8' STL XY)0Y) J^ [Jtev
s

Sol^eco? eaTi, 9povY)(Tsco^ 8 oux e'cmv.

In this passage Ar. rightly distinguishes practical reason from theoretical, as

we shall again find in his definition of wisdom (our next nr.). By this distinction
he is correcting Plato, who doubtlessly by the ethico-religious character of his
contemplation of the Ideas mixed them willingly.

1
Book X, where the contemplative life is treated, makes clear what the
author means by the above formula: "to be able to deliberate well about what is
good and advantageous for himself, not in some one department, e.g. what is good
for his health or strength, but what is expedient as a means to the good life in gene-
ral", this is the mark of a man who possesses practical wisdom. For this man acknow-
ledges that the contemplative life is the supreme good for man, because it makes
him most happy (by "contemplative life" being meant a life of scientific research).
2
In Plato's Hippias Minor Socrates came to the strange conclusion that the
man who does wrong willingly is better than the one who does it unwillingly (our
nr. 212). To this famous theory Ar. replies In art, indeed, the man who errs willingly :

is to be preferred in 9p6vY)ai<;, which is half an intellectual, half a practical quality,

;

less. And so it is in the case of the other virtues. See our explanation of the text.
 l68 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [591]

591 Again, vous having been defined in the next chapter (6) as
1

'knowledge" of the first principles from \vhich science proceeds" (cp.

our nr. 465), wisdom is treated in the following passage.
9 - 20
wisdom a. Eth. Nic. VI 7, 1141 a :

Tyjv 8e ao9iav 'v TS TOCU; rebate; TOL<; axpt(i5eaTaT<H<; Ta<; Te^vac; aTroSiSoptev, H4ia
olov OeiSfacv XiOoupyov aocpov xal IIoXuxXeiTOv avSpiavT07rot6v, evTauOa (lev 10
o3v ouOev <5tXXo ao^tav y) 8ri apery] Txv<y]<? eariv elvat 8
<ry)|xaivovTe<; r/]v
f/

Tiva<; ao^oix; oiofxeOa 0X0; ou xaT<x [lipo; ouS' SXXo TI 3090^, axiTrep 0|X73p6^
ev TW MapyiTY]
TOV 8* OUT* ap axaTTTY^pa 6eol Oecrav OUT* aporrjpa 15
OUT' SXXax; TI (T09ov.

S^Xov oTt y] axpipeaTaTY) av TCOV 7riciTy)|jLcov etrj y^ ao9ta. Aei Spa T&V ao
a combina-
^^ vov T ^ ^ x T ^ v ^p^^v eESevai, dXXa xal Tcepl Ta<; apxa? aXrjOeiew. ") a T e

tiveReason s^*] av y] ao9ta vou<; xal e TU i aT YJ [/, iq , ciaTrep xe9aXy]v

and Science 20
g^ouaa7TiaTy][JLyjTci)VTi(iiCi)TaTCOV.
"The highest objects" were to Ar., at least in the visible world, the heavenly
bodies, which he calls TOC dciSia TWV aloGrjTcov. They are far superior to man. Therefore,
Ar. stresses the speculative character of wisdom, which is illustrated by the instances
of Thales and Anaxagoras (our next cited passage) .

3- 8
Speculative 5 JV^ b :

wisdom Aio 'Ava^ayopav xal 0aX9jv xal TOU<; ToiotiTOi)^ (10901)^ [lev, 9pov([jiou^ 8 >II 4 lb
ou 9aaiv elvai, orav tScocriv ayvoouvra^ Ta (TO[jL9epovTa eauTOcc;, xal Tcepnra 5

(i^v xal 0au(JLa<TTa xal ^aXeTca xal Saifjiovia etSevat auTO\i^ 9aaiv,
8rt ou Ta av0pco7ctva aya0a

592 As such, then, wisdom ought to be superior to phronesis, which

has a practical character. And yet, phr6nesis, being practical, is directly
concerned with those things which can make man happy, and could,
therefore, seem to be more important. What, then is the relation of wisdom
to phronesis?

Eth Nic ' ' VI I2 >

1 144 a 1- 9 :

o5v Xeyofiev xa6' JI 44 a

to wisdom HpcoTOv (lev 61:1 ainra<; avayxatov aipera^ auTac; elvat,

y' ouda<; exarepav exarepou TOO jiopiou

x
,
xal d (Ayj
Tcoiouai jiyjSev

auTcov. "ETreiTa xal TCOIOU<TI (Aev, oo^ clx; EaTpixy) Se uyteiav, aXX*
2
y) uyteia, OUTCOC; yj d09ia euSai[xoviav (xepoc; yap oSda TTJS 8Xy)^

To\3 pioptou
- he means: of each of the two faculties of the rational
soul, sc. the 7rioT)Q{jiovix6v and the Xoyicmxdv.
2
"In the sense in which healthiness is the cause of health", i.e. wisdom is the
formal cause of happiness.
 [592] ETH. NIC. III-X 169

Ttoiei xal TCJ) evepyeiv euSatfxova. "ETI TO pyov arcoTeXeiTai xaTa

TYJV 9p6vYjaiv xal TYJV YjOixYjv apeTifjv YJ |iev yap apeTYj TOV OXOTCOV Troiei 6p06v,

YJ
8e 9povYjai? Ta 7up6<; TOUTOV.

593 Since, then, man becomes good by doing good actions if, at

least, he does them by choice and for the sake of the good practical ,

wisdom, which has the leading part in choice, plays a prominent r61e
in the genesis of virtue. But this is not all. Whenever a man is virtuous,
he possesses practical wisdom; for there is no true virtue without phr6-
nesis.

In the following passage Ar. explains the relation of practical wisdom (phr6nesis)
to virtue (in the proper sense) by comparing it to that of a certain intellectual
ability(8eiv6r/j<;), which is the capacity for doing the things that conduce to the
aim we propose, to natural virtue. "Cleverness" is not identical with practical
wisdom, but practical wisdom implies it. Now natural virtue is related in the same
way to Virtue in the proper sense.

a. Eth. Nic. VI 1 - 32 Relation of

13, ii44b :

nfirAnoaiv tn
ii44b Sxe7CTe*ov SYJ rcdXiv xal Trepl apeTYj?. Kal yap YJ apery) racpaTiXYjaico? xet > moral virtue
d) YJ 9p6vYjai? Tupi? TYJV SeivoTYjTa (ou rauro [iev, Sptoiov 8), OUTCO xal YJ 9i)<nxY)
*

yap Soxet Ixaora TWV Y)6&v uTrapxeiv cpuaei TTOX;

apery) ?rp6<; TYJV xupiav. Flaaiv
xal yap Sixaioi xal (ja)9povtxol xal avSpelot xal TaXXa "XO\LSV si6i>^ ex

5Yeve^3?' ^' 8(ACO(; ^Y)TOi>(jLev erepov TI TO xupica? ayaGov xal Ta TOiauTa

(SXXov TpoTtov oTtapxeiv. Kal yap racial xal OYJPIOK; ai ^uaixal uTcapxouatv 2^ei?,
aXX* <5cvei) vou pXapepal 9aivovTai oSaai. FlXYjv ToaoijTov Soixev opaaOai, STI

lo&aTrep aa>|jLaTi la/upco fiveu o^ecoc; XIVOUJJL^VCO ai)[xpaivei a9aXXea6ai ia^upco<;

Sia TO [AY] /eiv 8^iv, OUTCO xal evTauOa lav 8e XipY] vouv, ev TO> TrpaTTeiv

Siafipei, Y)
8* 2^i^ 6(jioia o5aa TOT* SaTai xupitoc apeTY). "flaTe xaOaincep ITCI
TOU So^aaTixoo Siio earlv ei^Yj^ SCIVOTYJ^ xal 9povY)ai^, OUTCO^ xal em TOU
15 YjOixou 8\io eaTi, T& (liv cxpeTY) 9uaixY] TO 8* YJ xupia, xal TOUTWV YJ xupia ou

Not aU the
AioTrep TIV^ 9aaiv :raaa<; Ta^ apeTa^ 9povYjaei<; elvai, xal ScoxpaTY]^ Tfj

[lev opOcoc; e^YjTei Tyj 8' Y](jiapTavev OTI [Jiev yap 9povY]aeic; <5>eTO elvai Traaac; phrdnesis,
but none
apeTas, Y)(xapTavev, STI 8* oux #veu 9povY]aeco?, xaXco^ iXeyev. DY][jieiov 8
TOC?
20 xal yap vuv TcavTe?, 8Tav opi^covTai TYJV apeTYjv, TrpoaTiOeaai TYJV $[iv, eiTrovTe? without it
xal Trpo? a eaTi, TYJV xaTa TOV 6p66v Xoyov 6p66? 8' 6 xaTa TYJV 9p6vYjaiv.

'Eofocaai SYJ (xavTeieoOat TTCO? aTcavTe? STI YJ TOiauTYj 2^i? apeTYj eaTiv YJ
xaTa
25 TYJV 9p6vYjaiv. Aei 8e [zixpiv [xeTapYjvai ou yap (Ji6vov f)
xaTa TOV 6p6ov X6yov,
aXX* YJ|ieTa TOU 6p8ou X6you 2^i<; apeTYj eaTiv. Op66<;
8e X6yo? Tcepl TCOV TOIOUTCOV 9p6vYjaf? eaTiv. YJ

a)xpaTY]<; (xiv o5v Xiyou^ Ta? apeTa? &STO slvai (c7riaTYj|jLa? yap slvai
 170 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [593]

i<; 8k {JLSTOC X6you. A9jXov o5v in TCOV e[p7jf/ivcov STI ou^ oT6v Te dcyaOiv elvat 30
xuptax; <5cveu (ppov/jaecoc;, ou8 9povi[xov fiveu TYJ^

b. Nevertheless, this does not prove that phronesis is superior

to wisdom.
Phrdnesis 6- 8
Jb.,1145 a :

to wisdom 'AXXa pjv ouSe xupia y* ecrrl TYJS a<>9ia<; ou8e TOU peXTtovos [xoptau, &a7rep
ou8e TTJC uyieia<; Y

594 Selfrestraint (eyxpaTeia) and Unrestraint (axpacta) are treated

in Book VII, ch. i-io. The last five chapters of this book (11-15) deal
with r]SovY), a much-discussed subject in the Academy in the later years
of Plato. A summary of these discussions is given by Ar. in the following
passage.
6
views a'boul
*' Eth ' ^ VH
oSv SoxeT ouSefiia
"' IX 5 2 b8 ' 12:

ayaOov, OUTS xaO* auTO OUTS

pleasure Toi^ (xev YjSovy) elvat
'
au|xpe[37)x6(; ou yap elvat TOCUT&V aya66v xal YjSovyjv TOL<; 8* evtai [jL^v elvai, 10
al 8e TcoXXal 9aSXai- STI 8e TOUTCOV TpiTov, ei xal xaaai aya06v, fificoc; (JLYJ

evS^saOat elvat T& SptdTov TjSovyjv.

Of these three views, the first is that of Speusippus the second is Plato's view in ;

in the Philebus. The third appears at the end of this dialogue. It is represented by
Ar. in book X, infra.

b. For the first thesis it is argued that pleasure is not a good because
it is a process (namely the filling of a void).
An argument 12 14
11^2 b -
'
Jfo
f/

thesis OXco<; pdv o5v oux ayaflov, 8rt Tuaaa YjSovy] ylvea^ e<mv ei<; 9i5atv atcr0y]T)Q \
ouSejita 8e ylveai<; auyyevyji; TOL<; TeXeatv, olov ou8e[jLta olxoS6(JiY](Jt(; oixfa.

c. The same argument is adduced for the third view.

and for the JK n^b s
22 - 23
:

"Ou 8 ou TSptdTov Y) rjSovYJ, 5ri oii T^Xot; aXXa

595 To
argument Ar. opposes that pleasure is neither a process
this
nor always linked up with a process; it is an activity and an end.
This Eth. NIC. VII 12, 1153 a 7 - 16 :

refuted Oux avayxY) frepiv TI elvat (JsXTiov TTJS yjSovvjc;, axraep Tive<; 9aai r6 TXO<; H53 a
Ou yap yev^aet? elaiv ou8& jieTa yeveaeox; Tuaerai, aXX* evlpyeiat
.

el<; 9uatv alo0YjTY)

- "a conscious process towards a natural state"
'

(Rackham).
 [595] ETH NIC- -

10 xal TlXoc' ou8& yivofAv<ov crufjipatvouatv aXXa

STp6v TI, aXXa T&V eu; TTJV TsXloaiv ayo(Jilvcov TTJ <piicreo>^.
Ai6 xai oi
SXEI TO ataOy)T7)v yeveoriv 9avat elvai TYJV yjoWjv, aXXa (jiaXXov XSXTOV e v p
-

y e i a v T YJ xaTa 9u a iv <;
! e co *, dvTl 84 TOO ataOyjryjv ave(X7r6- Definition
f
SldTOV.

596 a. To
the view of Speusippus that no pleasure is a good, Ar.
opposes the thesis that pleasure as such is a good.
1- 7
Eth. NIC. VII 13, 1153 b :

ii53b AXXa (jLTjv

STL xal TJ xaxov, ojjLoXoyetTai, xal ^SUXTOV
XUTTYJ YJ [ilv yap
xax6v, ^ Se TW TT^ efjiTcoSidTtxY). Tw Se ^EUXTCO T6 evavrtov f] <psoxT6v TI xal
xaxov, aya06v. 'Avayxv) oJiv TYJV yjSovyjv ayaOov TL elvai. *Q<; yap STreuaiTTTroc;
2
5 eXusv, oo au(jL(3a[vsi Xua^, wa:iep TO
Y) {JLEL^OV TCJ) eXaTTOvi xal TW taw evavTiov
oi yap av (patY) 87uep xaxov TL elvat TTJV

b. But not only pleasure as such is a good; against the third view
mentioned in ch. n Ar. nowargues (i) that some pleasure may be the
supreme Good, and (2) that in fact the supreme Good will be a certain
kind of pleasure.
Ib 11^ b 7 - 13 '
The supreme

T* ouSev xcaXuet 7]Sov7)v Tiva elvai, e5 viai cpauXat Y]Sova^ &a7cep tain kind of

xal Ttva evicov cpaiiXcov ouccov. "Iaco(; 8k xal avayxaiov, etTcep exdaT7)<; pleasure
e7riaTY](jLy)v

eiolv evepyeiai avefiTuoStarTOL, etO* Y)

THXCKOV evlpyeia EGTIV uSai(Jiovta

7) TIVOC; auTciv, av f) avefji7u6Si<yTO<;, aEpeTCOTaTTjv

elvai' TOUTO Si ecmv
7]Sov7). "QaTe sty) <Sv TIC; YiSovy) TO SpidTov, TWV TuoXXcov YjSovcov ^auXov oucrcov,
el

c. This theory is confirmed by the fact that all animals and all

human beings pursue pleasure.

Ib 1
ii^b
33
25 - 26
'
' This theory
J f
confirmed by
25 Kal TO Sicoxeiv S avravTa xal Oyjpia xal av0pa>7iou<; TTJV yjSovyjv cryj{jLeZ6v TI experience

TOU elvai ^co^ T& fipiaTOv

The argument is of Eudoxus of Cnidus, who according to Eth. Nic.

1
"an activity of our natural state".
2
The argument of Speusippus is more fully exhibited in X 2, 5: "They say,
if pain is an evil, it does not follow that pleasure is a good; for evil can also be

opposed to evil and to a thing which is neither good nor evil" (if we follow the
reading of Hackforth, who bracketed the word #[190). According to the traditional
text the meaning of the last words is: "and both are opposed to the neutral state"
which is, of course, true, but not exactly ad rem).
 172 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [596]

X held that "pleasure is the Good' because "all creatures, rational

2,
1

and irrational alike, seek to obtain it". To this account Ar. adds the
remark that the argument was believed more because of the excellence
of Eudoxus' character than for its own sake. "For he (E.) had the reputa-
tion of being a man of exceptional temperance, and hence he was not

suspected of upholding this view because he was a lover of pleasure, but

l
people thought it must really be true" .

597 Pleasure is treated again by Ar. in book X, ch. 1-5. The later
exhibition goes further than that of book VII. find the author's We
final view of pleasure in the following passage.

^Pleasure
is
a Etht N f Cm X 4,
11
1174 a -", b
5- 6
,
b 10- 13 :

2
Ta uev o5v Xeyopieva Tuepl TYJ<; Y)SovYJ<; xal X\i7UYj<; txavco^ elpYjaOto* TI 8'ii74a

Y)
7roi6v TI, xaTa9<xve<7Tspov yevoiT* av arc' apx^ avaXafioiSaiv. Aoxei
*

yap Y) [ilv 6pa<ri xa6* OVTIVOUV xp^vov ^eXeia slvai ou yap CGTIV evSeY^ ouSevo^ 15
o ei^ uaTepov yevofjicvov TeXeitlxrsi OL\)T^^ TO slSoq TOIOUTCO S* lotxev xal YJ

TjSovr]. eera, xal xaT* ouSeva XP^ VOV ^ajioi TK; av Y)SovY)v ^<;
"OXov yap TI

im TrXetca XP^ VOV ytvojievY]^ TeXico6Y)<reTai TO eISo<;. AioTcep ouS^ xJvYjcr^

!<mv. 'Ev XP^^P Y*P ^aaa xtvyjai^ xal TlXou^; TIVOC;, olov YJ oixoSofiixyj, xal 20
TeXeia 6Tav Tronfjcnj o3 e9teTai, 7^
ev aTcavTt SY) TW XP^^ ^ TOUTCO ev Sc TOI<;

TOU xp^vou Tcaerat aTeXets, xal iTepai TW etSei TYJS oXv](; xal aXXYjXcov.
neither the
7^ ^OVYJC; S' sv OTO>oi)V XP^ T^Xetov TO e!8o<;. 'Ex TOUTWV 8e 89]Xovb5, 6
3
process xal STI ou xaXco^ Xlyoucri xtvyjdtv TQ ylveaiv elvai TY]<; YjSovyji;
. Ou yap TTOCVTCOV 10

XyeTai, aXXa TG>V [xepio-Tcov xal p) 5Xtov ouSe yap opao-edx; !<m
ouSe aTiyfiY)^ ouSe f^ovaSo^ ouSe TOUTCOV ou6ev XIVYJCTK; ouSe

oXov yap TI.

b. Positively, pleasure is defined as something which accompanies

and completes activity.

Definition
th. Nic. X 4, 1174 b
14- 34
:

At<r0Y)<TecD<; 8e TraoYjc; Ttpoc; TO alaOYjTOv evepyoiaY)?, TeXeiax; 8e TYJS e5 Staxei-

TO xaXXtdTOv TCOV UTCO TYJV afaOYjaiv (TOIOUTOV yap (laXiaT* elvai 15
Soxei Y)
TeXeCa evlpyeta- auTYjv 8e Xyeiv evepyetv, Y)
ev & SCTI, (XYjOev Siacpepl-

TCO), xaO* SxaaTOv SY) peXTtaTY] eaTlv YJ evlpyeia TOU SpiaTa Siaxeifjivou ?rp6^
TO xpaTioTov TWV uTt* auTYjv auTYj 8* av TeXetoTaTY) etY) xal Y)8(aTYj. KaTa 20

1
Translation of Rackham.
8
T& (xiv o5v Xey6|xeva - the current opinions.
TTJS YjSovTji; is a necessary correction, first made by Ramsauer and adopted by
3

W. D. Ross and H. Rackham. The mss. have TYJV v)Sovif)v.

 [597] E TH - NIC - "i-x 173

yap ata0Y)<rfv ECTTIV fjSovif), 6|Jiol(i><; Si xal Stavotav xal Oecoptav, :?)8(<m)
8* 7) TsXEtoTaTY), TsXEiOTaTY) 8' Y)
TOO s5 IXOVTO*; ^P^S T ^ cnrou8at6TaTov TCOV
UTT* auTYjv. T E X E t o i Si T YJ v svlpystav 7] YJ 8 o v YJ Oi TOV .

25 auTOv Si Tp6?rov YJ
TE YjSovYj TsXfitot xal TO aia0Y)T6v TE xal 73 ata0Y)ats, cnuouSata

oVra, toaTCEp 008' rj irfteia xal 6 laTp6<; ofjtotax; atria eaTt TOO uyiatvetv. Ka0*

exacTYjv 8* ato0Y)<rtv 8Tt y'veTai vjSovT), SyjXov 9afxiv yap opajiaTa xal axou<T[JLaTa
elvat yjSla. AyjXov Si xal STI (xaXtaTa, CTuetSav i^
Te ataOY)(Ti<; ^ xpaTicmq xal
30 7cp6^ TOIOUTOV evepyfj TOIOUTCOV 8* SVTCOV TOU Te alaOTjTou xal TOO ala6avo|Ae*vou,
ael 2aTai yjSovY) uTcapxovTO^ ye TOU TCOtrjaovTO^ xal TOU Tceiaoji^vou. TeXe t o I

Si TYJV i v p y e i a v TJ Y] 8 o v 73 06^ <*>? 2^i^ e v u TC a p x o u aa ,

aXX* a>^ S7tiYtv6(jLev6v T T^Xo^, olov TOI<; i

ax[jLatot<; Y) &pa.

598 Consequences of this definition are:

a. Pleasures differ in kind, since activities differ.

II75a
Eth. Nic. 5, 1175 X a 20- 28 :

20 "Aveu TS yap evepyetac; ou ytveTat YjSovTj, Tcacrav TE evlpyeiav TEXsiot 73 7]8ov7). definition
"00EV Soxouai xal TG> stSsi 8La9ptv. Ta yap ?Tpa TW stSet ucp* ET^peov oiofieOa
TsXsioiia0ai. OUTO) yap ^atveTai xal Ta ^uatxa xal TCX UTC& tiyvri^ olov ^a xal
25 SvSpa xal ypa9>3 xal ayaX{jiaTa xal oixta xal axeuo^. 'OfiOLOx; Si xal Ta<;
evspyeta^ T<X<; Sia^epouo-a^ T<O eiSet UTTO Sia9p6vTwv EiSfii TXiouo-Oai.
8* at TYJC; 8iavoia<; TCOV xaTa T<X<; aia0r)aic; xal aoTai aXXifjXcov
ElSoc;- xal at TeXeioCaai SYJ YjSovaL

b. Activities have their own pleasures which stimulate them.

Ib., 1 175 a 28-!) 1 :

<I>avt7j 8* av TOUTO xal EX TOU auvtoxsicoaOai TCOV rjSovcov exacTTYjv T^ svepyfita

30 ^ v TsXEiou Suvau^si yap TYJV iv^pysiav YJ olxEta YjSovY). MaXXov yap SxaaTa

xptvouai xal saxp$oucnv ol (JisO* Y)8ov^ EvspyouvTEc;, otov yEcofiETpixol

ytvovTai ol xa^po^s^ TCO yscofiSTpslv, xal xaTavoouaiv 2xaaTa [xaXXov, 6[io[co(;

Si xal ol 91X6(100001 xal 91X01x086(101 xal TCOV a*XXcov gxacrroi 7ri8iS6acnv EIC

35 TO otxEtov Spyov xa^P^TE^ auTcTi. Suvau^ooai SYJ at YjSovat, TOC Si

oExsta. Tote; iTEpot^ Si TCO stSst xal TA otxsta ?Tpa TCO EtSst.

599 Good What are

pleasures are those in which the 9p6vt(io<; takes a delight.
^ood
Ii76a Eth. Nic. X 5, 1176 a
16- 22
: pleasures?
f
15 AoxEt 8 EV &7racn Tot? TotouTote; s!vat TO 9atv6(ivov TCO (nrouSatcp. Et Si
TOUTO xaXco^ X^ysTat, xaOaTcsp Soxri, xal SOTIV sxacrTOu (isTpov Y) apsr)) xal
6 aya06^, fj TotouTO^, xal Y)8oval slsv av at TotiTco 9atv6(jtsvat xal Y)8a ol^
 174 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [599]

P et - Ta 8e TOUTCO Suaxepvj eE TO) 9atveTai Y]8ea, ouSev 0au(ia(TT6v 20

TcoXXal yap 90opal xal Xu|iai av0pa>7ccov yivovTai- Y)Sa 8* oux ecmv, aXXa
xal TOU; OUT<O 8iaxei[Aevoi<;.

600 In Books VIII and IX friendship is dealt with.

The author proceeds to determine its conditions by answering these two ques-
tions: (i) Is friendship only possible between good men ? (2) Is it of one kind or
of more than one ?

Eth. Nic. VIII 2, H55 b 17 -ns6 a5 :

Friendship
a 8* av yevoiTO rcepl auT&v 9<xvep6v yva>pi(70evTO<; TOU 9iXy]Tou' 8oxecii55b
1

yap ou Tcav 9iXeZcr0ai aXXa T& 9iX7)T6v, TOUTO 8 elvai aya0ov Y) 7381*

A6eis 8* av xpY]Cjrt(JLOv elvat 8t* oo yiverat ayaOov TI YJ rjSovY), ciaTe 9iXY)Ta av 20

etv) TayaOov TE xal T^ rjSu J)^ T^XTJ. OoTepov oOv T<xya06v 9iXouaLv Y;
TO auTOic;

ayaOov Aia9tovec yap CVIOTE Taura. 'Ofxottoc; Se xal ?repl TO 7]8ii. Aoxet 8e
;

T6 auTco aya66v 9iXeiv IxaoTog, xal elvai dbrXco*; (Jiev T^ aya66v 9tXy;Tov,
exaoTCo Se TO exaaTCo. OtXet Se exaaTO<; ou TO ov auTw ayaOov aXXa TO 9atvo- 25

[levov. Atotaei 8* ouSev SaTai yap TO 9iXY)Tov 9aiv6|jLevov.

Tpto>v 8* OVTCOV 81* a 9iXoi>(jiv, eTrl (JLEV rfi TCOV a^iix^v 9tXy)crei ou XeysTai

9iX[a. Ou yap eaTiv avTi9tX73oi^, ouSe BouX7)ai<; exeivcov aya0ou (yeXotov yap
T<O otvco SouXeaOai TayaOcx, aXX* eiTiep aco^eaOat pouXeTai auTOv, Eva 30
TCO 8e 9^X0) 9ao i

l Seiv pouXeoOat TayaGa

exeivou Ivexa. T o u Se <; p o u X o [/,
e v o u <; o u T <o Taya0a
eSvou? Xyouatv, eav |JL y]
TO auTo xal Trap* exetvou
y yv Ta
[ e v o a v
7) yapi (5 i ev a v T t TT e ?r o v 6 a L v 9iX(av
M
elvai. H 7rpOGr0eTeov JJL 7] XavOavoucav; HoXXol yap
eiaLV eSvoi ou^ ecopaxaariv, uTcoXafjipdcvouai Se e7rteixet<; elvat y) xp>l^i[Aou^ 35
olc;

TOUTO Se Ti auT^ xav exetvcov TL^ TuaOoi Tupoc; TOUTOV. EJivoi (xev o5v
XXyjXoi^* 9tXou<; Se TTWC; iv TL<; etTioi Xav0avovTa(;
Aet fipa euvoeiv aXXinXoi^ xal ^ouXeaOai TayaOa fr/] XavOavovTac;
Si* 2v TI TCOV eipY)[Jivoi>v. 5

So friendship is defined by four characteristics:

(i) it is goodwill (euvota), (2) mutual (v <xvTi.7rTcov06ai), (3) known to the other
((IT) XavOavouaa), (4) for the sake of the other (TW 8k (pX<o 9aal Seiv po\SXeoOai Tdtya^A
ixeLvou ^vexa).
and of pleasure
By the last characteristic, strictly speaking, friendships of utility
are excluded. They may be called friendship only by analogy, or (as Ar. calls
it in the next chapter) accidentally.

The point is discussed by Schacher in his work cited sub 565a, where he compares
the passages on cpiXta in the three Aristotelian treatises on ethics.

601 a. According to the three kinds of 9iXYjTa, three species of

friendship are distinguished

 [601] ETH. NIC. IH*X 175

Three species
Eth. Nic. VIII 3, H56a6 ^ 24 :

ii56a Aia9pei 8k Taika dXXY)X<ov eiSef xal at 9iXy)aei<; #pa xal al 9iXCai. Tpla

Si) TOC T?J<; 9iX(a etSy], EadpiOfza TOU; 9iXYjToi' xa8* Sxaanrov yap IOTIV
ou XavOdvouaa. 01 8k 9iXouvTe^ aXXif)Xou<; (JouXovTai TayaOa aXXif)Xot^

f) 9iXou<iiv. 01 (/iv oSv Sid TO xP' Q Gri JLOV 9iXouvTe<; dXXrjXouc; ou xa6* 1
(

9tXouatv, aXX' fj ytyveTai TI auTOt^ Trap' aXXifjXcov ayaOov 6|io[ca(; S^ xal

ol Si* YjSovyjv. Ou yap T^> TTOIOU; Tiva^ elvai ayaTT&ai TOU<; euTpaTi^Xouc;, aXX*
STI YjSe^ auTOt^. OX TS
9iXouvre^ Sia TO auTOtc; ayaOov
SYJ Sia Ti XP^ ^^ 1

15 (TTlpyooot, xal ol Si* TjSovrjv Sia TO auTot<; Y]Su, xal ou^ f) 6 91X06 jJLev6<; SOTLV

S<TT[V>, aXX* ^ XP^^H* ^ 1 f)8iis. KaTa <7U(JLpep7)x6<; TS SY) at 9iXtai

etffiv ou yap ^ ICTTIV 8dTcep eaTtv 6 9iXou(JLevo^, TauTyj 9iXeiTat, aXX* fj

ouciLv ot (xev aya06v TI ot S* YjSovYjv. EuSidXuToi 8>] at ToiauTai eiaiv,

20 (JIT) SiajjievovTcov auTcov ofjLoicov eav yap (jtTjxeTi 7]8s^ TI /p7)ai[jiot &aiv, TcauovTai
'

9iXouvT?. T6 Si:
^pTjaifJtov ou Sta^vei, aXX* fiXXoTe SXXo ytyveTai. A7coXu6vTO<;
o5v St* 8 91X01 ^arav, SiaXueTai xal yj 9iXia, co<; oucr/]^ TY)<; 9tXiac; Tupo^ exetva.

b. Friendships of utility occur most frequently between the old.

Ib., 1 156 a 24 - 26 :
Friendships

25 MaXiaTa TrpeapuTa^ TJ ToiauTT) Soxet 9iXia ytveaGai (ou yap T6

8* ev TOLC;

y)8u ot TTjXixouToi Stcoxouo*iv aXXa TO 6>9eXt[jLOV ).

c. Friendships of pleasure seem to occur mostly between the young.

31 - 35 Friendships
Ib. 1156 a :

C
H 8k T&V vecov 9&Xta St
s

yjSovyjv elvai Soxet- xaTa 7ra6o yap O^TOI

xal (jiaXioTa SLCOXOUGI T& TjSu auTOL<; xal TO Ttapov TYJ^ yjXixta^ 8^
35 OY)<; xal Ta Y)8la ytveTai iTepa. Ato Tay^co? ytyvovTai 91X01 xal TrauovTai.

d. The perfect kind of friendship is that which is based on virtue.

7 - 12 Perfect
Ib., 1156 b :

ii56b TeXeta S* ecrrlv 7)

TO>V dyaOwv 9iX(a xal xaT* dpsr/jv ofioicov. OUTOI yap
J

T<xya0a ofjiotax; ^ouXovTai dXX7)Xoi(; f; ayaOot, dyaOol 8 slat xa6 auTou?'

10 ot 8k
pouX6(jievoi TayaOa TOI<; yfaoiq Ixeivwv evsxa [JiaXioTa 91X01 (Si* auTouc;

yap OUTOX; SXOUCFI, xal ou xaTa au(JipepY)x6^ ) Siafxlvst o3v YJ

TOUTOW 9iXta
Sto<; av dyaOol &<HV, TJ
8' dpeTY) (jL6vi(jiov.

e. Friendships of virtue occur rarely, those of utility or pleasure

are frequent.

iz 5 8a Eth. Nic. VIII 6, 1158 a 10- 18 :

frfendshi
10 IIoXXoL 8' elvai 9^Xov xaTa T/JV TeXeiav 9tXiav oux ev8xTai, &a:rep ouSs occurs

Ipav jcoXX&v a(xa' Soixev yap UTceppoX?), TO TOIOUTOV Sfe

7rp6^ 2va rc^uxe
 176 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [599]

ytveoOai, rcoXXou^ 8* <J{ia TCO aoro) apcrxeiv <7968pa ou ef8tov, Uorcos 8* ouS*

iyaOou^ elvat. Aet 8e xal

e"[A7retp(av Xa(3elv xal v auvY]6eta yevlaOat, 6 Trayxa- 15

XeTrov.Ata TO xP 1Q (rt jtov &i xa * T0 f)^ f 7coXXot<; apaxetv evS^erai- TtoXXol

yap ot TotouTOt, xat ev oXtyco Xp6va> at uTTTjpediat.

602 Self-love the type of and basis for love of others.

4 '

friendship Ta 9tXtxa 8k Ta :rpo<; TOIX; 9(Xou<;, xal ol<; at 91X^1 opl^ovrai, Soixsv ex u66a
TCOV Trpoc; eauTiv eXy]Xu0vat. TtOeaat yap 9tXov T^V pouXofxevov xal TrparrovTa
TayaOa 73 Ta ^aivofxeva exeivou Svexa, 73 TOV [3ouX6(jtevov elvai xal tj^v riv
^tXov auToG X*P LV ^ TCe P a ^ H-7 7 ^? 6 ^ KP^C, Ta Tsxva 7ce7i6v0aat, xal T&V ^iXcov 5
J )

l
ot 7cpoaxsxpoi)x6Te^ ot 8s TOV <Ti>v8iayovTa xal TauTa aipou(jievov, ^ TOV

auvaXyouvTa xal duyxatpovTa TCO cpiXco, (jiaXtaTa 8e xal TOUTO Trepl TOC^ (JLY)T^pa<;

oofipatveu TOUTWV Se* TIVI xal TYJV 9iXtav opKJovTai. Ilpoc; eauTOv 8e TOUTCOV
IxaaTov TW eTTieixet oTrapxet, TOI<; 8e XOITIOI^, fj
TOIOUTOI UTroXafipavouaiv 10
elvai. "Eotxev 81, xaOarrep etp7)Tai, (i^Tpov sxaaTcov 7) dpeTY] xal 6 <T7rou8alos
elvat. OUTOC; yap 6[ioyv(0(JLOvet sauTO), xal TCOV auTcov 6pyeTat xaTa Tcaaav

TTjv ^xV' ^ a ^
po^^eTai ST] eauTco TayaOa xal Ta 9aiv6[jLeva xal TupaTTei (TOO 15

yap ayaOou TayaGov SiaTiovetv) xal eauTOu svexa- TOU yap 8iavo7)Tixou x*P lv
firuep 2xa(7TO<; slvai 8oxst. Kal ^yjv Ss poiXsTai sauTov xal aw^eaOai, xal

[jtaXtaTa TOUTO cL 9povet' ayaOov yap TCO aTrouSaico TO elvai. "ExaaTO^ 8*

5
eauTco poiiXsTai TayaOa, yev6[i,evo<; 8 fiXXo<; ouSel? aipeiTai TCOCVT' ^xeiv [exetvo 20
T& yev6fjievov] 2
(^x ei Y^P xa 1
'
v ^v ^e ^ Taya66v), dXX' &v o TI TCOT* eemv.

A6^ete av TO voouv exaarTO^ elvai, 7^ (jiaXtcTTa. SuvStdyeiv Te 6

8'

eauTco pouXeTai Y)8eco(; yap auTO Tioiel TCOV Te yap TreTipayjJtivcov

at [xvTJfjLat,
xal TCOV [jieXXovTcov eX7ci8e<; ayaOat- at Toiaikat 8* 7]8eiai. Kal 25
0eci>p7)(jLaTCov 8* euTCOpei TTJ Stavoia. SuvaXyet Te xal auvTjSeTai (JtaXiaO* eauTco

TravTOTe yap eaTt TO auTO Xu7C7]pov Te xal 7]8ii, xal oix SXXoTe SXXo

yap co^ e'Tretv. Tco 87) ?rp6^ auTov [fiev] 2xao~Ta TOUTCOV

upo^ 8e TOV 9^Xov exetv cocTTrep 7tpo<; eai)T6v (SaTi yap 6 9tXo^ 30
<SXXo<; auT6<;), xal TJ 9iXta TOUTCOV elvat TI Soxei, xal 9^X01 ol<; TauO'

603 a. An objection to this view is mentioned in ch. 8 of the same

book, n68a 28- 35 :"
An objection
to this view
'ATropeiTai Se xal rc^Tepov Set 9iXetv eauTOv (jidXiOTa
_
Lcoat
, * .

yap TOK; eauTouc (xaXtaT

^ /^ }J ~ >>>-,, 73

ayaTccocrt, xat co$ ev atcrxptp 9tXauTOU<; a:ro-

&XXov Tiva. ETII-
>

1
Those who have quarrelled.
2
Seel. Vermehren, followed by Rackham.
 [603] ETH. NIC. III-X 177

3oxaXou<n' Soxet TS 6 fiev <pauXo<; eauTOu x<*P tv rcavTa TupaTTetv, xal 8cr<o av
{AOx6?)p6Tepo<; fj,
TOOOUTO) [jiaXXov (eyxaXouat, 8?) auT<o olov STI ouSev 9*
eauTOu TupaTTei), 6 Si e7rieixY]<; Sia T& xaX6v, xal ocrco av peXTicov fj, fjiaXXov
35 Sia T& xaX6v, xal 91X00 Svexa, TO 8* auTou Tcapbjaiv.

b. Ar.'s reply to this objection. Ib., 1168 a 35 -n6g a 16 :

Aristotle's

n68b Tou; Xoyou; Si TOUTOK; TOC epya 8ia9cove, oux aXoyco^. Oaci yap Seiv
TOV [jiaXiaTa 9tXov, 91X0:; Si jxaXiaTa 6 pouX6[xevoc; & pouXerai T<xya0a
EXSLVOU Svexa, xal et [ry]8el<; eicieTai. Taura S* uTuapxct fiaXiarT* aura)
5 auTOv, xal TOC XoiTra SYJ TravTa ol<; 6 9tXo<; opt^eTai eEpTjTat yap OTI OCTT*

Travra Ta 9tXixa xal Trpoc; TOIK; aXXou^ SLYJXSI. Kal ai Tcapoifjiiai Se

'
X
6{JLoyvco[jLovouaiv, olov TO [jLLa 4*
U X^ <( xa L *o&va ^a 9tXcov xal
2
9iXoT7)<; xal yovu xvyjfjLTjc; eyyiovu
*
TcavTa yap TauTa Tipo^; auTOv
10 av uTrapxo^' (JtaXiaTa yap 91X0^ auTto, xal 9iXy]Tlov Srj [xaXiaTa eauTOv. 'Arco-
peiTat S* etxoTtoc; TroTepoic; xpewv ^TreaOai, ajj^otv ex VTOLV T ^ TT^TOV.
"lacoc; ouv TOIX; TOIO^TOUC; Set TWV Xoycov Siaipetv xal Siopt^stv 29' Sorov

exdcTSpot xal Tcyj aXYjOeuouaiv. El

XaSoi^ev TO 9iXauTov TU&C; exaTepoi
STJ

15 Xeyoodtv, Ta^' av ylvotTO S^Xov. Ot

ouv etc 6vetSo<; ayovTec; auTO 9iXauTOU<;
fiev
xaXouai TOUC; eauTOt^ aicovefjiovTac; TO TuXeZov ev xp^aat xal TLfxaic; xal 7]8ovat(;
TaZ<; acofiaTLxalc; TOUTCOV yap ol TioXXol opeyovTai, xal IcrTrouSaxaai Trepl

ax; aptaTa ovTa, Sio xal Trepifxax^Ta eaTtv. 01 SYJ Trepl TauTa TrXeovexTai
Tai<; imQ^iaLic, xal 6Xco^ TOL^ TraOecrt xal TCO aXoyco T^^ ^ U X^)^-

TotouToi 8' eialv ol TroXXot 816 xal YJ 7rpocr7]yopta yeyevvjTat daro TOU TroXXou
C/

9auXou OVTO<;. Aixatw^ SYJ ToZ(; OUTG) 9tXauTOL^ ovLS[eTaL. OTL 8s TOIX; TOC
ToiauO' auTOt*; aTrovcfjiovTac; etcoOaai Xeyetv ol TroXXol 9iXauTou<;, oux &SY)Xov

25 ei yap TLC; ael aTrouSa^oi Ta Sixaia TcpaTTetv auTOc; [xaXiaTa TTOCVTCOV r^ Ta

ac[>9pova ^ oTiotaouv aXXa TCOV xaTa Ta^ apeTa^, xal 8X(o^ ael TO xaXov eauTW
TtepiTToioLTO, ou8el<; Ipei TOOTOV 9iXauTOv o'jSe ^e^si. Ao^eie S' av 6 TOIOUTO<;

[jiaXXov elvat 9iXai)To^ aTcov^et, youv eauTto Ta xaXXi<TTa xal fAaXiarT* ayaOa,
30 xal x^p^Tai eauTOu TCO xupicoTaTO), xal TtavTa TOUTCO TreiOeTai coaTrep 8e xal
7r6Xi^ TO xupta>TaTOv [jLaXicT* elvai Soxet xal ?uav &XXo auCTT7](JLa, OUTCO xal

Sv0pco7uo<; xal 9tXauTOi; Sr] (jtaXiaTa 6 TOUTO ayaTicov xal TOUTCO /apt^ofjievo^.

35 Kal eyxpaT7]<; 8e xal axpaTYjc; XeyeTai TW xpaTetv TOV vouv ^ {JLYJ, a><; TOUTOU
SVTOC; xal TteTrpay^vai Soxouaiv auTol xal exouatax; TOC [jLeTa Xoyou
r/
. OTi (lev o5v TOGO* SxaaTO^ ICTTIV y) (jtaXidTa, oux (StSyjXov, xal OTI 6
(jLaXtaTa TOUT' ayaTia. Aio 9iXauTo^ (jLaXiaT* av SIT), xaO* ^Tepov elSoc;
5Toi3 6vei8io[ievou 7 xal 8ta9pcov TOCTOUTOV oaov TO xaTa Xoyov ^v TOU xaTa

1
"Friends have one soul between them". Euripides, Orestes, 1046.
"Charity begins at home" (Ross).
2

De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II

 178 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [603]

^, xal 6pye<T0ai TOO xaXou Y)

TOU SOXOUVTOC; dUfji^e'peiv. Tou^ [jiev
o5v

Ta<; xaXac; Tipa^eig 8ia9ep6vTco<; o-7cou8aovTa<; TuavTe; cx7ro8^x VTai xa

vouaiv TravTcov 8e a^iXXcofjie'vcov Trpoc; TO xaXov xal 8taTivo[jievcov Ta xaXXtaTa
5

7cpaTTiv XOIVYJ T* av TcavT ELY] Ta 8ovTa xal i8(a exaara) uiyiaTa TCOV ayaOcov, 10
f *

i7ip Y) apTY) TOIOUTOV eariv. '12aTe T&V JJL^V dcyaOiv Set ^tXauTov elvat,

xal yap auTcx; ovyjaerai TOC xaXa 7rpaTT6>v xal TOU<; &XXou<; <J)9eX73aei, TOV 8e
ou Set* pXa^si yap xal eauTov xal TOIX; Ti^Xai;, <paiiXou; TraOeaiv

15

604 The question whether friendship is necessary for happiness, is

answered by Ar. in the affirmative.

i ' IX 9 '
Il6 9 b3 " 13 b16 " 22
' ' "70a M - la :

happiness? 'Ajj^iapYjTetTai 8k xal Trepl TOV eu8ai[Jiova, ei SeTjoeTai 9tX(ov Y) JJLYJ.

yap 9aai Seiv 9[Xa>v TOIC; piaxaptotc; xal auTapxeaiv uTrap^etv yap
TayaOa auTapxei<; ouv 8vTa^ ouSevo; 7cpoo>8eia6at, TOV 8^ 9iXov, eTspov auTOv
8vTa, Tiopi^eiv a Si* auTOu aSuvaTel- 80ev

6Tav 6 Saijjuov eO StSco, TI Set 9iX<ov;

1

Soixev 8 otTOTTO) TO TTavTa aTTov^fjiovTa^ TayaOa TCO eu8atf/.ovi 91X00^ [JLY]

aTro-

SiSovat, o Soxei TCOV IXTO^ ayaOwv [jdyiaTOv elvat. Et TS 91X01) (jiaXX6v eaTi 10
TO EU Trotecv Y) Traa^eiv, xal e'cra TOU ayaOoi3 xal TYJ^ apT% TO euepyeTSiv,
xaXXtov 8' eo Tuoteiv 9tXou<; oGvetcov, TCOV eu Tieiao^vcav SeYjaeTai 6 aTrouSaloc;.
"ATOTTOV 8' taco<; xal TO (JLOVCOTYJV TTOLELV TOV (Jiaxdpiov ouSelq yap SXOLT' av 16
J
xaO auTov Ta TTOCVT' e'/eiv ayaOa TuoXiTixov yap 6 a*v6pco7ro<; xal au^YJv 7re9ux6(;.

Kal TCO eu8ai(JLOvi SYJ TouO' ujuapxei '

Ta yap T^ <piiaei ayaOa S/et. AY^XOV 8* 20
<oc; fjLSTa 9tXa)v xal eTueix&v xpetTTOv Y] (JLET*
oOvetcov xal T&V TU^VTCOV
peueiv Sei &pa Tto euSaijjiovi, 9iXwv. FIVOITO 8' av xal a*axY)at<; Tt<;

TY^^ ex TOU au^v TOL<; aya6ol<;, xaOaTuep xal Qeoyvt^ 9YJCLV. 12, 13

605 Having dealt with the problem of YjSovY) in the first part of Book
X, the author speaks of the happy life in the following chapters (6-8).

Happiness a Recapitulation
r of preceding
r statements on the character of
an activity .

chosen for its happiness.

own sake
x ^ Ii;6 ^0^9
TCOV Tcepl Ta<; apTa^ T xal 9tXta<; xal Y)8ova<;, XOITTOV

SieXOelv, eruetSY) TXO<; auTYjv T[6e(jiev TCOV av0pco7rivcov. 'Ava-

Xapouci 8e Ta 7rpoeipY]fjLlva auvTOficoTepo^ av ELY)

6 Xoyoc;. EiTrojjiev 8* &TI oux
GTLV 2^?' T^P T ^p xaOeiiSovTi 8ia PLOD uTuap^oi <5cv, 9UTcov
xa>t COVTI ^[ov,

xal TCO SUGTU^OUVTI Ta (jtyiaTa. El SYJ TauTa jr/) aplcrxei, aXXa (jiaXXov el^ 35
 [605] ETH. NIC. III-X 179

ii76bvpyiav Tiva OETEOV, xaOaTrsp EV TOU; Trpdrepov etp^rat, TCOV 8* Evspysicov at

[AE'V avayxatai xal 8C fe'repa atpcTal at 8s xa0' ai>T<x<;, STjXov STL TYJV EuSai-
elcrtv

[xovfav TCOV xaO* ai>Ta<; atpETcov Tiva OETEOV xal oo TCOV Si' aXXo ouSsvo<; yap

5 EvSsYjc; YJ EuSaijiovia aXX* auTapxYj<;. Ka0* auTac; 8* elalv

atpETal acp' &v [AY)Sev

Trapa TTJV evlpyei-av. TotauTai 8* elvai Soxouaiv at xaT* aper/jv

Ta yap xaXa xal orTcouSala TrpaTTetv TCOV 81* auTa atpCTcov.

Cp. to this definition that of I 7 (our nr. 566, at the end).

b. not play an activity chosen for its own sake ? To this Is not
Is
A i_ i ^ ^1,1 chosen for
question Ar. answers that play can never be an absolute end, only a its own sake?
i 11
means for further activity.
10- 11
Ib., 1176 b b 32-ii77a 1 ,
:

10 Kal TWV TiaiSttov Se at YjSeZai ou yap Si' eTCpa auTa<; atpouvTai. STCouSa-

32 ELV 8e xal ruovstv TiaiStac; x^P LV ^^Otov ^atveTat xal X(av rcaiSixov Tuai^etv
8* STTCOC; <77rouSafl, xaT* 'Avaxapcriv, 6p6co<; ex LV SOXEL. 'AvaTraiiasi yap
35 Soixsv Y] TratSta, aSuvaToijvT<; 8s auvE^wc; rcovslv avaTrauascoc; SsovTat. Ou SYJ

Y) avaTrauGTK; ytvETai yap EVExa T

c. Serious things contribute more to happiness. The

.

life is
1- 6 serious
1177 a
Ib,, :

Aoxst 8* 6 Eu8at(jio)v pto^ xaT* apT7]v Elvai- OUTO^; 8e [JLETOC (rruouS^, aXX*
oux EV TraiSia. BEXTICO TE Xyo(Jiv Ta (TTcbuSaZa TCOV yEXotcov xal TCOV fjiETa
7rat8ia<;, xal TOU PEXTIOVOC; asl xal fiopiou xal avGpcoTcou crTrouSaLOTSpav TTJV
5 svEpysiav y)
SE TOU PEXTIOVOC; xpELTTCov xal EuSatfjiovixcoTEpa

606 a. Perfect happiness is that activity which exercises the highest

virtue, i.e. that of the highest function of man, i.e. the intellect.

Eth. Nic. X 7, 1 177 a 12 - 18 :

J
Et 8 scnrlv r\ EuSaifJiovfa
xaT* apTY]v EVEpyaa, suXoyov xaTa TT]V xpaTtaTYjv contempla-
av ELY) TOU aptaTou. ELTE SYJ vou<; TOUTO EITE aXXo TI, 8 SY] xaTa ^lidtv tion
aGTY] 8*
15 SOXEI <Sp^tv xal Y]yZcrOai xal ^vvoiav E^etv TCEpl xaXcov xal Ostcov, ELTE OELOV
Sv xal auTO ELTE TCOV EV TO OstoTaTov, YJ TOUTOU Evspysia xaTa TYJV otXEtav
Yjpuiv

apTY]v ELY) av YJ
TEXfita Eu8ai[JLovta. "OTI 8* EGTl OECOPYJTIXYJ, ELpYjTat.

b. The reasons for this statement are given in the next passage. Reasons
20
Ib., H77a -b 6 b 26 -ii78a 8
,
:

20 J) is the
KpaTtoTY) TE yap aoTY) IvEpyEta- xal yap 6 vou<; TCOV EV Y)[uv, xal
(
ECTT'IV Y] ^.
TCOV yvaxjTcov, Tcspl a 6 vou<;. *'ETi SE auvE^EaTaTYj (kcopslv TE yap Suva|JLE6a the nofls

{xaXXov Y^ TcpaTTEtv OTIOUV. Ot6[JLOa TE SELV Y]8ovYjv

u8ai(xov[a, Y)8(aTY) 8^ TCOV xaV apETYjv Evspysicov YJ
xaTa TYJV aoptav 6(JioXo-
 l8o PRACTICAL SCIENCES [606]

ECITIV Soxet youv YJ 91X0(109^ 6ai)fjLa<nra<; YjSova*; fyeiv xaOapior/jTi 25

xal TCO pspaUo, EuXoyov 8e TOI Et86cn TCOV ^YJTOUVTCOV Y]8i<o TYJV SiayooyYjv slvai.
(2) most self- "jj Te XsyofjiEVY) av TCOV [AEV
auTapxsta rapl TYJV 0topY)TiXY)v fiaXtaT* sfor) yap
TO 9jv dvayxatcov xal 0096^ xal Sixatog xal ol Xoarol 8ovTai,
TOIOUTOIC; ixavto<; xxopY]yY)[ji*vcov 6 [JLEV Sbcatos SetTai :rpo<; StxaioTrpayvjaei 30
xal (xeO* ^>v, 6(jio(co^ 8e xal 6 aaxppoov xal 6 avSpeto^ xal TCOV fiXXcov SxaorTO^,
6 8e ao^o^ xal xaO* auriv cov SiivaTat Oecopetv, xal 8<rco av ao90)Tepo? ^,

(jiaXXov (^XTLOV S' iaca<; auvepyoix;

^3) an end in av auTYj
Ao^ai T' [JiovT]
SL' auTYjv ayarcaaOai' ouSev yap CXTT*

Trapa TO OecopYJaai, OCTTO Se TCOV TcpaxTtxcov Y^

TuXeoov Y]
eXaTTOv

Trapcx TYJV TTpa^iv. AoxeZ TS YJ euSaifjiovta ev Ty) c^oX^ elvai aaxoXoujJieOa yap
iva (ixoXaCwfjLev, xal 7roXe(jiou(jLev tva eipY)VY]v (Scyofxev. 5
a divine <Q g^ ou yap $ av6pco7uo<; 26
(4)
TOiouTO<; av ELY] (3to^ xpeiTTCov YJ
xaT* SvOpcoTrov
ecTiv OUTCOC; (3ia>(ieTaL, aXX' fj
OSLOV TI Iv aoTO) uTrap^si 8aco Se 8ia9pt TOUTO
TOU auvOeTOU, TOCTOUTO) xal Y] svepyeta TYJ^ xaTa TYJV <5cXXYjv apTY]v. Ei SY] 0etov
6 vou^ Tcpoc; TOV avOpcoTrov, xal 6 xaTa TOUTOV PIOC; Oetoc; TTpoc; T^V avOpcoTiivov 30

piov. 06 XP'^) ^ xaTa TOU<; TcapatvouvTa^ avOpcoTrtva 9povetv avOpwTuov 8vTa

ouSe OvYjTa TOV OVYJTOV, aXX' 9* oaov IvSlxETai aOavaTi^Eiv xal TravTa TTOIEIV

7rpo<;TO ^YJV xaTa TO xpaTidTov TCOV ev auTco et yap xal Tc7> oyxco (jiixpov IcTt,

SuvafJLei xal TIJJLIOTYJTL TroXu (jiaXXov TUOCVTCOV uTcepXi. AO^EIE 8* av xal slvat
5

ExaaToc; TOUTO, ELTCEP TO xupiov xal OCJJIEIVOV STOTTOV o5v ytvoiT av, EL |JLY]
TOV
ai>TOu PLOV alpotTo aXXa TLVO^ &XXoi>. To Xs/Osv TE TcpoTEpov apfjiocrsi xal vuv

TO yap OIXELOV ExaaTCo T^ 9uat xpcmcrTov xal YjSiaTov EGTIV sxaaTco. Kal 5
TCO avOpcoTuo) SYJ 6 xaTa TOV vouv pioc;, strap TOUTO (^aXiara avOpcoTio^. 05TO^
&pa xal EuSaipLovEaTaTO^.
Cp. Metaph. A 2,
28 32
982 b - (our nr. 519).

c. The life of moral virtue takes the second place.

Moral virtue 15 9 - 14
c g, 1178 a :

secondary AsuTEpcoc; 8 6 xaTa TY]V aXXYjv apETYjv at yap xaTa TauTY]v EVspyEtai avOpco-
Tiixat Sixata yap xal avSpEta xal Ta SXXa Ta xaTa Ta? apETa^ :rp6<; aXXifjXous 10
Iv (TUvaXXayfiacn xal xp a ^ xa ^ ^pa^e^t 7ravToiat,<; l:v TE TOIC;
^

8iaTY]pouvT^ TO TupETuov xa(7T6), TauTa 8* slvai 9atvTat TuavTa avOpco-

Titxa.

607 Further reasons for superiority of the contemplative life.

few external Ao^Eis 8' av xal TYJ<; EXTO? xopY)yas 7ul

[Jiixpiv Y)
ETI* SXaTTov Ssio6ai rq$
goods
yjOtxY)(;.
Tcov [JLEV yap avayxatcav a(JL9otv XP e ^ a xal s^ taou SCTTCO, el xal (JtaXXov 25
SiaTiovst Tcspl TO dcofia 6 noXiTix6^, xal 8aa ToiauTa p.ixp6v yap a"v TI
 [607] ETH. NIC. III-X l8l

:rp6c; 8e Tac; IvEpyEtac; TcoXu Siotaei. Tcp jzev yap eXeuOepico Se-yjtrei

Trpoc; TO TcpaTTEiv T<x eXeuOlpia, xal TCO Sixatco STJ etc; Tac; avTaTro Soars ic; (al

30 yap pouXvjcreu; SSvjXoi, TcpoorTOiouVrai SE xal 01 [JLTJ

Sixatoi pouXeaOai Sixaio-

TrpayEiv), T& avSpeta) 8s SuvajJiecoc;, eirrep ETILTEXEI TI T&V xaTa TTJV apETTjv,
xai TO) atocppovt, c;ouaiac;. IIooc; yap S9jXoc; &JTOCL 73 oSToc; ^ TWV (ScXXcav TIC;;

b. Ib. H78b 7 - 23
:
The sole
activity
ii78b *H Se TsXeLoc suSai(jiov[a OTI OewpTjTixT) Tt^ edTiv evepyeta, xal evTu6ev av conceivabl
xal in God
9avet7j. Touc; Oeoix; yap [JLaXiCTTa UTretX^afJLev fiaxaptouc; eoSaifjiovac;
loslvai' Tcpa^ei? Se Troiac; aTcovsLfjiai XP (^ V auTOL<;; HoTepa Tac; Stxatac;; "H
yeXoioi 9avouvTai cuvaXXaTTOVTe*; xal 7uapaxaTa6-/)xa<; aTtoSiSovTec; xal oaa
TOiaijTa; 'AXXa Tac; avSpetouc;, urcofjievovTac; Ta 9opepa xal xtvSuveuovTac; OTL
xaXov; "H Tac; eXeuOepiouc; ;
TLVI Se SOXJOUCTIV; ''ATOTUOV S' zl xal SdTat
J

15 vofitafjia TI
TI TOIOUTOV. At 8e aaxppovec; TL av elev; 'H (popTixoc; 6
OTI oux ex oumv 9auXac; e7iL0u[iLa<; ; Ais^toijai Se Travra 9atvoiT' av T<X icepl TCXC;

TCpa^sic; (Jitxpci xal avaia Oewv. 'AXXci JJLYJV ^YJV TS rcavTec; urcetXr^aaiv
20 xal evepyetv dcpa- ou yap SY] xaOeuSetv ciaTrep TOV 'EvSu(jitcova. Tco S
TOU TcpaTTStv a9aipou[xevou, STL Se (jtaXXov TOO TTOLELV, TI XeiTreTai TiXvjv Oecopia ;

r/
Q<TT Y] TOU Oeoij evepyeia, (JiaxapiOTYjTi Sia9epouoa, OewpYjTLXY) av si'yj. Kal
TWV avOpCOTTLVOiV 7) 7] TaUTT) CTUyySV(TTaT7] EuSaL[JlOVtX6)TaT7).

c. Ib., H78b 24 - 32
:
it distin-

~ ~
Ta Xot?:a x
* x i x , ,5.
> , ,
5^x
oe xat TO (JLTJ (jLeTexetv Q<oa euoatfiovtac;, r/jc; TOiauTTjc; f r0 m
the
anirnals
25 evepyetac; eaTep7](Jieva TeXetax;. TOLC; [xev yap 6eoic; arcac; 6 (3ioc; [laxapLoc;, TOLC;
J
S avOpcoTcotc;, 29* oaov 6(ju>ta)[jux
TL TTJC; TOiauT7]c; evepyeiac; uTuap/si' TCOV S'

p6)v ouSev euSatfJtovsi, 712187) ouSafxy] xoivcovet Oecopiac;. '9' oaov ST)

7) Oecopta, xal 7] eiSaifJiovia, xal olc; [jiaXXov uruapxc!, TO Oecopev, xal

30 cuSaifJLOvelv, ou xaTa aufjipepTjxoc; aXXa xaTa TTJV Oetopiav auTT) yap xaO*
5

ai)T7)v Ti(i[a. "QcrT e?7] av 7] u8ai(jLovta 0(opta TIC;.

Final
d. The man who lives for the intellect must be dearest to the Gods
conclusion
and therefore happiest.
22 - 32
Ib., 1 179 a :

ii79a *0 8 xaTa voiiv Vpy&v xal TOUTOV 0pa7Tii6>v xal Siaxi(ivoc; SL^IGTOL xal

609iXe<TTaToc; SOIXEV i
yap TLC; ETci[jLeXeia T&V avOpcoTitvcov 6^6 Oswv ytvsTat,
25
cocrTTEp 8oxt, xal 17]
av EiiXoyov x a ^P e ^ T auTOUc; TW apttTTCo xal TCO ai)yy-

(TOUTO 8* cxv EITJ 6 vouc;) xal TOUC; ayaTrcovTac; (jiaXicrTa TOUTO xal
avTU7roitv cac; TWV 9tX(ov auTotc; 7rt|jLXou(JLvouc; xal opOcoc; T xal
30 xaX&c; TTpaTTovTac;. "OTI SE TravTa Taika Tq> 0*096) [zaXicrT* u7rapXL, oux <5c87]Xov.
J

<5pa. T6v auTov 8 tx6<; xal eu8ai(JLOvorTaTOv COOTE xav

6 <ro96c; (jLaXtaT*
 l82 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [608)

4 THE POLITICS
608In Aristotle's opinion the supreme science in the province of

practical reason is not ethics, but politics, since its object is to secure
the well-being, not of the individual, but of a whole community or state
(Eth. Nic. I 2, our nr. 566).

The first Book of the Politics inquires into the structure and the aims
of the state.

'

* 2 '
I2 5 2 a 26 - 34 b9 - 1; '

of the state 'AvayxTj SYJ Trp&TOv duvSua^eaOai TOU<; #vu aXX-yjXcov [JLYJ Suva[Avou<; elvat,
olov 09)Xu (jlv xal appv TTJ<; yV<70)<; evsxev (xal TOUTO oux ex Trpoatplaeox;,
aXX' coarcep xal ev TOIC; XXoL cooi<; xal 9UToc<; 9U<nxov TO 9iaOai olov 7

auTO, TOIOUTOV xotTaXiTcsiv Tpov), ap^ov Se 9u<TL xal ap/ofievov Sia TTJV 30

acoTYjptav. TO
yap Suva(jLvov TYJ Siavota Trpoopav ap^ov 9ii<Ti, xal SECTCO^OV
(JLsv

9\iai, TO SE Suva[jLvov TauTa TO) acofjiaTi TTOIECV ap^6(jivov xal 9i)0i SouXov
SLO SECTTTOTYJ xal SouXq) TauTo (jujz^epei. 'Ex [iv oOv TOUTOJV TWV 8\io xoivca- 34
vtwv oixia TupcoTT), xal opOcoi; 'H(7LoSo<; ELTTE 7rotY)(ja<; olxov (jiV TrpcaTtaTa b 10
*

yuvalxa T POUV T* dpoT7]pa(( 6 yap (3ou<; avT* OIX^TOU TOL<; 7TVY]atv (TTIV.

15 - 16 27 - 30
b. Ib., 1252 b ,
:

Structure Of *}J
J
| x TCXELOVCOV OIXLGJV XOLVCOVta TCpCOTY) XP^ * 20^? VXV (JIY) 97](JLpOU
J

and its aim xco(JL7).

*H 8 x 7rXi6vcov X6)(jic5v xoivwvia
ouv TOU yv evXv, oaa
8s: TOU 3 9v

The state 609 30 4

exists by
a. Ib., 1252 b -i253 a :

x , , , , . ~ / ^ x

nature ^^ Tiatra 7roXi<; 9u<Tt ECTTLV, i7Tp xai ai rcpwTai xoivwviai. TXo<; yap aimq 3
XIVO)V, 7)
S 9\i(7L? TXO(; (JTLV OLOV yap Xa<7TOV <TTl,
T^ yVGCO<; TX(T0ei-
lvai

PXTLCTTOV 7)
8' auTapxeia xal TXo<; xal
X TOUTCOV o5v 9aVpOV OTl TOJV 9U(Tl 7] 7r6Xl(; C7Tt, Xal OTl
TtoXtTixov ^wov, xal 6 <5auoXi<; Sta 9UCTiv xal ou Sia TUX>]V ^TOI 9auXo^ <ITLV

XptTT6)V

animal AIOTI Sg: TroXiTixov 6 SvOpco^o<; ^oiov Tradrjc; (jLXtTT7](; xal TravTO^ ayXaiou
Z^coou [jiaXXov, STJXOV. ouOv yap, w^ 9a(Jtv, {JKXTYJV 7] 9\jcjt<;
TroiEt- Xoyov Si;

(JLOVOV 5vOpO)7TO<; /t TO)V ^6)0)V Yj (jlV OUV 9COVY] TOU XUTTYJpOU Xal YjS^O^ EdTl Io

07)(jLLov, 816 xal Tol^; <5cXXoi(; UTrap/et ^w^ (^XP Y^P 1 ^O^TO^> 7)

lXy)Xu6e, TOU extv ataOyjatv XuTUTjpou xal 7)8^0? xal TauTa cry)(jLa^veiv
 [609] POLITICS 183

6 8e Xoyo<; em TO) 8Y)Xouv earn TO aru(i9pov xal TO pXajkpov, <5><7Te xal TO

15 Sbcaiov xal TO SSixov TOUTO yap ^pcx; T<X #XXa 6)a TOL? av0po>7roi<; tStov,
TO (JLOVOV ayaOou xal xaxou xal Sixatou xal aSixou xal T&V a*XXcov

7)
^ TOUTOW xoivcovia Troiet ofodav xal 7c6Xiv.

610 Since the slave is a part of the household, slavery must be dis-
cussed first.

23 33 1-2 5- 8 The slave

a. Polit. I 4, 1253 b - 1254 a , :

12530
>r-
Jteet ouv
% T ~ ,~ 7
,

, , \
otxia<; ECTTI xat,
i t / ~ ,
a livin ft
tool
y] XTYJCTI^ [Jiepo^ T7]<; 7] XTTJTLXY] [icpoc; r/]^ oixovojJLia^
25 (a*vei) yap TCOV avayxatcov aSiivaTOv xal ^9jv xal eu ?jv), ojdTrep Se TaL(; wpta-

i^ avayxaiov av e?7] UTrap^eiv Ta otxela Spyava, ei [JiiXXei a7ro-

'
TO epyov, [OUTO) xal TW otxovofjLtxcp] TCOV opyavcov Ta (lev
Ta Se ejji^uxa (olov TO) xupepvYjTY) 6 [JLSV ol'a^ Siu^ov 6 Se Trpcopeuc;
6 yap uTTYjplTY)^ ev opyavou etSei Talc; tiyyv-^ ECT[V), OUTO) xal
<TO) oixovo(JLix<o> TO xT7](jia opyavov 7cpo<; ^o)'/jv eari,xal rj XTTJCTI^ TrXyjOoc;

6pyavo)v eaTt, xal 6 SouXo<; XT^[JLa TI SfJi^u/ov. xal coaTrsp opyavov :rp6 opyavcov
u7rY]peTY]<;. Ta p.ev o5v Xeyojieva opyava TroiyjTixa opyava eaTi, TO 8^
J/ s

5 XT7](jia TrpaxTLxov. ETL 8 eTuei Sta9e*pei YJ Trotyjcri^ stSei xal YJ Tcpa^i^, xal
SeovTat afjL^OTepat opyavow, avayxv) xal TaoTa TTJV auTYjv 2x etv Sta90pav.
6 8e pio Tupa^i^, ou TrotTjdi^ ECTTIV SLO xal 6 8ooXo<; uru^peTT)^ TOW ?rp6(; TY)V

TrpaEtv.

17 - 24
b. Polit. 1 5, 1254 a b 16 - 23 ,
:

IloTepov 8* eaTt TI<; 960*61 TOLOUTOC; r\ 08, xal TTOTSpov P^XTIOV xal Stxatov by nature
TM SouXeiisiv YJ 08, aXXa Traaa SouXeia Trapa 9uatv eaTt, [IETOC TauTa dxeTiTeov.
20 ou /aXeTrov Se xal TO) Xoyq) Oeo^p^aaL xal ex TWV yivo(Jievcov xaTafiaOecv. TO

yap ap^etv xal fip^ecrOat ou (JLOVOV TO>V avayxatcov aXXa xal T&V cru[jL9ep6vTO)v
1

t. xal eu6u<; ex
yeveT^<; Svia StedTYjxe Ta fxev evrl TO ap^eaOai Ta S ITCI TO
r/
0aoi [Aev ouv TOCTOUTOV SieaTacrtv 8aov ^ U X^ crcofiaTO^ xal

0Y]piou (StaxeivTai, TOUTOV TOV Tporcov, 8ao)v SCTTIV epyov YJ

TOU awfiaT
xal TOUT' eoV OCTT* auTO>v peXTLCTTov), OUTOI (jiev
eiai 9\i(jet SouXot, ols [3eXTtov

e(TTtv SpxeciOat TauTYjv TYJV apxV e ^e P xa>t T0 ^? eipY)[jLevoi<;.

etrrt yap 9uciei

SouXoc; 6 8uvafjievo<; <5XXou elvat (816 xal a*XXou eaTtv) xal 6 xoivo>vcov Xoyou

TOCTOUTOV Scrov aiaOaveaOai aXXa [JLYJ

27 1
c. Ib., I254b -i255a :

BouXeTai, (lev o5v YJ 9U(Ti<; xal Ta ao>(JLaTa 8ia9^povTa Tioietv Ta TWV eXeuOepcov
xal Toiv 8ouXo)v, Ta (jtev lax^pa rcp6<; TY^V avayxatav
 184 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [6lO]

epyaatac;, aXXa xpif)cri[JLa 7tp&<; TroXiTixov (3tav 30

(O?>TO<; Se xal yiveTai StY]pY)[jivo(; eu; Te TYJV 7uoXe[JUXY]v xP av x ^ T V etpYjvixYjv),
Exceptions trufjipatvei Se 7roXXaxi<; xal TouvavTiov, TOU? [xev TOC acofiaTa exstv eXeuOlpcov
TOU<; Se T<X<; tjjuxac;* ercel TOUTO ye 9avepov, co<; ei TOCTOUTOV ylvoivTO Sia90poi
TO acofjia {x6vov, oaov at TCOV 0ecov eixove<;, TOIK; u7uoXei7co[Jivou<; 7cdvTe<; 9atev 35
av a^iouc elvai TOUTOK; SouXeueiv. ei S* e:rl TOU aa>|JiaTO<; TOUT' aX7]0e(;, TuoXu

SixaioTepov em TYJ^ ^X^ TOUTO Sicopio-Oai aXX* ou^ OJJLOIOX; po^Stov iSetv TO
Te T9j(; ^u^^ xaXXo? xal TO TOU

611 In the final chapter of this Book the author raises the question
whether the slave can have virtue. He treats it in a larger framework:
the same question namely must be asked concerning women and children,
since they too are <xpx6[jievot, though in another sense than slaves. Ar.

gives the answer of Gorgias, who said that the virtue of a woman is
different from that of a man, and the virtue of slaves different from that
of free-born people (Plato, Meno 72 a; our nr. 267b).
Can the p UL 21 2
a 10 - 28 33 - 36
slave have
J I3| 1259 b -I26o a , ,
:

_ \ r *
\ t >* > r / /

virtue? llpoTOv (Jtev ouv ?repi oouXwv aTropvjaeiev av TL<;, TcoTepov ecmv apeTY) Ti
SouXou Tcapa Ta<; opyavixa^; xal St-axovixac; SXXr) Tijjuarrepa TOUTCOV, olov

aco^pocruvy) xal avSpeia xal Stxatoduvv] xal Tc5v <$XXcov TCOV TOIOUTCOV e^ecov,

TQ
oux e'dTLv ouSefjLia Trapa TOK; aco[jLaTixa<; U7ry]peatac;. e^ei yap aTuoptav a^o- 25

Tepco(; eiTe yap ecmv, TI SLOICTOUCTI TCOV IXeuOepcov ;

eiTe (JLT) eaTiv, OVTCOV

dvOpcoTccov xal Xoyou XOLVCOVOUVTCOV OCTOTEOV. axe^ov STJ TauTov ecrTi TO ^TJTOU-

(xevov xal Trepl yuvaixo^ xal TraiSo?, TTOTepa xal TOUTCOV etalv apeTai, xal Set 30

TYJV yuvatxa elvat crco9pova xal avSpetav xal Stxatav, xal 7uat<; eaTt xal axo-

XaciTO^ xal aco9pcov, \ ou ;

xal xa86Xou SYJ TOUT* eciTlv emoxeTCTeov Tcepl

apxo[xevou 9uarei xal <5cpxovTO<;, TcoTepov Y) auTY) apeTT) Y) eTepa. d (lev yap Set
<x[i90Tepou<; (xeTexetv xaXoxaya6ia<;, Sia TL TOV [jiev ap^etv Seoi
av TOV Se <2pxecr6ai 35

xaOdbra!;; (ouSe yap [jtaXXov xal

TcT)T^TTOV olov Te Sta9epeiv TO (Jtev yap 5p-
Xcr6ai xal Sp/eiv etSei Sta9epet, TO Se (xaXXov xal Y^TTOV ouSev ) ei Se TOV (xev
Set TOV Se [JiY), OaufjiaaTov. etTe yap 6 ap^cov (JLYJ eaTai aco9pcov xal Sixato^,

TCCOC; (Kp^ei xaXco^ ; ei6' 6 ap^ofxevo^, TTCO<; ap^OifjcreTat xaXco^ ; yap 40

axoXacrTOc;
cov xal SeiXo<; ouSev TtoiTjcret TCOV 7rpoa7]x6vTCov. Kal Tracriv evujcapxsi [Aev Ta 12600.
(x6pia TY]^ ^uxv]?, aXX* evuTrapxet Sia9epovTco<;. 6 {xev yap SouXo^ 8Xco<; oux Sxet
TO pouXeuTixov. TO Se 6^Xu e'xet [Jtsv,
aXX' (Sxupov, 6 Se Trat? e^ei [xlv, aXX*

aTeX^. 6[xoico(; TOIVUV avayxaico^ Sxetv xal Trepl TOC<; Y)0Lxa^ apeTa<; uTcoXYjTCTeov, 15
Selv p.ev (xeT^xe^ TuavTac;, aXX' ou TOV auTOv TpOTcov, aXX* 5aov exaaTCp 7cp6(; T6
auTOu gpyov. Sio TOV [xev SpxovTa TeXav ^xetv Set TY)V Y)8ixY)v apeTYjv (T& yap
8

Spyov eaTlv aTrXtoc; TOU dpx^xTOvo^, 6 Se X6yo? apx^xTcov), TCOV S (SXXcov

 [6ll] POLITICS 185

2olxa(iTov, 8aov ImpaXXeL aoTol<;. ware 9avep6v 6ri ecrrlv yjOtxY) apeTY) TCOV
elpY)(ivcov TravTCov, xal oux $1 auTY) (7co9po<jiivY) yovaix&<; xal av8p6<;, ouS*
avSpeia xal SixaioauvYj, xaOaTuep <5>eTO ZcoxpaTY)*;, aXX' Y) [lev apxixY] av8pea YJ
8' uTTYjpeTixY), 6[jio[co<; 8* #xei xal rcepl TOC<; <SXXa<;. SvjXov Si: TOUTO xal xara [/ipoc;

25 [zaXXov eTTKTxoTcoucnv. xaOoXou yap ol XeyovTe<; ea7raTcoaiv eauToix; STL TO

e5 Sx etv T^ v ^ u xV apeTY), Y)
TO opOorcpayelv, r]
TI TWV TOIOUTCOV TroXu yap
<S(jieivov Xlyoucjtv ot e^apiOfJtoijvTec; Ta^; apeTa^, co<T7rep Fopyiai;, T&V OUTCO<;
* an
33 opi^OLLevwv. ^EOeixev 8e Tavayxala vpyiaiaov elvai TOV SouXov. OXTTS Only
7rp6(;
,L - x , ~ ^~ ~ / ^ *, x
inferior kind / , /

oY]Xov OTI xai apSTYjc; oetTai [xixpac;, xat ToaauTT)^ OTrcac; (JLYJTE 61 axoXaaiav
8ta SstXiav

612 a. Property is considered by Ar. as an indispensable substratum

of the household, and there is a kind of acquisition which he called natural.

Polit. I 8, 1 6
1256 a - ,
10 - 21
,
b 6- 10 ,
26 - 34
I
Property and
acquisition
i256a (JX(o<; os rcepi Traav]^ xTYjcreco^ xai xp^^TiaTixr]? Uea)pY)CTa)(Jtev xara TOV
v TpoiTov, ETueiTUEp xal 6 SouXoc; T% XTYjaeax; (Jtlpoc;
TI Y^V.

[lev o5v aTTopYjaetsv Sv TIC; TioTCpov Y) ^pY][iaTi<TTixY) Y) auTY) Tyj OLxovo(jLixyj

10
7J (JLpO<; TI Y) UTTYJpeTlXY).
- f/
OTl [JLV o5v OU^ Y) aUTY) OtXOVO[AtXY] T))

SYJXOV (TY^C; (JLEV yap TO 7ropi<ra(70ai, TY)<; Se TO xP^aaOat TI<; yap eaTai Y]

<TO|JLlvY] TOL^ xaTa TYJV oixiav Tiapa TYJV OIXOVO[JLIXY)V ;TOTepov 8e (iepo^ auTYJ<;
)

eaTi TL Y) ETepov eTSoc;, lyzi 8ia[JL9LCTpY)TY)ciiv ei yap EGTI TOU xp^)M-aTtaTixoi5

7i66ev xp^aTa xal XTYJGK; eaTat, . . .
YJ
Se XTYJCTK; TroXXa 7repteiXY)9e

j
xal 6 7rXouTO<;, COGTE TrpcoTov Y] yewpyixYj TTOTepov (Jiepo^ TI TYJC; olxovo[JLtxYJ<;
'

Y) iTepov TL yevoc; ;
xal xaOoXou YJ Trepl TYJV TpocpYjv e^ifjieXeia xal XTYJCTI^. AXXa
20 JJLTJV siSY] ye TuoXXa Tpo9Y](;, SLO xal PLOL TioXXol xal TO>V Z^oicov xal TCOV avOpcoTccov
ou yap olov Te ^v fiveu Tpo9^, cExrTe at 8ia90pal TYJ^ Tpo9YJ<;
T&V
f
A certain
8ia9epovTa<; ^cocov. dc; av Y) XP e ^ a <TUvavayxa^Y], TOUTOV
TOV TpOTCov SiayouCTiv. Y) [zev o3v TOiauTY] XTYJdtc; UTC* auTTJ^ 9aiveTai TYJC; 9uareo><; natural
9, 10 8i8o(JievY] Traatv, cicrTrep
xaTa TY)V TupwTYjv yeveatv euOu;, OUTCO xal TeXeia>0eL(7Lv.
26, 27 "Ev [jiev
o5v elSoc; XTYJTLXYJ<; xaTa 9\icrLv TYJ^ otxovofjLixYJj; [j,epo<; laTiv, xa06
8eZ Y^TOI UTcapxew Y^ Trop^eiv auTY)v OTTGX; uTrapXTJ, ^v eo-Tl 0Y)aaupia(JLO^ XP^lf1 ^'

3 TCOV rcp6<; ^COYJV avayxaitov xal xp^fftfjicov e^ xoivcoviav TcoXecoc; ^ otxia^. xal

Sotxev o y* aXYj8tv6<; TrXouTOi; ex TOtJTCov elvai. Y) yap TY^<; ToiauTYj<; XTY)oreco(;

auTapxsia Trpo^ aya0Y]v ^COY)V oux a7ceipo<; eaTiv, coa?rep 26Xcov 9Y](il 7roiY)(ra^

7rXouTOU 8* ouSev Teppia 7re9aa(jivov avSpacri xetTat xecTai yap coaTrep

34 xal Tat^ &XXai^ T^OCK;.

b. Wealth pursued for its own sake is unnatural. Another is

unnatural
Ib. I 40
9, 1256 b -i257 a
21
a31 - 84 a-b 8 b 23- 2*, b 30- 31 , , ,
:

al Stxaiov air6 xaXetv,

186 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [6l2]

XpY){JUXTi<7TiXY)v, Si* Y)V ouSev Soxei rcepac; elvat TrXouTOU xal

(Jitav xal TYJV auTYjv Tfl XexOeicrfl TcoXXol VOJJU^OUCTI 8ia TYJV yeiTvtaaiv &m 8*

OUTS 73 auTY) Tfj eipYjfjdvY)

OUTS Troppco exeivYjc;. Sera 8' 7] fjiev 9\i<Ti Y) 8* ou <pucrei

auT&v, aXXa 8C efiiretpiac; TIVCK; xal yiveTai [xaXXov. Xapcojjiev Se Trepl auTYJ<; 5

TYJV ap^>)v evTeuOev. exaaTOu yap xryjfJiaTCx; SITTT) YJ XP^^ scr^tv, afjL90Tepai
J
8e xa6 auri (xev aXX* ou^ 6(/,otca<; xaO* auro, aXX' 73 piev otxeta y)
8' oux oixeta
Toii 7rpay[JiaTO<;, olov UTUoSyjiJiaToc; Y)
TE uTroSeai; xal Y) (JLSTapXyjTixy). afi^oTepai
yap u7coSy)[JiaTO<; xp^ ae ^
'
^a ^ T^P o aXXarrofzevo^ TW 8eo(JLva> iTuoSYjfjLaro^ 10
avrl vo(jLto(jLaTO(; YJ Tpo9YJ<; XP^ at T ^ 67roSY)(jiaTi fj 67r68Y][jia, aXX' ou TYJV oixeiav

XpYJaiv ou yap aXXay^ svexev yeyove. TOV aurov Se rpoTuov ex L xa>l 7re P^ T^v
aXXcov xTY](JLaT(ov. EOTTI yap Y] (iTa(3XYjTi,xY) 7ravTa>v, ap^a^vY) TO [xev TrpcoTov 15
sx TOU xaTa <pu<riv, TCO Ta fjiev
TcXsLto T<X Se eXaTTCo TWV Ixavwv

av0p(o7cou^. ^ xal 89jXov, OTL oux ECTTI ^UCTSL TYJC; xpY)[iaTicrTix% Y)

oaov yap txavov auTol^ ? avayxalov 9jv TroisiaOai TYJV aXXayYJv. ev [Jiev
o5v T^

TipcoTY] xoLvwvia (TOUTO 8* Icjlv oixia) ^avepov OTI ouSev ecjTiv epyov auTY^<;, 20
aXX' Y^SYJ 7tXeiovo<; TYJC; xoivawac OUCTYJC;. SevixcoTCpa^ yap yevofzevY)*; TY)(;3i

poYjOetac; TW ecCTcxyedOat &v IvSeelc; xal sxTT^fjiTretv div ejrXsova^ov, e^ avayxY](;

Y]
TOU vopiicjfJLaTOi; Tcopior6Yj xpY]C7L<;. FIopicrOevTO^ ouv YjSY) vo[xia(JLaTo<;
ex TYJ^ i25;b
xP Y)(JlaTia Ttx ^ ^ ey^vero, TO xaTTYjXixov, TO
'

avayxatac; aXXay^<; Oarepov eI8o<; TYJC;

<

(lev TrpcoTov aTrXco^ taco^ yivofjievov, elTa 81 e(Jt7reipia(; Y^SY] TexvixcoTepov,

TroOev xal 7rc5<; fierapaXXofjisvov TcXeiaTOV TcotYjaet xep8o<;. Sto Soxei YJ xp^^aTta- 5
TixY) (xaXicTTa Trepl TO vofiiafza elvai, xal epyov TO SuvaaOai, OecapYjaai
OCUTYJS

TroOev ^tTTat 7tX^6o<; XP^^OCTCOV TTOIYJTIXYJ yap elvai TOU TrXouTou xal xp^aTcov.
Kal fiTteipo^; SYJ O^TOC; 6 TrXouTO^; 6 daro TauTY)c; TY^C; xP'y)(jLaTlaTlx %- 23, 24

T9js 8* olxovofJLixY)? ou xp^M-aTidTtXY^c; eoTTt Trepac; ou yap TOUTO TYJ<; oixovofJuxYJc; 30, 31

epyov.

613 Of the second Book the

first part (ch. 1-8) is concerned with ideal

commonwealths, particularly with Plato's (see our nr. 310). In the second

part (ch. 9-12) the best existing states are discussed (Sparta, Crete and
Carthage), and a word is said about the most famous lawgivers.

614 The first part of the third Book (ch. 1-5) is devoted to the
citizen and his relations to the state.
a. The citizen is defined as the man who has political power, how-
ever acquired.

If
J
S aTrX&s ouSevl T&V aXXcov optCsTat (xaXXov Y)
TO> [ZETexeiv xpiaecac;

xal
 [614] POLITICS 187

Since constitutions differ from one another, the citizens corres-

b.

ponding to each form of constitution will also be different. Hence the

definition of a citizen should be formulated more precisely.

Ib, 1275 a38- 39 ,

b 3- 21 :

Ta<; 8k TUoXiTetac; opcofzev etSei Siacpepotiaa<; aXX-yjXcov, . . . cocrre xai TOV

TuoXtTYjv eVepov avayxatov elvai TOV xa6' exacmqv TroXiTeiav. Storcep 6 Xex0ek
5 ev |iev S-yjjioxpaTLa fiaXicn:' eoVi TroXiryjs, ev Se Tai<; fiXXat^ evSe/eTai |j.ev, ou

fjiTjv avayxacov. <ev> evtai<; yap ^ x Sort SYJ|JLO, ouS* exxXYjaiav VO|JUOUCTIV
aXXa cruyxXYjTOiK;, xai T<X<; 8ixa<; Sixa^ouai, xara [lipo?, olov ev AaxeSaifjLovi
IOT(X<; TCOV aufji^oXatcov Stxa^ei TO>V 9opcov <5XXo<; #XXa<;, ot 8e ypovTeq TOCC;

9(wxa<;, erepa S* L<T(O^ ap^vj TI^ erepa^. TOV auTov Se TpoTuov xai Trepl KapxvjSova
7cacra<; yap ap^ai Ttve^ xpivoucri T<X<; Sixa^;. aXX' ^x ei T^P 8i6p0co<jtv 6 TOU TroXiTOU

&iopt(T(ji6<;. ev yap Tat^ aXXaic; rcoXtTetatc; ou^ 6 aopiaTO^ ap^cov exxXyjdiacmfjc; corrected

15 eaTi xai SixadTT]^, aXXa 6 xara TVJV ap^yjv 6)picr(Jtlvo^ TOUTWV yap 7} Traaiv ?j
Tialv aTcoS^SoTai TO pouXeueaOat xai Stxa^eiv >} Tcepl TCCXVTWV ^ ?uepl TIVWV.

TLS (Jiev
ouv eaTLv 6 TCoXiTT]^, ex TOUTCOV 9avepov c*>
Y*P e^ouo"ia XOL-
vcoveiv apx'OS pouXeuTLXY)^ xpLTLxyj^, TtoXiTTjv yjSr) Y)

2oXyo(jiev elvai TauTY]<; T yj ? TuoXecoc;, 7r6Xtv Se TO TOJV TOIOUTCOV

TrXv^Oo^ txavov Trpoc; auTapxeiav a>?j^, coc; a?rX(o<; eiTielv.

The author remarks, that this definition is better than the usual formula, which
defines the citizen as one of whom both the parents are citizens. For this formula
cannot possibly apply to the first inhabitants or founders of a state.

615 Similarly the state is defined by reference to the distribution

of political power: when the mode of distribution is changed, a new
state comes into existence.

a. In Polit. Ill \ the question is raised: what exactly is the identity what is the
r t on identity of
17 --
of the state, 1276 a :
the state?
. . .
rico^ TioTe xp^] Xeyeiv TT)V TroXiv elvai TTJV aur/jv 5) (JLTJ TTJV auT7)v aXX*

eTepav ; 73 (jtev o5v eTCLTroXatOTaTT) TYJ<; a7ropia<; ^YjTTjai^ Tiepl TOV TOTTOV xai

1 - 13 Ar/s reply
b. 1276 b Ib., :

EiTtep y^P ^ Tt xotvwvta TK; Y) 7u6Xi<;, IO-TI 8e xoivcovta TroXiT&v TroXiTsia^;,

ytvofievY]^ eTepa^ TCO eiSei xai Sia^epouayjc; T^<; 7roXtTeta<; avayxatov elvai
So^eiev av xai TVJV TroXtv elvai ^
TYJV aunfjv. coaTrep ye xai x^P ^ T (A^v xco(JLtx6v

5 OTe Se Tpayixov eTepov elvai 9a(xev, TCOV auTtov TroXXaxic; av6pco7rcov OVTCOV,
Se xai Ttaaav iXXyjv xoivcovtav xai aiivOeoiv eT^pav, av elSo<; eTepov fj

ouvOeaeax;, olov apfzovtav TCOV auTcov 906yycov eT^pav elvai Xyo[jtev ?

av
 188 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [615]

fjtiv % Acopux; OT Se Opiiyio;. EL SYJ TOUTOV lx eL TOV Tp6Tcov, 9avepov STL

XexTe*ov rqvaurqv :r6Xiv eic; TY)V TcoXtTeiav (JXe*7uovTa<; 8vo(jia Se xaXetv 10

Srepov Y]
TauTov g^eaTi xal TCOV aoT&v xaTOixouvTcov aurqv xal TtafiTtav eTspcav

avOpcoTccov.

616 a. The question may be raised whether a good citizen is always

a good man. Ar. answers in the negative the good citizen has some special :

apery) for some particular purpose he has not, as such, the apery) which is ;

proper to the good man.

l 4 '
I2 7 6 b28 - 34;
be not a good Tcov TroXtTcov, xaforep avofAoicov OVTCOV, rj rfa xoivcovia? Spyov eari,
acoTYjptac
man xoivcovia 8* earlv Y)
TcoXiTeia 816 TTJV apeTYjv avayxatov elvat TOU TtoXiTOi) Trpoc; 30
r/jv TuoXiTetav. eforep o3v eart TtXeico TroXireia^ etSy], S^Xov we; oux evS^s^aL
TOO (JTrouSaiou TToXiTOi) fjiiav aper/jv elvai TYJV TeXeiav r6v 8* aya66v &v8pa
9a(xev xara (juav aper/jv elvai TYJV reXetav.

b. So in general the virtue of the good man and the good citizen
is not the same. In one particular case however they are identical,
namely in the good ruler.
The good IK 1277 a 12 - 17 !

ruler always
a good man AtoTt (xev TOIVOV (XTcXcoc; oux **] aunf), 9avep6v ex TOUTOV aXX' apa eorTat TIVOC; 127 ja,

aper/j Te avrouSatou xal avSpoc; <77uoi>8aLOu; 9a{Aev SY) TOV

TroXiTOi)

Ta TOV crTrouSacov dcyaOov elvat xal <ppovt(jiov, TOV Se TroXtnrjv oux avayxaiov 15
elvai 9povi(iov. xal TTJV TratSeiav 8' euOix; eTepav elvat X^youai Tive? TOU SPXOVTO^.

The good citizen knows both how to rule and how

c. to obey.
Practical wisdom only is characteristic of the ruler.
The virtue of Jfo 1277 b 13- 21 25 - 32 '

the subject J
and the virtue A Se TOV TroXtnrjv TOV ayaOov eTuaTaaOai xal SuvaaOai xal apxeo-Oai xali277b
of the ruler
Sp^etv , xal auTT) apeTY) TroXtTOU, TO r/)v TCOV eXeoO^pov apxvjv eTriCTTaorOai eV 15

afA^oTepa. xal avSpoc; SYJ aya6ou 5(jL9co, xal el eTepov eI8o<; aa)9poauvY)<; xal
SixaioauvYjc; apxixvj<;. xal yap apxofJilvou {lev eXeuOepou 8e SrjXov 8ri ou (jLta
av eiT) TOU ayaOou apeTY), olov SixatoaiivY), aXX* eiSY) ^ouaa xa0* a ip^ei
xal dcp^eTai, &<T7rep avSpcx; xal yuvaixoc; eTepa <TCi>9po(TiJVY) xal avSpeia. 20
'H Se 9p6vY)m<; SP/OVTO^ tSio<; apeTY) (JLOVYJ. Ta<; yap aXXa<; Soixev avayxaLOV25, 26
elvat xoiva<; xal TCOV dp^o^vcov xal TCOV ap^oVrcov, apxo(xvou 81 ye oux
SCTTIV aper/) 9povY)CTi(;, aXXa So^a aXYjOY)?* coa^ep auXoTcoio^ yap 6 ap^ofjievo^,
6 S* fipxcov auXY)TY)<; 6 /pcofAevoi;. II6Tepov [xev o5v Y) auTY) apeTY) dvSpit; 30

ayaOou xal TcoXiTou (TTrouSaiou Y) eT^pa, xal TTCOC; YJ aury) xal

9avep6v ex TOIJTCOV.
 [617] POLITICS 189

Constitutions are good or bad according as the common welfare

617
is, not, their aim. There are three good constitutions: Monarchy,
or is

Aristocracy and Polity. Of bad ones there are also three: Tyranny,
Oligarchy and Democracy.

Polit. Ill 7, I279a

22
-b 10 :

(ivwv 8e TOUTWV ex6|jiev6v ^ aTl $ TtoXiTefocc; e7uaxe*^aa0ai, 7r6aai stitutions

TOV dpi6[Ji6v xai Theq eiat, xal TrpwTov T<X<; 6p8a<; auTwv xal yap at napexpa
/

25e crovTai 9avepal TOUTWV 8iopia6eio~wv. eTrel 8e TtoXiTeia (jiev xal T&

<jY)[Aaivei TauTOV, rcoXiTeujia 8* earl TO xupiov TWV TroXewv, avayxY) 8' elvai
xupiov YJ
Sva 73 6X[you$ Y) TOU^ TroXXoiic; 8Tav piev 6 el^ YJ
ol oXiyoi YJ
ot TcoXXol

?rp6^ T& xoiviv au(JL9pov (Sp^coat, Taurac; avayxaiov elvat TOCC; TtoXi-
(Jiev opGac;
30 Teta^;, Ta<; Si; TUpoc; TO iSiov Y^ TOU evoc; YJ TO>V oXtycov YJ TOU TrXifjOou^ Tuapexpaaeic;.

Y^ yap
ou TroXiTa^ cpaTeov etvai TOUC {jteT^ovTac;, Y] Set xoivcaveov TOU au(JKppovTo<;.
xaXetv 8* eico6a(Jtev TWV (Jiev [xovap^tcov TYJV Tcpoc; TO xotvov aTiopX^Trouaav

au(JL9pov paatXetav, TYJV S TWV oXtycov (jtev

TuXetovov 8* evo<; aptdToxpaTtav

35 (Y)
Sia TO TOUC; apLCTOu; Sp^eiv, Y)
Sta TO 7rp6^ TO apioTOv T^ TcoXei xai TOLC;

XOIVCOVOUCTIV auT%), 8Tav 8^ T6 7rXY]0o<; Tupoc; T& xoivov TcoXLTeuYjTai au[x<ppov,

s
xaXeiTat TO xoivov 8vo|JLa Traacov TWV TroXiTeicov, TcoXiTeta. du^patveL 8 eiX6yco<;

40 Iva [iev yap 8iacpepetv xaT* apeTYjv Y) 6Xiyou(; evSex^ai,, 7rXeiou<; 8* YjSY) xaXevrov
7rpo<; Tracav apeTYjv (aXXa [xaXLOTa TYJV 7roXe(jiLXY)v auTY] yap ev

ytyvsTai' Siorcep xaTa TauTYjv TYJV TuoXiTeiav xuptcoTaTov TO

(JLOUV xal (jieTexouo-w auT^c; ol xsxTYjfjLevot Ta SyuXa). Tuapexpaaet*; Se TWV
5 (Jilveov TUpavvlg (JL^V paaiXeiac;, oXiyapxta 8e aptarTOXpaTta^, SYjfjioxpaTia 8e
YJ pi^v yap Tupavvtc; eaTi [Jiovapxia Tipoc; TO aupL^^pov TO TOU (Jiovap-

YJ
8* oXiyap^ia Trpoc; T& TWV euru6pcov, YJ Si: SYjfJLOXpaTia Trpoc; T& au{i-

10
^^pov TO TCOV aTiopcov 7cp6(; 8e TO TCO xotvoi XuaiTeXouv ouSefjita auTcov.

618 a. Against this classification the objection might be made

that in a state the majority of the citizens might be wealthy and the

minority poor. In this case the distinction which has been made between
oligarchy and democracy would not hold good.

Polit. Ill 8, 1279 b 20- 26 :

20
HpcoTYj 8' a7ropia 7ip& TOV Siopiajxov SCTTLV. ei yap elev 01 7cXeiou<; SVTCC; sification

euTiopoi xupioi TYJ? 7c6Xeco<;, SYjfJtoxpaTia 8' ECTTLV &Tav % xupiov TO TrX^Oo?,

6(jLoia><;
Si TtaXtv xav et TCOO aufipatvoL TOU^ a7r6pou(; eXaTTOU? (lev elvai TWV
eu7r6pcov, xpeiTTou^ S' 8vTa^ xupiou^ elvat TYJ^ TroXtTeta^, STCOU 8' oXtyov xupiov
257rXY]6o<; ? oXtyapxtav elvat 9aaiv, oux av xaXw<; S6eiev SicoptaOai :repi TWV
TcoXiTeiwv.
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [6l8]

b. To this objection Ar. replies: not number, but wealth or

poverty of the rulers is the specific difference of these constitutions.

Ar.'s answer 84 - 86 b 39-! 280 a6

1279 b
Ib., , :

objection
"Eoixe TOVUV 6 X6yo<; rcoietv SyjXov #Tt T& (Jtev oXtyou^ $ rcoXXou<; elvat xu-
ptau<; <TU[jLpep7)x6^ Icmv, . . . & Si Sia9^pouaiv ^ TS 8>)(AoxpaTia xat TJ 6Xiyapxa
dXXifjXtdv, 7reva xat 7rXouT6<; CFTIV, xal avayxaiov fjtlv,
STCOU av Spxcoai Stai28oa
TiXouTov <Sv T* eXaVrous #v TS 7rXetou<;, elvai
Taurqv iXiyapx^av, 6?rou 8* ot
dbcopoi, SY)|Jt,oxpaT(av, aXXa au(j$avei, xaOdarep efaofisv, To6^ [Jiiv 6Xyou<;
elvai Toic; Si rcoXXori^. suTropouai [xiv yotp 6Xlyoi, T^C Si eXeuOepta^

619 a. The next chapter deals with the principles of the distribution
of power in democratic and in oligarchic states, i.e. with the conception
of justice on both sides.

Justice Po iitt in 9^ I2 8oa 7 - 16 ,

22 - 25
:

according to
democratic ATjmiov os TrpcoTOV Ttva<; opou<; Xeyooai nrj(; 6Xiyapxta(; xat oY](jioxpaTtac;,
and oligar- xa T T j 8( X aiov TO TS 6Xiyapxtx6v xal SyjfioxpaTixov. TravTS^ yap

pies Sixatau Ttv6<;, aXXa [A^XP 1 Ttv ^? Trpoep^ovTat, xat Xlyoucrtv ou Trav T& xup(o)<; 10
J
Stxaiov. olov Soxei taov TO Stxatov elvai ,
xal SaTtv, aXX' oti rcacrtv aXXa TOL^
2
taoi^ xal TO aviaov Soxst Stxatov elvai xal yap ^CTTLV, aXX' ou Traaiv aXXa ,

TOI<; avfooi*;* ol Si TOUT* a^aipoGcri, TO ol<;, xal xptvouat xaxeoc;. TO S* a^Ttov

8Tt Tcepl ainrcov xptorK;* cxeSov 8* ol TiXetaTot 9auXoi xpiTal :uepl TCOV oExelcov. 15
^
Oi
(xiv yap av xaTa TI dcvuroi &onv, olov xp^aatv, 8Xco<; otovTat fivtooi 22
J

elvat, ol S av xaTa TI fooi, olov Xeu6epta, fiXcoc; taot. T6 Si xupwoTaTOv ou

X^youaiv. 25

Ar.'s own fa j^e standard should be the : true aim of the state. I.e. : the citi-
view
zens have a claim to power according to their contribution to the e5 9jv.

Ib., I28ob 89 -I28ia 8

:

TXo<; fxiv o5v TroXeto^ TO e3 TJV, TauTa Si TOU T^Xou<; X^P tv *

^^^ Si YJ yevcav
xal xcojxcav xoivcovla ^co% TsXetac; xal auTapxou^ <x<xpiv>. TOUTO 8* laTtv, <I)^ i28ia

v, TO 9jv euSai^Jtovcix; xal xaXco^. TWV xaXcov Spa Trpa^scov

1
"On Soxet taov r6 Sfcxaiov elvat is the democratic view of justice, Ar. says: It is,
but not for everybody only for equals.
2
Oligarchs, on the other hand, hold that inequality is justice, namely, that
political rights should be unequal and proportionate to wealth. To this view Ar.
opposes again: granting that inequality is just, it is so not for everybody, but only
for unequals. And by what standards are the qualifications of the persons concerned
to be judged? This is what Ar. calls "the main point", the xupu>TaTov, and on
this point most people are in error.
 [619] POLITICS 191

elvat r?)v TtoXmx^v xoivtovCav, aXX* ou TOU CTU^TJV. Sidrap 6Vot (JU(ji{iaXXovTai
el? T>JV Toiaurqv xoivcoviav, TOUTOU; TYJ<; 7r6Xeto<; (JL&recra TtXetov 7)
xaT<x fjt^v eXeuOeptav xal yvo$ taoi<; 7^ p,etoari xaTa 8k rJjv

620 Monarchy is only desirable in one case.

41 29 Monarchy
Polit. Ill 17, I287b -I288a :

i288a 'AXX* ex TCOV eipyj(ivcov ye l <pavep6v ax; ev (x^v TO^ ofxoioic; xal taoi^ o^Te Only in an
exceptional
ou(ji<ppov lartv o(>Te Sixouov Sva xiiptov elvai 7cavT<ov, o8re vifxov SVTCOV, (/,-J]

(iXX* auT^v cl>? 8vTa VOJJLOV, ofrre vojicov 8vT<ov, ofire ayaOov iyaOcov oSre (AT)

5 aya6o)v [AYJ4ya66v, ouS* av xaT* dper/jv ifxetvcov fj, el [JLY] TpoTrov Ttvdc. T^ 8* 6
s, Xexrlov stpTjrai 8^ TCCO^ ^87] xal Trporepov. TrpcoTov 8 Stopiar^ov rt T&
2
xal Tt T6 dpiaToxpaTix6v xal T TO TcoXiTtx6v 3 pa<rtXeuT6v (x^v .

o5v T^ ToiouT6v rc^uxe 9^peiv ylvo^ U7cep^ov xar' apeTYjv Trpi?

e<7Ti 7rX7)00(; 8

10 yjyejxovtav TroXtTixrjv, dpiaToxpaTixov 8^ TCX9j0o<; [8 7r^<puxe 9lpetv

Suvafjievov T/]V TCOV iXeuOepcov ipxV

4
T ^ v XOCT> ^^
[ev c]> TT^UXS eyy(yvea6ai TiX

7coXe[JLi,x6v Suvajjievov Sp^eaOai xal <5cp^eiv xaTa v6[jtov T&V xaT* d^av 8iav(jiovTa
15 TOI<; eu7i6poi<; Ta<; dpxd<;. ^Tav o3v ^ yevo<; oXov ^ xal TCOV #XXcov 2va Tiva aojJipTJ

Sta^epovTa yevc70ai xaT* apeTYjv TOCTOUTOV aicrO' U7rep^x etv ^ v ^xetvoo TYJS TCOV
SXXcov TcdvTCov, TOTe Stxatov T^ yvo<; elvai TOUTO (iacriXixov xal xiipiov ?cav-
TCOV xal paaiXa T6v 2va TOUTOV. xaOdbuep yap etpYjTat irpoTepov, ou (x6vov

20 O^TCOC; ?xei xaTa TO 8(xaiov, 8 7rpo9lpetv elcoOaaiv ol TOC<; ?roXiTeta<; xaOiaTavTec;

ot Te Ta<; dpiaTOXpaTLxa? xal ol TOC<; oXiyapxtxat; xal TcdXiv 01 T<X<; Sr][jLoxpaTtxd<;
5

TcdvTY] yap xa6 uTrepox^jv a^ioucriv, aXXa uTrepoxV ou TYJV auTYjv, dXXa xaTa
TO 7cp6Tepov Xex^^v 6 ofiTe yap XTeivetv y) (puyaSeueiv ouS* oaTpax^sw 8^ TTOU
.

25 TOV TotouTOV Trp^Tiov eaTtv, o(5T* d^touv apxecGat xaTa fjt^po<; ou yap rcl<puxe
Ti (Jilpoc; uTcepx S!>v T0 ^ 7tavTo<;, TC!) 8^ TYJV TYjXixauTYjv "uTceppoXYjv SXOVTI TOUTO

aru{JL(3^pY]xev. <&aTe Xet?ceTai (Jt6vov TC^ 7cei6ecy6ai TC*) TOWUTCO xal xupiov elvai
*9 xaTa JL^o<; TOUTOV dXX*

621 In the first part of Book IV (ch. i-io) the main types of con-
stitutions are dealt with.

There are four kinds of democracy, the fourth of which

a. is a
perversion. True democracy is described as follows.

x just and unjust, in ch. 9 (61 9a).

TCOV epY)[jtivcov ys - sc. about

(3a<nXeuT6v
- fit for being ruled by a king.
7roXmx6v - fit for what is called by Ar. a polity (constitutional government).
r$)v TV &eu8p6>v dpx^v seel. Immisch.
Sc. according to the right of merit, expounded in ch. 9 (61 9b).
 IQ2 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [62l]

IV 30 4
Democracy Polit. 4, I2QI b -I292 a :

Av)[jioxpaTla [Jiiv
o3v ecm TcptoTY) [lev YJ XeyofJiivY) fjiaXiaTa xaTa T& taov.

Ecrov yap 9*/]aiv 6 v6(jto^ 6 TTJ<; Toiauryjc; SrjfjioxpaTla^ TO [jiY)8ev [zaXXov

TOU<; aTc6pouc; ^ TOU^ eu7copou<;, [rqSe xup[ou<; elvai oTcoTepouaoov, aXX*
1

^. eforep yap eXeuOepia (idcXiaT ecmv ev SvjfJLoxpaTtc* xaOdfocep UTUO- 35

t
rive^, xal ICJOTYJC;, OUTCOC; av eivj [xaXtdTa, XOIVCOVOUVTCOV a7uavT<ov
T^C; TroXiTeiac; ofAoica^. euel 8e TrXeicov 6 S^JJLOC;, xuptov Se TO S6av
TrXetoariv, dvayxT) SY)[xoxpaT(av elvat TauTTjv. Sv [xev o5v eZSo<; S7][ioxpaTia^

TOUTO [<5XXo Se] TO TOC<; ap^a^ OCTTO Tt(JL7](jtaTO)v elvat ? ppa^^wv Se TOUTcav 4 o
Set 8e TCO XTO)|xevcp e5 OU(7^ av e^vai [xeTex etv xal TOV aTropaXXovTa JAY)

v iTepov eZSo? SyjfjLoxpaTta^ TO fjieTexetv oforavTa*; TOIX; 7roXtTa<; 8aot

avu7ueu6uvoi, <5pxe^v Se TOV v6(jiov eTepov Se eISo<; Sy](xoxpaTta<; TO
eivai Ttov apx&v, eav (JLOVOV f) TroXiTY]^, ap/ew Se TOV VOJJLOV.

15 ~ 18 30 - 37
its perversion b. The fourth kind. lb., 1292 a 4 - 13 , ,
:

"ETepov elSoc; SiqfjioxpaTiac; T&XXa (JLEV

elvai TauTa, xupiov 8* elvai TO TrX

xal (IT)
TOV v6(jiov. TOUTO Se yfveTat, oTav Ta ^wtafiaTa xiipta f)
aXXa (JLTJ
6 v6fio<;.

au^patvei 8e TOUTO Sia TOUC; 87)[jLaycoyou^. ev (jtev yap Tatc; xaTa VOJJLOV Syjfjio-

xpaTou(Jievaic; ou ytveTai 8y)|jLayo)y6<;, aXX' oi ^eXTiaToi TWV TroXiTtov eiaiv ev

TrpoeSpta* OTTOU 8' ot vopiot {JLYJ
etat xiiptoi, IvTauOa ytvovTat Syj^aywyoL (xovap- 10

^o^ yap 6 Syjfjioc; y[vTat, auvOeToc; e!<; ex TioXXcov oi yap ruoXXol xiipioL etaiv

<5><; exaaToc; dcXXa TravTec;. '0 8' oOv TOIOUTO(; SYJIJIOC;,

OCTC piovap^oc; wv, 13, 15

(jLovap/eiv Sta TO (JLYJ (Scp^eo-Oai UTTO vopiou, xal ytveTai SeciTroTtxoc;, aidTe
ol xoXaxe^; evTi(Jiot, xai laTiv 6 TOIOUTO<; Syjfjio^ avaXoyov TCOV (Aovapxtwv T^
TupavviSi. EuXoyax; 8e av So^eiev eTUTifiav 6 ^aaxcov TYJV TOLauTTjv elvai 18, 30
SYjfioxpaTLav ou TroXiTetav. 87rou yap (iY) VO^LOL Sp^ouatv, oux eaTt TcoXtTeia.
8ei yap TOV (iev VOJAOV Sp/eiv TTOCVTCOV, TWV 8e xaO* sxaaTa TOC<; ap^ac;, xal Ta^TTjv
TroXiTEiav xptveiv. COGT* etTiep ecTl SyjfxoxpaTia jua TCOV 7roXt,Ticov, ^avepov

ax; 7) TOiauTY] xaTaaTaoi^, ev ^ ^y^iafiaai rcavTa StoixetTai, ouSe SyjfJLoxpaTta 35

xupiax; ou0ev yap evSe/STat ^Y)9ia(Jia elvat xaOoXou.

622 Of oligarchies, too, there are four kinds, of which the fourth
is the worst.
39 10
Oligarchy Polit. IV 5, I2Q2 a -b :

Se el'Sy]
v [xev TO arco Ti[AYj[jLaT6)v elvai Ta<; ap^ac; TY]Xixo\iT(ov

aTuopouc; fiY) fieTexetv TrXeiou^; ovTa^;, e^elvai 8e TCO XTcofjilvco [istiyew 40

1
The expression fjLY)8&v jiaXXov yj means simply "as much as" and is in practice
often used in places where fryj$v 3jrrov % could be logically expected. Some striking
examples of this use have been adduced by L. M. de Rijk in Mnemosyne 1950,
pp. 314-318-
 [622] POLITICS 193

iTeiac;, <XXo 8e, oTav arco TtfJLYjfjtaTCov [zaxp&v &o-iv at dp^al xal alpcovTai
TOUC; eXXewrovTac; (av fiev ouv ex TcavTeov TOUTOW TOUTO Troicoat, Soxet
TOUT* elvat (JiaXXov dpLo~ToxpaTixov, edv Si ex TIVCOV dcpcopu7(j(,vQ>v, oXiyap^wcov)

5&repov elSoc; oXiyapxfocc;, 8rav Tuaic; avri TraTpoc; etaiYj, TeTapTOv 8', 8rav
TO TE vuv Xe^Gev xal ^p/fl ^ 6 VOJJLOC; aXX* ol <5tp^ovTe<;. xal SCTTLV <XVT-

uTTj ev Tat<; oXiyapxiai^ cooTrep Y) Tupavvl<; ev Tat? fjiovapxtau; xal

TeXeuTaiac; etTrafiev ^{zoxpaTiac; ev Talc; fr/jfAoxpaTtau; xal xaXouat

10873 TTjv TotauTTjv oXiyap^iav SuvaaTSLav.

623 a. Of aristocracy in the strict sense there is but one form.

Polit. IV 7, 1293 b
1- 7
! Aristocracy

36 'ApiaToxpaTtav [lev ouv xaXa><; ex L xaXetv ?repl YJC; SiY)XOo[Jiev ev Tofr; TrpcoTOic;
s

X6yot<; (TTJV yap ex TCOV apidTCov aTcXoic; xaT apeTTjv TroXiTeiav xal (JLT) 7rpo<;
x
67c60eaiv TLva ayaOcov avSpcov [JLOVIQV Sixatov Trpoaayopeiieiv aptaToxpaTtav

5 ev (Jiovy) yap aTrXcoc; 6 aoTOc; avY)p xal TroXiTY]^ dyaOoc; ICTTLV, ol S' ev Talc; aXXaic;

ayaOol rcpoc; TTJV TroXt-Teiav eial TYJV

7 - 19
b. Ib., 1293 b : Mixedforms
Ou [JiYjv
dXX* elai Ttvec; at Trpo^ Te Tac; oXiyap^oufievac; e^oucri Sia9opac; [xal
xaXouvTai apiaroxpaTtai] xal Trpoc; TYJV xaXou[JLevy)v TroXtTeiav. OTTOU yap (Jiyj

IOJJLOVOV 7cXoi>TtvSy]v dXXa xal apKTTivSyjv alpouvTai Tac; dp^dc;, auTY] YJ

Siacpepei Te d[jL9olv xal apiaToxpaTiXYj xaXetTau xal yap ev Tal<; {JLTJ

XOIVYJV e7ci[jiiXei,av dpeTYjc; etalv ofxcoc; Tivec;

ol euSoxifjtouvTec; xal SoxouvTec; etvai

eTuietxetc;. OTUOU ouv 73

TuoXiTeta pXerret etc; TC TcXouTOv xal apeTYjv xal SY^(JLOV,

15 olov ev KapxYjSovi, auTY) dpiaTOxpaTiXY) eaTtv, xal ev ale; elc; TOC Suo [JLOVOV,

olov Y) AaxeSat(jiovicov, el'c; Te dpCTYjv xal SYJJJLOV xal eaTt [lifyc, TCOV Suo TOUTCOV,

SYjfJtoxpaTiac; Te xal dpeTY^c;. 'ApidToxpaTtac; [Jiev

ouv xapa TYJV Tcparnqv TYJV

dpicrTYjv TcoXiTeiav TauTa Suo

624 "Polity" or constitutional government.

31 - 38 15 - 25
Polit. IV 8, 1293 b , 1294 a : "Polity"
Nuv 8e SetxTeov YjfJiZv Trepl TroXiTetac;. 9avepc*)Tepa yap YJ Suvajxic; auTY^c;

8itopia |jLevo)v TWV Tuepl oXiyap/iac; xal SYjjJLOxpaTiac;. eaTi yap

i

Y]
TcoXiTeta ax;

aTcXcac; eiTreiv y& > ic> oXiyap^tac; xal SYjfjioxpaTiac;. EtcoGaat Se xaXelv Tac; (Jiev

35 aTToxXivoucrac; <oc; Tipoc; TYJV SYj(jLoxpaTtav TroXtTetac;, Tac; Se rcpoc; TYJV oXiyap^tav
(zaXXov dpiGTOxpaTiac; Sta TO [jiaXXov dxoXouOetv TraiSeLav xal euyevet-av TOIC;
94a euTTOpcoTepoic;. 'Ev (Jiev ouv Tatc; TrXetaTatc; TroXecri TO TYJC; TioXiTetac; elSoc;

1
7rp6(; 67r60e(jtv Tiva cxyaOcov -
good according to some arbitrary standard.
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 13
 IQ4 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [624]

(xovov yap T\ [il^ic, aTO/c^STai TCOV suitopcov xal TCOV dbropcov, 16

2
TtXouTou xal IXeuOepiac; a^eSov Se Ttapa TO<; TcXstcrroK; ot suTuopoi TCOV xaXcov
xayaOcov Soxoucri XOCTS^SIV X c* P av )
"
^ 7C ^ ^ T P^ a ^ CTT ^ T<*
a(A9&o-pY)Toi)VTa TyJ

ICTOTYJTOC; T7] 7roXiTea<;, eXeuOepia 7cXouTO<; apery) (TO yap TSTapTOv, 6 xaXoucnv 20
euyeveiav, axoXouOet TOL<; Sutriv 7) yap euyeveta ICTTLV ap^atoc; TcXouTO? xal
apeTYj), ^avepov STL TYJV [iev TOLV SUOLV [ju^v, TCOV suTiopcov xal TCOV dbropcov,
TroXtTSiav XSXTSOV, TTJV Se TCOV Tptcov apicrTOXpaTiav [jtaXtcrTa TCOV SXXcov (jrapa

TY]v aX>]Otvy]v xal TTpcoryjv). 25

625 Tyranny, too, must have its place. Two moderate forms of it
have been considered before, in dealing with monarchy. A third kind,
which is the extreme, is added here.
1-4 7 - 23
Tyranny Polit. IV 10, I2Q5 a ,
I

Ilepl Se Ti>pavvL8o<; 9)v YJJUV XOITCOV SLTTCLV, ou^ coc; SVOUCTYJC; TroXuXoyiac; Tcepl

auTYjv, aXX* OTCCOC; Xapyj TTJ<; pieOoSoi) TO [Jiepoi; eTreiSy)

xal Tauryjv TiOefjiev TCOV
Moderate J
Suo 8
^oXiTSicov Tt (Jiepoc;. TupavvtSo^ 8 ei'Sv] [xev Si,etXo(jLev ev olc; Trepl pacriXeiac; 7,

eTreaxoTroupiev, Sia TO TYJV SuvafjLtv ETcaXXaTTetv 7rco<; auTCov xal 7rp6<; TYJV Pacrt-

Xeiav, St,a TO xaTa v6[zov elvai afJL^oTepa^ TaiiTac; Tac; apx^ (Sv T yap TCOV 10

Ttalv alpouvTat auTOXpaTOpa^ (jLovap^ou^;, xal TO TraXaiov ev TOLC;

r/

EXXy](7iv eyiyvovTO TIVE^ {Jtovap^oi TOV Tp6;rov TOUTOV, oO? exaXouv

aicru(Jivy]Ta(;), S^ouai 8e Tt-vac; Trpo^ aXXvjXa^ auTai, Sia9opa^, -yjcrav 8e Sia JJLEV 15

TO xaTa vofjiov paaiXixal xal Sia TO [Jiovap/siv EXOVTCOV, TUpavvixal 8e Sta TO

The strict
e<T7UOTixco<; ap^etv xaTa T/]V auTcov yvco[JiY)v TptTov 8e eZSoc; TupavvcSoc;, i^Trep
(jLaXicrT* elvat Soxsi TUpavvtc;, avTiaTpo^o^ oOaa T^ Tuajjipao-iXsta. TOtaur/jv 8*
avayxaZov elvai TUpavviSa TTJV [Jiovap^iav, ^TK; avuTceiiOuvoc; ap/si Toiv ofjiofcov 20
xal peXTiovcov TTOCVTCOV 7rp6(; TO cr^eTepov auTTJg aufji^epov, aXXa [JLT] TUpoc; TO
TCOV dcp^ofjievcov. SioTrep axouato^ ou(kl<; yap excov UTrofjievet TCOV eXeuOepcov
TY)V TOl,aUT7]V

626 Books VII and VIII are devoted to a description of the best
state. The material conditions (size of the population, extent and nature
of the territory, site of the city and national character of the population)

having been determined, the author proceeds to treat the internal struc-
ture of the state. First he distinguishes its members (the citizens) from
those who are necessary as its servants, but not a part of it.

1
The text is probably not sound. Immisch reads xaXXcoTut^ETai instead of xaXeiTai.
Ross retains xaXelrat and translates: "Now in most states the form called polity
exists".
2
Ross explains rightly: "for the fusion goes no further than the attempt to
unite the freedom of the poor and the wealth of the rich".
 [626] POLITICS 195

VII 23 Not ail the

a. Polit. 8, 1328 a^-b :

necessary
i328a 'Ercel 8* cocrrcep TCOV SXXcov TCOV xaTa cpiiaiv auveaTCOTCOv ou TauTa ecm [Jiopia
elements

TYJS oXYjc; au(7Taaeco<; cov #veu TO oXov oux av ouSe

SLY), SSjXov co<; 7r6Xeco<; (xepY) ^J* state*
6eTeov oaa Tat? 7c6Xec7iv avayxatov urcapxetv ouS' &XXY)<; xotvcovta<; ou8e[jiia<;

25 e Y)<;
Sv TI TO yevo<; (ev yap TI xal xoivov elvai Set xal TauTo TOI<; xoivcovo^, 4v
TS tcrov av TE <5cvtaov [ASTaXafzpavcocnv )
olov etTe Tpo9Y] TOUTO eciTtv EITS x^P a<?
J

TiXYjOoc; SLT* aXXo TI TCOV TOIOUTCOV ECTTIV. OTav S f)

TO (JLSV
TOUTOU evexsv TO S*

30 ou Svexev, ou6ev 2v ys TOUTOI^ xoivov aXX' Y;

TCO (xev Troirjaat TCO 8e Xapstv
Xeyco S* olov opyavco TE Travrl 7rp6(; TO yiyv6|JLvov gpyov xal TOL;
olxta yap Trpo^ oLxo86[JLov ouOev ECTTIV o ytyveTai xoivov, aXX* e'tm

^apiv T]
TCOV otxoS6(jLcov Texv<y]' 816 xT7)<jsco(; [jiev Set Tatc; TroXeaiv, ouSev 8' ecmv
357) >tT^ai^ fJiepoc; TYJ<; TroXecoc;. TroXXa 8' e(JL^uxoc [AepY] T% xT7)aeco(; eorTiv. 73
8e

7r6Xi<; xoivcovta TL^ eaTi TCOV 6[zouov, evexev 8e ^COYJC; TYJC; evSexo(^VY)<; apiarTYjc;.
8' ecmv euSaifxovLa TO aptOTOv, auTT) 8e aper^ evepyeia xal XP^ a ^ Tl<?

xe Se OUTCOC; coo~Te ToOc; [Jtev IvSexs^Oai, fieTexeiv auT7)<; TOIX; 8e

40 (Aixpov Y]cbc; TOUT' ai/uov TOU yiyveaQai TioXecoc; ei'87] xal Siacpopau;
[jL7)Sev, S^Xov
aXXov yap Tporcov xal 81 aXXcov exadToi TOUTO
xal TcoXiTetac; rcXeiou^

i328bTOU<; TE PIOU^ eTepou^ TuoiouvTai xal Ta<; TuoXiTeta^;. 'ETiiaxeTtTeov Se xal

TauTt eaTiv cov Sveu 710X1^; oux av eivj xal yap a Xyo(jLev elvai (JtepYj
ev TOUTO K; av el'r]
Sta TO avayxaiov uvcapxetv.
ex TOUTCOV yap SdTat S^Xov. irpcoTOv The
5 AyjTTTeov TOLVUV TCOV epycov TOV apiOpiov
{jiev
ouv UTrapxetv Set TpocpYjv, eTreiTa Te^va*; (TroXXcov yap opyavcov SeiTaL TO functions

9jv), TPLTOV Se oTrXa (TOIX; yap xotvcovouvTa^ avayxatov xal ev ai>Tot<; e^etv
6:rXa 7rpo<; Te TYJV apxV T<^ v aTreiOouvTcov X^P lv xa ^ ^po^ ^o^? e^coOev aStxeiv
)

'
^ Tl XP Y)1JLC^ TO)V Ttv(^ eiwoptav, OTTCOC; Sx 60 ^ 1 xa L ^po^ ^ac; xaO*
'
xa 1 ^po^ TcoXefJLixa^, 7re(jiTCTOv Se xal TrpcoTOv TTJV Trepl TO Oetov

e7ui(JLXetav, rjv xaXouaiv tepaTetav, exTov Se TOV api0(Ji6v xal TTOCVTCOV avayxato-
TaTOv xpiatv Tcepl TCOV aufx^epovTcov xal TCOV Sixatcov TCOV Tipoc; dXXTjXoix;.
Ta ouv epya TauT* eaTlv cliv SetTat Tiacra TcoXi^ etTretv Six
15 |Jiev co^; (r) yap 7roXi<;

ICTTIV ou TO TUXOV cxXXa npoc, ^COTJV auTapxe^, co<; 9a(Jtev, eav Se TI Tuy- j n g classes
TOUTCOV exXetTtov, aSiivaTov aTcXcoc; auTapXT) TYJV xoivcovJav etvai TauTYjv )

20 avdyxY] TOIVUV xaTa epyaaia^ TauTac; auveciTavai rcoXiv Set Spa yecopycov
Ta<;

T* etvat 7rX7]00(;, ot Tuapacjxeuaaoucn TTJV Tpo97)v, xal TexvtTac;, xal TO [jLaxtfAov,

xal TO euTuopov, xal lepet<;, xal xptTa<; TCOV Stxatcov xal du^^epovTCov.

24 39 Has
b. Ib. 9, I328b -i329a :

Se TOUTCOV XOITTOV CTX^aa0at TOTepov Tracrt XOIVCOVYJT^OV TTOCVTCOV to share in

a11 of t lese
25 TOUTCOV (evS^xeTai yap TOUC; auTOix; aTcavTa^ elvai xal yecopyoix; xal TexviTa^ xal }
5

pouXeuo(JLlvou<; xal Stxd^ovTai;), Y]

xa0 exaaTov epyov TCOV eipYjf/ivcov fiXXou<;
 196 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [626]

)
TOC [Jiev iSwc Ta 8e xoiva TOUTCOV e!; avayxY}<; earnv. oux ev Tcaayj 8
TroXiTeia. xaOdttcep yap et7ro(Jiev, evSe^eTai xal TiavTa^ xoivcoveiv TuavTCov 30
xai (AY) TravTac; TOXVTCOV aXXa Tivac; Ttvcov. TauTa yap xal TroieE Tac;

erepa^' ev [Aev yap Tai 8Y](jioxpaTtai^ yLetiyouai. Tcavre^ TTOCVTCOV, Iv Se

6Xiyapxiai<; TouvavTiov. ercel Se ToyxavofAev axo7rouvTe<; Trepi TYJC; apitro)<;

J

uTT) 8* ECTTL xaO YJV TJ TroXt; av stv) (laXidT* eu8ai(JL(ov, T/JV 8* euSai- 35
STL X ?^
00 P eT % a8iivocTov uTiapxetv etpYjTai Trporepov, ^avepov ex
TOUTCOV <o^ ev Tyj xaXXiffTa TcoXtreuofjievY] TroXet xal T^ xexryjpLevy) 8ixaiou<;
Mechanics, g v
Spa^ ajcXco^, aXXa [XTJ Tupo^; TTJV uTroOecriv,
outre pivauaov PLOV OUT' ayopatov

husbandmen Set 9jv TOU^ TroXiTa^ (ayevvY)^ yap 6 TOIOUTOI; pio^ xal Tcpoc; apeTYjv uTuevavTioc;), 40
excluded ^ ^ yecopyouc; elvai TOIK; [AeXXovTac; eaeaOai (Set yap a^oX?)*; xal 7ip6(; T/JV

citizenship yevecrtv T% apeT% xal rcpoc; Tac; Trpa^eic; Ta<;

The citizens 'Eral 8e xal TO TroXejJuxov xal TO ^ouXeuofievov Tcepl T&V <Ti>[jL9ep6vT6)v xal
will be
X pi;VO v Tcepl TWV Sixaicov evuTrapxei xal (JtepY) ^atveTai TY^C; rcoXecoi;

and rulers tfvTa, TTOTepov eTepa <eTepoi<;> xal TaijTa OeTeov YJ TOU; auTOtc; aTioSoTeov &[L<pto ;
5

9avepov 8i xal TOUTO, SIOT& Tpo:rov fiev Tiva Tot^ auTOL<; TpOTuov 8e Tiva xal

;. f) [Jiev yap eTepa^; axjjLY]^ exaTepov TCOV epywv, xal TO piev SeiTat 9pov/]-
TO Se 8uva(JLeo)(;, eTlpoL<;- fj Ss TWV aSuvaTCov eaTl TOU^ SuvafJievou^ [3ta-
xal xoXueiv, TOUTOIK; UTropteveiv dpxo(JLevou^ aet, TauT'f) Se TOLC; auToI^. 10
ol yap TCOV orcXcov xiipioi, xal {Jievetv YJ [JLY] [Jievew xiipioi TYJV TcoXiTetav. XetTreTat
TOIVUV TOCC; aoTOt<; [JLCV a^^oTepo^ arroStSovat TYJV TioXtTeiav TauTYjv, fiYj a{ia
Se, aXX* coCTTrep 7re9uxev YJ jjiev Suvafjiig ev vecoTepoi^, YJ
Se 9povY]ai<; ev Trpea- 15

elvai, eoixev OUTCOC; a^olv veveix^aOai arujjupepeLv xal Sixaiov elvaf

yap auTY) YJ Siatpeaic; TO xaT* a^iav.
They will
'AXXa (JLYJV
xal Tac; XTYjcretc; Set ?uepl TOUTOUC; <elvat>. avayxatov yap euTCOptav
TuoXtTai Se OUTOL TO yap pavauaov ou (jteTexei TYJ^ 20
ouS* aXXo ouOev yvo^ 6 [JLYJ TYJ^ apeTY](; SY](jitoupy6v eaTtv. TOUTO
ex T^ uTcoOeaecoc; TO [iev yap eu8ai(Jiovetv avayxaiov uvrapxei
TYJ<; apeT^, euSat(xova Se TcoXiv oux ei^ [zepog TI pXe^avTa; SeZ Xeyeiv
aXX' et? 7ravTa<; TOU^ TuoXtTac;. 9avep6v Se xal OTL Set T<X^ xTYjcrei^ elvat 25

TOUTCOV, eiTrep avayxatov elvai TOUC; yecopyoix; SouXouc; Y) pappdcpou^ [YJ]

and be ex TCOV xaTapiO(JLY)6evTcov TO TCOV fepecov

AOITCOV 8* yevoc;. 9avepa Se xal YJ

TOUTCOV Ta^<;. ouTe yap yecopyov ouTe Pavaucrov lepea xaTa^TaTeov (UTCO yap
TCOV TuoXiTcov TupeTuei TijJiaoOai Toi>^ 6eoii^) e:rel Se SifjpYjTai TO TuoXiTixov eit; 3

Suo (JiepY),
TOUT* eaTl TO Te ojuXiTLxov xal TO pouXeuTixov, TrpeTiei 8e TYJV Te

OepaTretav aTroSiSovai TOLC; Oeolc; xal TYJV avaTrauatv e^etv Tiepl auToix; TOIK;
Sea T^V xpo vov ocTietpYjxoTac;, TOUTOIC; av e?Y) Ta<; tepcoaruva^ dacoSoTeov.
r
iiv (Aev Totvuv fivei) TroXt^ ou crovtcTTaTai xal ocra (zepY) TroXeoj^;, etpY]Tat35
 [626] POLITICS 197

(yecopyol (jiev yap xal Te^vtTai xal ?cav TO OYJTIXOV, avayxatov UTrapxeiv
TttSXecriv, [lepYj 8e TYJC; TroXecoc;
TO TS oTrXmxiv xal pouXeimxov, xal

SYJ TOTJTCOV exaaTov, TO |zev ael TO 8e xaTa

627 a. Marriage and procreation ought to be regulated by strict laws.

VII 29 1 11 17 28 -36 Laws about
Polit. 16, 1334 b -i335 a a - , , :

i334 b arc* apx% TOV vo(A00eTYjv opav Set STUCOC; peXTicrra T<X acofjuxTa
Etaep ouv and
TCOV TCOTC xal procreation
3oy[vYjTai Tpe90|xevcov 7 TtpcoTOV (lev e7ri[JieXYjTeov Tiepl TYJV au^eu^iv,
Tivac; ovTac; XP^] TroieiaOai Tcp6<; aXXifjXouc; TTJV yafJLixrjv 6(juX[av. Asi S*

vTa vo[io6eTslv TatiTYjv TYJV xoivcoviav Tcpoc; auTO\i^ TS xal TOV TOU
f

XP OVOV ^ va (JuyxaTapatvcodi Tatg Y]Xixtai(;

>
TOV auTov xaipov xal fr/) em
Sta9cov(ooiv at Suva[JLei<; TOU piev STI Suvajxevou yevvav TY]<; Se JJLYJ 8uva(JLevyj(;,
7j TauTYjc; [/lv
TOU S* dvSpo^ [xif] (TauTa yap Tcoiet xal aTaceiq 7rpo<; aXX7]Xou<; xal
Siatpopa^)' eTcetTa xal Tipo^ TTJV Ttov Texvcov SiaSox^v? ^ T^P ^ TS ^^ av

40 Xe^TreaOai Tat^ yjXtxiatc; Ta Texva TCOV TraT^pov (avovrjTO*; yap TOU; (JLCV

PUT^POK; Y] X^P l<

? Tuapa TCOV TCXVWV, yj
Ss Tuapa TWV TiaT^pcav poyjOeta
335 a Texvoi<;) OUTC Xiav rcapeyyuc; elvat. "EdTi 8* 6 TCOV vecov auvSuaarjicx;

!2
7Cp6<; TTJV Texvo^ouav ev yap Tcaori ^COOK; aTeX^ Ta T&V veov exyova xal 07)Xi)-

Toxa (JiaXXov xal [Jiixpa TYJV (jt,op9Y)v, toaT* avayxatov TauTO TOUTO
T5 xal eTrl TO)V avOpwrccov. Tex(jL7)piov 8e ev oaai<; yap TWV TroXeov
TO vou<; du^euyvuvai xal vea(;, aTeXei<; xal [iixpol TOC (TcifiaTa eiatv. Aio
apfjiOTTei Ttepl TYJV TCOV oxTCOxatSexa ITCOV YjXixiav auJ^euyvuvai,
-2^
Tac; (/.ev

8' xal TpiaxovTa 7) [juxpov. ev TOGTOUTCO yap dx[JLa^oi)0"i Te TOLC;

eTCTtx

cru^eu^i^ e<TTai, xal 7Tp6<; TYJV TcauXav TYJ^; TexvoTroitaq auyxaTapYjcreTat

Xpovoi<; euxatpto^ STL 8e YJ SiaSo^Y] TWV TXVWV TOC<; piev ap^optevoK; eaTai TYJ^
ay.ycf]^ eav yiyvYjTai xaTa Xoyov euOu^ YJ yevea^, TOL<; Se Y^SYJ xaTaXeXufJievYj^ TY^C;

35YjXixia<; Ttpo^ TOV TCOV epSofiYjxovTa eTcov

b. Deformed infants ought to be exposed, and the number of child-

ren should be limited by procuring abortion in the case of excess, before
sense and life have begun.
Ib '
133^ b 19- 26 '
Exposure of
infants and
b 20 \ 9 x /

Ilepl Se a7co0aeco<; xal Tp09Y]^ TCOV yiyvojj^vcov CCTTCO VO[JLO<; (jtYjSev TceTCYjpco- abortion in
l 8 P ecial cases
(zevov Tpe9eiv Sia Se TrX^Ooi; TEXVCOV, (YJ yap T<XI<; TCOV eOcov xcoXtiet fjLYjOev

a7coT[0ea6at TCOV ytyvo(xvcov) copia6ai SYJ Sec TY^C; TexvoTOita<; TO 7rX^0o<;, eav
81 Tiai yiyvYjTai Trapa TauTa auvSuaaOevTCOv, Tuplv aicrOYjaiv eyyevecrOai xal
25 TO yap oatov xal TO {JLYJ Sicopicrfjievov T^
COYJV, l(jL7coieLaOat Set TYJV dtp,pXtoaiv

aiarOYjaei xal TCO ^

TJ yap Ta^K
-
Wallies. The Mss have: lav YJ T<XI<;
- x
 IQ8 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [627]

c. Adultery during the time of procreation should be punished with

a loss of privileges.

Adultery 38 2
ft 1335 b -I336 a !

punished ^ ,

Ilepl 8e TYJ<; 7rp6<; aXXyjv r) Trpog aXXov (sc. ojjiiXta^), e'<rao (/Iv aTuXcoc; (rJ)

xaXov aTrrofjievov 9atveaOat [AY]8a(jiYJ [JLY]8a[JLCo<;, OTav $ xal TrpoaayopeuOfl

7c6<7t<; Trepl 8e TOV xpovov TOV TTJS Texvorcotta^ eav Tt ^aivyjrai TOIOUTOV Tt

&pcov, aTt[ita ^Y](jLiouar0to TtpeTrouaY] Trpoc; TY]V a[JiapTtav.

628 On these and on the following points Ar. is not far from the ideas
of his master, Plato.

Physical training of infants and young children should be prescribed

by law. Moral education of children up till the age of five years is to be

placed under state-supervision.

Education p /^ V II a 30 -b 16 b 20 - 23
of
17,
' 1336
>J
* ,
:

young N

children Kal Tuepl Xoycov Se xal [itiOeov, TTOLOU<; Tiva^; dxoustv Set TOIK; TTJXLXOUTOU^,
settled by la
w^^c^^ <JTCO TOL^ ap/ouaiv ouc; xaXouCTi rcaiSovofjioi)^. TiavTa yap Set TOC

TOiauTa TupooSoTuoieLv 7ipo<; Tat; uciTepov StaTptpdcc;- Sio Tac; TraiStac; elvai Set

TOC<; TcoXXac Gcrrspov aTcouSa^ofxevwv. Tac; Se StaTacreK; TG>V

(xtfJtyjcreK;
TO>V
xai xXauOfjiouc; oux opO&c; aTrayopeuoudiv ol xcoXuovTe^ ev TOLC; vofzoic; 35

yap Trpo^ au^vjaiv yiyvsTat yap Tp6:rov Tiva yu(jiva(7La TOL^; aa>(jia-

aiv Y) yap TOU 7rveu(JiaTO<; xaOe^K; TTOLCI TTJV ia^ v T0 ^ Trovouaiv, 8 ou(JLpaivet
xal TOL<; TratSLOi;; SiaTeivofievoK;. eTTtoxsTCTeov Se TOL<; TcaiSovofJLOLc; TYJV TOUTOV
Staycoyyjv ry]v T' aXXr]v, xal OTTOX; OTL ^xtaTa (JLETOC
SouXwv Sarai. TauTVjv yap 40
TY]v YjXtxtav, xal (JiexP L T ^ v e^^a ITWV, avayxatov OIXOL TTJV Tpo9?)v ex l
T
euXoyov oOv aTroXauetv aTio TCOV axoucy[JLaTa)v xal TCOV 6pa(jLaTG>v aveXsuOeptav

xal TTjXixouTOix; ovTac;. oXco^ [/Iv oOv aiaxpoXoyLav sx T^ TcoXeax;, etTrep aXXo

Tt, Set TOV vofJLoOeTYjv e5P^ lv (^ ^o^ Y^p eoxep&<; Xeystv oTtoijv TWV aia^p&v 5

ytveTat xal TO Tcotelv auveyyix;)' (jLaXio"Ta (/.ev

ouv ex TCOV vecov, OTUCOC; (i,Y)Te

Xeytodi [jLTjTe
axoiicoai [jLYjSev
TOIOUTOV. eav Se TL<; 9aivY)Tai TL Xeycov YJ TrpaTTtov
TCOV aTTTjyopeufjLevcov, TOV [xev eXeuOepov (JLYJTCCO
8e xaTaxXiaeco^ 7]^LCO(jievov ev

xal TcXyjya^, TOV Se TrpecrpuTepov TYJ^; ^Xixiac; 10

TOLC; ai>acTLTLOi<; [aTi[Juai<;] xoXaJ^eiv

TauTY]^ aTi|Atat(; aveXeuOepoi<; avSpa7uoSco8La<; /apiv. ercel Se TO Xeyeiv Tt TCOV

TotouTCov e^opt^ofiev, 9avep6v OTt xal TO Oecopetv y) ypa9<i<; T\ Xoyou^; aa^rjfjtova^.

ETitjAeXec; [xev ouv ^GTCO TOL^ Sp/ouat (JLYjOev fnf)Te ayaXfxa (JLY)Te ypa9Y]v elvat 15
TotouTCov Trpa^ecov [xtfJLYjcitv. Tou<; Se vecoTepou^ OUT* tafjtpcov OUTC xcoficoSta^ 20
6eaTa<; eaTeov, irplv 7] TTJV TjXtxtav Xapcocrtv ev ^ xal xaTaxXtaeco<; UTuap^ei
xotvcovetv r)Sy] xal fJLe6y)<;
xal TYJS OCTUO TCOV TOWUTCOV ytyvofjievrjc; pXapy)<; aTcaOel^

r]
TratSeta Trotrjaet 7uavTa<;.

1
The codd. indicated by Immisch as IT 2 have aTreXauvstv.
 [629] POLITICS 199

629 In Book VIII the treatment of ideal education is continued.

a. That education should be regulated by law and should be a public General

rt
affair,
- -
11 j
is generally accepted
it. .L i_ ,
remarks on
but people by no means agree as to what education
;
,1,
subjects are to be taught.
33
Polit. VIII 2, I337a -b 3 :

X 337 a "OTi o5v Troci&ewu; xal TauTYjv XOIVYJV TroiYjTeov,

(lev vo[io0TYjTeov Tuspl

35 9avepov Ti S' ecrrlv YJ

TcaiSeia xai TTCO^ XP*) rcaiSeueaOai, Set
(JLYJ
XavOavsiv.
-
vuv yap a(Z9Mj(iJ7]Te&Tat Tuepl TCOV spycov. oo yap TaoTa TcavTSc; uiroXafipavoocK Present dis
SSLV [Jtav6aveiv TOU<; VSOIK; OUTS 7rp6<; apeTYjv OUTS TOV piov T&V apiaTov,
Trpoc;

^avepov Trorepov Trpoc; TYJV Stdcvotav TrpeTrei (JiaXXov YJ Trpoc; TO TYJ

'
ex TE TYJ^ e[JL7coS(j)v TTaiSsta^ Tapa^coSYjc; YJ axl^i^ xal SyjXov oiSev TCO-

Tepov acrxetv SsZ TOC ^pifjaifjia Tupo^ TOV piov Y)

TCX TetvovTa Tipoc; apTY)v TQ
TOC

TrepiTTcx (rcavTa yap etXYjcpe TauTa xptTa<; Tivac;)- Trepi TS TWV Trpcx; dcpeTY)v
ou6sv ICJTIV 6[ioXoyoti[jLevov (xal yap TYJV apeTYjv ou TYJV aur/jv suOuc; TravTec;

TL(jLc5(Tiv, &CJT' euXoyoc; Sia9epovTai xal Tupo^ TYJV aaxYjaiv auTY^<;).

b. Vulgar occupations should be excluded, and likewise all paid

employments.
4 - 16 Vulg * r
Ib., 1337 b :

C/
OTI (lev o5v Ta avayxata Sei 8i8aaxea6ai TWV ^pY]at[JLCOv, oux aSY)Xov OTI excluded
5 Se oi TuavTa, StYjpYj^svcov Toiv TS sXsuOepcov spycov xal TO>V aveXsuOepcov, 9avep6v
STL TCOV TOLOUTCOV Set [ASTe^etv 6o*a TCOV xpY]ai(Jicov TroiYjaei TOV [JisTe^ovTa (JLYJ

^avauaov. Pavouaov S* spyov slvai Set TOUTO vo(ii^etv xal TS^VYJV TauTY]v xal
TO
(jia0Y]CTiv, oaat TCpoc; Tac; ^PYJOTEK; xal Ta^ Tcpa^eic; T<X<;

aTTSpya^ovTat TO crco[Aa Ttov IXsuOspcov Y) TYJV ^DXVJV YJ TYJV Siavotav. Sio

Te ToiauTac; Texva^ oaai TO acofxa Tcapaaxsua^oucn xe ^P ov SiaxeiaOai

xaXoujJiev, xal Ta^; (juo-0apvtxa<; spyacrta*;. aa^oXov yap Tiotouai TYJV Siavotav
xal

630There might be some doubt as to the paedagogical value of one

of the four traditional branches of education, namely music. Ar. defends

it, on this ground, that it is highly important that people should be able

to use leisure well.

23 - 35 4 traditional
Polit. 1337 b
VIII 3, !

x disciplines
"Ecm 8e T^TTapa a^sSov a TraiSsusiv sitoOaai, ypa(Z(JLaTa xal yi>(jivacmxYjv

25 xal {jLoucrixYjv xal TETapTov 2vioi ypa9iXYjv, TYJV (xev ypa[i(jLaTixYjv xal ypa9ixY)v
TOV f^ ov o^cra^ xal TroXuxpYjaTou^;, TYJV Se yi)[xvaaTixYjv
Diflficulties
co<; auvTSLvouarav Trpoc; avSpeiav TYJV Se [JLOUCTIXYJV Y^SYJ StaTiopYjastev av TLC;.

vv |zev yap c<; Yjov XP tv 7ce<rrot (JLSTXO^^^V auTY^- o e apx>]<; music

 200 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [630]

ev TraiSeia 8ia T& TYJV 9uonv

aorqv /)Teiv, fircep TuoXXaxu; etpiQTai, (JLYJ 3
(lovov aaxoXelv 6p0co<; aXXa xal (j^oXa^stv SiivatrOai xaXcoc;. ai>T7j yap apx>) Tcavrtov,
Eva xal TuaXiv eiTrcofjiev rcepl auTYJ^. el yap #H-9&> jxev Set, fxaXXov 8e alpeTov
TO cr^oXa^eiv TYJS ao~xoXia<; xal TeXo<; 7 y]TY}Teov TI TtoioovTa^ Set a^oXa^eiv. 35

631 The author warns against a one-sided physical training:

Gymnastics
and athletics
a p oKtm V HI 4,
9 16
1338 b - :

_
Nuv [lev o3v at (xaXtaTa Soxouaai TWV vroXecav eTTifxeXeiaOat, TG>V TratScov aii338b
[lev aOXvjTixYjv 2^iv IfJiTroiouai, Xcopcojievai Ta Te eUSv] xal TYJV afi^atv TCOV 10
,
ol Se Aaxcovec; TauTTjv [xev ou^ ^(JiapTOv TYJV ajiapTtav, 67)pi<oSei^ 8"
ai TOI<; 7r6voi(;, coc; TOUTO ?cp6^ avSpetav fiaXLciTa au^^epov. xatrot,

xaOaTrep etpyjTai TroXXaxic;, oi)Te 7rpo<; [xlav oure Trpo^ (JLaXiara TauTTjv pXeTcovra 15

b. Our leading principle should be, that what is noble, not what
is brutal, ought to have the first place.
The leading JK i<i<i$ b 29- 34 :
* \J*J
_____!_!_
J
"fiare TO xaXov aXX ou TO TupcoTaywviaTetv ouSe yap Xuxo^ 3
OTjpLGJSec; Set
ou8e TCOV SXXcov Ovjptcov dycovtaaiTo av ouOeva xaXov xivSovov, aXXa jxaXXov
]
dvY]p dyaOoc;, ot Se Xiav ei<; TauTa dvevTec; TOIX; TraiSat; xal TOW dvayxaicov

aTuaiSaycoy/jTOU^ TroiyjcavTe^; pavaucroix; xaTepyd^ovTai xaTa ye T& aXy)Oe<;.

632 The question of the paedagogical value of music is more amply

treated in chapters 5 and 6.
what is
a pu vill 11 - 26
. tm
4, 1339 a :

paedagogical Hepl 8e (JLOIXTLX^ evia [xev 8iY]7ropY)xa[JLev TOJ Xoyo) xal TcpoTepov, xaXcoc; 8* 133011

value of xa ^
|^ t v ^v dvaXapovTa^ auTa Trpoayayelv, tva ciaTrep evSoaifjiov yevrjTat

XoyoK; ou<; &v TIC; eiTreiev a^ocpatvojjievoc; Trepl auTyj(;. OUTC yap Tiva

8uva(jn,v paSiov Trepl auTY]<; SieXetv, OUTC TIVO<; Sei x^P lv M-^X6LV auTvjt;, TTOTepov 15
TcaiSiac; evexa xal dva7cauae6)^ xa6a7rep GTTVOU xal [JteOT]^ (TaijTa yap xaO*
7

jiev ouTe TCOV aTrouSaicov, aXX* TjSea, xal afjia Traiiet (jiepi(JLvav, coc;

873^ 816 xal TaTTOuaiv auT7]v xal /ptovTat ?raat TOUTOIC; ofjiotcoc;, UTCVCO xal jA^Oyj 20
xal (JLOucrixyj
Tt0ea<rt 8e xal TYJV opx^crtv ev TOUTOIC;), ^ [laXXov oivjTeov Tupo^;
apenfjv TI Tetveiv TTJV {jiouaixYjv, d)(; SuvapLevTjv, xaOaTrep YJ yi)[jLvaaTixy)
TO acofia
TUOIOV TI TcapaaxeuaCet, xal TTJV (jLouatxrjv TO 9]6o<; TUOIOV TI Tcoietv, e6ioucrav
SuvaaOat x a ^P lv 6p6w?, 73 Ttpoc; SiaycoyYjv TI au^paXXeTai xal 7cpo<; 9povY)(riv 25

(xal yap TOUTO TpiTOv OeTeov TCOV

- so. gymnastics.
a
iva &o7rep evS6at(jiov yevYjraL etc. - "that our remarks may serve as a prelude
to further discussions on the subject".
 [632] POLITICS 201

b. Ib., I339a
26
-b 10 :

"Ort (/iv o5v Set TOOC; vou<; Svexa TratSeuetv, oux SSYjXov (ou yap taught to
{JLYJ TratStac;
1 perform
jJieTa XUTCYJC; yap Y) fiaOYjatc; ) aXXa pjv ouSe StaycoyYjv
7ta[oi)(Jt [jtavOavovTec; ye
307caialv apfjtOTTet xal Tatc; YjXtxtatc; dbroStSovat Talc; Totairratc; (ouOevl yap aTeXet themselves ?

Tcpocnjxet TeXoc;). aXX* 'tacoc; av 86etev YJ TCOV TtatScov aTrouSyj TtatStac; elvat

^apiv avSpaat yevo[ievotc; xal TeXetcoOetatv. aXX* el TOUT' ecm TOIOUTOV, Ttvoc;
av Ivexa 8ioi [xavOavetv auToiic;, aXXa [JIT] xaOaTrep ol T&V Ilepaoiv xal M7)8a>v
35 paaiXetc;, 81 SXXcov auTo TCOIOUVTCOV (ieTaXa{x(iSaveiv T% YjSovYJc; xalTyjc; [zaOrjcrewc; ;

xal yap avayxatov peXTtov dcTrepya^eaOai TOOC; auTo TOUTO ^CTCoiyjfjLevouc; e'pyov
xal Te^vTjv TCOV TOCTOUTOV XP^ VOV eTctM-sXoufx^vcov 8aov ?rp6c; iiaOvjcyiv JAOVOV.
ei 8e Set Ta ToiauTa SiaTcovetv auTouc; 7 xal ?repl TYJV TCOV o^cav TrpayptaTeiav

av 8eoi Tcapaaxeua^eLv dXX* &TOTTOV.

YJV
8' auTYjv dttcopiave^st ^al el SuvaTai Ta Y^0Y] (3eXTico Ttoielv TauTa yap
Set {jLavOaveiv auTouc;, aXX* ou^ e^epov axoiiovTac; 6p6&<; Te x a ^P etv >^ a l

SuvaaOai xpiveiv, coaTrep ol Aaxwvec; ;

exeivoi yap oi [iav6avovTe<; 8[jL6)c; SuvavTai

xptveiv 6p0c5<; ? coc; 9aat, Ta /P^cr^a >tal Ta (JLY] xp^^^a T ^ v [leXaiv. 6 8' airroc;

5 X6yoc; xav xal Siaywy/jv eXeuOepiov /pYjcrreov auT^

el Tipoc; euYjpieptav TI Set
J J

[xavOaveiv auTouc;, aXX ou^ eTepcov /ptojiivGw aTroXaueiv axoTretv 8 ;

TYJV uTToXYj^tv Y)v e^ofjiev Tiepl TCOV Oetov ou yap 6 Zei>^ auTO(; aeiSet xal

TOtc; TioiYjTatc;. aXXa xal pavauaouc; xaXoujiev TOUC; TOIOUTOUC; xal TO TTpaTTetv
looux avSpoc; [JLYJ (jieGuovToc; YJ
Tca

10 27 Music can
C. Ib., 1330 b - !

'AXX* tcrcoc; Tiepl (/.ev

TOUTCOV uaTepov eTTLcrxeTTTeov Y]
Se TrpcoTY) ^YJTYJCTIC; ecm purposes:
T relaxation
TuoTepov ou OeTeov 0eTeov, xal Tt SiivaTat TCOV
-

ei<; TcatSeiav TYJV (jLouaiXYjv /]

StaTcopYjOevTCov Tptcov, TiOTepov TratSetav Y)

TratSiav Y) StaycoyYjv. euXoycoc; 8* etc;

J57ravTa TaTTeTat xal 9atveTat fJieTe^etv. Y^

Te yap TcatSta X^P LV avaTrauaecoc; ICTTI,

TYJV 8' avdttcauatv avayxatov Y]8etav elvat (TYJC; yap Sta TCOV TTOVCOV XUTTYJC; taTpeta
TC; eaTtv), xal TYJV StaycoyYjv 6(jLoXoyou[Aevcoc; Set fJiY) (JLOVOV e^etv TO xaXov aXXa
xal TYJV YjSovifjv (TO yap eu8ai(Jiovetv e^ afJt^oTepcov TOUTCOV eaTtv ) TYJV Se
-20
fjtoucrtxYjv TuavTec; elvat 9a(JLev TCOV YjStcrTcov, xal (j;tXYjv
ouaav xal (zeT<x fieXcoStac;

(^Yjal yap xal Mouaatoc; etvat w^poTotc; YjStdTOv aetSetva Sia xal etc; TOCC;

auvoucrtac; xal Staycoyac; euX6ycoc; TuapaXafjtpavoucrtv auTYjv cbc; SuvafjievYjv

eu9patvetv) 7 coerce xal evTeuOev av TIC; uTcoXcipot rcatSeueaOat Setv auTYjv TOUC;
^5 vecoTlpouc;. oaa yap apXa^ TCOV YjSlcov, ou (jtovov apfioTTet Tcpoc; TO TeXoc;
aXXa xal Tipoc; TYJV avaTuauatv.

d. Ib.,
42
1339 b -i340 a
23
a 40-b 13 , :

to^oto* of
Ou [JiYjv
aXXa ^YjTYjTeov TUOTC TOUTO JJLYJ [xev auptpepYjxe, TtjxtcoT^pa S* auTY^c; the
character
i
ftinrw.wjj is used to indicate intellectual enjoyment.
 202 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [632]

Y) 9UCTK; SCTTIV Y)
xaT<i TYJV eipY)(JievY)v XP e ^ av xa ^ SSL [AYJ (Ji6vov TYJC; XOIVYJC; Y)Sov9jc; i34oa
(zeTexeiv dor' auTYJc;, YJC; e'xouai ^avTec; aiaOvjaiv (e'xei Y<*P 71 ^OUCTIXY) TYJV YjSovYjv

9Uo~ixY)v, Sio Tiaaaic; Y)XixiaL<; xal Ttaariv Y)9ecriv Y) XP*) ^ auTYJc; ICTTI Tcpocr^tXyjc;), 5
aXX' opav et TCYJ
xocl ^poc; TO 9)0oc; auvTeivei xal Tupoc; TYJV tjwxV- TOUTO S* av

17) S^Xov, eE TTOLOI Tive^ Ta Y]OY) yiyvofieOa Si' OCUTYJC;. aXXa [JLYJV OTL Y^Y v ^lxe ^ a

TToioi Tive^, ^avepov Side rcoXX&v {jtev

xal eTepwv, oux ^xicrra Se xal SLCX TCOV

'OXufjLTcoo (JieXcov TauTa yap ofioXoyoufJievcoc; TTOISL Tac; ^ U X^^ evOouaiaaTtxa^, 10

6 S* evOouCTtacrfjLO^ TOU vrepl TYJV ^UXTJV y]0ou(; 7ra0o<; ICTTIV. STI Se axpotofjievoi,
TCOV (JLifjiTjcrecov yiyvovTai TravTec; arufjiTuaGs^, xal x^P^ T ^v P^>0(JLc5v xal

jjteXcov auTcov. eTtel 8e aufjtpepyjxsv elvai TTJV (jtouaixyjv TWV yjSetov, TTJV S*

TreplTO xa ^psw opQwc; xal ^iXsiv xal [juaetv, Set SyjXovoTL jJLavOaveiv xal auveGfc- 15
^EdOat, (JLTjOev OUTCO^; cb^ TO xptvetv opOcoc; xal TO xa^peiv TOI^ eTuistxeaiv yjOeai xal

Talc; xaXa<; Trpa^s^iv &m Se 6p.oi(0(JLaTa [JiaXiaTa Tiapa TOC^ dXyjOLvac; ^uaeic;
s
iv TOLC; puO(jioi^ xal TOL^ xal TupaoTYjToc;, STL S dvSpeiac; xal 20
(jLeXecrtv opyyj^;

a<ocppo<ruv7)c; xal TTOCVTOV TCOV evavTtcov TOUTOIC; xal TCOV aXXoav Y]0Lxcav (SyjXov
8e ex TCOV e'pytov [JLeTa(3aXXo(jiev yap TTJV i|>ux>)v axpocofxevot TOIOUTCOV ).

EuOuc; yap YJ
TO>V apjjiovL&v StedTYjxe ^UCTK;. COCTTS axoiiovTac; aXXcoc; SiaTi- 40
OeaOat xal fivj
TOV auTov e'xeiv TpoTuov 7rp6<; exaaTyjv auTcov, aXXa Trpoc; (Jtev

Iviac; 68upTLXO)Tp6Ji; xal ODveaTYjxoTeoc; [jiaXXov, olov Trpoc; TYJV

v, Tipoc; Se Tac; (jtaXaxtoTeptoc; TYJV Stavoiav, olov Trpoc; Tac;

Se xal xaOsaTiqxoTCoc; [zaXiaTa Tipoc; eTepav, olov Soxei Troietv YJ

(JLOV7)
TCOV ap(JiovLD>v, evOouoLaaTtxouc; 8' 73 9puyiaTt. TauTa yap xaXcoc; Xeyoudtv 5
ol Tcepl TYJV ^aiSetav TauTTjv 7i9LXoao9Yjx6Tec; Xa|jipavouCTi yap Ta [xapTupta
TCOV Xoycov ei; auTcov TCOV epycov. TOV auTov Se Tporcov e'xei xal Ta Trepl TOUC;

poO(io\jc; (ol exouai <TTacn[jLcoTepov 01 Se XIVYJTIXOV, xal TOUTCOV

(JLev yap rjOoc;

ot [JLev 90pTixcoTepac; exoucrt Tac; xivYjcreic; ol e eXeuOeptcoTepac;). ex (Jiev o5v I0

TOUTCOV 9avep6v OTL Sivarai TCOIOV Tt, TO TYJC; ^ U ^0 7) (AOUCTIXT) Tuapa- X^

crxeud^eiv. ei Se TOUTO SuvaTat Troteiv, SyjXov OTI TrpoaaxT^ov xal TuatSeuTeov
ev auTyj TOUC; veouc;.

About the third purpose of learning music, which was called Staycrf/), Ar. does
not speak explicitly. But we may admit that this function of music is implied in
the first purpose, or perhaps even in the second.

e. Finally an answer is given to the question whether children

should be taught to perform music themselves.
children p^ yill 6, 1340 b
20 - 33
:

learn to per- HoTepov Se Set [xavOaveiv auTOUc; (SSovTac; Te xal x^tpoupyouvTac; TQ JAY),
xaOa- 20
form music
^p ^opyjOr] TrpOTepov, vuv XexTeov. oux iSy]Xov SYJ OTI TroXXrjv Sxet Sia90pav
themselves
Trpoc;
\ \ /\ f >/ / ~ v
TO yiyvsauai TIOLOUC; Tivac;, eav TIC; auToc; xoivcovyj TCOV epycov ev yap TI
* \<
 [632] POLITICS 203

TCOV aSuvaTcov YJ 'xa.\TC&v s<7TL fJLvj xoLVCovTQCTavTa^ TCOV epycov xpLTac; yevecrOat
xal Set TOU<; 7raLSa<; ex etv T ^v<x SiaTptpyjv, xal
yevearOat xaXoic;, yjv StSoacrL TO<; Tcct,i8foic;

xaTayvueoai TO>V xara TTJV otxiav ou yap SuvaTat TO veov

30 ^etv. aoTY) (Jtev ouv SCTTL Tol<^ VYJTTLOIC; apfjLOTTOuaa TCOV TcaiStcov, YJ Se
TcXaTayrj TOLC; fJLet^oaL TCOV vcov. "OTt {Jiev oOv TraiSeoTeov TTJV (xouatxrjv OUTCO<;
<!ocrTe xal xotvcovetv TCOV ^pycov, ^avepov sx TOJV TOLOT!>TCOV.

1
TTJV 'Ap/uTou TcXaTayYjv - "the rattle of Archytas" seems to liave been a popular
toy in the days of Aristotle.
 SIXTEENTH CHAPTER
THE PSYCHOLOGY
i SOUL AND ITS VARIOUS FUNCTIONS
The aporiai 633 In his first book De anima, according to his usual method, Ar.
begins by stating the aporiai.

a. Is soul a substance, or to which of the other categories does it

belong? Is it potential, or rather an actuality?

is soul anima 1
402 a^-b
1.
j) e I T> :

IIpcoTov S' IGUH; dvayxaiov SieXeiv Iv TLVL T&V yevcov xal TL EGTL, Xy6>
TtoTEpov TOO*E TL xal oucTLa 7)
TTOLOV 7)
Tioaov 7)
xocL TL<; (ScXXv) T&v StaLp
xaTTjyopLCOV, eTt Se TcoTEpov Ttov Iv Suvafxet 6vT<ov Y] [laXXov evTeXexetc^ Ttc; 25

Sia^epst yap ou TL ajxtxpov.

b. Can soul be defined in one general formula?

Js there 1- 8
2.
Jb., 402 b :

one defini-
tion of soul ? SXETUTSOV 8e xal et (JtepiaTV) ^ ajzep-/)^, xal TTOTSpov ofJiosiSy)^ aTiaaa
ou ei Se JIT] 6[ioiSY)(;, TroTepov etSei 8ia9epouaiv 75 yevei.
vuv (xev yap ol
xal ^YJTOUVTC^ Tcepl ^ U X"^ 7ce P >L T ^^ av6p(07TLV7)<; fjtovyj^ eotxaaiv eTTi-
v.
euXapvjTeov OTTCO<; [JIT] XavOavy) TtoTepov sic; 6 Xoyoc; auT7]<; eaTi, 5
S'

xa0a7rep ^wou, 7} xaO' sxaoTYjv Irspo^, olov tTCTrou, xuv6c;, av6pa>7rou, Oeou,
TO Ss: ^coov TO xa06Xou YJTOI ouOev ECTTLV YJ

c. Are there any affections of the soul in itself ?

is soul 3 16
3.
ib., 403 a - :

'

separate AiuopLav 8* ex et xat Ta ^aOv) TTJC; ^u/^^, TuoTepov ECTTL TravTa xoiva xal TOU 403a
existence? ecrTL TL xal TYJ<; ^ U X"^ ^Siov auTTJc; TOUTO yap Xapeiv [xev dvayxatov, 5
g^ VTOc; YJ

ou pa^tov Se. ^atveTai Se TCOV [Jtev TrXetaTCOv ouOev <5cveu TOU acofxaToc; Tr
ouSe Troiecv, olov opy(^(rOai, 0apptiv, 7rtOu[jLiv, oXcoc; at(rOava0ai.
S* otxv I'&tov TO VOEIV t S' <TTi xal TOUTO 9avTao*La Ti? yj [JLTj <5cvu
5
oux evSE/otT av ouS TOUT' avsu arcifzaTOc; slvai. ei (JtV o5v ECJT[ TL TCOV

L
 [633] SOUL AND ITS FUNCTIONS 2O5

scrav iSiov auTYJs, oux av elfy x^P"11^* <*XXa xaOdbrep TCO euOel, fj euOii, TuoXXa
auji(3aCvei, olov a7CTea0ai TYJ<; x ^*7^ acpatpac; xaT<i <ray[ryjv, ^ l^evToi y' a^erai
15 O(>TCO /<x>pia0^v TO euOi a^copiaTov yap, eurep ael [xera a<o(jiaT6<; TIVO<; ecmv.

d. Aristotle decides the question in the negative, and concludes

that, since all the affections of soul involve a body, the study of soul
must belong to the science of nature.
16 - 28
Ib., a :

"Eoixe 8e xal T<X TYJ<; ^X^k TCa0Y) Tcavra elvai (jteTa acijxaTOc;,

eXso<;, 6apao<;, ert xa P^ xa ^ T^ 9^s^v T >tai (

TL TO a&jjia. av]|JLetov Se TO TCOTS [Jiev LCT^uptov xal evapycov

20 au[j.paiv6vTO)v (jtTjSsv Trapo^uveaOai vj (po(3sia6ai, SVLOTE 8* OTUO jxixpeov xal
xivstaGai, OTav opya TO (Tc5(jLa xal OUTOX; e^Ti <&<nuep S^av o
Se TOUTO (jiaXXov 9avepov (jL7]0evo<; yap cpopepou (TUfxpatvovToc; ev

ytvovTai TOIC; TOU 9o[3ou[jievou. ei 8' OUTOX; ex L

89jXov STI Ta TraOv]

25 XoyoL evuXot scatv. ciaTe ol opot TOLOUTOC olov TO opyf^eaOai xivyjatc; TIC; TOO
ToiouSl (jcifJiaToc; ^ jjtepoix; 7) 8uva(Jieco(; UTTO ToijSe evexa TOuSe. xal Sta TauTa

738?) 9uaixou TO OewpTjaai Trepl ^i>x^?, TJ TUOCGYJC; 7) TYJ

634 The problem of the affections of the soul is treated again in re-
lation with the problem of its movement. In this passage the author
states that it would be better not to say that "the soul is angry" etc.,
but the man.

De An. 34 18 Is the s ul
a. 1 4, 408 a -b :

the subject
_,. , ,., , , , , < , , , ^
huXoycoTepov o aTropYjaeiev av TL<; Trepi auTY]^ ax; xivoujjievYjc;, eic; O f its Ta TOtauTa
9ajjtev yap TYJV ^DXVJV XuTreLaOai xaipeiv, Oappelv 9opia0ai, ETI affections?
8 opyt^eaOai TS xal aEaOaveaOai xal SiavoeiaOai- TauTa Se TravTa xivvjaeic;
slvai Soxouaiv. 60ev OLY)0SLY) TLC; av auTYjv xivsiaOai. TO 8* oux SCTTLV avayxatov.

5 etyap xal OTI (JiaXiaTa TO XuTrsiaOai T) /aipsiv vj SiavoeZaOat xivyjoet^ etal xal
SxaaTOv XLvetaOai, TOIJTWV, TO Se xiveiarOai ECTTLV UTTO
Y) 9opeLaOai TO TYJV xapSiav <5)Sl xivelaOat, TO Se SiavostaOai YJ
TO TOUTO

TI, (TOUTO>V 8e aujjipaivei Ta (Jiev xaTa 90pav TIVCOV xivou(jLSva)v, Ta Se

T* aXXoiwoiv, Tiola 8e xal 7rc5<;, eTepo^ CGTL Xoyoc; ) TO STJ Xeyeiv opyt^ecrOat
TYJV ^u^V 8[Jtoiov xav et TI^ XeyoL TYJV ^xV W9aiveiv Y) oixoSofjteiv. ^eXTiov
yap taa> (JLYJ Xeysiv TYJV ^i>xV sXeetv Y) (jtavOavetv Y) SiavoetcrOai, aXXa T^V
15 (ScvOpcoTuov Tyj 4*
U X^ "
^O^TO Se (JIY) ax; ev exeiVY) T% xivYjaecoq OUGTY)<;, aXX* oTe

fiev [JilxP 1
e^etvYjc;, OTe 8' OCTT*
exetvY]^, olov Y) (xev aiaOYjaic; dari TcovSt, YJ

8* ava(JLVY]ai<; arc* exeivY]<; eTcl Ta<; ev TOI^ aia0Y]TY]ptot(;

 206 PSYCHOLOGY [634]

b. The case of mind is different.

Mind is
b 18- 30
ib., 408 :

C
8e vou<; eoixev eyyiveaOai ouaia o5aa, xal ou 96etpeaOat. (jLaXicrra yap
TI<;

T* av UTUO TTJ<;
ev T& yvjpa afxauptoaeco^, vuv 8* I'orox; OTrep ETTL TOW alaOy)- 20
fjipatvet el yap Xapoi 6 Tupeapury]*; ofifia ToiovSi, pXeTuoi av <5><j7rep

xal 6 veo<;. coerce TO yvjpac; ou TG> TY)V ^ux/jv TL TrevrovOevaL, aXX' ev &, xaOdbrep
ev (jieOaL<;
xal VOGOL<;. xal TO voelv ST] xal TO Oecopstv (xapaCveTai aXXou Ttv6<;

Idco 90eipo(jievou, auTO 8e a7raOe<; IdTtv. TO Se StavoetcGai xal 9iXetv 73 fjnaetv 25

oux SCTTIV Ixsivou 7ra07], aXXa Tou8l TOU I^OVTO^ exeivo, -^
exeivo e^ei. 816 xal
TOUTOU 90eipo(Jivou OUTE fjivTjfjioveuei OUTS 91X2^ ou yap exefcvou ^v, aXXa TOU

XOLVOU, o aTuoXoXev 6 Ss vou^; tacoc; 6eLOTp6v TI xal a7ra6e<; ICTTLV.

The unity 635 5 - 14

of the soul
Z)g aw. I 5, 41 1 b :

Alyouci SYJ TIVE^ (xeptaT/jv auTTjv, xal aXXq> (Jiev VOSLV aXXto 8e ETUiOufjieZv. T[ 5
oSv &r) TUOTE auve^et TYJV ^UXTQV? ou yap SYJ TO ye ^
p-sptoTT] 7re9uxev;
Soxel yap TouvavTtov (jiaXXov YJ ^UXYJ TO acofia auve^eiv e^eXOouavjc; youv
xal onfjTreTai. ei oOv eTepov TL fiiav auTYjv TTOLEL, Ixetvo jiaXicrT' av

TQ. Seyjaet,
8e vraXiv xaxeivo /)TSLV TroTepov ev 7] TroXufxepI^. e (JLEV yap 10

ev, Sia TL oux euOco<; xal 73 ^^^ ^v 5

^ ^ (lepicTov, TcaXiv 6 Xoyoc; ^TjTyjcret T[
TO auve^ov exeivo, xal OUTW 8y] Trpoeiatv eTrl TO ajceipov.

636 After having discussed in the first Book the views of his pre-

decessors, Ar. now proceeds to define soul in a general formula.

De an. II i, 4i2a
3
-b 9 :

Ta [lev 873 UTCO T&V rcpoTepov TrapaSeSojjieva Ttepl ipu^^ eipyjaOca TraXiv 4i2
s
Definition
ciaTrep e^ UTcap^^ eTiavtoofJiev, rcetpcofjievoi Siopicrat, TI ICTTI ^U^T] xal TIC; 5
av xotvoTaTo^ Xoyoc; auTYJ<;. XeyojJiev SYJ yevo<; ev TI TCOV OVTCOV TYJV ouatav,
el'y)

TauT7)(; 8e TO (xev ax; uXyjv, 5 xa6' auTO [lev oux eaTi ToSe TI, eTepov 8e
s
xal eZ8o<;, xa6' xal TpLTOV TO ex TOUTCOV. ecrTt 8 r\ (xev
YJV r$j\ XeyeTat ToSe TL,

uXyj 8uva[Ai^, TO 8' eZ8o<; evTeXe^eta, xal TOUTO 8&x&<;, TO (Jiev J)(; e7iiaTY]{jL7j, 10
TO 8' ax; TO Oewpelv. ouaLat 8e (xaXtaT* elvat Soxouat Ta acofjiaTa, xal TOUTCOV
Ta 9uatxa' TauTa yap TCOV SXXcov ap^aL TO>V 8e 9uorLxa)v Ta (Jiev e^ei ^COTQV,
s
Ta 8 oux e'^ei,* ^COTJV Se Xeyojjiev TTJV 81' auTOu Tpo97]v Te xal au^atv xal
90i(Jtv. cocFTe Tuav acofjia 9uaix6v jAeTe/ov eovj<;
ouata av ecyj, oucta 8' 15

OUTOX; we; auvGeTT). ercel 8* eaTl <ra)[JLa xal T0iov8l TOUTO, ^COTJV yap lxov ?

oux av etT) TO aco(Jia ^ U X^

"
^ Y^P ^ a TL T ^ v xa ^' urcoxetfJievou TO acofjia,
'

s
8 we; uTuoxeifxevov xal uXyj. avayxaiov apa TYJV ^ux^v
[JiaXXov
The form of oua av elvai we elSoc awaaTOc; 9ucrtxou 8uvau.ei2o
[
a natural
body coY)v |X OVTO ^ ^3^' Quota evTeX^xeta TOIOUTOU Spa aco[JiaTO^
 [636] SOUL AND ITS FUNCTIONS 207

auTY) 8e XeyeTai SiO(W> YJ (Jiev

a> eTttcmqfnrj, 7)
8* eo<; TO Oecopeiv. 9avep6v o5v
STL d) eTriaTYjfJiYj ev yap TCO UTrdpxeiv TYJV ^U^YJV xal UTUVO^ xal eypYjyopcri<;

25 ecmv, avaXoyov 8' 73 {xev eypYjyopaic; TCO OetopeZv, 6 8' UTIVOC; TCO e^stv xal [AYJ

evepyelv rcpoTepa 8e Tyj yeveaei em TOU auTou YJ e7u<7TYj|JiYj.

SLO YJ

^ First
p to T YJ a to (Ji a T o <; 8 u v a 9001x01! e ^WYJV
~^/ * T 9 />/
<\

TOIOUTO oe, o av 7) opyavtxov. opyava oe xai Ta TCOV

^\\r (/,
L

./ cntel6cny
9UTOV
aXXa TravTsXco^ aTcXa, olov TO 9\iXXov TcepixapTriou (TX7ra(j(Jia, TO 8e TrepixapTTiov
%

xapTCou at Se pt^at TCO CTOfjiaTi avaXoyov a[JL9(o yap eXxei TYJV Tpo^TJv. ei SY)
5 TI xoivov iid 7raa7](; ^u^<; SSL Xeysiv, eiY] av evTeXe/eia 73 TCpcoTT]

acofjiaTOc; 9uaixoiJ opyavixou. 81,6 xal ou 8el ^YJTSLV a ev Y]

^ux*/] xal TO aco[jLa, coaTcep ouSe TOV xYjpov xal TO cr*/Y](jLa, ouS* oXto<; TTjV exaaTOi)

uXYjv xal TO o5 Y] uXYj TO yap ev xal TO elvai eTrel TrXeova^G)^ XeyeTai, TO xupicoc;

637
This definition implies (i) that soul is the essence of a natural
body, (2) that it is not separable trom body.
9 15 Soul the
a. De an. II i, 412 b - :
is

10 KaOoXou fiev ouv e?pY)Tai TI CCTTIV YJ ^U^YJ ouata yap Y)

xaTa TOV Xoyov. a natural
TOUTO 8e TO TI Y^V elvai TW TOtcpSl aco[JLaTi, xa6a7rep ei TI TCOV opyavcov 9ucixov
Y^V acojjia, olov rceXexix;- YJV [Jiev yap av TO TueXexei elvai Y) ouaia auTou, xal Y)
;

^U^Y) TOUTO ^copKrOetGY]^ Se Taimqc; oux av e Tt TreXexuc; YJV, aXX* Y) 6(jLcovu(Jia)<;.

i5vuv 8* s
4- 5 Not
b. Ib., 413 a :

tir\ \
~ > >/ ? i \ ^ ~ / s\ / , , ~ separable
UTI {lev oOv oux eaTtv YJ tpux"/] xcopiarrj TOU crcajJiaTo^, YJ (xepY) Tiva auTYj^, f rom body
ei (jiepi<TTY) TT^oxev, oux a8Y]Xov.

638 Soul is characterized by life. Now term has various meanings,

this
of which the most general is self -nutrition and growth.

a. De an. II 2, 413 a 20- 31 : Life

20 Aeyofiev o5v ap/YJv XapovTec; TYJC; axe^eox;, StcoptaOai TO ejjupu^ov TOO

a^oxou TO) ^v. TuXeova^wc; 8s TOU ^v Xeyo(xevou, xav ev TI TOUTCOV evoTuapXT]

jx6vov, 9jv auTO 9a(Jtev, olov vou^, aiaOYjau;, XLVYJOTIC; xal aTa(Ti<; YJ
xaTa TOTTOV,
xaTa Tp09Yjv xal Its most
YJ 90ic7K; Te xal afi^^^. SLO xal Ta 9u6|jieva TravTa
Soxei ^yjv 9atveTai yap ev auTou; e^ovTa Suvajiiv xal apxV TOiauTYjv, Si* sen se
TC xal 96i(Tiv Xa(JLpavouai xaTa TOU<; evavTLou^ TOTCOUC; ou yap <5cvco

jjLev au^eTai, XOCTCO 8* ou, aXX* ofzotcac; CTC'

a(X9<o xal rcavTYj exTpe9eTai xal
3 yj
8ia TeXouc;, eco^ av SuvYjTai Xafxpaveiv Tpo9Y]v.
1-4 Animals
b. Ib., 413 b :

To (lev oSv ^v Sia TYJV apxV TauTYjv uTrapxet TOIC; ^caai, TO Se ^wov 8ia by sensation
 208 PSYCHOLOGY [638]

TYJV ato0Yjaiv 7rpa>TCo<;* xal yap TOC [XYJ xivoiifisva aXXdcTTOVTa T6?cov,

IX^VTa 8*
ato-0yjoriv a>a Xyo{Asv xal ou YJV JJLOVOV.

Mind, or the 24 27
thfnlrin<S
c. Ib., 413 b - :

power Ss TOU vou xal TYJ<; OscopYjTiXYjc; SuvafZEox; ou8v 9avepov, aXX* lotxe
ysvo<; STEpov slvai, xal TOUTO [Jiovov EvSEXETai , xaOdbrsp T&
atSiov TOU 90apTOu.

639 A survey of the various psychic powers.

a. De an. II 3, 4i4a 29 -b 6 ,
b 16 - 19 :

The five
Twv SE Suva{JL6)v TYJ<; ^UXYJS at Xsx0lo"at TOL^ (JLEV UTtapxouai Tcaciai, xaOaTusp -

psychic
powers ELTTOfiEv, TOLC; SE TIVE<; auTcov, EVIOIC; SE [xta JJLOVY). Suva(jit<; 8* stTrofiEv 0p7CTixov, 30
opEXTixov, aiaOY)Tixov, XIVYJTIXOV xaTa TOTCOV, SiavoYjTixov. UTuapxst 8s TO^
IJLEV 9UTOic; TO OpETmxov (Jiovov, ETEpoic; SE TOUTO TE xal TO ataO^Tixov. EI 8s TO

aiaOY]Tixov, xal TO opEXTixov ops^tt; [JLEV yap 7ri0u[Jiia xal 0u(Ji6<; xal pouXYjai^, 41 4b
/.
'.

coa TTOCVT uj 5>>

u a
TOUTOi Y]8ovY) TE xal XUTTT) xal TO Y]Sii TE xal XuTTYjpov, ol<; Se TauTa, xal Y) 5
TOU yap Y)8eo(; ope^i? auTY). Ilepl Se 9avTaorfac; a8Y]Xov, Gcrrspov 16
8' eTTio-xeTtTeov. evioic; Se 7rp6<; TOUTOI^ UTrapxet xal TO xaTa TOTUOV XIVYJTIXOV,
8e xal TO StavoYjTixov TS xal vou^ 7 olov avOpa>7roi(; xal et TI TOIOUTOV
eaTLV Y) TlfJLKOTSpOV.

b. The higher power cannot exist apart from the lower, the lower
can exist apart from the higher power.
1 - 12
Ib., 415 a :

The higher "Aveu ulv yap TOU GpeTmxou TO aioOYjTixov oux 2<mv TOU 8 alaOYjTixou 4 1 5^
J

'

onespresup- ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
pose the X <0 P t ^ eTat
TO "p 7CT ^
v V Tr^? 9i)TOt^. ruaXiv o aveu (JLEV TOU aTTTixou TCOV aXXtov
e

lower
aia0Y)a0)v ou8fjita U7rapxt, a9Y] 8* avu TWV aXXcov uTcapxet rcoXXa yap TCOV
*

^cicov OUT' o^iv OUT* axoY)v lx ouaiv ^ T o^H-Y]^ ai(i0Y]criv. xal TWV aiaOYjTixcov 5
SE Ta (JLEV ^t TO xaTa TOTCOV XLVYJTIXOV, Ta 8* oux S^et. TXUTaiov Sk xal

IXaxtffTa XoyiafJiov xal Siavotav o!<; (jiv yap uTrap^e^ Xoyior(Ji&<; TG>V ^OapTwv,
TOUTOK; xal TOC XOITTOC TravTa, olc; 8* Xtvov IxaciTOv, ou Traat Xoytajzo^, aXXa I0
(JLEV
ouSe; 9avTaaia, Ta SE TauTY] (JLOVYJ
&(TIV. TTEpl SE TOU OseopYjTixou vou

Xoyo^.

640 The nutritive soul.

The nutritive a. De an. II 4, 415 a22 - 25 :

soul f

Tup&TOv TTEpl Tpo9Y]^ xal yWY)(Ta)(; XfiXTEov Y) yap OpETmxY) ^UXYJ

'l(TT

xal TOL^ aXXoi<; UTrapxst, xal 7ipa>TY] xal XOIVOTOCTY) Siiva|JLi<; EGTI ^DX^ xa0*

YJV uTcapxst TO ^
 [640] SOUL AND ITS FUNCTIONS 20Q

b. This first soul ought to be named the reproductive soul.

20 25
Ib., 416 b - :

20 'ETuel 8' eaTi Tpia, TO Tpecpojzevov xal Tpe9ov, TO JJLEV Tps^ov & Tpe^ETai, xal TO
EGTLV Y) TipcoTY) ^u^Y), TO 8e TpE90[jLEvov TO E'XOV TauTYjv (jcofjLa, & 8s Tpe9STai, Y)

Tpo9Y). ETcsl 8e OCTCO TOU TeXouc; arcavTa Tcpoa-ayopeueLv Sixaiov, TeXoc; 8e TO

25 yevvYJaai olov auTo, eiY) av 7) TrpcoTY) ^U^Y) yevvYjTixY) ^ v auTo.

De 34 3
Cp. gen. an. II 4, 740 b -74i a *H yap aunfj ecruv GXyj ^ a :

35 xal el; TJ^ auvic-TaTaL TO Trp&Tov, COOTTE xal 73 Troiooaa 8uva[ju<; TauTO TW
apX^* [Aet^eov SE auTY) saTiv. ei o5v auTY) saTlv Y) OPETTTIXYJ ^OXY), adTYj
xal Y] yevvcoaa xal TOUT' eaTlv Y) 9UCTK; Y) exaaTou, svuTuap^ouaa xal ev
74iaxal ev cooi<; Tracriv. Ta 8* aXXa (Jiopia TTJ? ^DX^^ TOI<; fiev uTrap^et TOL^ 8* oux
T&V ^4>6)V -

2 SENSE-PERCEPTION
641 Distinction between special and common objects of the senses.
Dean. II 6, 418 a 10 - 20 : special and

... TO (JiEv
>\/^/
LOLOV ECTiv
A
exaaTY](; aiauYjaecoc;,
\^>
TO oe
/ ^>
XOLVOV vraacov. Xey<o o
>
common
sensibles
/ > \ /

ZStov (xev o [JLY] evSEXETai, ETepa alaOifjaei alaOavsaOat, xal Tcepl 6 (JLY) ev
olov 6^1^ xP (*) JLaTO ^ t
xa>L <*XOY) 4'^9 OU xa ^ Y e ^ at ? X ^
(jiev E^EI 8ia9opa^ aXX* sxaaTY] ys xpivst Tiepl TOUTCOV, xal oux
15 OTI xpcofjta ouS' OTL fyoyoc;, aXXa TL TO xsxpcoa[Jievov Y) TUOU, Y)
TL TO ^090^ Y)

TUOU. Ta [jLev o5v TotauTa XsyeTai tSta sxaaTOU, xoiva 8e XIVYJCTI^, Yjpefjua, apiOfioc;,

a^^H-a, (jLeyeOo^' Ta yap ToiauTa ouSefjuac EGTIV I'Sta, aXXa xoiva 7raaai<;. xal
20 yap 0:973 xivTjdt^ Ttc; ECTTIV ataBYjTYj xal o^ei.
The same distinction is made by S. Thomas Aquinas, who speaks of sensibilia
propria and communia in 5. th. I, qu. 17, art. 2, and in qu. 78, art. 3.

642 The object of sight.

a. Ib., II 7, 4i8a27 -b 3 :

05 (JLev
ouv ECTTlv Y) ofyu;, TOUT* edTlv opaTov. opaTOv 8* eo~Tl xpcofxa [JLEV,
l
xal 6 Xoyco [JLEV
ECTTIV EITUEIV, avcovufjiov 8s Tuy^avei ov 89jXov Ss ScrTat o Xe-

yo(zev TrpoeXOoGcrt (zaXiaTa. TO yap opaTov ECTTL xp&y.a.. TOUTO 8' eo^Tl TO ETTL TOU
2
30 xa0' auTo opaTOu xaO* auTo 8e ou TCO X6yq> , aXX* OTI ev eauTO) ^xet T& a^Tiov
TOU elvai opaTov. Tcav 8e xpw^a XIVYJTIXOV ICTTL TOU xaT* svepyeiav Sia9avouc;,
4i8bxal TOUT* ECTTLV auTou YJ 9uat<;. StoTiep ou^ opaTov avsu 90>T6^, aXXa Ttav TO

exaaTou xpc5(JLa ev 9WTl opaTat,.

1
He alludes to phosphorescing objects, which can be seen only in darkness.
2
It is visible, not by its essence, but per accidens.
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy IT 14
 210 PSYCHOLOGY [6 4 2]

Light b. What is light. Ib.,

3 13
418 b - b 18 - 20,
:

Aio Trepl 9oyr6<; Trp&TOv XexTeov TL eaTiv. (m SYJ TI Sia9avc;. Siacpavl^ 8e

Xyco 6 Sari (JLSV opaTov, ou xaO* auTo 8e opaTov ax; a7rXco<; eircetv, aXXa Si' 5
aXXoTpiov %p&[L(x.. TOIOUTOV Se scmv aYjp xal uStop xal TcoXXa TO>V arepecov
ou yap 7) uSa>p ouS* fj aYjp, Siacpavec;, aXX* cm ecm 9uai<; uvrap/ouaa YJ auTYj ev
1
TOUTOK; a^orepoK; xal ev TG> al'Sico T<O (Jvco acopiaTi 96)? 8e ICTTLV 7) TOUTOU .

evspyeia, TOU 8ta9avoiiq ^ 8ia9avs<;. Suvdrfiet 8e ev & TOUT* earl xal TO CJXOTO^. 10
TO Se 9to<; olov ^pcofxa eaTt TOO Sta9avoij<;, oTav fj evTeXe^eta 8ta9ave<; UTCO

7cup6(; 7^
TOLOUTOU olov TO &vo) xal yap TOUTCO TL uTrapxei ev xal TauTov.
(Tcofjia

Darkness Aoxel Te TO 90)1; evavTtov elvai TO> axoTei GTI 8e TO axoToc; aT^pyjai^ TTJ^ 18

TOiauTY]<; e^ecoc; ex Sta9avou^ )

ciarTe S^Xov OTI xal 7] TOUTOU rcapouaca TO 9(0^
ICTTLV.

Sound 643 a. De 419 b -

an. II 8, 9 13
:

FtveTat 8' 6 xaT* evlpyeiav ^690^ aet TLVO(; 7rpo<; TI xal ev TLVI TcXTjyT) yap
eaTiv 7]
Tcoiouaa. 816 xal aSuvaTov evo^; OVTO^; yeveaOai ^O9ov eTepov yap TO
TUTITOV xal TO TUTiTOfievov coCTTe TO ^O9ouv Tcpog TL ^096^ TrXTjyf) 8* ou ytveTai

13 4
Voice b. Ib., 420 b -42i a :

OCOVT] 8 ecrri ^(pou ^690^, xal ou TOJ TU/OVTI [Jiopia). aXX' ercel ?cav

TUTTTOVTO^ Tivoc; xai TI xal ev TIVI, TOUTO 8* ecmv euXoyax; av 9covoi7) TauTa 15
avjp,

[jtova oo*a Se^eTat TOV dcepa. TjST) yap TW avaTrveo^evco xaTa^p^Tai y] 9uat<; ITU Siio
epya, xaOaTrep T^ yXwTTY) ITCL TC TT]V yeuatv xal
TYJV StaXexTov, a^v 7] (jiev yeucri(;

avayxatov (816 xal TrXetoaiv U7uapxe0 ^) ^' p[AV)veia evexev TOU eu, OUTCO xal
TO) TTveujJiaTi Te TYJV 6ep(JLOT7jTa TYJV evTo<; d)^ avayxatov (TO 8* afaiov ev eTepoic; 20

etpYjaeTat) xal Trpcx; TYJV 90)VYjv, OTTOX; uTuapxiQ TO eu.

How
"Opyavov 8e Tyj avaTrvoY) 6 9apuy^ ou 8' evexa xal TO (JLOpiov eaTi TOUTO,
produced
7rXeu(JLO)v TOUTW yap TW (xopicp TrXetcrrov e/ei TO Oep[a.6v Ta 7tea TWV aXXcov.
SetTai Se TYJ^ ava7uvoYJ<; xal 6 Tuepl TYJV xapSiav TOTTO<; TipcoTO^. 816 avayxatov 25
etaco ava7rveo(jievou eiaievai TOV aepa, cicrTe YJ TcXYjyyj TOU ava7iveo(Jievou aepo<;
UTTO T'^ ev TOUTOK; TOIC; jxopioi^ ^UXYJ<; 7ip6<; TYJV xaXoufJievYjv apTYjpiav 9O)VYj
V. ou yap ?ra<; ^ciou ^690^ 9cov/j, xaOaTrep eiTcofJiev (ecrTi yap xal Tyj yXcoTTYj 3
xal ax; ol fiYjTTOVTet;), aXXa Set ept^uxov Te elvai TO TUTTTOV xal fxeTa
TIVOC; aYjfjLavTixcx; yap SYJ TIC; ^690*; eaTlv YJ 9tovYj xal ou TOU

avaTTveojievou aepo<;, coaTuep YJ P'/j^, aXXa TOUTCO TIJTCTEI TOV ev T^ apTYjpta ?rpcx;42ia

auTYjv. G7j(JieLov 8e TO \LT\

SiivaaOat 9a)vetv avaTrveovTa 7rp6<; auTYjv.

1
He means his fifth element, the aether, which constitutes the celestial sphere,
in which the heavenly bodies move.
 [643] SENSE-PERCEPTION 211

Se TO fry)
Suvacr6ai cpeovetv avaTrveovTa fjnrjS' SXTCV^OVTOC, aXXa xaT^/ovTa- xivet

yap TOUTCO 6 xaTe^cov. ^avepov 8e xal SIOTI 01 ix^ e ? #9<*>voi, ou yip S^ouat
are mute
,

9apuyya.

644 Intelligence is, according to Ar., dependent on the sense of touch.

De an. II 9, 421 a 20 - 26 Intelligence
:

20 'Ev XeiTreTai TroXXtov

(Jiev yap Taic; <5cXXai<; (sc. alcrOT] treat ) (6 <SvOpco7ro<; ) O f touch
TCOV cocov, xaTa Se r/]v a9Y)v TtoXXco TCOV aXXcov 8ia9ep6vTco<; dxpipou Sio xal
9povi|za>TaTov eari TO>V J^cocov. ayjfJLSLOv Se TO xal ev TCO yevei TCOV avOptoTiwv

Tuapa TO aLa67]T7)piov TOUTO elvai eu^ueic; xal d^uec^, Trap' aXXo Se (jiY]Sev ol
25 i

ol Se
(JLSV yap <rxX7]p6o apxoi a9uetc; TYJV Stavotav, (jLaXax6aapxot

645 Why man smells only when he inhales.

De an. II 9, 421 8
b ~422 a 6
:
Sme11 in

42 1 b "EtfTi Se xal YJ o<J9p73ori(; Sia TOU jxeTa^u, olov aepoc; r\ GSaTOc;-

xal yap Ta other
xal xal Avaifxa, cidTrep xal animals
icSvuSpa Soxouortv 6d|Ji7]<; aiaOdcveaOai, ofjiotoc; evai[Jia
T<X ev TCO aepi xal yap TO\iT(ov evia TcoppwOev dbravTa Tcpoc; TTJV Tpo97]v
yivojjieva, Sio xal (ScTropov 9aiveTat, ei TiavTa (lev 6(jLoia)<; oajJiaTai, 6 S'

15 avaTcvecav, |rf)
avanvetov Se dcXX' exTrveeov TJ xaTex^v TO TcveujJia oux 6a{AaTai,
ouTe TTOppcoOev OUT' eyyiiOev, ouS* av eTrl TOU piuxT^po^ |VTO<; TeO^ xal TO |jtev
eTu* auTo) TtOefxevov TCO aiaOYjryjptco avata0Y]Tov elvai, xoivov TTCXVTCOV aXXa TO
&veu TOU avaicvecv (JLT)
aicOaveaOai I'Stov TCOV avOpcoTUcov SyjXov Se Tretpcofjievoi^.

20coaTe T<X avaLjjta, ejceiSy] oux avaTcveouaiv, eTepav av TIV' al'aOyjaiv S^oi Tcapa

TOK; Xeyofjieva^;. aXX' aSuvaTov, eirrep T^C; OCT^YJC; ataOaveTai Y] yap TOU 6ci9pav-
TOU al'aOTjcri^ xal SuacoSouc; xal eucoSoix; oa9pY](7i^ eaTtv. eTi Se xal 90eip6[xeva

9a[veTai UTIO TCOV iax^>pcov ocrfjicov 69* ^ivTiep avOpco7ro<;, olov ao^aXTOu xal

25 Oetou xal TCOV TOIOUTCOV. 6a9pa(ve(76aL (lev oSv dvayxatov, aXX' oux avaTrveovTa.
eoi,xe 8e TOCC; avOpcoTroi^ Sia9epetv TO alaOirjTYjpiov TOUTO :rp6(; TO TCOV <5tXXcov

Z^cocov, axTTcep Ta ojxfxaTa Trpoc; Ta TCOV crxXY]po96aXfJicov T<X (Jtev yap fyzi 9pay[jux
30 xal codTrep eXuTpov Ta (3Xe9apa, a [JLY] xivyjaa^ (jirjS' avaa7raaa<; ou^ opa- TOC
8e cxXy]po90aX(jLa ouSev iyei TOIOUTOV, aXX' euOeco<; opa Te yiv6(JLeva ev TCO Sia-

9avet* OUTCO^ ouv xal TO 6<T9pavTt,x6v ataGrjTyjpLov TOL(; (Jiev axdXu9e(; elvai,
422acia7rep TO 8fi[Jia, TOI<; 8e TOV aepa Sexopievoi^ SX LV eTttxaXujjLjJLa, o avavrveovTCOV
aTuoxaXuTTTecrOat, Sieupuvo(jtvcov TCOV 9Xeptcov xal TCOV Tiopcov. xal Sta TOUTO
TOC cxva7rvovTa oux ocrfJiaTai ev TCO uypco avayxatov yap 6a9pav0YJvai avaTiveu-
5 aavTa, TOUTO Se Troietv ev TCO uypco dSuvaTov.

646 Taste and touch do not take place through an interposed foreign
body.
 212 PSYCHOLOGY [646]

Taste and
touch
De an n Io 422 a 8_lO;
To 8e yeudTov semv (XTTTOV TL xal TOUT' aiTiov TOU (ZY)
elvai ata0Y]T6v 8ia
TOU (jieTa^u aXXoTpiou OVTO<; <TO>(JUXTO<; ou8e yap *)
^

647 General description of a "sense".

"Sense"
in general
De an , U I2 17 24
424 a - :

Ka06Xou 8e Tuepl Traay]^ aia0Y)creco<; Sei Xa[3ecv OTI

SexTixov T&V aiaOYjT&v eiScov aveu T^C; uXvjc;, olov xyjpoc; TOU SaxTuXiou Sveu
TOU aiSyjpou xal TOU XP U(J0 ^ SeyeTai TO a7](jieLov, XajipaveL Se TO xp^^ouv 73 20
TO xaXxouv O7](jietov, aXX* ou/ TJ XP UCT ^ ^ xa^ x ^^ ofioico^ Se xal YJ ataOyjai^ "

1
exao-Tou UTO TOU ex VT0 ^ XP^(JLa ^ XU JLOV ^ ^O9ov Tuaaxei, aXX oux ^ exaorTov
(

l
exeivcov XeyeTai, aXX' ^ ToiovSi, xal xaT<x TOV Xoyov .

3 THINKING

648 In his third Book De anima Ar. treats nous or the thinking power.
The first stage superior to the senses, namely that faculty by which we
distinguish the object of one sense from that of the other, is discussed
in the following passage.
The-sensus HI 8 - 21
J) e an> 2, 426 b :

Exdo~T7] [Jiev
ouv ataOiQcri^ TOU UTCoxeipdvou auj0Y)TOU eaTtv, uTrap^ouda ev426b

aio"07]Ty)ptcp -fi
xal xpivei Tat; TOU uTroxetfievou aia0Y)TOu Sia- 10
atcrOTjTTjpiov,

a(;, olov Xeuxov (jiev xal (JieXav o^tc;, y^uxu Se xal Tctxpov yeucrti;. O[JLOICO^ 8*

TOUTO xal em TWV aXXcov. siuel 8e xal TO Xeuxov xal TO yXuxu xal SxaaTOv
TO>V ala0Y]Tcov 7rpo<; exaaTov xpivofjtev, TIVL xal aia0av6(ieOa STL Sia^epet;

avayxrj SYJ ala-Ovjaei aiaOirjTa yap ICTTIV. yj

xal S^Xov oTt 7] aap^
oux ecrTt TO 15

ea/aTov alaOYjTYjptov avayxY) yap Y^V cxrcTOfievov auTou xpiveiv TO xpivov. OUTS

8y) xexcapicr(Jievoi(; ev8ex

e ^ai xpivsiv OTI eTepov TO yXuxu TOU Xeuxou, aXXa Set
evt Ttvi a[X9O) S^Xa elvat. OUTO (JLEV yap xav et TOU (Jiev eyo) TOU 8e (ru ata0oio,

S^Xov av eiY) STL eTepa aXX-yjXcov. Set 8s TO ev Xeyeiv STL eTepov eTepov yap TO 20
yXuxu TOU Xeuxou. Xeyei apa TO auTo.
The problem was first formulated by Plato, Theaet. iSsa 2 S. Augustine, in .

De libero arbitrio II 3, 8, qualifies that faculty by which we judge "quid ad quemque

sensum pertineat, et quid inter se vel omnes vel quidam eorum communiter habe-
ant", as a sensus interior, and distinguishes it from reason, because animals too
possess it. "Namque aliud est quo videt bestia, aliud quo ea quae videndo sentit,
vel vitat vel appetit: ille enim sensus in oculis est, ille autem intus in ipsa anima".

According to its "form" or formidable essence.

1

1
Our nr. 31 9a.
 [649] THINKING 213

649 Difference between thinking and perceiving.

a. Thinking and perceiving identified by the ancients.
De an. Ill 3, 427 a 19 -b 5 :
Thinking
Aoxei 8e xal TO voeiv xal TO 9poveiv &<j7iep aiaOavecrOai TI elvai (ev ajjicpo- perceiving
20 repot*; yap TOUTOK; xpivei TI YJ ^^X^) xa>l yvcopi^ei T&V OVTCOV), xal ot ye
TO 9povev xal TO alaOaveaOai TauTov elvai 9aaiv, cocnrep xal 'E[ji7ce8oxX9j<;

7tp6<; Ttapeov yap [XTJTK; al^eTai, av6pa>7ioi(nv.<(

25 xal ev aXXoi^ 66ev

v aiel

xal TO 9povetv aXXota TrapiaTaTai ...

2
TO S' auTo TOUTOI<; pouXeTat xal TO' 0(JLY]pou WTOIOC; y^P v ^^ S<TTIV((
*
7cavTe<;

yap OUTOL TO voelv GrcopiaTixov waTcep TO ataOaveaOai uTcoXa(Jipavouaiv xal ala6a-

veaOai Te xal 9povetv TCO 6[iocp TO 6(xoiov, axiTiep xal ev TOI<; xaT* ap^ac; Xoyot<;
4275 Suopiaajiev xaiToi eSei afxa xal Tiepl TOU YjTcaT^aOai aoToix; Xeyeiv, oixeiOTepov
-

XP OVOV ^ v TOUTW StaTeXeo

*
yap Tote; ^<j>oi?, xal TuXetco 7] ^uxr) Sto avayxY] T^TOI,

coaicep evtoi Xeyouni, TcavTa Ta 9aiv6[Aeva elvai aXyjOT], 73 TYJV TOU avojjioiou
5 Ot^tv aTraTYjv elvai, TOUTO yap evavTiov TCO TO OJJLOIOV TCO 6(jLOtco Yvw P^etv.
b. Thinking is different from perceiving. It is partly imagination,
partly judgment.
27 29
Ib., 427 b - :

Ilepl Se TOU voetv,

srcel eTepov TOO atorOaveaOai, TOUTOU Se TO (Jtev 9avTaata
Soxei elvat TO Se uTcoXTj^i^, Tuepl 9avTaaia^ SiopiaavTac; OUTCO Tuepl OaTepou
XexTeov.

650 Imagination. Imagination

a. It is neither sense, nor opinion.

5 - 22 9 - 10
Ib., 428 a ,
b :

428a
';
OTt ouv oux e'cmv Neither
(lev ai'aOyjcrK;, SrjXov ex TcovSe. afo6y)<K<; {Jiev yap Y^TOt

Suvafju^ ^ evepyeia, olov 6^1? xal opaat?, 9aiveTat Se TL xal (lYjSeTepou uTrap-
XOVTO<; TOUTO)v, olov Ta ev TO^ UTTVOII;. etTa accrOvjaK; (lev ael TuapeaTi, 9avTa<rta
10 8* ou. el Se T7J evepyeta TO auT6, Tcaaiv av evS/oiTo TOIC; OyjpioK; 9avTaatav
UTuapxew Soxet S' ou. olov
[jLup(JL7]XL ^ (/.eXtTTT) 7] dxciXyjxt.
elTa at {lev aXyjOetc;

alet, at 8e 9avTacr[at, ytvovTai at TrXetou^ ^euSeL<;. eTreiT* ouSe Xeyofxev, 8Tav

1
Emped. fr. 106 and 108 (Gr. Ph. I p. 61 n. 2, to nr. 113a).
2
From Od. XVIII 136 ff.
 214 PSYCHOLOGY [650]

vspyco[JLv axpL(3co<; Tcspl TO aiaOY)Tov, OTI 9atvsTai TOUTO YJJJILV <5cv0pco7co<;

aXXa
fzaXXov 8Tav lvapyco<; aiaOavtojAsOa
[JLY] YJ aXY]0Y)<; Y) t^EuS-y^.
TOTS
xal OTTEP Ss 15

sXyo[jLv TupoTEpov, 9atvTai xal (Jtuouaiv opafzaTa. aXXa (JLYJV

ouSs TCOV asl

aXYjOsuovTtov ouSEfua g(TTai olov ETTLCTTYJIJIY) Y) vouV

?
ECTTL yap 9avTacna xal
^EuS-yjc;. XELTTETaL apa tSslv EL 86a- yivETai yap 86a xal aXY]0Y)c; xal ^EuS-yjc;.
nor opinion aXXa 86^Y] (JIYJV
ETiETat TCICTTK; (oux EvSE^eTat yap SoaovTa ol<; SOXEL (JLYJ
20

7riaTUiv), TCOV SE 0Y)ptcov ou0vl uTrap/EL TTiCTTi,^, 9avTacta 8* EV TroXXou;.

OUT* apa EV TL TOUTCOV laTlv OUT' Ix TOUTCOV Y]

b. What is imagination.
what it is Ib., 428 b 10- 17 , 428b 30-429a
4
:

ETTEiS-y) laTt xivY)0VTO<; Tou8l xtvta0at ETEpov UTTO TOUTOU, Y] 8s 9av- 428b
'AXX*

xtvYjcrtc; Tt(; 8oxc Eivat xal oux <$VEU aLGrOYjaECo^ yfyvscrOat aXX* al<r0avo-

xal
ata0Y)aL(; EGTIV, E'CTTL 8s yivEaOai XLVYJCTIV UTTO TYJ<; Vpysia<; TYJ<;
cl>v

j;,
xal TauTYjv 6[xotav avayxY) Elvai TYJ au70Y)cri, ELY] av auTY) Y] XLVY]CTL<;
OUTS avsu aidOYjaEcog EvSs^ojjLEVY] OUTS IJLY] aL(T0avo(JiVOL<; uTTapxetv, xal TuoXXa 15
xaT* auTYjv xal TTOIELV xal TTOCOT^ELV TO E^OV, xal sIvaL xal aXY]0YJ xal <J;eu8YJ.
Definition EL oOv (JLY]0V (JLEV aXXo I/OL Y) Ta LpY)(JLva Y] 9avTaa[a, TOUTO 8' CTTL TO 30
XE^SV, Y) 9avTao>La av ELY] XLVYJGL^; UTTO T% aLa0Y)aco^ TYJ^ xaT* EvspyELav yiyvo- -

fJLVY]<;. ETUEl
8' Y) O^LC; (JLOcXLCTTa aL<T0Y]O-L^ GTL, Xal TO OVOJJia OCTCO TOU

v, OTI avU 9coToc; oux E'CTTCV J2

651 The thinking part of the soul.

10 - 13
Thinking De an. Ill 4, 429 a :

'
TOU (JLOptOU TOU TY](; ^ U X^ ^ ^ U X^ XOC L 9?^,
yiVCO<TXl T Y)
tT

OVTOC; tT xal \rt\ xcopLaTOu xaTa (Zy0o<; aXXa xaTa Xoyov,

TLV' )& 8ta9opav, xal 7rc7)(; TUOTE ytvTai TO
A passive a Jh 420 a 13 - 29 :

faculty
El SY]
CTL TO VOELV &(77Tp TO aLOr0(XVCT0aL, Y] TUaa^ELV TL OCV ELY] U7IO TOU VOYJTOU 42Qa

$1
TOLOUTOV ETEpov. <x7ra0
TL apa SEL ELvaL, 8sxTLx6v SE TOU L8ou<; xal SuvafjiEL 15
1
TOLOUTOV aXXa [JLY] TOUTO ,
xal OJJLOLCOC; E^S^? cocrrcEp TO aL(T0Y)TLx6v Trpo^ Ta

aLa0Y]Ta, OUTCO TOV vouv 7rp6(; Ta VOYJTOC. avayxY] <5cpa, 7rl TravTa VOEL,

ELvaL, codTcsp 'Ava^ayopac;,

9Yjalv EaTlv i'va I'va xpaT^j, TOUTO 8*

7uap(JL9ai,v6[jLvov yap xcoXuEL TO aXXoTpLov xal avTL9paTTL ciaTE [r/jS* auTOU 20

sIvaL 9\icrLv [JLYjSEfjiLav aXX' 7] TauTYjv, OTL SuvaTOv. 6 apa xaXoufXEvoc; TY^C;

*
The mind "becomes its objects" in actual knowledge. Therefore, the thinking
1

power must be potentially identical with its possible objects. Animus est quodam-
modo omnia, as it is formulated later by S. Thomas Aquinas.
 THINKING 215

vouq (Xyco 8k vouv cT> SiavoEiTai xal uTioXafJLpavsi YJ ^U^YJ )

ou6v <mv Vpyia
25 TCOV OVTCOV TTplv VOELV. 8l6 OuSs |JL|JLl)tOai SuXoyOV aUTOV TCO CTCOJJLaTl 7TOt6<; Tl

yap av yiyvoiTO, Y) ^ U XP^ *) OEPJJLOS, YJ xav opyavov TI ELY), coaTrep TCO ata6Y)Tixco
vuv 8* ouOEv <mv. xal EU SYJ ol XsyovT<; TYJV ^U^YJV lvai TOTCOV slScov *, uXYjv
8n OUT oXYj aXX* YJ VOYJTIXYJ, OUT VTXXta aXXa 8uva(jii Ta eKS?].

b. Since in the above passage thinking is qualified as a passive

process, while on the other hand nous is described as being arcaOYjc; and
<x[jiiyY]<;,
an objection might arise.

22 - 26
Ib., 429 b :
Objection

'A7TOpY]<Jl, 8* (XV Tl 7
L 6 VOU^ (XTCXOUV CTTl Xal (XTCaO(; Xal (JLYjOfivl

^t xoivov, co<T7Cp ^Yjarlv 'Ava^ayopa^, TCCO<; VOYJCTEI, c TO vocv

EGTIV. fj yap TI xoivov a[JL90cv uTcapxei, TO [jiv TUOLELV SOXEI TO S
29 2
c. Ar. replies, 429 b -43o a : Reply
... TO (JLV 7Uaa^tV XaTa XOIVOV TI,
8lY)pY)Tai 7CpOTpOV, OTt Suva[JLl TCCO^
s
IOTTI Ta voYjTa 6 vou<;, aXX* lvTX^ta ouSfiv, rcplv av VOYJ. 8ei 8 OUTCO^ codTUEp
43 oa V ypa(JL(JiaTi6i co
{jLYj0v uTrap^st VTXXia yypa[i[JLvov, O7ip au[Jipa[vt 7rl

TOU VOU.

652 Mind is not only a passive faculty.

De an. Ill 5, 430 a 10 - 25 :

Ac ive
f
1
10 'E7il S cocr7Tp Iv aTracTYj Tyj 9uai ECTTL TI TO [JLEV uXY] sxaaTco yVi (TOUTO
SE 6 TravTa 8uva(j.L Xiva), Tpov 8k TO aiTiov xal TTOLYJTLXOV, TCO TCOIELV TravTa,
olov Y] TE^VY) TTpoq TYJV uXYjv 7r7rovOv, avayxY) xal Iv Ty) ^u^Y] uTcap^Eiv TauTa<;
Ta<; SLa^opat;. xal SCTTIV 6 (JIEV TOLOUTO^; vou<; TCO TravTa y[vcOai, 6 8e TCO TravTa
1 5 TTOLECV, cot; ?;&<; TI<;, olov TO 9co<; TpoTrov yap Ttva xal TO 9co<; TUOIE! Ta SuvafXEt
ovTa /pcofjLaTa Vpyia %p&[LOLi:aL. xal OUTO^ 6 vou<; ^coptaToc; xal aTraOYj^ xal

a(jLtyY]<;, T^ ouata
cov Vpyia. al yap Ti(jticoTpov TO TTOIOUV TOU
20
f) ^PX^ T ^ SXY)^. TO 8* auTO ECTTLV YJ
xaT* lvpyiav 7ricTTY)[JLY]
TO)

Y)
SExaTa SuvafJiiv XP^ V( J ! ^po^spa sv TCO EVI, oXco^ 8s ou ^pov

(JLEV
ou vosL ^copLaOslc; 8' sarTl [JLOVOV TOuO' STCEP scTTt, xal TOUTO (JLOVOV
VOEC OTE 8*

aOavaTov xal atSiov. ou (jLVY][jLovuo(JLv 8s, OTL TOUTO [JLEV dbraOE*;, 6 SE Tca0Y]Tixo^
25 xal avsu TOUTOU ouOsv VOSL.
vou^; ^OapTO^;,

Cp. the next nr.

653 With this description of the vou<; TUOIYJTLXO^, as it is called later,

we might compare the following passage from the De gen. anim., where

1
The formula T67to<; elScov does not occur in Plato's Dialogues, but it expresses
fairly well his view of the soul.
 2l6 PSYCHOLOGY [653]

it is argued that no material activity can exist apart from a body, and
consequently, that no bodily activity could enter from outside. Exception
is to be made for nous exclusively, for only nous has no connexion with

any bodily activity.

Nous enters
from outside
)e
gen
s an
^ . U 3 ' 6 b
73 22_29.
, , , . , , , *_ ,
Oacov yap etfTiv ap/cav r\ evepyeta acofJiaTtxY], dv]Xov OTI TauTa^ aveu
olov paSi^eiv ^cveu -roSoiv COGTS xod 6upa6ev
OUTC yap aura*; xaO* auTac; etatevat olov TE cx/copiaTOU^ ouaac;, OUT' 25
v.

ev acajjiaTL eiaievai TO ycxp orTcepfxa TrspiTTto^a jxeTapaXXouar)^ TTJ^ TpO9^<;

eaTiv. XeCTTETai 8e TOV vouv JJLOVOV OupaOev e7reicri,evat xal OELOV elvai (JLOVOV
ou0ev yap auTOu T^ evspyeia xoivcovsl <Tco(JLaTLX7j evepyeia.
 SEVENTEENTH CHAPTER
RHETORIC AND POETICS
i THE RHETORIC
654 Aristotle's Rhetoric is closely related with his logical writings,
at least with the Topics and Analytics. This does not imply, however,
that it should belong to the same period of Aristotle's life. Not only the
x
political event mentioned in II 23, points to a date after 339 ; indeed,
chapters like 12-14 of the same book can hardly be the work of a young
man.
a. Against Plato's Gorgias Aristotle defends that rhetoric is a TE^-/),
which ought to have a special method.
1 11 Rhetoric the
Rhet. I I, 1354 a - :

<
u
" e , ,
ECTTIV
, , ~ * i ~ 2* ' < .counterpart
pTQTOpixv) avTL<7Tp090<; TJQ oiaXEXTtxy) aficpoTEpai yap Trepi O f dialectic
TOIOUTCOV Eialv a xoiva Tporrov Ttva aTravTWV Earl yvcopt^siv xal

7TLCTT7)[ry)<; a^GipKTfJLSVT)*;. $1,6 Xal TUOCVTEC; TpOTCOV TWO, [IETE/OUC71V

57uavTi; yap {JL>cpt TLVO<; xal l^Ta^i,v xai UTrl^iv Xoyov xal a7coXoyLCT0at,
xal xaTYjyopELv y^ipoij<riv. TWV (JLEV ouv TcoXXciv ol (alv Etxy) TauTa Spoiaiv,
ol SE Sia auvY)6iav ajro !?;6)<;. ITTEI 8* afji^OTEpa)^ vS/Tai, 8'TjXov OTL ELTJ
av aura xal O^OTCOLELV St' 6 yap 7UTuy/avouat,v OL T 8ta <7UV7jOiav xal ol
ioaTco TauTO(jiaTOU, TYJV atTiav 0coptv EvSE/ETai,, TO $ TOIOUTOV ^Syj TUCXVTEC; av

6{JLoXoyy)cratv TE^VT)^ Ipyov Elvai.

b. Against existing treatises on "the Art of Speech", composed by

professional rhetors, he complains that their authors always neglected
the argumentative clement of rhetoric, which is, in fact, its essential part.
11 - 18
Ib., 1354 a :

Nuv {JLV ouv ol Tac; TE^va^ TO>V Xoyaw auvTtOEVTE^ oXtyov TTETtopixaaiv treatises

auTYJc; (jtopiov al yap TTICTTEL*; EVTE^VOV laTt, (JLOVOV, ra S* 6cXXa TCpoaO^xat, ol

3
15 8 TTEpl [JLEV Ev6u[JLY)(JLaT(OV OuSsV XEyOUCTlV, 67Tp (7Tl (TCOfJia T% TTtaTEOi^, TTEpl

1
See M. Dufour's Introduction to Ar/s Rhetoric, Paris 1932, p. 14 f.
2
On
the meaning of the term dialectic in Aristotle see our nr. 435 sub a and b,
*and the text of Top. I i cited there.
3
The enthymema has been defined by Ar. in the Anal. Pr. II 27, 70 a 10- 11 as ,

a syllogism from probabilities or signs.

 2l8 RHETORIC AND POETICS [654]

8e TCOV e^co TOU TcpayfjiaTO^ Ta TrXeiara TrpayfJuxTeuovTai 8ia(3oXY) yap xa^

eXeoc; xal 6py7) * a l T <* Toiaihra TrcxOyj TYJ<; ^ux^ ^ 7re p'1 T0 ^ TCpay(JLaTo<; Icrav
aXXa 7cpo<; TOV Sixacmfjv.

655 The use of rhetoric.

a. As means of producing conviction.

rhetoric
^^ I If I 355 a2 " 29:

Xp7](ii(JLoc; 8* ECJTLV YJ pvjToptxY) Sia T TO 9uai elvai xpetTTto TaXyjOyj xal 20

Ta Sixaia TWV evavTicov, COCTTS lav (XT)

xara TO TrpOCTTJxov al xpiaeic;
Si* auT&v 7]TTaa8ai, TOUTO 8* ecruv a^tov erciTLfjiYjcrccoi;. STI 8e 7cpo<;

ou8' ei TT]V axpipedTaTY)v e^oi[jiv eTTLaTYj^v, paStov OCTC*

IXSLVT]^ Tuelaat

SiSaaxaXtac; yap SCTTIV 6 xaTa TYJV 7ri(TTY)(jLY)v Xoyoc;, TOUTO Se

1

aSuvaTov, aXX avayxv] 8ta TWV xoivcov TroieLaOai Ta^ TriaTSL^ xal TOU^ Xoyou^,
toaTtep xal ev TOCC; TOTTLXO^C; eXsyofxev Tccpl T^ 7upo<; TOUC; TroXXoix;

b. Rhetoric has to draw opposite conclusions.

Rhetoric as 29
Yb I^*> a - 38
'

#r*'' *\ * > ^ ~ ^f /\ it\ i\' \

JI.TI os TavavTia oe(. ouvaaoai TisiUeiv, xauaTisp xai ev TOIC; cruXXoyia[JLOi^, 30
5

; a(jL90Tpa 7rpaTT(0|jLv (ou yap SL Ta 9auXa 7T:iOtv) aXX tva (JLYJTE

XavOavTj Ticoi; ^t, xal OTTCO^ aXXou ^P^^vou TOL<; Xoyoic; \rr\ Sixaicoc; auTol
Xuiv ^co[jLv. TCOV [jiv ouv aXXcov T/vo)v ou8[zia TavavTLa cruXXoyi^Tai, y]
SE SiaXXTix7) xal T) pyjTOpixY] [xovai TOUTO TTOIOUCTIV 6[jioia><; yap ELCTIV a[i90TpaL 35
TWV IvaVTLCOV. T(X (JLEVTOl UTCOXtfJLVa TTpayfJUXTa OU^ 6|JLOtCO^ X L
?
^^' <^
xal T<i PEXTICO TTJ ^iaei EuauXXoyiaTOTEpa xal 7rt,6ava)Tpa J><; aT

c. Its possible abuse is no argument against it.

Ib., 1355 a 38 -b 7 :

OCTOTTOV
J

co, Xoycp 8 oux ata^pov 5 [JtaXXov iStov ECTTLV avOpcoTcou TYJC;

TOU
s

^. i 8 OTL fjtyaXa pXa^tv av 6 xpa)(jivo^ aSixox; T^ TOiauTT) 8uva{JLi

Xoycov, TOOTO y xoivov EGTL xaTa TravTWv TCOV ayaOcov 7rXv]v apTYJi;, xal

LCTTa xaTa TCOV /p7)<n(jicoTaTCov, olov ia}(uo^ uyiEtac; TrXouTOU aTpaT7)yta<;

TOUTOK; yap av TK; 6>9X7)ai Ta {jtlyiciTa -/pco(jivo<; Stxatco^ xal

<x8ixco<;.

1
The reference is to Top. I 2, 101 a 28 - 27 IT., where it is said that the subject '

treated in this book (namely, dialectic) is useful for three purposes for intellectual :

training, for causal encounters (vrpcx; Ta<; vTeueu;) and for the philosophical sciences.
 [655] THE RHETORIC

d. Its function is not only to persuade, but to see the possible ways
of persuading people about any given subject.
9 14 Its true

10
Ib.,
> ?
1355 b -
... xat OTt XP'1 <TI
,
:

JL0 ^
I <pavepov, xal
t ,,,,,-
on ou TO Tcetcrat
,,,,
epyov auTYjs, aXXa TO
function

iSetv TOC uTrapxovTa 7ct0ava nepl SxaaTov, xaOdbrep xal ev Tat? <5cXXat<;

7raarat<;' T& uyta Tcotyjaat, dXXa piffli o5 evSlxeTat,

ouSe yap focTpixYJ?
TOUTOU Tcpoayayetv Icra yap xai TOU<; aSuvaTOU^ (zeTaXa^etv uyieia?
6ea7reucrat

656 Rhetoric, then, is defined by Ar. in the following formula.

Rhct. I 2, 1355 b 25- 26 :

"EorT6> 8^) pyjTopixyj Siivafjt^; Trspl IxadTov TOU Geeopvjcrai TO lvSex6(Jtsvov

657 a. There are three modes of persuasion.

Ib '' 3^6
1 JD a 1 - 10 14 - 17 19 - 2 -
Three modes
' '
of
i356a Tcov 8s Sta TOU Xoyou Tcopt^ofjilvwv ^t(JTSO>v Tpia etS?) ecrrfv at (JL^V yap persuasion
staw ev T(o ^6st TOU XyovTO, at 8e Iv TO> TOV axpoarJjv 8ia0etvat TTCO^, al 8k
ev auTcp Tq> Xoyco, Sta TOU Seixviivai 7^ 9a(v<r0at Saxvuvat. 8ta [xev o5v TOU
2Tav Xs^Oyj 6 X6yo<; &aT a^i67cicrTov Troi^cai TOV X^yovTa- TO<; yap

7ri(TTS\lo|jiev [jLaXXov xal OOCTTOV, Tiepi TTOCVTCOV (JLSV aTcXw^, ev ol<; 8e T&

(JiY)
ICTTIV aXXa T& ajJicpiSo^slv, xal TcavTsXcoq. Set 8e xal TOUTO cru(/,-

Patvetv 8ta TOV Xoyov, aXXa (JIYJ

Sta T& 7rpoSeSo^a<r0at Trotov Ttva elvat T&V Xs-

10, i4yovTa. Ata Se TCOV axpoaT6)v 7 oTav el<; ?ra00(; u?r6 TOU Xoyou
ou yap 6pio(ca<; aTroSiSojjisv Ta<; xpiaei<; XuTcoufJievot xal %alpovT<;
xal |jttaouvTe^ 7rp6<; 8 xal (jiovov 7retpaa0at 9a(jtsv Trpay^aTeuecrOat TOU<; vuv
17, 19 Te^voXoyouvTa<;. Ata 8^ T&V X6yo)v TcidTeuoucrtv, ^Tav aX7]0e<; YJ 9atv6(ievov
ex TCOV Tuepl IxaciTa TitOavcov.

These then being the means of effecting persuasion, rhetoric

b. is

necessarily related with dialectic and ethics.

20 - 27 *
Relation of
Ib a
20
,_
JiTiet o
\ co
at 7rtaTei;
/ ?^\i
ota TOUTCOV
etat, 9avepov oTt
/

Tpta ecrTt Xapetv dialectic and

\ \/>\n~
TauTa Ta
rhetoric with

TOU cruXXoy[cracT0at 8uva|xvou xal TOU 0ecop9]aat Tiepl Ta ^01Q xal T<X<; apeTou; thics

xal Tpfaov TOU rcepl Ta 7ca0TQ, Tt TS SxacrTOv eaTt TCOV rcaOcov xal Tiotov TI, xal
ex T(VCOV eyytveTat xal TTCO<;. coerce cru(jLpavet TYJV pvjToptxTjv olov 7capa9u<; Tt
2^
TY)^ 8taXexTtxyj<; elvat xal TTJS Tcepl Ta ^07] TcpayfJtaTsfacs, ?)v 8txat6v ecyTi Tcpocr-

ayopeuetv
 220 RHETORIC AND POETICS [658]

658That rhetoric "proves opposites" (655b), might be illustrated

excellently by the final chapter of this book, from which we cite the fol-
lowing passages.
on combat- a Rfie ^ i I5> i 37 5a2l -b 26 :

defending Ilepl Se TCOV OCTE^VCOV xaXou(Jtlvcov TUQ-TECOV e^ofjtevov Icm TCOV eip7](ievcov
written laws ESiai afrrai TCOV Sixavixcov. ial Se TTEVTE TOV
^tSpajxetv yap apiOjJiov, vojioi

auvQyjxai Paaavoi 6pxo<;. TtpcoTov [lev o5v rapl VOJJLCOV siTccofJiEV, TWOS 25
xal TcpoTplTuovTa xal arcoTpETCovTa xal xaTYjyopouVra xal aTuoXoyou-

JAEVOV. 9avsp6v yap OTI, lav (Jiev evavTiog f) 6 yeypa[JL[JLevo^ TW TCpayfJiaTt, T<O
xoivw v6(JLco XP^STSOV xal TOL<; eTrtstxeartv d>^ StxaiorepoK;. xal 8n TO yva>(JLy]

TYJ apiary] TOUT' eaTL, TO (AY) TiavTeXco^ ^pvjdOai TOL<; yeypafJL(Jievoi<;. xal OTL TO 30

[jtev eTTieixec; ael (Jievsi xal ou8e:roTe [zsTapaXXci, ouS' 6 xoivot; (xaTa cpuffiv yap

laTtv), ol Se yeypa(jL(xevoi TcoXXaxic;- oOev ecpyjTai T<X Iv T^ So9oxXsouc; 'AvTt-

yovT) (dbioXoysLTat yap OTL sOa^e Trapa TOV TOU KpeovTO^; v6(Jiov, aXX* ou Tiapa
TOV aypa9ov) 35

oil
yap TI vuv ye xaxOe?, aXX' aei TTOTE. >375b
1
TaijT ouv eya) oux e(ieXXov avSpo^ ouSevo^.

xal OTI TO Sixaiov eaTiv aX'/]Oe<; TI xal cruf^epov, aXX' ou TO Soxoiiv OXTT' ou

vofjio^ 6 yeypa(jL[jLevoc; ou yap Trotsx TO epyov TO TOU v6[xou. xal OTI cia?rsp 5

apyupoyvcofxtov 6 xpiTT]^ SCTTIV, OTTOX; Xiaxptvv) TO xipSrjXov Sixaiov xal TO

aXyjOe^. xal STL peXTiovo<; avSpo^ TO TO^ aypacpoi^ TJ rolq ysypa(jL(JLvot(; ^P^^at
xal l{JL(jieveiv. xal et TTOU evavTto<; VO[JLCO euSoxi(jiouvTL ?j xal auTO(; auTw olov
EVICTS 6 [xev xeXeusi xupia slvai CCTT' av cuvOcavTai, 6 8' aTcayopeuei, (JLT)
auv- ro
TtOsaOai Tcapa TOV VOJJLOV. xal et a^^tpoXoc;, cidTe arpecpeiv xal opav 9' orcoT^pav

TTjv aycoyijv YJ
TO Sixatov 9appLoai 75
TO au(ji9pov, elja TOUTCO ^p^aOai. xal
i Ta
(jiv 7rpay(jiaTa 9' ol^ TOv) 6 VO(JLO^ (JLTJXETI (JLEVEI, 6 VOJJLO^, 7TtpaTov

TOUTO 87]Xouv xal [iay<rOai TauTT] 7cp6<; TOV v6(jtov. lav SE 6 yeypa[JL[JLvoc; fj 15

Tipo^; TO TTpayjJta, TOTE yvw[JL7j T^ apiaTY) XEXTEOV OTI ou TOU Trapa TOV VOJJLOV

Vxa Sixa^tv EGTIV, aXX' tva, lav ayvovjary) TL Xlyet 6 v6[zo<;, [JLT] iTciopxyj.
xal OTI ou TO aTcXco^ ayaOov alpeiTai ouS^, dXXa TO auT6>. xal OTI ouSev 8ia-

9pi TI (XT]
xLa6at
7] pi7) ^p^aOai.
xal OTI Iv Tai^ aXXai^ T^/va^ ou XuaiTXet 20

7rapaao9t^<T6at, TOV taTpov ou yap TOCTOUTO pXaTUTEi, YJ ajiapTta TOU laTpou

ooov TO lOi^eaOat aTCEiOetv TW SP^OVTI. xal OTI TO TCOV VOJJLCOV ao90)Tpov ^rjTetv

elvai, TOUT* IffTlv o Iv TOCC; l7raivou(Jivoi<; vofiotc; a7cayopeuTai. xal Trepl [liv 25
TCOV voficov OUTCO StcopiorOco.

Arguments b. 17 31
about
Ib., 1376 a -b :
**

witnesses niaTco|JLaTa SE TCEpl fiapTupicov [jLapTUpa<; [JLEV jr/) E^OVTI, STL ex TCOV efoc6TOV
Set xptvEiv xal TOUT* ecm TO yvcofAY] T^ apfcrTY], xal OTt oux SCTTIV
 [658] THE RHETORIC 221

20T<x eix6ra ercl dcpyuplco, xal #Tt oux aXtcrxeTat TOC

IXOVTI Si 7rp6<; jr}) Sx VTa ^ Tl fyc fos68txa TOC etx6Ta, xal 8rt ouSiv ocv

fjwcpTUptcov, ex TCOV X6ycov txavov y^v 0ecopyjerat. etal 8i al fjiapTUptat at (/.iv

et

Tcepl auTou at 8k rcepl TOU a^tapvjTOuvTos, xat at [iiv Ttepl TOU 7rpdy[xaTO<; at Si

25 Ttspl TOU ^0ou, <&<jTe 9avepov

st (XT) Y^P
xa TOU 7upay(JiaTO<; ig auT<j> 6(JioXoYou(Jiv7)<; r) T<j>

svavTta<;, aXXa rcspi TOU ^6ou<; yj

auTou &$ STrtstxetav ^ TOU d|ji9tcrp7]TouvTO<; eEc;

30 9auX6T7)Ta. Ta &' SXXa Tuepi [xapTupoc; ^ 9&ou yj sx^P ^ ^ M-eTa^u, y) suSoxtfjiouvTot;

y) dSo^ouvTOc; y^ jisTa^u, xai fidat ocXXat TotauTat 8ta<popa, Ix TCOV auTcov XexTeov
! otcovTCSp xal TOC ev0u(jLy)jxaTa Xyo^sv.

Ilepl 8i TO>V auvGyjxcov TOcrauTy) TOU Xoyou XP^k <TTtv 8<jov au^etv xaOatpetv On contracts
y^

Tcoietv y) a7rtCFTOu<;, eav (JL^V auT<o U7rapx<o<jt, 7CtaTa<; xat xupta<;, STCt Si
TOU afjKptdjiyjTOuvTOi:; ToOvavTtov. 7rp6(; (jtsv o5v TO TttoTa^ y) aTctaTou^ xaTaaxsua^stv
ouS^v Sta9lpet Tyj^ rcepl TOU<; (JtapTupa<; TcpayfjiaTeCai; orcotot yap <$tv Ttvsc; &<rtv ot

5 sTTtysypafjLfJLevot yj 9uXaTTOVTS^ To6TOt<; at auvOyjxat TrtcTTat stotv. 6[jtoXoyou(jtvy]^

8* elvat Tyj<; auvQyjxy)^, otxeta<; (Jtlv o5ay)<; au^yjT^ov y) yap <ruv0y]xy) VOJJLO? IdTlv

?8to^ xal xaTa {ilpo^, xal at (iv cruv6y]xat ou Trotouat TOV v6(iov xuptov, ot Si v6[iot

ioTa<; xaTa TOV vopiov auv6yjxa<;. xal SXcoc; auT^ 6 v6[xo^ auvOyjxy) TI? |(JT(V, &OTS
8cTTt<; dbudTet y) dvatpet duvOyjxyjv, TOUC; vojxouc; dvatpet. Sri 8e TcpaTTSTat Ta TroXXa
TCOV (TUvaXXayfjtaTcov xal Ta exouata xaTa <ruv0y)xa<; ? coaTe axupcov ytyvofilvcov
dcvatpetTat yj 7rp6(; aXXy)Xou^ XP a TC^ V ^
dvOpcoTrcov. xal TdcXXa 8i 8aa apfx6TTt,
15 eTttTtoXyjt; tSetv SaTtv. av S* evavTta $ xal (JLSTOC TCOV a^tapyjTOuvTCov, TrpcoTOv {jt^v,

&7usp &v Ti 7up6<; v6[Jiov evavTtov (jtaxeciatTo, TauO* dp(Ji6TTSt &TOTCOV yap el TOU;

pLev v6(jiot<;, av fxy] 6p0co^ xst[/,evot cbatv dXX* ea(jiapTCoatv otTt0[jLsvot, oux oE6{Jie0a
Setv TretOecrOat, Tatc; Si auv0y)xat(; dvayxatov. et0* 8rt TOU Stxatou saTl |3pa-

2opeuTyj<; 6 StxacrTy)^' oSxouv TOUTO axeTiTeov, aXX* co^ Stxat6Tepov. xal T& [Jtiv

Stxatov oux 2cm

(xeTaaTpe^at o5T* aTcdcTy) O^T' dvdyxT) (7ce9ux6^ yap eaTtv),
<ruv0y)xat Si ytyvovTat xal e^a7caTy]0evTcov xal dvayxaaOsvTCov. 7rp6<; Si TO\iTOt<;
axoTretv et evavT^a eciTt Ttvt yj TCOV yeypafjtf/ivcov vojjtcov yj TCOV xotvcov, xal TCOV

25 yeypapifjtlvcov y) T0t<; olxetot? y^ Tot? dXXoTptott;, IrcetTa et <5cXXat(; auv0TQxat<;

6cTTepat<; y} TupoT^pat*;* y) yap at utrrepat xiiptat, fixupot S* at ?rp6Tepat, yj

at

7tp6Tepat 6p0at, at S* uaTepat yjTcaTTQxaatv, orcoT^pco^ a*v f) xp^cr^^' STI Si vb

opav, et TC-JQ
evavTtouTat TOt^ xptTat<;, xal 8aa &X>va TotauTa *
xal yap

e60ecopy)Ta

659 Since persuasion is also concerned with the state of mind of the
hearers, practical psychology has part in rhetoric. In book II, ch. 2-11,its

AT. treats the various emotions, in ch. 12-14 the various types of human
character in different ages.
 222 RHETORIC AND POETICS [659]

The young a Th e young man's character. Rhet. II 12, 1389 a 2-b 12 .

01 (JtEV
o3v v*ot TOC Y^Y] eto~lv e7it0u[jtY]Ttxo, xat olot Troteiv <ov av e
xal TCOV TTEpt TO aa)(jta ETitOufjitcov [jtaXtaTa dxoXouOYjTtxot stat Talc; Trepl TOC

OKppoStata, xal axpaTeu; TauTYjc;. eu(jteTa(3oXot SE xal a^txopot Tcpoc; TOCC; 7rt0i>- 5
xal o~9o8pa [AEV EiuOu[Jiouat, Ta^ewc; 8e TiauovTat 6eiat yap at pouXYjaeic;
[Jtta<;,

xal ou (JieyaXat, eoarcep al T&V xajivovTCOv St^at xal Trstvat. xal Ou(Jitxol xal

6^u0u(jioL xal oloi axoXouOstv Tyj opptyj. xal ^TTOUC; eial Toi5 6u[jLoo Sta yap 10

9iXoTt(Jitav oux av^/ovTat oXtycopoiipLevoi, aXX' ayavaxTouatv, av

i. xal 9LX6Ti(JLOt [Jiev etat, [xaXXov 8e 9iXovixoi uTrepo^vjc; yap
^, T)
Se VIXYJ uTcepo/v) TI^. xal $1x900 TauTa (JiaXXov YJ

9iXo/pY](jLaTOL Se Y)xi<TTa Sia TO (JLYJTTCO evSsiac; TrerceipadOai, ciorTrep TO IltTTaxoii 15

l
l^ei a7ro90sy(xa etc; 'Afj^idtpaov . xal oii xaxo7)0eic; aXX* euTjOstc; Sta TO (JLTJTICO

TsOscopTjxsvat TCoXXac; Tuovrjptac;. xal SUTTICTTOI Sta TO (XTJTTCO TuoXXa !c;y)7T;aTYJa6ai.

xal eueXTUtSec; coaTcep yap ot otvcojjtevot, OUTCO 8ta6ep(jtot etatv ol vot 6:u6 TYJC;

9iiaecoc; ajxa Se xal &ta TO (JLTQTTCO

TcoXXa aTroTeTu^vjxevat. xal cofft Ta TrXetcrTa 20
eXTuSf Y) [jLev yap sXrclc; TOU (jieXXovTOc; eaTtv Y)
Si:
{JLVYJJJLT)
TOU Trapot^ofievou,
TOIC; Se veotc; TO (Jiev [JieXXov TroXuTO Se TrapeXyjXuOoc; Ppa^u TYJ yap TipcoTYj *

yjfxepa fjLSfjiv^aOat [Jtev

ouSev otovTat, eXTit^etv Ss TravTa. xal euei;a7raTYjTOt etat25
Sta TO etpy](jLevov eXTrf^ouat yap paStwc;. xal avSpstOTepot OujJitoSetc; yap xal
eueXTrtSec;, 5>v fjiev [XYJ
TO 9opeta6ai TO 8e Oappetv
OUTS yap 6pyt6(Jievo<; vrotel

ouSelc; 9opetTat, TO TE eXTrt^etv dya66v TI OappaXeov eciTtv. xal ata/uvTYjXot

ou yap TTCO xaXa eTepa uTcoXafjLpavouatv, aXXa TieTcatSeuvTat UTCO TOU v6(iou 30

[jtovov. xal [xeyaXo^u^ot OUTE yap UTTO TOU ^tou TCOJ TETaTietvovTat, aXXa
TCOV avayxatcov (SrcEtpot etartv, xal TO a^touv auTOv [jteyaXcov {JLeyaXo^u^ta TOUTO
S' suEXTTtSoc;. xal [zaXXov aipoijvTat TrpaTTEtv Ta xaXa TCOV ai)[X9p6vTG)v
TW yap 7)6et J^coort [JtaXXov r)
TW Xoyto~[juo, SoTt S* 6 (Jtv Xoyiajjioc; TOU oi)(Jt9e- 35

povTOc; Y)
8e apeTY] TOU xaXou. xal 9tXo9tXot xal 9tX^Tatpot (xaXXov TOJV aXXcov

YjXtxtcov Sta TO ^atpEtv TCO <yu^9]v xal (jtYjTuco Trpoc; TO au(X9pov xptvtv (jtYjSlv,
ciaTE [jtYjSE
xal oforavTa
TOUC; 9tXouc;. ?rl TO (jiaXXov xal a9o8pOTpov ajxapTa-
vouat Trapa TO XtXcovEtov 2 T^avTa yap ayav TrpaTTOuatv 9tXouat T yap ayav
xal [jLtaoucrtv ayav xal T&XXa TravTa 6[JLotwc;. xal etSe'vat TravTa otovTat xal 5

Stta^upt^ovTat TOUTO yap atTtov GTt xal TOU rcavTa $yav. xal TOC aStxY)(JiaTa

aStxouotv u^ptv xal ou xaxoupytav. xal eXs7]Tixol Sta TO TravTac; /pYjaTOuc; xal
etc;

u7roXa(Ji[3avtv Tyj yap ainr&v axaxta TOUC; TCEXac; [jieTpouatv, caaT* avac;ta 10

uTToXajJipavoucrtv auTouc;. xal 9tXoyXo)Tc;, Sto xal euTpaTusXot YJ yap

euTpaTCEXta 7i7ratSeu|Jt^vY) u^ptc; CTTtv. TO (Jtv oOv TCOV vscov TOtouTOv saTtv
......~~

1
The word of Pittacus is unknown to us.
dtyxv.
 [659] THE RHETORIC 223

b. The character of elderly men. Rhet. II 13, 1389 b 13-i3go a28 :

Elderly

Ot 8e TipeapuTepot xal 7wtpY)X(Jiax6Te axeSiv ex TCOV IvavT^cov TouTot<; Ta

15 TcXetcrra S^ouaiv Y]0Y) 8ta yap TO rcoXXa Inrj peptcoxe'vat xal TrXetco e!;Y)7caTY)tT6ai
xal YftJuxpTYjxe'vat, xal ra TtXelco ^auXa elvat TCOV rcpayptaTCov, OUTS Stapspatouv-
rat ouSv, ?JTT6v TS <Syav #7ravTa Y) Set. xal otovTat, foaat S* ouSv. xal a[JL9ta|3iQ-

TouvTes 7tpocra0aatv del TO tcrco? xal Taxa, xal TravTa Xyou<rtv OUTCO,
208* ouSv. xal xaxoiqOet*; etatv (m y^p xaxorjOeta TO e-rcl TO xe^P v urco
vsiv TiavTa. ITI S^ xaxtiTuoTCToc eccrt Sta TYJV amcrTtav, <K:rtarTot S4 &' l(z:retptav.
xal OUTS 9iXoucrt a^&pa o(5TS piiaouai Sta TauTa, dtXXa xaTa TTJV BtavTo^ UTTO-

Oyjxvjv xal ^iXouaiv cb(; [jiicry)<JovTe<; xal fuaouaiv d><; 9iXY)aovTe<;. xal {jLtxp6^uxoi

25 Sia T6 TSTarceivoiaGat U7t6 TOU plou ouSevo^ yap jxeyaXoi) ouS^ TrepiTTou, aXXa
TCOV ?tp6<; T^V J3ov ETciGufjiouo'tv. xal dvsXstiOspot svyap TC TOW avayxacov YJ
ouata, apia S xal Sta r?]v IfjLTueipEav tcraaiv &<; xa^ 7rov T ^ xr/jcraaOat xal
pciov TO aTropaXstv. xal SetXol xal TravTa 7cpo9opy)Tixo[' IvavTLtoc; yap
30 SiaxswTai TOLC; v^oi?' xaTS^uyfJtivot yap slatv, ot 8s 9ep[jLoi. &aTe irpo-

coSoTcoCvjxs TO yvjpa<; T^ SeiXfa- xal yap 6 96^0^ xaTa^/u^(^ TIC; <IT(V. xal

91X6^0)01, xal jjiaXtcjTa ini Tyj TsXeuTaia yjptepa 8ia TO TOU OCTTOVTO^ elvat

T7)v 7i:t6u(jLav, xal o5 8^ IvSeet^, TOiiTou (jtaXurra erciOufxecv. xal 9tXauTOi

35 (AaXXov TQ
Set fjiixpo^uxta yap TI? xal auryj. xal 7rp6<; TO au[X9pov
dcXX* ou Ti xaXov, jxaXXov ^ Sei, Sia TO 9^XauTOt elvai T6
7rp6<;

oaauTq> aya66v earTt, TO Se xaXov a^Xco<;. xal avaio^uvToi [xaXXov

Sia yap TO [jfJ] 9povT^etv 6(JLotco^ TOO xaXou xal TOU <yu(i9^povTO<; oXtycopouai
TOU Soxetv. xal SixrlXTTtSec; Sta r?]v efZTretpiav T<X yap TrXetco TCOV ytyvo^vcov
5 9auXa SCJTIV dcTcopatvei youv Ta TtoXXa eTilTO x s^P ov xa ^ &n Sta TYJV SetXiav.
"

xal to<Ti TYJ |xvY)[xy) [jiaXXov ^ Tyj IXTcCSii TOO yap pfou TO [JLSV XOCTCOV 6X(yov T^
8e 7rapeXY]Xu06c; rcoXu, eVn, 8e YJ [jiev eXTcl<; TOU jxeXXovTO<; YJ Se (XVYJ[JIY) TCOV Tuapoi-
10 xofJt^vcov. fijuep atriov xal TYJ<; dSoXeax^ auToi^. StaTeXoucn yap Ta yevojxeva

XlyovTe^ dva{JU[JivY)arx6[jLevoi yap YjSovTai. xal ol Oufjtol o^et^ |JLV etat-v ao0evet<;
Se, xal at e7ci6o(Jtlat al [Jiev exXeXotTtacnv at Se aa0evei<; eUrfv, coaTe O^T* I7rt6u-

[jLYjTtxol o(>Te irpaxTixol xaTa Ta? l7rt0u[jL(a;, aXXa xaTa TO xepSoc;. Sto xal

15 crco9povtxol 9aCvovTai ot TYjXtxouTOf at Te yap eirtOufitat avefocaai, xal SouXei-

oucrt TCO xe"pSet. xal (xaXXov ^cocrt xaTa XoytcrfjLov Y) xaTa TO r]6o^* 6 (Jiev yap

Xoyta^6<; TOU <TOfji9epovTo<; TO S' ^60? TYJ<; xal TaStXYjfJiaTa aStxouatv

dpeTYJ<; eaTtv.

el< xaxoupytav, oux etc; fipptv. eXeYjTtxot 8s xal ot yepovTe<; etatv, aXX* oti Sta
20TauTo Tots vlot<;- ot jjiev yap Sta 9tXav0pcomav, ot Se St' a<T0vetav TcavTa
yap otovTat ^yyu<; elvat auTotq TcaOetv, TOUTO 86ev oSupTtxot S* Y)V eXeY]Ttx6v.

eart, xal oux euTparceXot ouSe 9tXoyeXotot evavTtav yap T6 68upTtx6v

t
9tXoyXtoTt. TCOV {jiev o5v v^cov xal TCOV TcpeapuTepcov T<X Yj0Yj TotauTa-
TOU<; TCP a9eTpco 7)6et Xeyo[jtevou<; X6you^ xal
 224 RHETORIC AND POETICS [659]

?, oux o*8Y)Xov 7tco<; XP^I^ 01 T0 ^ XoyoL^ TOIOUTOL 9avouvTat xal auTol

xal ol Xoyoi.

Men in
c jh e character of men in their prime. II 14. i^qoa29-b 13
their
r :

prime , , , , ,
UL OE axfjiac^ovTEc; 9avspov OTL (jLETa^u TOUTCOV TO YJUO<; saovTai, ExaTEpcov
TYJV uTtsppoXYjv, xal OUTE o~9o8pa 6appouvT<; (OpaauTY)<; yap T& 30
TOIOUTOV) OUTE Xav 9o(JoufjLvoL, xaXco<; SE Tupo^ a(jL9co E'XOVTE<;, OUTE Team
7CLdTuovT<; OUTE ^aaLV dcTTLaTOuvTEc;, aXXa xaTa TO aXYjOs^ xpLvovTE^ [JiaXXov. xal
OUTE 7cp6(; TO xaXov ^COVTE<; (JLOVOV OUTE 7rpo<; TO au[jL9pov, aXXa Trpoc; afx^co.

xal OUTE 7rp6<; 9LSco OUTE 7rpo<; aacoTLav, aXXa 7rp6<; TO apfJLOTTov. O(JLO[COC; SE xal 1390!)
xal 7rp6<; 7TL6u|jLLav. xal aco9povs<; JJLET' avSpsLac; xal avSpEtoL (JLETOC

. EV yap TOI^ vsoLg xal TOL<; yspoucri StfjpYjTai TauTa- Eial yap ol

JJLEV VEOL avSpELOL xal ax6Xa<TTOL, OL SE TupsapuTEpOL aco9pov^ xal SsLXoL co<; 8s 5
Xa06XoU ELTTELV, OCTa (JLEV SLY]pY]TaL Y] VOTY](; Xal TO y^pac; TCOV C09Xl(JLCOV, TaUTa
a(JL9Co EXOUCTIV, oaa 8* uTrsppaXXouaLv YJ EXXELTCOUGL, TOUTCOV TO (JLETPLOV xal TO

ap(jLOTTov. ax(jLa^L SE TO (JLEV dco(JLa OCTTO TCOV TpLaxovTa ETCOV (JLEXPL TCOV TTEVTE 10

xal TpLaxovTa, YJ
SE ^UXY] Tuspl Ta EVO<; SE tv 7usvTY]xovTa. ?rpl (JLEV
oOv v6TY)TO^
xal yYjpcoc; xal OCXJJL^, TUOLCOV Y]6cov ExacrTov EGTLV, EtpYjcOco ToaauTa.

2 _POETICS
660 The different kinds of poetry defined as various modes of imita-
tion.

General p oet I ^' a 13 - 1 8

1447 :

definition
of poetry 'ETTOTioLLa SYJ xal Y] T^ TpaycpSia^ 7roLY)<H<;, ETL SE x(o(JicoSLa xal 8L0upa(jLpo- i447
a
Y]

TTOLYjTLXY) xal auXY)TLXYJ

TY]<; Y] TrXsLdTY] xal
TuyxavouaLv 15 XL0apLcrTLXY]c;, TiaciaL
ouaai (JLL(JLY]<TL<;
TO auvoXov. Sia9poucrt SE aXXY]Xcov Tpicnv Y) yap TCO ysvEi
TpOL<; (JLL(JLELffOaL, Y] TCO ETEpa, Y^ TCO ETEpCO^ Xal (JLY]
TOV aUTOV TpOTTOV.

661 a. The means of imitation. Ib., 1447 a 18 -b 20 ,

b 23 - 29 :

Means of
"i}a7rp yap xal y$&[L<x.Gi xal axY)(JLaoL TroXXa (jLL(JLOuvTai TLVE<;
ol (JLEV Sia TEXVY)^ ol SE SLO: auvYjOELag, ETEpOL 8s SLOC TY^<; 9COVY]<;, OUTCO xav 20

EipyjfjLEvaLc; TE^vaL^ a?raaaL JJLEV TroLouvTaL TTJV (jLtfjiyjaLv

EV puOfico xal
s

Xoyco xal apjjtovt'a, TOUTOL<; 8 X ?^ ^s^LypLEvoL^, olov apfxovta (IEV xal

>]
00 *)

xpco(jLvai (JLOVOV r\
TE auXY]TLX7) xal Y) xL0apL(7TLX'/), xav EL TLVEC; ?Tpat
ouaai TOiauTai TYJV SuvapLLv, olov YJ
TCOV aupiyycov. auTco SE TCO 25

puO|JLCp [jLifjiouvTai X W P^ ap(xovLa<; ol TCOV OPXYJCTTCOV xal yap OIJTOI Sia

TCOV axY)(JLaTL^o[JLvcov puOfAcov (jLtfjiouvTai xal TjOrj xal TwtOy) xal Trpa^st^. fj^
SE ETroTcoiLa [JLOVOV TOIC; Xoyot(; ^LXoL(; YJ TOL? [JLTpoL<;, xal TOUTOL^ SITE [xiyvucra

(AST* aXXifjXcov, EtO* sv[ TLVi ysvEL xp<>^Y] TCOV (JL^Tpcov Tuy/avouoa (JL^xpt ^o3 i447 b
 [66i] POETICS 225

lovuv. ouS&v yap av E/OIJJIEV ovofxaaai xoivov TOU<; Sa>9povo xal Sevapxou

[Li[LQ\><; xal TOU<; ScoxpaTtxouc; Xoyou<; ouSs si' TIC Sta TptfiETpcov 7) eXeyeicov7

7^
TCOV aXXcov TIVCOV TCOV TOIOUTCOV TTOLOLTO TTJV (jujjiTjcriv rcX7]v ol avOpcoTroi ys
auva7TTovT<; TCO |jiTpco TO TCOIELV eXeysiO7toi,oi><; TOIK; Se ETTOTCOIOIK; 6vo(Jiaoucriv,

15 ou^ co<; TOUC; xaTa (jufjnqcnv 7uoi7)Ta<; aXXa xoivyj xaTa TO (JteTpov TrpoaayopeiiovTsc;.
xal yap av taTpixov 75 ^uatxov J TL Sta TG>V {ASTpcov X9epcoCTiv, OUTCO xaXetv
eicoOaaiv. ouSsv 8e xoivov ECTTIV *0(JL7)pq) xal 'EpiTceSoxXeZ TrXvjv TO (jLCTpov
8t6 TOV {jiev TTOLYJTYJV Sixaiov xaXstv, TOV Se 9i)<rioX6yov jxaXXov ^ TCOIYJTYJV.

23 Ilepl (Jiev
ouv TOUTCOV StcopiaOo) TOUTOV TOV Tporcov. etcrl Ss TLVS^ at Tcacji ^pcovTai

Xeyco &e olov puO^xco xal (Ji^Xet xal (xsTpco, caaTuep >] TS TCOV
7uot7]cn,c; xal y]
TCOV vofjicov xal T]
TS TpaycoSta xal T\ xcofjicpSta'

8e, OTL ai {lev ajjta Traaiv at 8e xaTa [jiepo^. TaiiTa^ [xev ouv Xeyco
TCOV TE^VCOV, Iv ol<; rcoioijVTai TY]V

1 - 14 16 - 19
b. The objects represented. Ib., 2, 1448 a ,
: objects

i448a 'Eirel Se {JLt,(JiouvTaL ol (jLifJtoufJLCvoi TcpaTTOVTa^, avayxY) Se TOUTOU<; 7] CTrou&aioix;

7^ 9aiiXou<; elvai vjOy) a/eSov ael TOUTOK; axoXoi>6s

(TOC yap (JLOVOI^- xaxia

yap xal apeTyj Ta 7)07) Sia9pou<ri TTOCVTSC; ), T^TOI peXTtova<; 7^

xa6' e v
Tjpiac; 7] x ^po oc<;

5 7^ xal TOIOUTOIK;, coaTrep ol ypa9i<; IloXuyvamx; (JLEV yap xpeiTTou^, Flauacov

8e xe ^P ol> ^? At,ovuCTio<; 8e 6[xoou<; ei'xa^ev. S^Xov Se OTI xal TCOV

exacrTT] (jLt(jL7)CCov iEpi TauTa^ Ta<; 8ia90pa^, xal eaTat Tpa TCO
TOUTOV TOV TpoTrov. xal yap ev op^Tjcrei xal auXTjarci xal xiOapiaeL ^CTTL yeveaOat
to TauTac; TOCC; avo(JLoioT7)Tac;, xal Trepl TOI>^ Xoyoix; 8e xal TTJV ^tXo(jLTpiav, olov

"OfjiTjpoc; fjiev PEXTIOUC;, KX09cov SE OJJLOLOUC;, 'HyTjfxcov SE 6 Oacrux; <6> TOCC;

E
4 l6 7rap6iSLac; TuoiTjaac; 7upcoTO<; . . .
/ELpouc;. 'Ev SE Tyj auTyj 8ia90pa xal 7)

TpaycoSta ?rp6<; TT]V xcofjioiSiav SLEGTTJXEV TJ JJLEV yap xs tpouc; 7]

SE PEXTLOU^;

fjLi(XtC70at pouXETai TCOV vuv.

c. The manner in which each kind of object is represented.

Poet. ^ 1448 a 19 - 25
!
Manner of
representa-
"ETt SE TOUTCOV TptTT) Sta9opa TO co^ ExaaTa TOUTCOV (jufjnfjcraLTO 5v Tt<;. tion
20 xal 2
yap Iv TOL<; auTOLc; xal Ta auTa (jLi(JLL<r6ai ECTTIV OTE [JLEV aTcayylXXovTa
f/

7) ETEpOV
Tl yiyVOfJLEVOV, COdTTEp 0(JL7)pO<; 7TOLEI, 7^ C0<; TOV aUTOV
Xal (JIT) (JLE-

TapdXXovTa, 7) 7uavTa<; co^ TupaTTOVTat; xal svpyouvTa<; TOU<; (jLi(Jiou[JLvou<;.

sv Tpiol ST) TauTaic; 8ia90pat(; T] {iijJLTjaic; scmv,co<; ELTCOIJLEV xaT* apxac;, EV ol<;

25 TS xal a xal co<;.

1
An almost certain correction of Heinsius, adopted by newer editors (By-
water, Hardy). The Ms A (Bekker's Ac ) has jxouaix6v.
by the same means.
2 -
Iv -rot? auTot?

De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 15

 226 RHETORIC AND POETICS [662]

Origin of ^2 a -j^e origin of poetry in general and why men take a delight
general in *t.

Poet. 4, 1448 b 4- 15 :

'EoixacjL 8e yW7Jo-ai [JLEV Suo TIV<;, xal auTai 1448!*

oXco<; TYJV TTOITJTIXTJV aiTiai

9UcnxaL TO TE yap (Jii(jLta6ai au^uTov TOI<; avOpco7roi<; ex TratScov ECTTI, xal 5

TOUTCO Sia9epouori TCOV aXXcov ^axov OTI {jLi(jL7]Ttxa)TaT6v ecrTt, xal TOC<;
Sia (Jii(ji7)o~co^ T<X<; TipcoTa^, xal TO ^atpiv TOL^ [ju(jL7)[j.a<7i
TOUTOU TO aufjLpatvov 7rl TCOV Ipycov a yap auTa Xu7U7)pco<; opcofzev, 10

T [JLOp9a^ TCOV cmfjiOTaTcov xal vxpcov. atTtov Se xal TOOTO, OTI (JiavOavetv
s
ou (jiovov TO^ 91X00^690^ TJ^ICTTOV aXXa xal TOU; aXXot^; 6(Jioico<; aXX ini Ppa/u
tUTOU. 15

origin of 9 - 29
ft The origin of tragedy.J ^^^ a
Ib., 1440 :

tragedy ? , ^ , , N ,
,

l
, , x
ouv arc ap^7j<; auToa^oLadTtXT]^
'

(Y.OLI auTT] xat,

xal 7] (JLV a7i6 TCOV e^ap^ovTcov TOV St,0upa(xpov, 7]
Se OCTTO TCOV TOC 9aXXixa,

a ITI xal vuv ev TuoXXat^ TCOV TroXecov 8ia[XVi vo[jLi^6(jLva), xaTa (Jiixpov

TrpoayovTcov OCTOV eyiyveTO 9avpov auTvjc;, xal TuoXXac; (JLETa^oXac;

T) TpaycoSia TcauaaTo, eruel ea^E TTJV auTTj^ 9ucnv. xal TO T TCOV u7uoxpiT6>v 15

xal TOV Xoyov irpcoTaycoviaT^v icapeaxeiaaev Tpu; Se xal ax7)voypa9iav

So9oxX'?^. Ti 8e TO (jiey&Oo^ ex puxpcov [Jiu6cov xal Xe^ecoc; yeXoiac;, Sta TO ex

aaTUpixou [xeTapaXsLv, 6^e a7reae|jivuv07], TO T (JieTpov ex TTpa(jiTpou ia{JLpelov 20

eyeveTO TO usv yap 7rp<oTov TeTpa|JLTpco ^pc7jvTO Sia TO aaTUpixTjv xal 6f

2
xcoTEpav eLvai T-/JV iioL7]at,v, Xe^co^ Se yevofiev/j? auTT] 7] 9uai<; TO OIXELOV |

upv (jLaXiGTa yap XEXTLXOV TG>V (jLETpcov TO lafji^ELov eaTtv. (77j(JieLov

Se TOUTOU 25
yap ia|i,peta XeyofjLev ev TT) SiaXexTO) T^ Trpo^ aXX7)Xou^ 7 e^a(JLTpa Se

xal Ta aXXa co^ exaaTa xoo*[jL7)0^vai XeyeTai.

32 - 37
Comedy 663 a. Comedy. Poet. 5, 1449 a :

'H SE xcofJicoSta cmv, coa7Cp ei7io[xev, \ii\iriGic, 9auXoTpcov |iev, ou

xaTcx Tiacav xaxiav, aXXa TOU aia/pou eaTi TO yeXoiov [jtopiov. TO yap yeXotov
<mv xal ala/o^; avcoSuvov xal ou 96apTixov, olov
a(jLapTT^[jLa TI uOu<; TO yEXoiov 35

vrpoacoTuov ata/pov TI xal 8ieo-Tpa(JL|JLvov aveu 6Suv7)(;.

1
"It certainly began in improvisations" (Bywater).
2
"As soon as a spoken part came in" (Bywater).
 [663] POETICS 227

9 - 20
b. Epic poetry. Ib., 1449 b :
Epic poetry
*
J449b 'H
(jtev
o5v ETCOTUoua
173 TpaycoSta (Ae/pt (*ev TOO <8ia> (jLerpou (jieyaXou (JiifZY]Gri<;

loelvai <T7cou8ai6)v 7)xoXo\i0Y)crev TW Se TO (Ji^Tpov aTiXouv S/etv xal aTuayyeXiav

elvai, TauTfl Stacpepouaiv. STL Se TCO JJLTJXSL- TJ [jiev yap ST& [JiaXiaTa raipaTai
OTTO fjtiav TreptoSov yjXiou elvai 73 fjuxpov laXXaTTiv, T)
Se eTTOTroiia a6ptcjTo<; TCO

T5^p6v(p, xal TOUTCO Sta9epet. xahroi TO TrpwTov OJAOLCOC; ev Tat^ TpaycoSiau;

TOUTO ETCOtOUV Xal V TOL^ ETUeCLV. (JLEpT)
8' eGTl T<X (JLSV TaUTOC, Ta 8e ESlOC T^^

TpaytoStac;. SiOTrep OCTTI^ Tiepl TpaywSta<; olSe crTrouSata^ xal 9auX7]<;, olSe xal

Trspl STUCOV a fjtev yap STroTroua fc'x

81 ? ^Trap^ei T^ TpaycoSia, a 8e auTT), oii TravTa
20 V Tyj ETTOTCOlta.

664 a. The famous definition of tragedy. Poet. 6, 1449 b 24 - 31 :

Definition

"Ecruv ouv TpaywSta fjLt(jL7)atc; Trpa^ecoc; a7uou8aia<; xal

25 e/ou<T7)c;, -/iSuafjievco Xoyo), X^P^ exaciTOU T&V elScav ev TOLC; [jLopioi<;, SpcovTtov
xal ou St* aTTayyeXiat;, 8t* sXeou xal 96pou Trepatvouaa TYJV TCOV TOLOUTCOV

7ca07)[jLaT(ov xaOapatv.
Aeyco 8e 7]8u<T(JLevov [JLEV Xoyov TOV ex VTa P^^fAov xal apfjioviav xal [AeXos,

30 TO 8e x^pU T ^ etSeai TO Sta (jLSTpcov e'via (xovov TcepaiveaOai xal TuaXiv eTspa
Sta
There has been much discussion on the meaning of the xaOapm<; TCOV
spoken of in this definition. The best interpretation has been given by V. W. Trench,
The place of xdtOapaiq in Aristotle's aesthetics, in Hermathena, Dublin 1938, p. 110-134.
He argues that, in Aristotle's view, the TOxOyjfjuxToc are not as such bad and abnormal,
but should be ordered and brought to serenity, which is accomplished through
melody, rhythm, art-form. Like Pythagoras and Plato before him, Ar. believed
in the influence of music and rhythm on the emotions.
This paper seems not to have been known to Fr. Dirlmeier, who, in Hermes 1940,
again to prove that the genetive TuaOY)(AaT6>v is
p. 81-92, KaOocpaic; TraOr^jtaTCov, tries
a separatwus.
Further recent literature on the subject:
M. Kommerell, Lesting und Anstoteles (Frankfurter wissenschaftl. Beitrage.
Kulturwiss. R. 2) Frankfurt a.M. 1940.
A. Tumarkin, Die Kunsttheorie von Aristoteles im Rahmen seiner Philosophie, in
Museum Helveticum 1945, P- 108-122.
For editions and further litterature, see Bibliography p. 302 and 303.

b. Of the formative elements of the first essential. Formative

traedy"action
J* is
elements:
Ib., 1450 a
10 - 25
a38 -b 20
,
: i. action

i45oa
C
H yap TpaycoSia [JL[JLY)CTL^
ECTTIV oux avOpa>7ccov aXXa Trpa^sax; xal (3iou xal

euSaifJioviac; <xal xaxoSaifzoviac; Y]

Se eu8ai(jiovLa> xal Y] xaxoSaLjiovia ev

SCTTI, xal TO TeXo<; Tcpa^t^ TK; ICJTIV, oi TTOIOTY)^. elai Se xara (JLEV Ta

1
Text of Bywatcr. The codex A has ^XP 1 M-6vou (x^Tpou jxeyaXou, B
X6you. Other editors read:
(ji6vou fz^Tpoi) (JtgTa
 228 RHETORIC AND POETICS [664]

Yj0yj TTOIOI Tives, xaTa Se T<X<; 7upiei$ eu8ai(JLOve^ Y)

TouvavTiov. ouxouv OTUCO<; 20
Ta YJ0YJ (jLi(jLYjacovTai TupaTTOUciiv, aXXa Ta Yj0Yj au(jL7ipiXa(jLpavouc7i, Sia TOC^
COCTTS TOC TcpayjJLaTa xal 6 [jLuOo<; TsXo<; TYJ<; TpaycoSia*;' TO 8k TXo<;
aTravTcov. Tt avsu (JLEV 7rpai;co<; oux av ylvoiTO TpaycoSfoc, avsu 8k 24, 25

YjOcov ysvoiT* av.

2. Other o5v xal olov Ta
'Ap^Yj (JLEV ^ U X^1 & (AuOoc; TYJ<; TpaycoSia<;, SeuTepov 8k YjOyj. 38
1

yap ECTTL xal em ^c, ypa9ixYj<;' EL yap TK; svaXsi^EiE TOI<; xaXXi-
xal Xuxoypa9Yjaa<; slxova.
TE
[JLtfjLYjatc; 7rpa^co<;,
xal Sta TauTYjv (xaXicTTa TCOV TipaTTOVTCov. TpiTov
Se YJ Stavota. TOUTO 8' ecm TO Xeyeiv SuvaoOai Ta evovTa xal Ta apfAOTTovTa, 5
1
oTTEp ini TCOV Xoycov TYJ TcoXiTtXYj^ xal pYjTOptxY]<; epyov Icmv ol (isv yap

apxatot, TcoXiTtxcoc; eTrotouv XeyovTac;, ol 8e vuv pYjTopixcoc;. ECTTI 8e 3j0o<; [isv

TO TOIOUTOV SYJXOL TYJV TCpOaipEClV OTTOta Tl^, V 01^ OUX ECTTl, S^AOV 7]

9uyet (StoTTEp oux E^ouatv 9j0o<; TCOV Xoycov EV ol^ oXcoc; 10

Y) (jLYjS*

o TL TupoatpELTai YJ 9uyst 6 XEycov). Siavota 8s, sv ol<; aTroSsixviiouai TL

COC; ECTTIV Y) 0><; OUX EC7TIV, YJ

Xa06XoU Tl a7T09atVOVTai. TETapTOV SE TCOV V
2
Xoyco YJ Xe^ic; Xeyco Se, coaTrep TrpoTepov el'pYjTai, Xe^v slvai, TYJV Sia TYJC;

6vo|JLacia(; p[iYjveLav, 8 xal srcl TCOV E[ji[jLTpcov xal sm TCOV Xoycov s^i TYJV 15

auTYjv 8uva(Jitv. TCOV Se XOITCCOV [TTEVTC] YJ (jLeXoTuoua (JieytcrTov TCOV YjSucrjJiaTCOv.

YJ
8k o^ic; oVrs/voTaTov 8s xal ^xiciTa oixstov TYJC; TTOIYJTLX^
^u^aycoytxov (JLEV,

YJ yap TYJS TpaycoSta^ SuvajiK; xal aveu aycovo*; xal urcoxpiTcov ECITIV. STL Se
xupicoTepa Trepl TYJV dbrepyacnav TCOV o^ecov YJ TOU dxeuoTuoiou TE/VYJ 20 T%
TCOV 7COIYJTCOV EGTLV.

665 a. A story or plot must be of some length.

Length of poett y f 1451 a
9 - 15
:

the story , , ,
O v
OE xaT auTYjv
, x

TYJV 9uortv
,

TOU
; f,

TcpayjJLaTOc; opoc;, aet

x ^

(JLEV
o (istQcov (JLs^pt TOU J 45 la
i
slvai xaXXicov ECTTL xaTa TO (xsyEOoc;, co^ SE a^Xcoc; SiopiaavTac;
i

EV ooco (jLy0si xaTa TO Eixo^ YJ

TO avayxaiov 9^Yj^ yiyvofjLEvcov <7U(ji(3aivi

Ei^ EUTuxiav ex SuaTU/tac; TJ e^ UTU^ia<; dc, SuaTUX^av (jLETajSaXXeiv, txavo<;

opo? ecTTl TOU (JLsye0ou<;. 15

b. Unity of the plot.

its unity Poet. 8, 1451 a 16 - 35 :

MuOoc; 8' ecmv el<;, ou/ &aTcep TLve<; otovTai, sav Tcepl eva ^ TcoXXa yap xal

<5c7ueipa TCO evl au(jLpatvi, E^ Jiv Ivicov ouSEV eaTtv EV. OUTCO SE xal Trpa^Et^

evoc; TioXXai etatv, e^ d>v (jLia ou8s(jL[a ytvsTai Tcpa^i^. Sto 7ravT<; soixacTLV

1
l:ul TCOV X6ycov - in the speeches in tragedy.
2
v X6yco corr. Bjrwater. Mss. TCOV (iv X6ycov.
 [665] POETICS 229

20 a[AapTaveiv, OCTOL T&V TCOIYJT&V 'HpaxXYjtSa xal 0Yj<TY)t&a xal TO. ToiauTa TTOLY)-
f

fjE-ara 7re7rotY]xa<Tiv oi'ovTat yap s^l el^ Y^v 6 HpaxXYJ^, ^va xal TOV {jtuOov slvat
7rpocTY)xei,v. 6 8' "O(r/)po<;, coaTcep xal TOC #XXa Siacpepei, xod TOUT' eoixe xaXc5<;
?5 ISsLv, -^TOI Sia Texv7)v TJ &ia 9UCTLV 'OS\j(T(ieLav yap TCOICOV oux eTroiYjaev a?uavTa
6o-a auTCp cruvepT], olov TuXTjYTJvai [jtev ev TO> FlapvaCTcrqi, (jLavyjvat Se TrpotTTCoivj-
aa<rOat ev TCO ayepfjicp, &v ouSev OaTepou yevo[jLevoi) cxvayxoctov 9jv TQ eixoc^ OaTspov
yevecrOaL, aXXa Trepl jxtav Ttpa^i-v, otocv Xeyofxsv, -r^v *OSu<rcrei,av
30 6fAOL6><; Se xal TTJV 'TXiaSa. xpvj o5v, xaOaTrep xal ev Ta<; <5cXXai.g
pita jJLijJiTQai? ev6<; ECTTLV, OUTOJ xal TOV (jLuOov, ercel Trpa^ecoc; (jLLjjLTjatc; <JTL,
Te elvat xal TauTTjc; 6X7]^, xal Ta (JLep^) mJvecrTavai TCOV 7rpay[jLaTcov
COCTTS jiSTaTtOefjievou TIVOC; jAepouc; YJ a9aipou(jievou 8ia9peaQai xal xtveiaOai
TO oXov 6 yap Trpocrov YJ (JLY) Tipocrov (JLYjSsv TTOLEL sTrLSyjXov, ouSe (jiopLov TOU
35 6Xou eartv.

666 Why poetry is more philosophical and of more serious import-

ance than history.
36
Poet. 9, I45ia -b 7 :
Poetry

Oavepov Si: sx TCOV xal OTI ou TO Ta yevofxeva Xeyeiv, TOUTO TCOIY]TOU

eipY)[JLvo)v history
epyov eaTtv, aXX' ola av ysvotTO, xal Ta SuvaTa xaTa TO stxo^ r) TO avayxalov.
o yap IfTTOpixo^ xal 6 TUOIYJTYJC; ou Tc7) r^ ejjLjjieTpa Xeyetv 7] a^ASTpa

L7j yap av Ta 'Hpo^oTOU ei^ fjieTpa TeOYJvaL, xal ouSev YJTTOV av ELY)
TL<; fJLCTa (JLETpOU Y)
(XVU fJLETpCOV aXXa TOUTCp Sta9pl, TO> TOV |JLV Ta yVO-
5 (jLeva Xeysiv, TOV Eola av yevoiTO. Sio xal 9iXoCTO9coTepov xal aTrou&aioTEpov
TCOtYjCTtc; t(7Topta<; eaTtv YJ (JLEV yap TTOLYJCTK; (jiaXXov Ta xaOoXou, Y) S* taTOpia Ta
xa0* exacfTOv Xeysi.
 BOOK IV

THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL

AND THE EARLY ACADEMY
EIGHTEENTH CHAPTER
THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL
i THKOPHRASTUS
Life and 6fc7_ a fhc man and work. Diog. L. V end -
his 35, the 36, the
beginning.
Tou 873 STayetptTou yeyovaai, ^v woXXol yva>pi[jioi, Stacpepaw Se (JLaXtara
0eo<ppaaTo<;, Trepl oft XEXTSOV. socppaoToc; MeXavra 'Epscrio<;. Ofrnx;
TTp&TOV (JLEV ^XOlKieV 'AXxiTTTTOU TOO TToXlTOU SV Tfj TCaTpL^L
rp6<? 'AptcrTOT^Xvjv xaxstvou ei<; XaXxtSa
TYJV a/oXyjv 'OXufjLTricxSt, TeTapryj xal SexaTT) xal

b. Diels: 30
Cp. SimpL, Phys. 964,
Tov xopu^atov T<OV 'AptdTOTeXoi*^ eraipcov Oeocppacrrov.

c. Prosperity of the School under Theophr. Diog. L. V 37:

T' etc; TYJV 8iaTpip7jv aurou (jLa6Y)Tai

d. He is greatly honoured, both at Athens and abroad.

Diog. L. ib., 37 and 41:
Kaorav&po<; youv aurov a7re8exeTO xa -
IlToXejJLaLOi; eicefJL^ev ETC'

TOGOUTOV S' dcTroSo^T]^ yj^touTo Trap' ^AOyjvaioi,^, &CTT' 'Ayv6>vi8Y]<; ToX{r/]ara<;

acrepeiac; aurov ypa^acrOac, (jLtxpou xat TrpocrcorpXsv. Kai aurov, coc 6

'AOyjvatoi 7ravSy)[jil TrapeTre^av TTOGTI, TOV av^pa

Writings 668 Diog. L. V 42:

KaTaXeXoi/rcs 8e pipXta xal auTo<; OTI (jiaXtaTa T

His numerous works covered the whole field of Aristotle's studies logic, science :

metaphysics, ethics, politics, rhetoric, poetics. Preserved are his two standard
works on botany, the Ilepl 9UTtov iaTopoc<; and llepl 9UTcov alTicov, several small treatises
[668] THEOPHRASTUS 23!

on various subjects of science, fragments of his great History of philosophy (Ouoixcov

86<xi), and of other works. The treatise IJepl aiaOrjaeox; xal aiaOvjTtov was a part of
the Ouatxeov S6Eai, and the Characters belonged probably to a greater work on ethics.

669 Empirical
r basis of scientific theories. Empirical
basis

a. De caus. plant. I i, i :

Eo0u yap /py) <7i>[ji<pa>veu70ai TOU^ Xoyou<;

b. Applying this principle thoughout his work, he states in the

same book, 17, 6:
'Ex 8& TCOV xa0' ex<x<TTa Gecopoijori, crufji/pcovoc; 6 Xoyo^ T&V yiyvofxevcov.

c. Cf. De cans, plant. II 3, 5:

Ilepl 8 TO>V ev role, xaO* exaerra [JiaXXov euTropoufjiev yj yap

670 Sense-perception provides thought with material, either to use

directly or indirectly, by solving the difficulties which perception presents
to it.

a. Metaph. VIII 19 ed. Ross-Fobcs:

Ti 8e ov OTI TroXXa^co^, 9avepov
yj yap at<76y](Ti^
xal Ta^ Sta^opa^ Oetapel
xal rac; aLTia<; ^yjTEL- Ta^a S* aXyjOeaTepov etTTSLv a> uTropaXXei T^ Siavota
Ta jxi:v aTuXco^ ^yjTOuaa, Ta S' aTcopiav evspya^op.evy], Si* 9)^, xav p,y] SiivyjTai
TTpopatveiv, 6[Jico^ Ifji^atvsTat TI 96)^ Iv TW (Jtyj 9COTL ^yjTOuvrcav ercl TrXeov.
Ib. 25: Me^pi (JLSV ouv Tiv6<; SuvafjtsOa Si* aiTtou GecopeZv, ap^ac; OCTTO TCOV

b. Cf. Clem. Alex., Strom. II 362 D:

0e69pa<TTO<; 8e ryjv aicrOyjcriv apxv]v scvai TiiaTeax; 9yjaiv dtTto yap
al ap^al Tcpoc; TOV Xoyov TOV ev yjfxcv xal ryjv Siavotav sxTeivovrat.

671 The phenomenology of plants teaches him that empirical facts Perception
should not be artificially forged into a theory. than theory

Hist, plant. I 3, 5:
a.

Speaking of the difficulty of the classification of plants, he says:

Aide 8yj Taora cacnrep Xeyojiev oux axpipoXoyyjT^ov TCO opco aXXa TCO

b. Cf. De cans, plant. II 4, 8:

'AXX' ev TOL<; xaG' SxaaTa r6 axpi^ec; [xaXXov taca^ aia0y]Tixy^<; SetTat auv-

, X6y6) 8e oox
 232 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [672]

672 Logic.
conversion a
of proposi-
Thcophr. changes Aristotle's indirect proof of the conversion
.
. . . .

tions of universal negative propositions into a direct prooi.

Alex. Aphrod. in Ar. Anal. pr. 31, 4 - 10 Wallics:

0eo<ppaCTTO<; j/iv xal EuS'/jfio^ aTuXoiiaTspov sSsi^av TYJV xaOoXou
avTiarpecpoiKTav ai>Tfl TT)V yap xaOoXou aTrocpaTiXTjv covofjiaas xa06Xou
TtXY)v. TYJV & 8eii;iv OUTCO TTOIOUVTOU xetaOco TO A XOCTOC [jLTjSevoc; TOU B i

xaTa (jL7]8ev6^, dbrE^EUXTat, TOU 13 TO A xal excopiaTai TO 8e aTce^euyjjievov

aTTE^Euyjjilvou arce^euxTai, xai TO B apa TuavTo^ aTre^euxTat TOU A ei Se

TOUTO, xaTa [JiTjSevoi; auToij. OUTW^ (JLSV ouv sxecvoi.

The same is told by Philoponus in An. pr. 48 11 - 18 W.
b. Theophr. maintains (against Ar.) the convertibility of universal
negative propositions of possibility.
9 - 16
Alex, in An. pr. 220, W.:
socppocaToc; (JLCVTOI xal EuSvjfjioc, <^c, xal xaT* ap^ai; efJLVYjfJioveucrajJLev, OCVTL-

(7Tpe<pei,v cpaal xal TT]V xaOoXou cxTco9aTixy]v auTyj, coajcsp avT(TTpe9e xal Y]
1
uTuapxouaa xaOoXou aTrocpaTix'/] xal Y) avayxaia. "OTL 8s avTiciTp^ei, Sst,x-
vuatv OUTCOC el TO A TW B evSe^sTat, (JLTjSevt, xal TCO B TO A evSe
sTcel yap evSs^ETai TO A Tto 1^ (jtyjSevi, OTS IvSe^sTaL [jL7]Sev[, TOTS sv

aTcs^euxOai, TO A TtavTcav TCOV TOU B st Ss TOUT', ecrTai TOTS xal TO B TOU A

a7T^Uy(JLVOV 1 TOUTO, Xal TO B TO) A V&}(Tat, {JLY]SvL
On the logic of modality in Theophr. see Bochcnsky, La logique de
Theophraste, Fribourg (Suisse) 1947, c h- V.

Moods of the 573 a 'f o Aristotle's four moods of the first figure of the syllogism
syllogism
iheophr. added rive others.
36 -
Alex., .4 w. r. 69, 70,
x
W. :

0o<ppacn:o<; Ss TrpoaTLOyjaiv <5cXXou<; TOVTE TOL^ TSTTapat, TOUTOL^ OUXETL

TXLOU OuS* ava7UoSLXTOU(; OVTa<;, O>V (JLVYj(JLOVU<Tl Xal 6 'ApKTTOTEXY]^, TCOV
(JLV V TOUTCO TCO pt^XtW TTpOEXOcoV, TCOV Sfi V TcT) (JLT(X TOUTO TCO SUTpCp

Bochensky, o.c., p. 56-65, in treating these new moods, states that Theophr.
developed Ar.'s indications in a formalistic sense.
b. Later we find the five moods of Theophr. in Boethius, De syl-
logismo categorico, Patrol. Lat. LXIV, 814 c:

is a species of avayxouov, what the schoolmen call the necessarium

ex suppositione .
Cp. Bochensky o.c., p. 73.
[673] THEOPHRASTUS 233

Quattuor in prima figura modos in Analyticis suis Aristoteles posuit.

Ceteros vcro quinque modos Theophrastus et Eudemus addiderunt,
quibus Porphyrius, gravissimae vir auctoritatis, visus est consensissc,
qui sunt huiusmodi.
Follows a description of the new moods.

674 According to Theophr., in syllogisms in which the premisses Modality

are of different modality, the conclusion follows the weaker premiss.

a. Alex., An. pr. 124,

8 - 21
W. :

'
Oi Se y eTOupoi auTou (sc. Api<TTOTXou<; ) ot Trepl Eu&Y)[ji6v T xal 0eo9pa-
crrov ou% OUTCOS Xeyouai, aXXa 9aaiv ev Tcadai^ rate; el; avayxaia<; TS xal umxp-

^oucnr]<; cu^uyiai^, lav &GI auyxi[Jivai auXXoyiaTix&c, uTuap^ov yivea6ai TO

au[jLTcepa(T(jLa, TOUTO Xa(JLpavovT<; ex T TOU sv rcacrati; Tal^ cru[/.7uXoxat^ TO

^ufjiTrepaa^a atsl TCO sXaTTovL xal X ^P OVL T ^)v xei[Jtevcov l^ofiotouerOai av TS
yap sx xaTacpaTix'/j^ xal a7uo9aTixY]^ TupoTaaecoc;, auvayeTai arco^aTixov TO
(TU[jLTCpaa[JLa, av T' ex xaOoXou xal inl (Jiepouc;, eTcl (Jtepoix; xal TO aufjiTcepaafJia.
Tov auTov STJ TpoTcov xal ev Talc;
{jLt^eatv e/eiv uTrapyov yap ytvsaOai ev Tat^
e^ avayxaia(; xal uTrap^ouaT]^ au[/,7uXoxai^ TCO eXaTTOv elvae, TO uTcap/ov TOU

avayxaiou. 'AXXa xal TCO Xoyco TOUTO SSLXVUOUG-LV. EL yap TO B TOJ F uTrapyst.
fjiev TuavTL, ou (JITJV e^ avayxv]^, evSe/eTai TTOTE auTo xal aTro^suyOYJvaL auTou

OTE 873 TO B TOU F aTce^euxTai, TOTS xal TO A auTou aTro^eu^O'/jcrsTai el Se

TOUTO, oux e avayxy)c;

b. one of the premisses is possible, the conclusion will be

Again, if

possible. Alex., An. pr. 173,

:J2
-I74,
3
W. :

009padTO<; (JLSV o5v xal EuSyjjjio^ ol ETatpoi auTou xal ev Tfj e^ v8xo(jievy)<;
xal UTrapyoucry]^ [uJEpi ^aalv eaeaOai TO aupiTOpaa^La vS^6(JLvov, oTioTepa av
TO

13 - 1R
Cf. Philoponus, An. f>r. 205, \V. See: Bochcnsky o.c., p. 7<) ff. on "the
rule of the peiorem".

675 a. According to Philoponus, Theophr. and Eudemus introduced

the doctrine of hypothetic and disjunctive syllogisms.
14 - 21
Phihp., An. pr. 242, W.:
'ETceiSy] SE 6 (jilv 'ApiaTOTlXv]^ TOO^OUTOV CITTWV Trepl TCOV u7ro6Tixa>v l
xal ouSfiv T)[JLa(; 7Upl auTcov ISiSa^Ev, aXXa TTJV Tuaaav aTrouSyjv Trepl TOU
yopixou CTuXXoyio(Jiou eTTOLYjaaTO, aT Syj TOUTCOV [JLEV
TXtcav OVT<OV xal

Seofxevcov, T<OV SE UTuoOeTixcov Seopi^vcov TCOV xaTYjyopixcov,

 234 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [^75]

Ttepl auTcov. 'Icrrlov yap &ri TroXucrrfxouc 7rpayfAaTea<; Trepl

TOtiT6)v xaTejlaXXovTO 01 TS [xaOiQTal TOU *ApJTOTXou<;, oL Ttepl 0e69pa<rrov

xal E887j(iov xal TOU^ <SXXou<;, xal STI ol STCOIXOI.

Is this statement true ? Is it true that Theophr., Eudemus and other

disciples of Ar. dealt explicitly with hypothetical syllogisms? The
following text of Alexander seems to contradict this communication of

Philoponus.
32 - 3
b. Alex., An. pr. 389, 390, :

Aeyei ApiofTOTeXv^ ) xal #XXou<; TcoXXoi^ s uTcoO^oreeo^ TispaCveaOai,

(sc.

Tcepl &v uTceprtOsTai (Jtlv ca<; spcov iTci^sXlaTEpov, ou (jlv 9pgToa aurou
[jia Tuepl OCUT&V eo^pacrTo^ S* auTcov ev TOI? tSiotc; *AvaXuTixoi<;
*

aXXa xal E5Sy)[jLO^ xat Tive<; aXXoi TCOV eraipcov auToi5.

Bochensky o.c., p. no, concludes that, if Theophr. "mentions" these syllogisms,

he did not treat them at length.
As to the frequent combination of the names of Theophr. and Eudemus, Bo-
chensky (o.c., p. 125) suggests that Ar. discussed these questions in his School
more abundantly than it is done in his written treatises, and that both Theophr.
and Eud. represented the views of Ar. in the latest phase of his teaching,

676 Metaphysics.
the First a Theophr.
r admits, with Ar.. one first principle
r r of all.
Principle
Metaph. I 6 Ross-Fobes:
Me^pi (ilv SY) Totircov olov (ScpTto^ 6 X6yo ocpx^v TS jcoieov (jiav TCCXVTOW xal 5a 5
rJ)v evlpyetav xal TVJV ouafav a7toSio6<; 7 STL 8k (JLY) StaipeTov [xyjSs Tcoodv TI X^ycov
aXX' obrXcoc; l^atpcov dc, xpe^TTO Tiva (jtepiSa xal 0etoTlpav OUTCO yap (xaXXov 10
f/
aTCoSoT^ov ^ TO SiatpeTov xal (jtsptaTiv ^atpST^ov. A[jia yap ev u^>)XoT^pcj)

TS xal aXiqOtvcoT^pcp X6yo) Tot<; Xsyoucyiv Y) a7uo9a(y^.

b. His objections to the Aristotelian theory of the Prime Mover.

Ib., II 7-9:
T6 8k [XEToc TaGT' ^Sv) X6you SstTai 7iXeiovo<; irspl TYJ<; 89g<ysco(;, ?co(a xal 15

TIVCOV. 'E7cei89j TrXeico Ta xuxXixa xal al <popal TpoTrov Ttva uTcsvavTtai, xal T6

dvYjvuTOv xal oS X^P LV acpavec;. BITS yap iv T& xivouv, <3tT07UOv T6 frJ) TravTa ITJV

auTYjv SITE xa6* SxacTTOV ^Tepov at T* apxocl TcXeiou^, &GTS TO a\i[X9(ovov auTtov
20

^ fips^tv i6vrcov T^jv apt<TT7]v ouSa(ji<5<; ^avepiv. To 8^ xaTa TO TrXvjOo^ T&V

a^aipcov T^<; akia<; |jti^ova &QTSI X6yov ou yap <apxei> 8 ye TCOV aaTpoX6y6>v.
"Avtopov 8k xal TTW^ TTOTE 9i>o"tx7)v Spe^iv I^ VTO)V ^ T^) v vjpejjiiav 8tc*>xou<yiv
aXXa rJjv xivvjcriv. Et 8* ?)
Te xal TOU dptaTou, (jteTa ^DX^C;, 25, 28
e^peffic;, dcXXo><;

et fjiif] Tt<; Xeyot xa6* 6(zoi6TV]Ta xal (jteTa9opav, !(JKJ/OX' av et?) Ta xivoifxsva.

fj
8" fijxa Soxei xal xCvTrjai^ urcdlpxstv ^o>7) yap TOI^ S^oucriv, 0^9* xal al ^
 [676] THEOPHRASTUS 235

5 opl^etc; 7cp6<; Ixacrrov, axTTuep xal TOL<; coou;, ercel xal at aia6Y)(jei<; xataep ev
TCO 7cacix eiv oSaai 81' eTepcov OJJLCOC; <5><; ejJupuxoK; yiyvovTai. EL 8* ouv TYJ<;
xo-

YJS atTLOV TO TUp&TOV OU TY]<; (XplCTTY)^

OCV
StY] XpeiTTCOV yap Y) TYJ<; ^1>X^ XOCl

SYJ xal [jtaXicrra Y) TYJ<; 8tavoia<; 9* % xal YJ

677 His difficulties about the teleological explanation of nature.

a. How
should we conceive the first principles ? What is the reason
of everything ? How
far does the ordering of the world reach, and why teleology
does it stop at a certain point?

Ib., IV 14-15:
6b n&s 8e TTOTS XP>] xal 7uoia<; ra^ ap^a^ UTToOeaOai Tax'
25 TUOTepov a{Ji6p9ou^ xal olov Suvafjiixaq codT^ep oaoi TOP xal yyjv,

<*>S ptaXiCTTa Seov TauTa^ 6)pt(T0ai xaOaTtep ev T<O Tifjiaico 9Y]atv TOI<; yap TI[JLICO-

;a TOCTOIS otxeioTaTov Y]
xal TO a>pia6ai. OaiveTat 8e xal ev Talc;
TOC^LC; XotTratc; (j/sSov

Xeiv OUTCO
xaOaTrep ev ypa(JL[xaTtX7J xal (JLOUGLX^ xal T
2uvaxoXou6et Se xal T<X (jieTa Ta^ apxok. "Eri Se xal xaTa Ta<; Texva<; of
5 atvrep T7)v 9\iaiv (jti(jLouvTai xal Ta opyava xal Ta aXXa xaTa Ta^ apx^^- Ol (Jiev

o5v a(xop9ou(; 7raaa<;, ol 8e [Jiovov Ta^ 6Xixa<; ol 8* a[X90Tepa<; e[A{JLop90uc;, xal

Ta^ TYJ<; 6Xy]<;, <5>^ ev a(JL9ocv TO TeXeov <ov> olov yap e avTtxei{jtev6>v TYJV aTcaaav
Toouatav. "AXoyov Se xaxetvo So^eiev av ei 6 fjiev oXoc; oupavog xal exacrra TO>V
cov aTravT* ev Ta^et xal Xoyw xal [xop9a<; xal Suva[JLe<TL xal Tcept68ot<;, ev Se
x
atc; (jiyjOev TOIOUTOV aXX* cocrTrep aapfjia etxyj xex^pLevcov 6 xaXXiaToc;,

15, To9Y](iiv 'HpaxXetTO^, [6] xocyfjio^. XaXercov Se TiaXiv a5 TO TOIK; Xoyoix; exa-
<TTOK; TrepiOeiivai Tupoc; TO evexa TOD auvayovTac; ev aTraai xal ev ^cooic; xal
xal ev auTT) aaTepwv Ta^ei xal
'
TuojJupoXuyi. *n:Xy]v et aufjtpaLvei TT)

7bpiop9a<; TravTota^ xal TcoixiXtac; yiyveaOai TCOV Te Tuepl TOV aepa xal TYJV y9jv.
7
Iiv SYJ [jteytcTTov Tive^ TrapaSetyjxa vroiouvTai Ta Tuepl Ta^; capa^; Ta^ eTeiou^; ev

5 ale; xal Z^wcov xal 9i>T&v xal xapTccov yeveaeic; olov yevvcovTOc; TOU Y]Xiou. Kal
TauTa {lev evTauOa TTOU ^YjTet TY]V axe^tv, a9optcj[JL6v aTuatToiivTa fJiexpt TTOOOU
TO TeTayfjievov, xal Sicx TI TcXeov aStivaTOv YJ ei? TO xe ^P ov [AeTa(3acyi^.

b. It is sometimes difficult to decide whether a thing exists for a

certain purpose or by chance. Many things do not exist for a purpose,
and there is much more evil than good.
Ib., IX
28-32:
ioa Trcep 8e TOO TravO* evexa TOO xal pjOev (JLOCTYJV, <5cXXa><; <0'> 6 a9opia[Ji6<; ou

paStos xaOaTrep TuXeovaxi? XeyeTat, (jroOev pa<r6at, XP^I xaNl e ^ 7ro ^a 8*

2^ TeXeuTav ;), xal SYJ via TW (JLYJ Soxetv lx etv OUTCOC;, dcXXa Ta [lev (7i>(JL7TTO){JiaTixco<;

1
Corr. Diels. Mss. oap?.
 230 TPIE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [677]

J
TOC 8 avayxY) Tivl xaOoacep 'v TS Tol<; oupaviou; xal ev TOI^ Trspl TYJV yyjv TrXetociv.
*
Tivo<; yap Ivexa at 90801, xal avappoiai OaXaTTY)? p) TLVOC; ai TTpoxtopYjcreK;] 73 lob
dva?;7)pav(Tei<; xal uypoTTjTe^ xal oX<o<; 7rp6<; a*XXoT* aXXo (jLETa^oXal xal 90opal
xal yevecreu;, [yj at piev ev auTTJ TYJ yyj aXXot,co(7ei<; xal [AerapoXal yiyvovTai
2
?rp6<; aXXoT* aXXo [/.eOtCTTafJisvcav] xal eTepa 5* oux oXiya Tcapofioia TOUTOIC;; 5
S* ev auTOtc; TOIC; ^wot^ T<X (JLSV coaTrep [latocia xaOaTtep TOL<; appsdtv ot
xal TOL<; 0'/)Xeaiv YJ Tupoecrt^ ei'Tcep (JLTJ aup^SaXAsTaL, xal Trtoycavo^ 8'
evioi<; Y] oXcac; xal Tpa oux oXtya Xa(3oi 10,
Tpt^cov Sx^uai^ ev Ttat Tovrot:- . . . i

TI^ av TotauTa. Kal TO {jLeytciTov STJ xal (laXiaTa Soxouv rcepl Tac; Tpo<pa<; xal

yeveaeK; TCOV ^wcov ouOev6(; yap TauO* evexa aXXa aufjmTOjfJiaTa xal Si* eTepac;
'

avayxa<;. "ESet yap etTuep TGUTCOV x^P tv ^ L XOCT(^ ^auTa xal a><jauTCO. 20
OTI TYJV 9uaiv <elxoc> ev aTraatv opeyeaOai, TOU aptCTOD xal 9' &v iia
(JLETaSiSovai TOU ael xal TOU TSTayfjisvou ax; 8* auTwg xal ejul TO>V

OTCOU yap olov TS TO psXTiov, VTau6a ouSapiou TrapaXeLTrei, olov

TO [jL7rpoaOev TYJV 9apuyya TOU oi(T09ayoi), TifJticoTepov yap. xal EV TTJ [Lie-/] 10
xoiXia TY;<; xap8ia<; T'/]v xpacriv aptaTYjv, OTL TO (jieaov Ti(JLta>TaTOv.
8e xal oaa xoarfiou xaptv el yap xal YJ ope^i^ OUTCO<;, aXX* exeivo y*

SLOTL TroXu TOou^ UTuaxouov ouSe 8e^6[Jievov TO eu, (JtaXXov 8e TroXXw TrXetov

oXtyov yap TL TO e'[i^i>/ov, aTietpov 8e TO a^u*/ov xal auTwv TCOV efji^u/tov

3
axapLatou xal ^eXTtov TO elvai TO 8* oXov aTraviov TL xal ev oXiyotc; TO

ayaOov, rcoXu Se TrX^Ooc etivat, TO xaxov.

678 Yet he accepts the Aristotelian teleology and professes its

principle explicitly.
a. De
cans, plant. I i, i:

7] yap 9u<TLc; ouSev Ttoiet (JKXTTJV, TjxtarTa 8e v TOCC; TrpcoTOL^ xal

b. Cf. ib. I 16, ii :

7)
8e (sc. 9UCTL;;) ael Tcpoc; TO peXTtcrTOv 6p(jia.

Theophr.'s 579 Qcero reproached Theophr. with the same "inconsistency"

a
in theology which he disapproved of in Aristotle.

Cic., N.D. I 13, 35:

Nee vero Theophrasti inconstantia ferenda est; modo enim menti
divinum tribuit principatum, modo caelo, turn autem signis sideribusque
caelestibus.

Cp. on Aristotle ib. 33 (our nr. 430). The vsame is said by Minucius Felix,
Oct. XIX 9.

1 2
Seel. Ross. Seel. Usener.
3
Corr. Ross. Transl. "of animate things themselves there is only a minute part
:

whose existence is actually better than its non-existence would be" (Ross-Fobes).
[679] THEOPHRASTUS 237

b. He considered atheism as an abnormality and a great sin.

Simpl. in Epict. Enchir. 38, IV 357 Schweigh. :

yap avOpcorcot . . .
VOJJIL^OIKH elvai Oeov TrXvjv 'AxpoOotT&v, 005
aOeooc; yevo[ievou<;

680 The divine order

a. of the universe was to him at the same Fatc and
time Fate and Nature.
Alex. Aphrod., De an., at the end:
Oavepa>TaTa &e 0s6eppa<TTO<; Ssixvuat TauTov 6v TO xaG' el[zap[JLevY)v TG>
xaTa 9ii<nv ev TG> KaXXtaOevet.

b. Like Plato, he seems to have spoken of OJJLOLGXJK; TO> Oeco.

the contcm-
Julianus, Or. VI, 185 a Spanh. :

'AXXa xal HuOayopac; OL TE arc' exetvou [JteXP 1 so^paaTou TO xaTa

ojJiotouaOai, Qew ^aat. Kal yap xal 6 'ApiaTOTeXy)<; o yap Y)[Jieu; TCOTE, TOOTO 6
Oeoc; aef.

Cf. Cic. in De fin. V 4, 1 1, who says, referring to Ar. and Theophr. Vitac autern :

dcgendae ratio maximc quidem illis placuit quieta, in coiitemplatione et cognitione

posita rerum, quae quia deorum erat vitae simillirna, sapiente visa est dignissima.

681 He
corrects Ar.'s conception of movement: movement occurs Movement
in every category, not only in that of substance, quantity, quality
and place.

Theophr. fr. 19 Wimmer

(Simpl., Phys. 860,
-
D.):
19 23

0. ev TO> Tcpo>TCj> TO>V sauTOu Oixjtxcov xal xa0* sxaaTov yevo<; TCOV xaTYj-
yopta>v T7]v xivyjaiv GscopstaOat 97)071 ypa^cav OI>TO><; jrepl 8e xtvvjdea)^ TOV (Ji^v
xaOoXou xal xoivov Xoyov ou xa ^ 7UOV aTioSouvai xat eiTistv, ox; evepyeia T^

dcTeXvjc; TOU Suvajzet OVTO<; fj

TOIOUTOV xaO* exaarov yevo^ TCOV xaTTjyopicov.

682 a. He opposes Ar.'s definition of space. Space

Fr. 21 Wimmer (Simpl., Phys. 604, 4 - n D.):

0. ev TOU; Oucrixoic; dcTuopet Trpo^ TOV arcoSoOevTa TOU TOTTOU Xoyov UTTO TOU
'ApicfTOTlXoix; TOiauTa, OTI TO aa>[ia e'aTai ev 7ri9aveia, OTI xivou[Jievo^
6 TOTTOC;, STL ou Trav acajJia ev TOTUO), ouSe yap Y) aTiXavYjc;, OTI eav auvax
at a^alpai, xai 8Xoc; 6 oupavcx; oux eaTai ev TOTTO), STL Ta ev TOTCCO 8vTa
(xeTaxLvvjOevTa, eav acpaipeOyj Ta Tuepie^ovTa auTa, ouxeTL eaTai ev

b. He tries to define it himself by the order and place of the bodies

in relation to each other.
 238 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [682]

Fr. 22 Wimmer (SimpL, Phys. 639,

15 - 22
):
Kal 0. ev TOLC; Outrixoi^ cpaiveTai TYJV Svvoiav TauTTjv ea^xo)^ Trepi TOU
TOTTOU ev ot<; 9*y)alv ox; ev aTiopia Trpoaycov TOV Xoyov (jL7)7uoTe oux 2cm xaO'
auTTjv oucFLa TI^ 6 TOTTOC; aXXa Tyj Taei xal XeyeTai xara
6ecrei TCOV dco[JiaTcov

T<X<; <puaei<; xal SuvafJieic;- 6[Jioico<; 8' em

xal 9UTcov xal 6Xco<; TCOV dcvo-
cocov

fjLoi,o(jLepc5v, etTe efJL^ux wv e ^ TS a^ux^01^? efA[i,op90v Se TYJV 9ii<TLv e^ovTCOv

xal yap TOUTCOV Ta^ic; TIC; xal Oecric; TCOV jxepcov earl Trpoc; TYJV SXyjv oucriav. Aio
xal exaaTov ev aurou X^P a Xeyerai TCO e/eiv TTJV oixetav TOC^LV e?cel xat
TOU <Tco|JiaTo<; (jtepoiv exaaTOv eTULTroOVjaeiev av xal daraiTyjaeie TTJV
xal Oeaiv.

Eternity ^83 He defends the eternity

J of the universe against
& the Stoic Zeno.
ofthekosmos
[Philo], De aetern. mundi 117, p. 510 Mangey:
0eo9paaTO<; (jtevToi ^vjal TOUC; yeveatv xal ^Oopav TOU xoajxou
UTCO TeTTapcov a7raT7]0^vai TCOV (jteyiaTcov, yyjc; avcofjtaXta^, GaXaTTTjc;
p7)aeco<;, exaaTou TCOV TOU oXou (jtepcT^v SiaXucrecoc, x P <TOC ^ a)v
90opa<; xaT<x
^cocov.
The following chapters (23-27) contain Theophr.' arguments against these four
points.

a
Thinking
movement
534 Theophr. explains thinking as a movement of the soul.

of the soul D.: 29 6

Simpl., Phys. 964, -96s,
TauTa Ss xal TOV xopucpaiov apeaxei, TCOV 'AptcrTOTeXou^ eTatpcov TOV 0e6-

9paaTOV ev TCO TcpcoTco TCOV ITepl xtvyjaeco^ auTou XeyovTa OTL at {lev 6p!!;ei<;
xal xal opyal acofiaTixal xtvrjaetc; eial xal aTto TOIJTOU TTJV apxV
e7ri,0u[JLLaL

e'xouatv, oaai 8e xptaei^ xal Oecopiat, TauTac; oux e'cmv ei^ eTepov cxvayayetv,
aXX* ev auT^ Tyj ^u/7) xal Y] ap^'J] xal YJ evepyeia xal TO TeXoc;, ei Se STJ xal 6

xpetTTov TI xal OeioTepov, are 8v) e^coOev eTreicrLwv xal 7ravTXeto<;((.

vou<;
Kal TOUTOK; eTrayei w'Y'Trep (xev ouv TOUTCOV axeTTTeov, ei Tiva ^copiajjiov
TOV opov, eTrel TO ye xtvyjaet^ elvai xal TauTac; 6(jLoXoyou[Jievov((.

685 a. In ethics, he shares Ar.' view of eudaemonia as the final end.

Eudaemonia Cic., De fin. V 29, 86:
Omnis auctoritas philosophiae, ut ait Theophrastus, consistit in beata
vita comparanda; beate enim vivendi cupiditate incensi omnes sumus.
Definition k With which
Ar., he defines the e:ood as that is praiseworthy
i: J
of the good . .

in itself.

Cic., De legibus I 13, 37!:

Ad respublicas lirmandas et ad stabiliendas vires, sanandos populos,
[68 5 ] THEOPHRASTUS 239

omnis nostra pergit oratio. Quocirca vereor commit tere ut non bene pro-
visa et diligcnter explorata principia ponantur: nee tamen ut omnibus
probentur nam id fieri non potest sed ut iis qui omnia recta atque
,

honesta per se expetenda duxerunt, et aut nihil omnino in bonis nume-

randum nisi quod per seipsum laudibile esset, aut certe nullum habendum
magnum bonum nisi quod vere laudari sua sponte posset, his omnibus
(and, among others, Thcophr.' name is mentioned here) his omnibus
haec quae dixi probantur.

686 a. He attributes some value to outward circumstances of life.

Value of
outward
Cic., Tusc. V 9, 24: circum-
stances
(Theophrastus) cum statuisset verba, tormenta, cruciatus, patriae
eversiones, exilia, orbitates magnam vim habere ad male misereque vi-
vendum, non est ausus elate et ample loqui, cum humilitcr demisseque
sentiret. Vexatur autem ab omnibus 1 primum in eo libro quern scripsit
de vita beata, in quo multa disputat, quam ob rem is qui torqueatur,
qui crucietur, beatus esse non possit.

b. He considers marriage as an impediment to the life of a scholar. Marriage

Hieronymus, Adv. Jovin. I 47:

Fertur aureolus Theophrasti liber de nuptiis, in quo quaerit an vir
sapiens ducat uxorem. Et cum definisset, si pulchra esset, si bene morata,
si honestis parentibus, si ipse sanus ac dives, sic sapientem aliquando

inire matrimonium, statim intulit: ,,Hacc autem in nuptiis raro universa

concordant. Non est ergo uxor ducendasapienti. Primum enim impediri
studia philosophiae, nee posse quemquam libris et uxori pariter inservire.

687 Theophr.' Characters.

a. Ill, 'ASoXeaxia<;. Garrulity

'H 8e aSoXeaxta earl [Jiev SiYjyyjdK; Xoyaw [jiaxpcov xal dcTupofiouXeuTtov,
6 Se aSoXedx^ TOIOUTO^ TK; olo^, ov yiyvcocrxei, TOUTCO TrapaxaOe^o^evoc;
JJL'/]

TuXyjatov vrpooTOv (lev TYj<;

auTOu yuvaixoc; elrcecv eyxcf>[juov, elra, 8 TYJS VUXTCX;
5
elSev evuTTviov, TOUTO SLTjyyjdacrOai, eZO' &v el^ev ini T6> SeiTivoi Ta xaO exaara
Sie^eXOeiv elra STJ Tupox^pouvTO^; TOU 7rpay|JLaTO<; Xeyeiv o)t; TroXu rcovYjpoTepot
elaiv ol vuv &v6pa>7roi TCOV ap^aicov, xal coc; S^LOL <ou> yeyovaatv ol Tiupol ev

Tfl ayopa, xal ax; TroXXol eTriSTjfJLOuGri ^evoi, xal TTJV 0aXaTTav ex Aiovuaicov
elvai, xal el Tcoi-yjoreiev 6 Zeu<; 8Sa>p TcXetov, T<X ev T^ yyj (3eXT[<o aea6ai,

Doubtless, most by the Stoics; hardly by the Peripatetics.

 240 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [786]

xal ov dypov etc; VG>TOC yecopy/jcrei, xal to<; xa^ 7r ov aTl> T0 *i

v> xa &
rco<; [luar/jptou; [jiyi<7T7)v 8?&* saTTjciEv, xal TUOCTOI Etal xtovs<; TOU 'QiSeiou, 10
xal xO^ v){JL<T<x, xal TI<; ECJTIV 7)(j.pa TY)(JLepov; xal co<; Boy)8po[jucovo

(iev ecm Ta [/.uaTYjpta, lluavo^t&vo<; 8e 'ArcaToupia, Hoat&etovos Ss <T<X>

T* dypou<; Atovuaia xav uTrojievy] TIC; auTov, [JLY) a9io>Taa6ai.

Theofficious b XIII,
man
<Y)> Tcepiepyia So^ei slvai 7tpoa7ruiY)<TL<; TIC; Xoycov xal
^;,
6 Ss Tiepiepyoc; TOIOUTO<; TI^ <olo(;> eTuayylXXeaOai a (iv) Suvy)(reTai
xal 6[jLoXoyou[JLevou TOU 7rpay(JiaTO<; Sixaiou elvai

xal TrXetco Se eTiavayxaarai, TOV TratSa xepaaai 73

oaov SiivavTai of

exTcietv xal Sietpyeiv TOIX; [jiaxofJLevoix;, xal ou<; ou ytyvcoaxei xal aTpaTroO 5

Y)yy)<Taa0ai, etTa (JLYJ SiivadOai eupelv ol TropeueTai xal TOV <TTpaTY)y6v TrpoaeXOwv

epcoTYJaai TUOTC (jieXXa TrapaTarredOai, xal TL [iTa TTJV aupiov 7rapayyXi-

xal 7rpO(TX0o)v T> Tuarpl eiTuetv STL Y) [Jiv)T7)p ^Sv) xaOsijSsi v TO) Scop

xal dcTuayopEuovTO^; TOU laTpou OTTG)^ [JLYJ

Scoaei olvov TCO (JiaXaxi^o[JLvcp,

u TTOTiaai TOV xaxco<; ?x VTa y^aixo<; 10

'

pouXaOai Sia7Tipav Xa(jipaviv, xa>t

TXUT7](ja(T7)c; 7Tiypa^ai 7ul TOU T dvSpo^ auTY)^ xal TOU TraTpoc; xal
TO [xvYJ[jia

T^^ (JtTjTpcx; xal auTYJ^ <T^> yuvaixo^; Touvojxa xal TroSaTTT) EGTL, xal 7rpoa7UL-
OTI OJJTOL 7uavTc; xpv)(TTol yjaav xal ofivuvat (JtXXcav ELTOLV Tupoc;
OTI xal 7rpoTpov

The c. XVII,
grumbler
>;
EaTiv 7] fjL(ji^t[Jioi,pia ETUT^YJCTL!; Trapa TO TrpoaYJxov Toiv SSo(ivo)v, 6 SE

(jLE[jnj;t(JLOLpoc;
TOioaSE TI<; olo^; 7 aTuodTEiXavTo^; (lEptSa TOU 9iXou, EITCELV Tcpoc; TOV

9povTa 906vY]<7 {jLoi

TOU ^co(Jiou xal TOU oivapiou, oux 7rl SELTUVOV xaX(ra<;((

xal UTTO T?)^ ETatpa^; xaTa9tXou(Jievo^ EITTECV ))6au[JLa^a) EL au xal OCTTO TT)(;

^ux% ouTd) (JLE 9iXt(;(( xal TW Ail ayavaxTEtv, ou SIOTI <ou/> Get, aXXa 8t6Tt5

GaTSpov xal Eupwv Iv Tyj 6Soi paXXavTtov etTretv waXX* ou 07)<raup6v supYjxa
ou87roT(( xal 7rptajJivoc; dvSpaTToSov S^iov, xal TcoXXa SEYjOslq TOU 7i(oXouvTo<;
))0au(jLa^a) EtTTEtv 6 Tt uyi(; OUTCO aiov EcovTjfjiata xal 7up6(; TOV suayyEXt-
oTt* ui6<; aoi ysyovEva EITTEIV OTf av 7rpo<70yj<;' xal TTJ^ ou(ita<; TO

TTECTTtv, aXYjO?] spt<;<( xal StxTjv vtXYjaac; xal Xa[3o)v 7iaaa<; Ta<; ^Y)90U(; 10

eyxaXetv TCO ypd^avTi TOV Xoyov, coc; TcoXXa TrapaXsXotTTOTt TCOV Stxatcov xat

epavou Etavex0VTOc; rcapa TCOV 9tXcov xal 97)aavTo^ Ttvo<;- lXapi(; ta0t,
xal 7rco<;;(( stTCEiv ))OT Set Tapyuptov aTcoSouvat sxdaTCO xal X^P^ TOUTCOV

co<; Upyry)[JLvov;
 [688] DICAEARCHUS 241

2 D1CAEARCHUS
688 Suidas s.v. i Life and
Aixaiapxos (fr. Wehrli) :

Aixaapxo<; OeiSiou, StxeXio>TY)<;,

: ex TcoXeox;
MeaaYjvvjc;, 'ApiawciXoix;
axou<7T7)<;, 9iX6<ro9o<; xal pyjTcap xal yecojjteTpyjc;. KaTajxeTpTJcreK; TCOV ev IleXo-
Tcowqcrco opcov, 'EXXaSo^ (3iov ev (3i(3Xoi y'. OUTO<; eypa^e TYJV 7roXiTeav STuap-
TiaTCov, xal v6[zo<; eTe0yj ev AaxeSaifJiovL xaO* exaarov STO<; avayivcoaxea0at riv
5Xoyov TO TCOV *E9opcov ap/etov, TOIK; Se
ei<; TYJV YjpYjTLxyjv l/ovTa(; rjXixtav
axpoacrOat. xai TOUTO expaTet fie/pi

689 Cic., Z)^ /n. IV 28, 79 3 W.) :

A
(fr. .

Panaetius
. . .
scmperquc habuit in ore Platonem, Aristotelem,
. . .

Xenocratem, Theophrastum, Dicaearchum, ut ipsius scripta declarant.

quos quidcm tibi studiosc et diligenter tractandos magno opere censeo.

690 Naturalistic doctrine on soul.

Tusc. Doctrine
a. Cic., I 10, 21 (fr. 7 W.) :

Dicaearchus autem in eo sermone, quern Corinthi habitum tribus libris

exponit, doctorum hominum disputantium primo libro multos loquentes
facit; duobus Pherecraten quendam Phthiotam senem, quern ait a Deu-
calione orturn, disserentem inducit, nihil esse omnino animum et hoc
5 esse nomen totum inane frustraque animalia et animantes appellari,
neque in homine inesse animum vel animam nee in bestia, vimque omnem
earn, qua vel agamus quid vcl sentiamus, in omnibus corporibus vivis
aequabilitcr esse fusam nee separabilem a corpore esse, quippe quae
nulla sit, nee sit quicquam nisi corpus unum et simplex, ita figuratum,
out temperatione naturae vigeat et sentiat.

b. Cf. Tusc. I 22, 51 (fr. 8 e W.) :

Dicaearchus quidem quia difficilis erat animi quid aut

et Aristoxenus,

qualis esset intellegentia, nullum omnino animum esse dixerunt.

c. Sextus, Pyrrh. II 31 (fr. 8 b W.) :

Ol fxev (JiY)
elvai TYJV <Jwx^3 v e'cpaaav, co<; ol Tuepi TOV Meaayjviov Aixatap^ov.

691 Soul a harmony of the four elements.

Nemesius, De nat. horn. II, Patrol. Gr. XL, p. 537 (fr. n W.) :

Aixatap/oc; Se apfjiovtav TCOV Teacrapcov aTotxe ^ wv ( sc rO v ^ U X^

'
-

avTt TOU xpaoiv xal (jujji^wviav TWV dTOLxeicov. Ou yap TYJV ex TCOV 966yycov

<Ti)VLciTa[JLevY)v, aXXa TTJV ev TCO (rcofjiaTL 0ep(jLcov xal ^i>xpcov xal uypcov xal

De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 16

 242 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [691]

y)p<ov evapfjLoviov xpaaiv xal aofjicpaMav pouXerai Xeysw- AvjXov Se OTI xal
TOUTCOV ot (Jiev 'ApKJTOT^Xiqs Si; xal 5
ocXXoi TYjv fyvyjiv ouaiccv eZvoci XeyoixsLV.

avoucriov.

The same doctrine is attested in a few words by Plut., Plac. IV 2, 5; Stob., Eel.
I 49, i, and Theodoretus, Gr. aff. cur. V18 (fr. 12 a-c W.).

Divination 692
In spite of this naturalistic doctrine of soul D. is said to have
acknowledged divination in dreams.
a. Galenus, Hist. phil. 105 (fr. 13 a W.) :

'ApiaTOTeXY)<; xal Ai,xaiap-/o<; TOU<; oveipoix; eidayouaLv, aOavaTOv JJLCV TYJV

YJV ou vo[jiiovTe<;, 6eiou Si TLVOC;

b. Cic., De div. I 3, 5 (fr. 14 W.) :

Dicaearchus Peripateticus cetera divinationis genera sustulit, soin-

niorum et furoris relicjuit.

Human fh c J of human possibilities

1
593 * reflexion on the polarity
following J
possibilities. / ^,
Lie. from D. work II. avllpwTrwv cpuopac;.
is cited by
Cic. De
off. II 5, 16 (fr. 24 W.):
Est Dicaearchi liber dc interitu hominum, Peripatetici magni et copiosi,
qui collectis ceteris causis eluvionis, pestilentiae, vastitatis, bcluarum
etiam rcpentinae multitudinis, ciuarum impetu docet quaedam hominum
genera esse consumpta, deinde comparat, cjuanto plures deleti sint
homines hominum impetu, id est bellis aut seditionibus quam omni
reliqua calamitate. cum igitur hie locus nihil habeat dubitationis, quin
homines plurimum hominibus et prosint et obsint, proprium hoc statuo
virtutis, conciliare animos hominum et ad usus suos adiungere.

Superiority 594 Against Theophr., 1). defended the superiority of the fiioc; ?upax-
to the pco<;

a.Cic., Ep. ad Alt. II 16, 3 (fr. 25 W.):

Nuncprorsus hoc statui, ut quoniam tanta controvcrsia est Dicaearcho
familiari tuo cum Theophrasto amico meo, ut ille tuus TOV TupaxTixov PLOV

longc omnibus anteponat, hie autem TOV 6ecopy]TLx6v, utriquc a me mos

gestus esse videatur.

b. Codex Vaticanus 435 (fr. 31 W.) :

(The ancient Romans did not strive after cleverness in words, not ever

The fragment is explained by Wehrli in this sense.

 [694] DIG AE ARCH US 243

in such apophthegmata as those attributed to the seven sages.)

Aixaiapxw 8e ouSe TOCUTOC <709<ov elvai avSp&v Soxei, [JLY] yap SYJ ye TOIK; TuaXai

X6yco 9iXoao9etv. aXX* elvai TY)V <709tacv TOTS youv eTUTYjSeucriv gpycov xaXcov,
Xpovco Se X6yoov oxXix&v yeve<T0ai Te*xvY)v. xal vuv piv TOV mOav&c; 8iaXex0vTa
[jieyav elvai Soxetv 9&X6cro9ov, ev Se TOL<; TcaXai /povoig 6 aya06<; (Ji6vo<; ^v

5 9iX6ao90(;, el xal [XT] TreptpXeTCTOU^ xal o^Xixoix; daxocTO Xoyoix;. ou yap I^YJTOUV
exetvot ye ei TuoXiTeuT^ov ouSe TTCO<;, aXX* evroXLTeuovTo auTol xaX&<;, ouSe ei

yapieiv, aXXa yY)[JLavTe(; ov Set TpoTrov yafjieov Tai^ yuvat^l auvepfouv.

9jv, 97307^, epya avSpciv xal e7ttTY)8eu[/.aTa ao9cov, al 8e

aSrai TupayfJLa 90pTtxov.

c. An seni gerenda res publica, c. 26, 796 c (fr. 29 W.).

Cf. Plut.,

(Philosophy does not only consist in speaking ex cathedra, like 710X1-

does not only consist in crying in the assembly. There is a
ev epyoL<; xal Tupa^eoiv opcafjievv] xaO' Y](jiepav 6(jiaX(o<; rcoXiTeta xal

9iXoao9La, which escapes the notice of the people). Kal yap TOI><; ev Tat<;
avaxajJLTCTovTa^ TreptTcaTeLv 9aaiv, <!><; eXeye Atxaiapxoc;, OUXCTL Se TOIK;
aypov ^ Trpo^ 9iXov paSt^ovTa^. OJJLOIOV S* eorTl T<O 9iXo(T09eov TO TroXiTeiieaOai.
youv OUTC Pa0pa Oelc; oure et 0povov xaOtcra^ o(J6' copav SiaTpi(39j<;
TrepiTuaTou TOLC; yvcoptfjioi^ TeTayfxevirjv 9i)XaTTO)v, aXXa xal 7rat<ov ore
xal au(JL7uiv6>v xal auaTpaTeuofievoc; evioi^ xal auvayopa^cov, TeXo<; Se
xal SeSefievoc; xal mvoav TO 9ap|JLaxov e9LXoCT09ei, rcpcoTO^ a:ro8eta<; TOV (3iov
xal 7rpay(Jiaaiv

695 An important work of D. was his Bto<; 'EXXaSoc;, which is cited The
V
rather frequently by later writers (Wehrli, fr. 47-66). of mankind

a. Varro, Rerum rustic. II i, 3 (fr. 48 W., first part).

Igitur,inquam, et homines et pecudes cum semper fuisse

sit necesse

natura sive enim aliquod fuit principium gencrandi animalium, ut

putavit Thales Milesius et Zeno Citieus, sive contra principium horum

exstitit nullum, ut credidit Pythagoras Samius et Aristoteles Stagirites

5 necesse est humanae vitae a summa memoria gradatim descendisse ad

hanc aetatem, ut scribit Dicaearchus, et summum gradum fuisse natura-
lem, cum viverent homines ex his rebus, quae inviolata ultro ferret terra;
ex hac vita in secundam descendisse pastoriciam e feris atque agrestibus,
ut arboribus ac virgultis [ac] decarpendo glandem, arbu[s]tum, mora,
lopoma colligerent ad usum, sic ex animalibus cum proptcr eandem utili-
tatem quae possent silvestria deprenderent ac concluderent et mansues-
 244 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [695]

cerent. In quis primum non sine causa putant oves assumptas et propter
utilitatem et propter <p>laciditatem. maxime enim hae natura quietae
et aptissimae ad vitam hominum. ad cibum enim lacte et caseum adhi-
bitum, ad corpus vestitum et pelles attulerunt. tertio denique gradu a 15
vita pastorali ad agri culturam descenderunt, in qua ex duobus gradibus

superioribus retinuerunt multa, et quo descenderant, ibi processerunt

longe, dum ad nos perveniret.
b. Porph., De abstinentia IV 2 (fr. 49 W., the beginning).
T&v TOIVUV (TUVTO(JLCO<; TE 'EXXvjvixa aovayayovTeov eerav
6(jLoo xocl axpipcoc; T<X
xal 6 TcepiTcaTYjTixo^ Aixatap^oc;, oc; TOV ap/atov (3iov TYJ<; 'EXXaSoc; d^Yjyoti-

(levo^ TOIX; TraXaiouc; xal eyy^ Qe&v 973(11 yeyovoTa^, peXTtaTou^ TS ovTa^ 9iiaei
xal TOV (ScpiaTov e^yjxoTac; piov, <5>^ XP U(IO ^ V yevoc; vo(jLt^ea0ai 7rapa[3aXXo[JLvou<;

, xtpSyjXou xal 9auXoTcxT7)<; u7uapxovTa<; uXr^, [jLTjSev 9oveiiciv 5

xal TOU<; 7CoiY)Ta<; TrapiaTavTac; XP U(70 ^ V ^
v eTcovofJia^etv ysvo^

(daOXa 8e TiavTa)), Xeyeiv,

Toiaiv SYJV xapTiov 8' 9Spev ^SLScopo^ apoupa
TioXXov TE xal a90ovov. ot S' eOeXyjiJLol
x
spy' lv(jiovTo <ruv ecrftXowrtv 7roXee<raiv . 10
a SY] xal e^Y)you[JLevo(; 6 Aixatap/o^; TOV em Kpovoo PIOV TOIOUTOV elvat 9Y)afv.

Political 595 Cicero mentions D. with the b writers

P
greatest respect among
6
writings
on political subjects.
a. Cic., >* kg. Ill 6, 14 (fr. 67 W.) :

Nam veteres verbo tenus acute illi quidem, sed non ad hunc usum
popularem atque civilem de re publica disserebant. ab hac familia magis
istamanarunt Platone principe, post Aristoteles illustravit omnem hunc
civilem in disputando locum; Heraclidesque Ponticus profectus ab eodem
Platone Theophrastus vero, institutus ab Aristotele, habitavit ut scitis 5
;

in eo genere rerum, ab eodemque Aristotele doctus Dicaearchus huic

rationi studioque non defuit.

b.Ep. ad Alt. II 2 (fr. 69 W.)

Cf . :

2
in manibus tcnebam et hercule magnum acervum Di-
IlsXXrjvatav
caearchi mihi ante pedes exstruxeram. o magnum hominem, et unde
multo plura didiceris quam de Procilio 3 KoptvGiov et 'AO-yjvaicov puto .

me Romae habere. mihi credas, lege te hac doceo, mirabilis vir est.
1
Hesiodus, Erga 116 ff.
2
Whether this TleXXYjvatcov TroXiTeta was a work of D. or not, is uncertain. I-
may have belonged to Aristotle's collection of 158
3 Procilius is unknown to us.
 [696] DICAEARCHUS 245

*, si homo esset, eum potius legeret quam unam litteram

scri beret.

697 D. seems to have considered a mixed constitution to be the best. The best
constitution
Photius, Bibl. 37 (fr. 71 W.):
M
Hv auTol TcoXiTefcav eiaayouaiv (sc. post-Platonic writers among whom
8*

D. is mentioned) ex TCOV Tpuov ei8o>v T?J<; 7uoX&Teta<; Seov aur/jv cruyxetaOai

tpaai, paaiXixou xal apierroxpaTixou xal SvjfJioxpaTixou, TO eiXixpive*; auTyj

exa<rry](; TcoXiTsta^ cjuveLciayoucry)*;, xaxeivvjv TTJV <!><; aXyjOcoc; aptcrTY]v TroXireiav

As it appears from a quotation in Athen. IV 141 a ff. (fr. 72 W.), the work in
which D. expounded this theory was entitled Tpi7uoXiTix6<;.

698 a. Like Aristotle and Eudoxus of Cnidus, D. taught the spherical Form of the
r ^
arth
form of the earth.
Martian. Capella VI 590 f (fr. 108 W.) . :

Formam non planam, ut aestimant positioni qui earn disci

totius terrae
diffusions assimilant, neque concavam, ut alii qui descendere imbrem
dixere telluris in gremium, sed rotundam, globosam etiam [sicut Secun-
dus] Dicaearchus asseverat. namquc ortus obitusque siderum non
5 diversus pro terrae elevatione vel inclinatiombus haberetur, si per plana
diffusis mundanae constitutionis operibus uno eodemque tempore supra
terras et aequora nituissent, aut item si emersi solis exortus concavis
subductioris terrae latebris abderetur.
De
Cp. Ar., caelo 11 297 a8 ff., and Hudoxi Ars astronomica ed. Blass 1887, p. XI,
XVII1-XX.

b. On D.'s calculation of the circumference of the earth, see

Wehrli, Dikaiarchos, p. 77 ff.

3 AR1STOXKNUS

699 Suidas s.v. 'ApiorTo^evoc; (f. i W.): Life

Ytoc; MvYjaiou, TOU XOCL 27Civ0apou, {Jioucrixou, OCTUO TapavTog TYJC; 'IraXiac;.
Se ev MavTtveia ^iXocrocpo^ yeyove xal fJLOiKnxfj eTCtOlfjievo^ oux

, cxxoudTY]<; TOU TE
Trarpoc; xal AajxTupou TOU 'Epu0patoi>, etTa

2evo9iXou TOU ITuOayopeiou xal T^Xoc; 'AptcTTOTlXouc;. etc; ov a7co6av6vTa

e, SIOTI xaTeXiTce T^C; axoX^^ SiaSo/ov 0c69paaTov, auTou So^av

Atticus had an administrator of this name. Probably this person is meant here.
 246 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [699]

ev TOCS axpoarocts TOU; 'ApL<7TOTeXoo<; e^ovTOc;. Y^Y ove ^ ^TCI TCOV *AXeJ;avSpoi)
'
xal TCOV xp
(jLETSTreiTa vcov > &$ elvai daco TYJ^ pia'
OXi>[Ji7uaSo<; *, atiyxpovos

Aixatapxw MeaaTjvUp. aoveTa^aTO Se [jioiHTixa TS xal cpiX6ao9a, xal l(JTopa<;

TO>
xal TcavTos eiSou<; TraiSetac;. xal apiGfjiouvTai, aorou Ta P$Xia etc; uvy'.

HS
p ^ of ^OO
in several later
a. He wrote
a life of Pythagoras, traces of which can be found
works (Wehrli, fr. 11-25).
In his work on the Pythagorean bios he explains the ancient taboos
in a rationalistic sense. Cp. our nr. 24b, d.
Life of Ar- fo pj e a i so wro t e a life of Archytas (Wehrli, fr. 47-50) and another

of Socrates of Socrates (W., fr. 51-60), in which he opposes the hot temper and

profligacy of the latter to Archytas' self-command.

c. Cyrillus, Contra Juliannm VI 185 (fr. 54 a, W.) quotes Aristo-
xenus' Life of Soar, as follows:
6 'ApiaTo^svo^, a^TjyoufJLevoc; TOV (itov TOI> LwxpaTou^, axvjxoevat
Ta TO pi aurou,
QC, ^v elc; TCOV TOUTCO EVTU^OVTCOV. TOUTOV Xeyeiv,

ou 7uoXXoI<; auro^ ye TutOavtoTepoic; EVTSTU^XCOC; SLY], ToiauTTjv elvat TTJV TC

xal TO CTOfxa xal TO OTL9aiv6(Jievov ^)6o<;, xal 7up6<; Tcaai 8e TOLC; eipT)-

TYJV TOU stSou^ iStoTTjTa. yLveaOai Se TUOU TOUTO, OTS (JLYJ opyt^oiTo, 5
STS Se (pXe^OetT] UTTO TOU 7ra0ou^ TOUTOU, SSLVYJV elvat TYJV acr^7)[jLO(TUV7)v. ou&ev6<;

yap OUTS ovofjiaTOc; aTioarxeffOai OUTE 7upay{JLaTO(;.

d. Ib., 186 (W., same fr.):

Feypacpe yap toSl TraXiv Tcepl auTou IIop9upio<; : ev Se TOt^ Trepl TOV (3iov

Ta [Jtev
aXXa evixoXov, xal [Jiixpac; Seojievov Tiapaaxeuvjc; eic; Ta xaO* 7)(Jiepav

yeyev^aOaL. Tupo^ Se TYJV TCOV cx9poSi(Tia)v /pyjaw a^oSpoTepov (Jtev elvai, aSixiav
Se {JIT] TrpoaeLvai. ^ yap Tatc; ya^eTaic; 7^ Tat<; xoivatc; ^p^aOai (jLovaLc;. Siio Se

(j^etv yuvalxag afjia, SavOiTTTTTjv [Jiev TTOXLTLV xal xoivoTepav TUCO^;, MupTto Se 5
'ApicrreiSou OuyaTptS^v TOU AuaifJiaxou. xal TTJV (lev SavOtTCTcrjv TrepiTrXaxecaav
Xa(3eEv, e^ ^ eauTto Aa(JL7rpoxX^<; eyeveTo. T*/JV
Se MupTto yajjico, e ^j<; Seo9po-
viaxoc xal Meve^evoc;.
The same is told Or. a1J. cur. XII 174, who used the same source.
by Theodorctus, f

Cp. Plut., Aristides 27: Ay^Tpioq 8* 6 <I><xX7)peu<; xal Iepcovu(jLo<; 6 *P68ioc; xal
c.
J

'ApiaT6evo<; 6 JJLOUCTIXOJ; xal ApiaTOTe>.7)<; .... taropoGaL Muprw OuyarpiS^v 'ApiaTetSou

i TOJ
aocpco ouvoiXTJaai, yuvatxa JJL^V eripav E^OVTI, Taur/jv 8' dvaXap6vTi x^pe^o^oav
Trevtav xal TWV avayxaCoiv

701 De
Herodoti malign. 9, 856 c, qualifies this kind of gossip
Plut.,
as a species of the genus xaxoifjOeia. Fr. 55 W. :

1
336-333 B.C.
 [7Ol] ARISTOXENUS 247

'Eyyix; 8e TOUTCOV eialv ol Tolc; 4/oyou; ercaivouc; Tivac; 7tapaTiOvTe<;, co^ ejcl
ScoxpaTOix; 'Api(7T6!;evo<;, dbraiSeuTov xal a[jia0YJ xal axoXacrc-ov eiTcaw, ETDr)-
veyxev waSixta ou 7rpoa9jv x "ia7i;ep yap ol aiiv TLVL Texvv) xal SSLVOTTJTL
&' .

xoXaxeuovTec; lariv OTE rcoXXou; xal {/.axpou; eTratvoic; ^oyoix; 7rapa(juyv\ioi>aiv

5 eXa9poii<;, olov YJ&uafJia Tyj xoXaxsia TY]V 7rappY]atav s(ipaXXovT<;, OUTCO TO

xaxoTjOec; etc; ma-uv 6v vpeyei TrpoaTUOTiOerai TOV erraivov.

The measure of reliability of Aristoxenus as a biographer may

702 Life of plato

appear from what he tells about Plato (fragments of his Life of Plato,
W. 61-68).

Diog. L. Ill 8 (fr. 61 W.):

a.

Kal auTov (sc. TIXaTCOva) 9730^^ 'ApiaTo^evo^ Tpl<; eaTpaTeuaOai, avra^

[jiev eic; Tavaypav, Seurepov Se ei(; KopivOov, Tptrov em AvjXiG). evOa xal api-

b. Lucianus, De parasito 34 (861). Fr. 62 W. :

IlapaCTiToc; : . . . . 6 Se FIXaTCov .... 6Xiya<; TcapaaLTYjaa^ Yjfjiepa^ TCO TUpavvco

(sc. AioviMTiw) TOU TrapaatTsiv UTTO atpuiac e^eTrsae, xal TraXiv 'AOyjva^e 91x6-
(jievoc; xal 9iXoTcov/]C7ac;
xal Trapaaxeuaaac; sauTov a00t(; SeuTepw aroXo) eTteTrXeoo-s

Tyj SixeXia xal ^eiTrvyjaac; TiaXiv oXiyaq 7)(JLepaq UTTO apiaOiac; e^CTueae. xal
auTT) T] cu[JL9opa HXaTcovi Tcepl SixeXiav 6[jioLa Soxsi ysveaOat, ryj NIXLOU.

c. Aristocles ap. Euseb., Praep. evang. XV 2 (fr. 64 W.):

Ti<; 8* av Trei-aOeiy] TOLC; UTT* 'ApiaTo^evou TOU [JLOUCJIXOU XeyojJLevoi^ ev TW
PICO TOU TTXaTOivo^ ;
ev yap T^ TrXavy) xal TYJ a7roS7j(jLia 97](rlv ercaviCTTaaOai xal

avToixoSojJieiv auToi Ttvac; IlepLTcaTOv ^evou<; ovTac;. ocovTai ouv eviot, TauTa
St,a TravToc; eu9Y)(JLOi>VTO<;
xepl 'ApLdTOTeXouc; Xeyetv auTov, 'ApiaTO^evou 'Apt-

d. Diog. L. Ill 37 (fr. 67 W.):

Hv IIoXtTetav (sc. IlXaTcavo^) 'ApicrTo^evo^ 973(7^ Tcaaav

flpcoTayopou yeypcx90at 'AvTiXoyixoL^.

703 His doctrine of the soul is cited on a level with that of Dicaearchus Soul

(our nr. 690b).

a. Cicero describes Aristoxenus' doctrine of the soul in Tusc. I 10,

19 (fr. 120 a W.):

Aristoxenus musicus idemque philosophus ipsius corporis intentionem
quandam animam esse dixit, velut in cantu et fidibus quae harmonia
dicitur, sic ex corporis totius natura et figura varios motus cieri tamquam
in cantu sonos.

1
Wchrli cites the text up till here.
 248 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [703]

Cp. Lactantius, Inst. VII 13 (fr. 120 c, W.)

b. :

Quid Aristoxcnus, qui negavit omnino ullam esse animam, ctiam

cum vivit in corporc ? sed sicut in fidibus ex intentionc nervorum effici
concordem sonum atque cantum, quern musici harmoniam vocant, ita
in corporibus ex compage viscerum ac vigore membrorum vim sentiendi
exist ere. Quo nihil dici delirius potest.

Musicoiogy 704 in musicology, Aristox. was among the greatest authorities

in Antiquity.

a. Cic., De oratore III 33, 132 (fr. 6ga, W.):

An tu existimas, cum esset Hippocrates ille Cous, fuisse turn alios
medicos qui morbis, alios qui volneribus, alios qui oculis mederentur?
num geometriam Euclide aut Archimede, num musicam Damone aut
Aristoxeno, num ipsas litteras Aristophane aut Callimacho tractante
tarn discerptas fuisse, ut nemo genus universum complecteretur atque 5
ut alius aliam sibi part em, in qua elaboraret, seponeret ?

b. Cic., De fin. V 18, 49 (fr. 69 b, W.):

Duci vero maiorum rerum contemplatione ad cupiditatem scientiae
summorum virorum est putandum. quern enim ardorem studii censetis
fuisse in Archimede etc. quantum Aristoxeni ingenium consumptum
. . .
,

videmus in musicis?

Alex. Aphr., in Ar. Top. 105 a 34 (fr. 69 c, W.):

c.
e

0ei7) yap &v TI<; cl> evSo^ov TO UTUO l7rrcoxpaTou<; Xeyofjievov ev laTpixTJ xal
TO UTUO 'Ap)i[jLY)Sou<; ev yeto(jiTpia xal TO UTTO 'ApiaTO^evou ev

4 DEMETRIUS OF PH ALE RON

Life 705 a. Suidas A
429 (fr. 3 W.):
'

Av)[jL7]Tpio OavoaTpaTou <fraA7)peu<; (OaXyjpov 8e Xi(Ji7)v T^^

TO TupoiTov Oavoc; exaXetTo. 9tX6ao9o^ IlepiTuaTTjTtxoc; yeypacpe 9iXoao<pa Te
xal laTopixa xal pvjTopixa xal uoXiTixa xal Tuepl TCOIYJT&V (fr. 75), YjxpodcaaTo
Se eocppaaTou xal Sy][/,aycoy6^ 'AOyjVTjat yeyove. auveypa^e Se au^va

b. Diog. L. V 75:
AY)[JLYJTPIO<; OavoaTpaTou OaX7]peii<;. OUTOC; yjxouae (Jtev eo^paaTOu-
yopcov 8^ Trap* 'AOyjvatoic; TYJ(; 7roXeco<; e^YjyifjaaTo ITYJ S6xa, xal eixovov
aiv al
 [705] DEMETRIUS OF PHALERON 249

^aav xal apfJiaTCOv xal auvcopiScov, auvTeXeaOetaai ev ouSe Tptaxodtat^ Y)[jilpai<;

CT7roi>Sacr6Y). #paa0ai S* auiov TYJ<; 7coXiTeia<; 973(11 AY)(ZY)Tpio<; 6
ev TOI<; 'O(juovti[/.oi(;, OTUOTC 9uyoav 'AXav8pov etc; 'A0Y)vas ^xev
^. TuoXXa Se xal xaXXicrnx Tfl TuarptSi eTcoXiTeuaaro. xal yap
xal xaTaaxeuat<; Y)u!;Y)ae TTJV TroXiv, xabuep oux euyevy)^ <&v.

c. Diodorus XVIII 74, 2 (fr. 13 W., at the end):

Ofrrcx; Se TuapaXa^wv TYJV e7ri(ji6Xeiav TYJ^ 7r6Xeca<; >]px v eipvjvixco^ xal

TOIX; TuoXiTac; 9iXav6pa>7cco<;.

706 D. was made absolute governor at Athens by Cassander in Governor

318/7, and expelled ten years later by Demetrius Poliorcetes.

a. Pausanias I 25, 6 (fr. 14 W.):

KdcdcravSpo^ Se paaiXeiiaa^ .... Flavaxrov TEL^ ev Tyj 'ATTixyj xal 2aXa-
jjitva elXe Tupavvov TS 'AOTjvatoK; eTrpa^e yeveaOat Ayj^Tpiov TOV OavoarpaTou

[Ta Tcpo^] So^av eLXYj90Ta em cro9ta. TOUTOV fjtev Syj TUpavviSoc; eTrauare AyjfjiTjTpioc
6 'AvTiyovou.

13
b. Synccllus 274 d, p. 521, Bind. (fr. 17 W.): Law-giver
'
6 OaXvjpeix; eyvcopi^eTO TpiTtx; vofjioOeTTjc; 'AOvjvYjat, OUTOC;

aTuoSouc; T/JV SirjpioxpaTtav i]X6ev etc; Al'yuTrrov.

c. Cic., D^ leg. II 25, 63 (fr. 135 W.) tells us something about I).'

measures of legislation. pomp

Posteaquam, ut scribit Phalcreus, sumptuosa fieri funera et lamenta-
bilia coepisscnt, Solonis lego sublata sunt. quam legem eisdem prope
verbis nostri decemviri in dccimam tabulam coniecerunt.
Sed idem Demetrius increbruisse earn funerum sepulcrorum-
ait rursus

5que magnificentiam, quae nunc fere Romae est; quam consuetudinem

lege minuit ipse, fuit enim hie vir ut scitis non solum eruditissimus, sed
etiam civis e re publica maxime tuendaeque civitatis peritissimus. is

igitur sumptum minuit non solum poena sed etiam tempore, ante lucem
enim iussit efferri. sepulcris autem novis finivit modum, nam super
ioterrae tumulum noluit quod statui nisi columellam tribus cubitis ne
altiorem aut mensam aut labellum, et huic procurationi certum magi-
stratum praefecerat.
Wilamowitz, AY. und Athen, 1 p. 363, speaks of "die segcnsreiche Verwaltung
des Demetrios" and states: "So tiber Athen zu herrschen hat D. bei Aristoteles
gelernt: er 1st der vo^oOeTix&s dcvyjp, den die Politik erzogen hat. Gerade an Athen
hat sie ihre praktische Probe bestanden".
 250 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [707]

Honoured by 707 The people of Athens showed their gratitude by honouring D.

the people
exceedingly.

a. Nepos, Milt. 6 (fr. 21 W.) :

Idem populus, posteaquam maius imperium est nactus et largitione

ille

magistratuum corruptus est, trecentas statuas Demetrio Phalereo de-

crevit.

b. Cf. Plin., N.H. XXXIV 12, 27 (fr. 22 W.):

Nullique arbitror pluris statuas dicatas quam Phalereo Demetrio

Athenis, siquidem CCCLX statuere, nondum anno hunc numerum dierum
excedente, quas mox laceravere.

Cp. also Diog. Laert. V 75, sub 705b, supra.

Later in 708 His life was a good example of those sudden changes of Fate
disgrace
which happened not unfrequently in those days.

a. Plut., Praecepta gerendae rei publicae c. 27, p. 820 c (fr. 54 W.) :

T&v Se A7)(jL7]TpLOU TOU OaXY]pO^ TpiaxotfLCOv avSpiavTCOv ooSelc;

iov ou TCIVOV, aXXa 7cavT<; STL

His own V 82 122 W.):

reaction
b. Diog. Laert. (fr.

OUTCK; axotiaac; OTI ra<; stxova^ auTou xarecrTps^av 'AOvjvaloi, aXX* ou TYJV

apTY)v, 597], C vjv

He meets 709 De adulatore

Plut., et arnica 28, p. 69 c (fr. 59 W.):
c.
Krates in % f t \~ ,/ /<N r/ > v

Thebes AyTai d xai, Z\Y)(ji7)Tpio<; o vPaXY)pu<; OTE TYJS TtaTptocx; ^7i:<j xai TOpi

0y)fia<; aSo^wv xai Ta7Tiva TcpaTTCov 8i9)yv, ou^ Y)8O)c; iSiv TCpoaiovTa KpdcTYjTa,
XUVLXTJV xai Xoyoix; Tpaxet^ TrpoaSE/ofJiEvo^. VTUXOVTO<; SE Trpaax;
TOU KpaTTiToc xai 8taXy6VTOc 7Cpl cpuy^c <oc ouSfiv EVOI xaxov
)6Sv xai appat<ov a7U7]XXay[JLvov,
SE 6appLv Icp* lauTW xai Tyj SLa6ai TrapaxaXouvTOt;, yjSLOJV yv6(jivo<; xai
avaOappTjaac; Trpo^ TOU^ 9tXou<; EITTE :
cpu TWV 7rpa^cov EXELVCOV xai aa^oXicov
St' ac;
avSpa TOIOUTOV oux yvw(jiv.

D. in 710 a. Cic., Z)^ fin. V 19, 53 (fr. 62 W.):

Alexandria
Itaque multi, cum in potestate essent hostium aut tyrannorum, multi
in custodia, multi in exilio dolorem suum doctrinac studiis levaverunt.
princeps huius civitatis Phalereus Demetrius, cum patria pulsus esse
iniuria,ad Ptolemaeum se regem Alexandream contulit. qui cum in hac
ipsa philosophia ad quam te hortamur excelleret Theophrastique essets
 DEMETRIUS OF PHALERON 251

auditor, multa praeclara in illo calamitoso otio scripsit non ad usum

aliquem suum, quo erat orbatus, sed animi cultus ille erat ei quasi quidam
humanitatis cibus.

b. Aristeae ad Philocr. epist. o (fr. 66 W.): Librarian of

Ptol. I
KocTaorTaOelc; iid TT)<; TOU paaiXeox; f3i^XioOif)X73^ A7)[nf)Tpio<; 6
TcoXXa Sia90pa npoc, TO auvayayetv, SL SUVOCTOV, oforavTa T<X XOCTOC

TYJV oixoufjievYjv fhpXtoc, xoci TTOLoijfievo^ ayopaafjiou^ xai, [ieTaypa9a<; ITU TeXoc;
^Yayev, oaov 9* eauTw, TYJV TOU paaiXeox; TupoOeatv. TrapovTcov o5v Y)[ji&v

5 ep(ory)0e<;, 7r6<rai TLVSC; (lupiaSec; Tuyxavoucrt PI^XICOV, SLTTSV :

uTcep Ta<; stxoai,
fiacrtXeij (TTcouSadco 8' ev oXtyto xpovw Trpo^; TO TrXTqpcoOyjvai
Ta Xoirca. rcpocryjyyeXTai 8e [JLOI
xal Ta TCOV 'louSatcov
fiia xal T^C; Trapa aol pLpXio6y)XY](; elvai. TL TO xcoXuov o5v,
L ae TOUTO Troiyjaat, ;
TuavTa yap uTTOTETaxTai aoi, Ta Tupo^; TTJV /petav. 6 8e
to Ay](ji7]Tpioc; ELTIEV :
ep(jL7)veta^ TupoaSelTat, /apaxTTJpat yap iSioic; xaTa TYJV
TouSafcov xp^vTai .... fisTaXapdbv Se exaaTa 6 padiXsui; elTre ypa9yjvai
TOV ap^iepea TWV 'louSaicov, OTTCO^ Ta TcpoetpYjfJLeva TeXeicoaiv

Josephus, ylrfv. Apionem II 45 tells that Ptol. Philadelphus sent Demetrius with
two other persons to translate the Jewish Law. This story is probably invented
by Jewish authors.
Further testimonies in Wendland's eel. of Aristeas' Epist., 1900, p. 90 ff.

711 a. Cicero mentions him as one of the very rare persons who Cicero's

excelled both in philosophy and in politics. on D.

Cic., De leg. Ill 6, 14 (fr. 72 W.) :

Post a Theophrasto doctus) Phalereus ille Demetrius, de quo feci

(sc.

supra mentioncm, mirabiliter doctrinam ex umbraculis eruditorum[que]

otioque non modo in solem atque in pulverem, sed in ipsum discrimen
aciemque produxit: nam et mediocriter doctos magnos in re publica
5viros et doctissimos homines non nimis in re publica versatos multos
commemorare possumus; qui vero utraque re cxcellerct, ut et doctrinae
studiis et regenda civitate princeps esset, quis facile praeter hunc inveniri
potest ?

b. Again, he praises his double ability, both in forensic eloquence

and in philosophical disputation.

Cic., De I
i, 3 (fr. 73 W.):
off.
Et id
quidem nemini video Graecorum adhuc contigisse, ut idem utro-
que in genere laboraret sequereturque et illud forense dicendi et hoc
quietum disputandi genus, nisi forte Demetrius Phalereus in hoc numero
 252 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [711]

haberi potest, disputator subtilis, orator parum vehemens, dulcis tamen,

ut Theophrasti discipulum possis agnoscere.
In his Brutus 9, 37, Cicero speaks of the rhetoric style of Demetrius. "Hie primus
inflexit orationem et earn mollem tcneramque reddidit, et suavis sicut fuit videri
maluit quam gravis" (fr. 175 W.).

His works 712 Diog. Laert. V 80 (fr. 74 W., first part):

Se (BipXicov xal aptOjjuo <mx wv <rxeS6v a?cavTa<; TcapeXyjXaxe TOIK;
auTov IlepiTuaTTjTixou^, eu7rai8ei>TO<; cov xal 7roXu7reipo<; Trap* OVTIVOUV.
&v e<TTi TOC [lev IdTOpixa TOC 8e TcoXiTixa Ta Se rapl TUOIYJTCOV TOC 8e pTjToptxa,

87)[JLY]Yopi6)v TS xal Tupecipcicov aXXa (JLYJV xal Xoyaw

xal aXXa

A fragm. 713 jjie following passage from his Ilepl TU/^ is cited by Plutarch
n ^s Consolatio ad Apoll. c. 6, p. 104 a (fr. 79 W.) :

r/
00ev 6p0co<; 6
6 S* 0X^0^ 06 p^paios aXX*
xal OTI

(jiixpa Ta a9aXXovTa, xal [ii 7](jLpa

s
Ta (Jiev xaOecXev u^oOev Ta 8' ^)p &vo> 5
Ta [Jtev aXXa xaXta^ 297] Xeyeiv auTov, peXTiov 8' av exetv et [JLYJ jxtav Y)|Jipav
aXXa aTiyfjLTjv etTue /povou.

5STRATO OI^ LAMPSACUS

Successor of 714 Successor of Theophr. as the head of the Peripatetic School.
r r
Theophr.
Uiog. Laert. V 58 (fr i W.) :

8' auTou (sc. 0eo9paaTou) TTJV a^oX^v STpaTcov 'ApxeaiXaou

,
ou xal ev Tatc; 8ia0*/]xai(; sjjivYjfjioveucTev av/jp eXXoyijAtoTaToc;
xal <puaixo<; eTTixXTjOel^ OCTTO TOU Tcepl TTJV Oewpiav TauTYjv Trap' OVTIVOOV ETU-

jisXeciTaTa StaTCTp^evai. aXXa xal xaOyjyyjcraTO IlToXefJtatou TOU OiXaSeX^ou

xal s'Xape, ^acjt, Trap* auTou TaXavTa oySoyjxovTa. a^oXapxetv Se, xa0a ^Tjaiv 5
5

A7ToXX6So)po<; ev Xpovtxolc;, 7]p^aTo Tyj TpiTy] xal eixodTTJ xal

TY 6xTOxat8exa.

715 His succession changed the character of the School.

a. fin. V 5, 13 (fr. 12 W.):
Cic., De
Simusigitur contenti his (sc. Aristotele, Theophrasto), namque horum

posteri meliores illi quidem mea sententia quam reliquarum philosophi

288-285 B.C.
 [715] STRATO OF LAMPSACUS 253

disciplinarum, sed ita degenerant, ut ipsi ex se nati esse videantur.

primum Theophrasti Strato physicum se voluit, in quo etsi est magnus,
5tamen nova pleraque et perpauca de moribus; huius Lyco oratione
locuples, rebus ipsis ieiunior.
In this book and in the Ac. Post, from which the next quotation is taken, Cicero
follows Antiochus of Ascalon, who finds an essential agreement between the Stoa,
the Academy and the early Peripatetic School, namely Aristotle and Theophr.,
excluding Strato and his successors.

b. Cic., Acad. post. I 9,

33 (fr. 13 W.):
Theophrastus autem vehementius etiam fregit quodam modo
. . .

auctoritatem veteris disciplinae, spoliavit enim virtutem suo decore in-

becillamque reddidit, quod ncgavit in ea sola positum esse beate vivere.
nam Strato, eius auditor, quamquam fuit acri ingenio, tamen ab ea
5 disciplina omnino semovendus est qui cum maxime necessariam partem
:

philosophiae, quae posita est in virtute et in moribus, reliquisset totumque

se ad investigationem naturae contulisset, in ea ipsa plurimum dissedit
a suis.

716 V
59-60 mentions several works of Str. on logic.
Diog. Laert.
Works

Simplicius, in his Commentary on the Categories, mentions a monography

H. TOU TrpoTepou xal u<jTepou (sub a), from which he cites an important
fragment later in the same work (sub b).
24
a. Simpl. in Ar. Categ., p. 148, Kalbfleisch (fr. 29 W.):
ALOC TOUTO o5v xal TOU TupOTepou 7roXXax&<; Xeyo[zevou TTJV Siaipeoriv TTOISLTOCI
(sc. 'ApiaTOTeXyj^), ou TravTa^ TOIX; TpOTroix; 7rapaSt,Sou<; xal aXXou<; youv oux

6Xiyou<; TcpoaTtOyjaiv xal auTo<; ev aXXoi<; xal 6 STPOCTCOV ev T> rcepl TOU TupOTepou
xal udTepou [Jtovopi,j3Xi6), apxouvTac; Se Trpo^ eiaaywyviv xai TOUC; exTeOevTa<;
o!6{xevo<;.
The same is told in the Scholia in Ar., p. 87 a 37 Brandis (fr. 28 W.).
l
b. Simpl. in Ar. Categ., p. 423, ff. Kalbfleisch (fr. 27 W.):
Kai ZTP<XT<OV Se 6 Aa(jL^axY]voc; ev TW Tuepl TOU TrpoTepou xai u^Tepou [JLOVO-
Pipxtw TroXXoix; a7UY)piO[JiY)<7aTo TpoTuou^, ouc; VO[JLI^CO SuvaTOv elvou UTu6 TOU<;
TCVTE TOIX; evTOtuOa XeyofJievou^ avayayetv olov fiepLafjiov exetvcav 8vTa^. UTUO
fiev yap TO TCO Xpovcp TipoTepov TaxOiQ^eTai TO dcTeXec; TOU TeXecou Xeyop.evov,

ea^aTOv ev Tiaari TO TeXoc; TO 8e OCUTO xal UTCO TT]V Ta^tv. eTi Se UTT*
5 8i6TL
TauTa xat UTTO <TO> T^ a^ta xal Suva[xei xal T^ 9uaret TrpoTepov eaTiv, o3 e
[JL7) TupoTepov, olov (jLovaSo^ YI 73 apTtou xal TrepiTTOu.
SuaSoc; xal TrXYJOoug
TauTa yap ouSe avTiaTpe9ei xaTa TYJV TOU elvai axoXouOTjatv coarcep ouSe ^
auTtov. TrpwTov Se xal TCO XPovw xal Tfj dc^ta, &v TO epyov TrpoTepov,
 254 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [716]

olov TO dyaGov TOU xaxou. TO (zev yap crcor/jpiac;, TO Se 90opa<; aiTiov, TrpaiTOv 10
Se TO elvai TOU 96eipea0ai xal XP^ V<P xa * <*ta. Tcparrov Se
Tfl 9uaei c!><; (JLYJ

avTKTTpe^ov xaTa TTJV TOU elvai dxoXouOyjaiv, feep SuvaTov elvai OaTepou (JLYJ

OVTO<;, <!><; TOTTO^ <7ca[jiaTO<; xal oto(jia xP c^(JLaT ^j Se xal ei 0aTepov ev

6{jLofa>

OaTepco 7re9uxe yiveaOai, olov Y)

ouaia TIOIOU xal Tcoaou. OUTGX; Se xal TO xaTa

9uaiv TcpoTepov TOU Trapa 9uai,v xal 6 v6|jio<; T^<; Trapavofjita^ xal YJ e^i^ T^^ 15
CTTp7]Gra)(;. UTUO Se TO T^ aSta TtpoTSpov xal TO Suvafiei TOCTTOITO av Ta TW

TifJiicoTepco cruyyevecrTepa, a><; TO TUOCTOV TOU TTOIOU TCPOTOCTTOITO av, SLOTL TO ptev
Tuoaov [jispoc; TT^<; ouala^, TO 8k. TTOIOV ou. xal d TO (JLEV [jieTexet yevlaecoc; xal

90opa<;, clac;
6 ^povo^, TO Se ou, cl)^ 6 TOTCO^, xal TO (JLSV ^coptaTOv, TO Se ou
aveu (jiev yap aicrOrjaecoc;
elvat TTJV ^U^TJV dcSuvaTOv, aveu Se eTTtOufJiia^ elvai 20
SuvaTov. xal TO afieps^ TOU fiepiaTOu ap^yj yap 6[zoioTpov, tiaTS xal xuxXou
TO xevTpov. xal TO [JiaXXov TOU TupoTepou (jLeTex ov ^^ T ^> atStov (Jiev TOU ayaOou,
TO 96apTov Se TOU xaxou xal TO apTiov SuaSoc;, TO Se TiepiTTOv TpiaSo^. xal el
TO (lev (jtevei XP^ VOV ^ lv oc, TO Se ou (Jievei, olov awfjia xivyjaeax; xal ^povou. UTTO
Se TO Ta^et TrpoTepov eHrj av TO TOU (jteTa^u TipoTepov, udTepov Se TO TOU pteTa^u 25
Tyj

uaTepov. UTTO Se <TO ev> TOL<; avTLCTTpe9ouatv ax; aiTiwSe*; TupOTepov av eirj TO
aToixetov xal yap aO xal TO fiepog TOU oXou, a)<; TO TieTrepacrptevov TOIJ aTietpou,
xal et OaTepov ex 0aTepou, olov 6 yjytic/.Qc> TOU avSpiavTo^ uXixov yap xal
s

OUTO<; atTLov. OTL Se xal <TO> auTO xaT aXXo xal aXXo xal TrpoTepov xal ucrrepov
'
elvai SuvaTov, xal auTO<; 6 STPOCTCOV eveSe^aTO, TOV XP^ VOV xa L TOV TO^OV 30
vrpoTepa xal ucrTepa aXXvjXcav 8eixvu<;.

Explanation 717 jj e explains the universe by purely natural causes.

of the
universe
^
Negas
^^^
sine deo posse
(Luctllltis) 38, 121 (fr.

quicquam: ecce tibi e transverse Lampsacenus

32 W.) :

Strato, qui det isti deo immunitatem magni quidem muneris. sed cum
sacerdotes deorum vacationem habcant, quanto est aequius habere ipsos
deos negat opera deorum se uti ad f abricandum mundum quaecumque
:
;

sint, docet omnia effecta esse natura, nee ut ille, qui asperis et levibus 5
et hamatis uncinatisque corporibus concreta haec esse dicat interiecto
inani: somnia censet haec esse Democriti, non docentis, sed optantis,
ipse autem singulas mundi partes pcrsequens quicquid aut sit aut fiat

naturalibus fieri aut factum esse docet ponderibus et motibus. ne ille et

deum opere magno liberat et me timore. 10

Lactantius, De ira Dei

b. I (fr. 34 W.): X
Qui nolunt divina providentia factum esse mundum, aut principiis
inter se temere coeuntibus dicunt esse concretum aut repente natura
 [717] STRATO OF LAMPSACUS 255

naturam vcro, ut ait Strato, habcrc in se vim gignendi et

exstitissc;
minuendi, sed earn nee sensum habcre ullum nee figuram, ut intelligamus
5omnia quasi sua sponte essc generata, nullo artifice nee auctore.
c. Cf. Plut. 14, p. 1115 b (fr. 35 W.)
Adv. Coloten c. :

Kal (JLY]V TCOV <XXcov IlepiTraTYjTix&v 6 xopucpaiOTaTO<; SrpaTcav ofrr' 'Apicro-

xaTa TtoXXa ao^epeTai xal HXaTCOvi T<X<; evavTia<; ea^xe 86a<; rcepl
?uepl vou xal Ttepl tyu^c, xat ?cepi yeveaeax; xal TeXeuT&v TOV xoafiov
ou coov elvai cpYjon, TO Si xara cp\iaiv eTceaOat, TGJ xaTa TU^V "

5 yap evSiSovai TO auTOfjLaTov, elO' OUTCO TrepaiveoOai, TWV (pucrLxcov

exaaTov.
Strata abandons not only the Platonic and Stoic explanation of the universe,
but also the Aristotelian principle of teleology.

718 comes near to Epicurus. Simpl. Atomic

a. By his theory of weight Str.
theory
29
in Ar. De caelo, p. 267, Heiberg (fr. 52 W.) :

"OTI Se ouSs Tyj UTC* aXXrjXwv sxGXi^ei pia^6(JLeva xivetTai (sc. Ta

Setxvuaiv e^e^vj^ (sc. 'ApLGTOTeXYjc;). TauTY]<; Se yeyovaai,

STpaTO>v Te xal 'ETCLxoupoc; ?cav acofjia papiiTY]Ta e/eiv vo(jLi^ovTe<; xai

TO fzeaov ^epeaOai, T<O Se Ta ^apUTepa u^i^aveiv T<X ^TTOV papea UTT:'
5 exeivcov exOXi(3eaOai p[a Tcpo<; TO avco, waTe, et u^elXe TTJV yyjv, eXOetv av
TLC;

TO GScop ei^ TO xevTpov, xal et TL<; TO uScap, TOV aepa, xal ei TOV aepa, TO

b. He differs from Epicurus in his theory of first principles.

Sextus, Pyrrh. Ill 33 (fr. 43 W.) :

^TpaT6)v Se 6 9u<7ix6^ Ta<; TroiOTyjTa^ (sc. ap/a^ elvai

Cf. Aetius I 3, 24 (Dox., p. 288): Drparcov aroixefo <0ep(ji6v> xai

719 His theory of the void. The void

a. Theodoretus, Graec. aff. cur. IV 14 (fr. 54 W.) :

'O Se STPOCTCOV e'jjLTiaXiv e^coOev [Jiev (sc. TOU TcavToc;) (JL7]Sev elvat xevov,
SvSoOev Se SuvaTov elvai.

The meaning of the above statement may appear from the following
passages of Simplicius.
20 Diels
Simpl., Corollarium de loco, in Ar. Phys. p. 618,
b. (fr. 60 W.) :

Ol Se urofJieTpov auTo (sc. TO xevov) TO) XO<T(JLIXW <7a>(jLaTt TCOIOUCTI, xal Sia
TOUTO T^ [Jiev eauTou cpuaei xevov elvat Xeyouai, 7re7iX7)pa)cr0ai, Se auTo ato(/,aTcov
aet, xal (JLOVT) ye Tyj eTrtvota Oeo)peZa0ai co<; xaO* auTo u^eaTax;, olol Tive<; ol
TroXXol Toiv IlXaTCOVLxciv 9LXoCT09COv yeyovaai, xal STpaTCova Se olfjiai TOV

yeveaOai TYJ
 256 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [719]

c.
10 Diels
Simpl., Phys. 693, (fr. 65 a, W.) :

'O STpaTtov
i/lvTOi Aa(juj;ax7)v& TO xevov
8eixv\ivai TteipaTai, OTI &m
SiaXai(3avov TO Trav a&jjia, aiaTe [JLTJ
elvai <juvex<;, Xeycov STL oux av Si' uSaTog
>] aepo<; 7]
aXXou aco(JiaTO<; eStivaTo SiexTriTrreiv TO 9&<; ouSe Y) 6epjju$TY)<; ouSe
#XXY) Suvapuc; ouSejJua crcofjiaTixY]. TU(O<; yap av at TOU YjXtou axTtvec; 8ies7ui7CTOv

sic; TO TOU ayyeiou e8acpo<; ;

ei yap TO uypov [JIY] el^s Tropouc;, aXXa Pia SisaTeXXov 5
auTo at auyai, duvepaivev uTcspexxsia6ai T<X TrXTjpT) TO>V ayyeicov, xai oux av
al (Jiev TCOV OCXTIVCOV avexXcovTO Tupoc; TOV avco TOTUOV, at Se XOCTCO SIE^TTITCTOV.

The same argument for the existence of a void is used by Hero in his
Pneumatica (fr. 65 b, W.).

d. Cp. the following passage in Hero:

13
Pneum. I p. 26, Schmidt (fr. 66 W.) :

"ETi Ss xai TauTY) 9avep6v a><; ev TO> (JSaTi uTrapxet xeva, TO) TOV e[jipaXX6-
fievov olvov eic; TO uScop opacrOai xaTa yvaw sic; icavTa TOTCOV TOU G8aTO<; x^po^vra.
TOUTO Se oux av eyiveTO (JLYJ OVTCOV ev TO> (JSaTi xsvaiv. <pepTai 8e xai TO 90)^; TO
STepov Sia TOU ETepou OTav yap TK; rcXeiouc; a^fl Xu^vouc; avravTa 9COTi^eTai
5

jiaXXov, T&V auycov TCOCVTV] 9spo(jisvcov Si aXXvjXow. [aXXa [JLYJV xai Sia x a Axou 5
xai aiSyjpou xai TCOV aXXtov a7iavTa>v SiexTriTUTSi aco[JiaTO)v, xaOaTiep xai TO
eTri TYJ<; vapxY]*; TTJC; OaXacraiac; yivofjievov.]

Motion 720 Straton's definition of motion.

9
Simpl., Phys. 711, Diels 70 W.)
(fr. :

e
O Se Aa(JLvj;ax7)v6c; XTpaTtov oux OCTUO TOU [JLsyeOou<; (JLOVOV auve/^ TTJV

xivy]<riv elvai 97)ariv, aXXa xai xaO' eauTYjv, coc; ei Siaxo7cs[y), GTCXCTEI SiaXa(Jt(3avo-

xai TO (JieTa^u 8uo aTaaeov XIVYJCTIV o5aav aSiaxoTrov. xai TTOCTOV Se TI,

, 7) xivvjaic;
xai SiaipeTov ei<; aei SiaipeTa.

Time 721 a. Time differs from number.

36
Simpl., Phys. 788, Diels (fr. 75 W.):
f
O (JievToi Aa(Ji^ax7]v6<; ^TpaTCov aiTiaarafJLevo<; TOV UTT' 'ApierTOTeXou^; TS xai
TCOV 'ApiaTOTeXou^; eTaipcov dbroSoOevTa TOU ^povou opiajjiov auTo<; xaiToi
eo9pa<TTOu {jLaOyjTT]^ cov TOU TravTa (T^sSov axoXou07)(ravTog TW 'ApiaTOTeXei
xaivoTepav ej^aSiaev 6S6v. apiO(ji6v (JLSV yap xivyjdeco^ eivai TOV ^p6vov oux
i, SIOTI 6 (Jiev api6|AO<; SicopiarfJLevov Tuoaov, Y)
Se XIVYJOTK; xai 6 /p^ v(>? 5
TO Se auvexe^ o^>t apiOfnrjTOv. ei S^, STI (ScXXo xai aXXo TO fjiepoc; T^g
xai TOUTCOV T& {xev TrpoTepov TO Se uaTepov, xaTa TOUTO SGTI TK; T^C

api6fji6<;, OUTOJ ye av xai TO (JLTJXO*; apiO(jLY]TOv eKv] (xai yap xai TOUTO
Tuoaov aXXo xai &XXo ec7Ti) xai TCOV aXXcov TWV xaTa auvexetav yivojievcov
 [721] STRATO OF LAMPSACUS 257

10 Xal TO [ZeV TCpOTepOV TO 8k UCTTEpOV, OXTTS Xal TOU ^POVOD 617) OCV
en Se api6(JLOu (zev oux &m
yeveo^ xal 96opa, xav TOC apiOfjiYjTa (pGeipyjTai, 6
Se ^povo(; xal ytveTat xal cpOsipeTai owe^ta^. xal TOU [jiev apt0[/.ou avayxaiov
elvai TcavTa T<X jxepv) ([JIT] yap oucrcov T<OV Tpuov (jiovaScov ouS' av Y] Tpia<; efrr)),
TOU 8e xP^vou aSuvaTov. SaTai yap 6 TrpoTepoc; ^povo<; xal 6 uaTepo^ <J(Jia.
TO auTO IcrTai {jLova<; xal vov, etrcep 6 xpo vo ^ api0(/.6<;. 6 (JLEV yap xp^vo<; ex
TCOV vuv ativOeToc;, 6 Se aptOfJio^ ex [JLovaSwv.
1- 2
Cp. Ar.'s definition of time in Phys. IV, 219 b (our nr. 510a).

b. Again, he criticizes Ar.'s definition by remarking that time is

no more the measure of motion than of rest.

15
Simpl., ib. 789, D. (fr. 77 W.):
Kal TOUTO 8e aTuopei (sc. 2TpaTO>v): TI [JiaXXov earTiv 6 /povo^ api6[x6(; TOU
sv xtvYjcrei TcpOT^pou xal uaTepou YJ TOU ev y]pe(jLta xal yap sv TauTT) ; 6(jiota><; eaTi
TO TupoTepov xal uarepov.

A fact which, for the rest, did not remain unobserved by Ar. Cp. Phys. IV 221 b 7 ,

where he says: 'ETTEI 8* larlv 6 xp6vo<; [A^Tpov xtvTjdewg, ^arai xal 7)pe(jda<; [JLSTPOV xara

c. Time is the quantitative element in actions.

33
Simpl., ib.
789, D. (fr. 76 W.) :

Kal aXXa 8e iroXXa avTGOTwv icpoc; TYJV 'ApLGTOTeXouc; aTioSoaiv 6

TOV xpovov TO ev Tatc; Tcpa^eai Ttoaov elvai TiGsTai: TioXXov yap,
v 9a(jiev aTroSyjfjLELv xal 7uXev xal aTpaTeueaOai, xal TuoXefjiSLv xal oXiyov

Xpovov, ofjioiax; Se xaOyjaOat xal xaOeuSstv xal fjLYjSev TrpaTTCiv xal TioXuv xpo v o v

5 9a{jLev xal oXtyov. oiv (jiev IOTTI, TO Ttocrov TioXu, TioXuv ^povov, J>v Se oXtyov,
oXtyov. xpovoc; yap TO ev exaorTO^ TOUTCOV TTOCTOV. 816 xai 9aaiv ot (jiev ppaSeco^;
ol e Ta^eo)^ TOV auTov, cl><; av exadTOtc; ^aivyjTaL TO ev TOUTOK; TUOO-QV.

u {Jiev yap elvat 9a(Jiev, ev &> TO TCOOTOV a^' ou ^p^aTO xal ei<; 8 eT
[/.ev

oXtyov, TO Se yeyovog ev auTo> rcoXu TO ppaSu 8e TouvavTiov, &Tav f) TO

io7coaov ev auTto TroXu, TO Se 7ce7cpay(Jievov oXiyov. 816, (p-^aiv, oux ICTTIV ev Yj
TO Ta^u xal TO Ppa8ii Tiaaa yap LCTT) eaTi TCO eauT7J<; TTOCTW xal ouTe ev oXiyco
T(5 Tuoaoi TToXXyj ouTe ev TroXXcp Ppa^eta. Sia TOUTO Se, 9730^1, xal TrXeieo {xev

elvat xal eXaTTCo ^povov Xeyo[xev, OaTTO) Se xal (3pa8uTspov xp^vov ou Xyoj/.ev.

Tupa^^ ^ V Y^p xal xv7j<7i<; eo^Ti 0aTTO)v xal (3paSuTpa, TO Se TUOCT&V TO ev &
1 5 Y) 7rpai<; oux eaTt OOCTTOV xal (SpaSuTepov, aXXa TuXeov xal eXaTTov
xal xpovo<;. yjfjiepa Se xal vu, ^Yjat, xal JJLYJV
xal eviauTO<; oux edTi xpov
Xp6vou [JLepyj, aXXa Ta
(Jiev
6 cpcoTtajioc; xal Y) axia<n<;, Ta Se Y) TY](; aeXY)VY)<; xal
TOU vjXiou TcepioSoc;, aXXa ^po^o^ ^crTl TO TTOGTOV ev $ TauTa.
DC Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 17
 258 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [721]

Definition d. Scxtus, Math. X (= Adv. phys. II) 177 (fr. 7ga W.):
Aiorcep HrpdcTCov 6 (pu<rix6<; arcocrTac; TYJaSs TTJS evvotac; e'Xeye xpovov uTrap/siv
xal [Jiov9j<;.

unity of 722 a. He rejects Ar.'s doctrine of the nous.

the soul
Tertullianus, Zte (fr. 108 W.): anima 14
Specta portentosissimam Archimedis munificentiam, organum hydrau-
licum dico, tot membra, tot partes, tot compagines, tot itinera vocum,
tot compendia sonorum, tot commercia modorum, tot acies tibiarum,
et una moles crunt omnia. sic et spiritus, qui illic de tormcnto aquae
anhelat, non ideo separabitur in partes, quia per partes administratur, 5
substantia quidem solidus, opera vero divisus. non longe hoc exemplum
est a Stratone et Aencsidcmo et Heraclito, nam et ipsi unitatem animae

tuentur, quac in totum corpus diffusa et ubique ipsa, velut flatus in calamo
per cavernas ita per sensualia variis modis emicet, non tarn concisa quam
dispensata. 10

Mindidenti-
fied with
b. Cp. Sextus, Math. VII (= Adv. log. I) 350 (fr. 109 W.):
T, > < t , , , , / * ,
,
\
~ n' <

the senses ftou 01 [lev oia9pst,v auTYjv (sc. TYJV ftiavoiav) TG)V aiaUyjaecav, to^; 01

ot Se auT/jv elvai T<X<; aiaOyjasic;, xaOdcTrsp Sta TIVCOV OTT&V TCOV aicr07]T7]puov

STPOCTCOV TS 6 9U<nxo<; xal

Rejection 723 He explains

r knowledge as a movement of the soul.
of an a
7
priori Simpl., Phys. 965, Diels (fr. 74 W.):
Kal XTPOCTCOV Se 6 eo^paaTOi) yeyovw^ axouaT'/]^ xai, ev
Aa^axvjvoc; 6
TOL(; apL(TTOi(; IlepiTraTTjTtxotf; apt,6(ju>u(jievo<; TTJV ^ u o[^o^OY ^ xiveiaOai ou xV
[jiovov TYjv SXoyov aXXa xal TTJV Xoy^v, xtvyjasi^ Xeycov elvai Tac;
xal f

TY]^ ^u)r^^. Xeyet oOv sv TW Tcepl xivyjaecac; TTpoc; aXXo^ TcoXXotc; xal
asl yap 6 vo&v xivetTai coaTrep xal 6 op&v xal axoiicov xal oa<ppaiv6[ievo<; 5

evepyeia yap 7] vovjaic; TYJ^ Stavoia*; xaOaTrep xal Y] opacri^ T^ o^ewc. xal Trpo
TOUTOU Se TOU pTjTou yeypa9ev : eTtel oOv daw al TtXeLaTat, TWV xivyjaecov al

aural, a<; Y) ^UXY) xa6* auTYjv TS xiveLTai Siavoou(JievY) xal SLC, UTTO TWV aiaOyjorcwv

exivY)(h) TrpOTEpov. STJXov Se SCTTLV Sera yap (JLYJ TipoTSpov scipaxe, Taura ou
Siivarai voelv, olov TOTUOU^ 7) XifJieva^ 7) ypa9<x<; y) avSptavTa^ y) avBpcoTrouc; y)
10
T&V &XX(OV TL TCOV TOIOUTGW.

One central 724 His doctrine of one central organ.

organ
a. Plut.,De libidine et aegritudine c. 4, p. 6g7b (fr. W.): in
Ol (lev yap aTuavTa auXXyjpSyjv TauTa TYJ ^i>xy] 9povT<; aveOeaav, coaTrep

6 9uatx6(; ou [JLOVOV T<X<; s7n,Ou|jLia^ aXXa xal Ta<; XiiTrac;, ouSe TOUC;
 [724] STRATO OF LAMPSACUS 259

xal TOUC; 906vou<; xal Tar; emxaipexaxia^, aXXa xal TTOVOU<; xal Y)Sova<;
xal aXyY)86va<; xai 8Xco<; Tuaaav aiaOvjaiv ev 173 ^Xfl auviarTaaGat 9a[Jievo<; xal
5 T7}<; ^^X^^ T(* TOiauTa TravTa elvai, ^Y) TOV rcoSa TCOVOUVTOW YJJJLWV OTav Trpoa-

xpoucrcofjtsv, [ryjSe T7)v x9aXy]v OTav xaTa^co^ev, (JLTJ

TOV SaxTuXov OTav
jxev. avataOYjTa yap T<X XoiTca TcX-yjv TOU Y]ye(jiovi,xoi>, 7rpo<; 6 T*^ TrXvjyTJc;

ava<pepo{jLevY)<; TYJV ataQTjaiv aXyvjSova xaXoofxev. coc; 8s TYJV (pcovvjv TOIC; axrlv

auTOt<; svTj^oucav E'G> SoxoufJiev slvai, TO OCTTO TTJS apx^? ^'L T0

ioStaCTT7](Jta T^ aJaOyjcrei Tcpoo-Xoyt^ofjisvot, TuapaTrXyjaico^ TOV ex TOU

/ 5
?r6vov ou^' STTOU TTJV ataOvjcrLv el Xv]9ev, aXX 80sv ecr^e TY]V cxp/yjv elvai

eXxo(JLVY]<; ETC' execvo TTJ<; ^DX^^ a^' o3 TceTUovOe. SLO xal TTpoGrxo^avTe^ auTixa
Ta<; O9pu<; auvayofjiev, TW TuXTjyevTi {Jioptco TOU yjysfjiovixoi) TYJV ataOyjaiv o
a7uo8i86vTo<;, xal TrapeyxoTTTO^ev eaO* OTE TO Trveujjia* xav Ta
1 5 SiaXafJipavYjTat,, <Ta^> X8 ?^ cr^oSpa me^ofjiev, EaTa[xevoL Trpo^ TYJV SiaSoaiv
TOU TcaOouc;, xal TYJV TrXTjyyjv ev TOIC; avaia6Y)Toic; GXipovTec;, tva JJLYJ
auvaieL Tupoc;
TO ^povouv aXyyjSwv yevyjTat. TauTa [xev ouv 6 STpdcTtov em TuoXXot^ co<; etxo<;

TOIOUTOL^.

b. Plut., De sollertia anim. 3, p. g6ia (fr. 112 W.):

KatTOt STpdcTOvo^; ye TOU <puai,xou Xoyo(; eaTlv a7ro8etxvucov a>^ ouS* ataOa-
veaOai TO TiapcxTcav aveu TOU voetv uTcapxet- xal yap ypajifJiaTa TUoXXaxtc;

eTrtTropeuojzevouc; Tyj otyzi xal Xoyoi TrpocrTUTTTOVTec; T^ axofj SiaXavOavouatv

Stacpeuyoucu Tipo^ eTepoi^ TOV vouv e^ovTa^

-
yjIJtac;
xal elr* aOOi(; eTuavvjXOev

5 xal [leTaOet xal Si,a>xei TCOV Tupoiejjievwv exaaTOv avaXeyofxevo^ yj xal XeXexTai
1
vou<; 6p^ xal vou<; axouei, TaXXa xco^a xal TU9Xa -

).

ox; TOU Trepl Ta ojjLfxaTa xal &Ta TraGouc, av {JLYJ Trapyj TO 9povouv, accrOyjatv ou
TTOIOUVTO^.

6 LYCO AND ARISTO OF CEOS

725 Strato was succeeded in the School by strato

J Lyco.
J
succeeded
a. Diog. Laert. V 65 : by Lyco
TOUTOV (sc. STpaTcova) SteSe^aTO Auxcov 'AdTuavaxTo^;
b. Ib. 68:
5

A97)y7]aaTO 8e TYJ^ axoX9j(; ITT) TeTTapa Tcpo^; TOL<; TeTTapaxovTa,

auTov ev Talc; SiaOvjxaii; xaTaXtTiovTO^ xaTa TYJV ep86[XY)v xal eixoar/jv xal
(270/268).

726 He is described by his contemporary Antigonus of Carystus

as a man of the world, even of rather extravagant inclinations.

Epicharmus, B 12 Diels VS.

 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [726]

His a. Athenaeus, Deipn. XII 69, 547^5485 (fr. 7 W.):

character
Kal Aiixcov Se 6 7repi7uaTY]Tix6<;, co<; 9730 iv 'AvTtyovoc; 6 KapiiaTioc; *, xaT*
2
em8Y)[JiY)cra<; 7rai8eia<; evexa Talc; 'AOYjvau; Tuepl ai>(ipoXixoij xcoOcovoc;

xal TCOCTOV exaaTYj TCOV eTaipouacov 7rpaTTTO fjuaOcofia axpipco^ YJmaTaTO.

"Ycrrepov Se xal TOU TuepucaTou TcpoaTac; eSeiTtvi^e TOUC; 91X01)1; aXa^oveia xai
TuoXuTeXeia TroXXyj ^pco(jisvo<;. Xcoplg yap TCOV 7uapaXa(jipavo[Jievcov et<; aura 5

axpoafjiaTcov xal apyupcojxaTCov xal arpcofjiv^c; YJ XOITCY) Trapaaxeuyj xal Y) TCOV

SetTuvcov Tuepiepyia xal 6 TCOV TpaTce^oTroicov xal (layetpcov 6xXo<; TOCTOUTOC; ?jv

COCTTS TroXXoix; oppcoSetv xal pouXo[Jievou<; Tcpoaievai Trpoc; TT]V StaTpip^v ava-
xoTUTeaOat. Oii yap Eva cuppuevTec; eTil TO auTO TYJ<; ecoc; 6p0pou yevofJLevTjc;

TpaTce^T]^ aTToXauacooriv Y^ X^P LV ^otvia^ STrotYjaavTO TOC<; auvoSoui; TaijTa<; oi to

Tuepl llXaTCova xal XTreuatTUTrov, aXX' iva ^atvtovTat xal TO Oetov TI(JLCOVT^ xal

(jLouaixcoc; aXXifjXoic; au[Ji7repL9p6(jievoi, xal TO TrXetaTOv evexev aveaecoc; xal 91X0-

Xoytac;.
<X
A SY] TravTa yeyovev SeoTepa Tiapa ToZ<; ucnrepov TCOV TE ^XaviSo^v xal

TYJ<; TroXuTeXetac; TY)^ eLpYj[jLevY](; ou yap eycoye TOUC; Xotrcoui; UTre^aipoufxai.

C
O Se Aiixcov UTT* aXa^oveiac; xal ev TCO e7TL9ave<7TaTCj) TYJ<; 7c6Xeco<; TOTUCO ev 15
TY) Kovcovoc; oixia elx ev etxoatxXivov olxov, o<; Y)V OTLTYjSeio^ auTco Tipoc; TOC<;
v
. Hv Se 6 Auxcov xal a9aipL<TTY]^ aya06<; xal

b. Cp. Diog. Laert. V 67 (fr. 8 W.):

~Hv 8k xal xa6apcoTaTO<; TYJV ciToX'/jv, coc; avuTreppXYjTCp
f/

,
xa0a 9Yjai,v Ep(jii7U7roc;. aXXa xal yi>(jLva<7Ti,xcoTaTO<; eysveTO xal
3
TO acofjia TY)V TS Tiacrav v/iaiv aOXY]TtxY]v eTu^aivcov, coTo6XaSia<; xal

(JL7UVY]<; cov, xaOa 9Yjai,v 'AvTtyovoc; 6 KapiiciTLOc;. Sia TOUTO 8e xal TraXaZaai
TCX T* Iv T^ TuaTpiSt 'IXtsta xal <T9aipccraL.

Political 727 a. He political advice to the Athenians.

often gave r
influence
Diog. Laert. V 66:
5

IloXXaxic; TC rcoXXa au(jLpouXs\ic7a^ A0Yjvaioi^ Ta (jieyiaTa aiTOUc; co9eXY](Tv.

Liberality b. And showed liberality towards the Athenian state as well as

to the sanctuary of Delphi. The last point appears from a decree of the

Delphic amphiktyones who honoured him with a laurel wreath etc. for
the sake of his great efivoia and 9iXoTi[jua towards the God and the sanc-
3
tuary at Delphi (Dittenberger, Sylloge ,
nr. 461) the first from a list of
;

1
Cp. Wilamowitz, Antigonos von Karystos, p. 78 sqq.
Symposia on common account.
2
8 A boxer with cauliflower ears.
 [727] LYCO

those who erc^Scoxav eL; TYJV aroynqptav TYJ<; 7i6Xeto<; xal TYJV cpuXaxvjv TYJ<;
xaTa TO ^7)9i(j|ia TOU SYJJJLOU (ib. nr. 491).

Wehrli sees in this liberality a feature of the ^eyaX6<|>uxo<; of Aristotle, an ideal

which was certainly before Lyco's eyes. 1 think it would require a great deal of
benevolence to see in L. a true representative of the (jteyaX64iDXO(;. Certainly L.
displayed a kind of {jLeyaXoTrpeTueia yet, as it seems, not without avoiding the
;

extreme of /auv6T7j<;, as he was judged by his contemporaries. Whether his per-

sonality and behaviour offered a desirable antidote to the type of one-sided erudition
represented by Strato, may seem to us rather problematical.

728 Lyco
J seems to have been more a rhetor than a philosopher.
him exclusively
if
as a 9pacmxo<; av/jp
More a
rhetor than
and a P hilos P her
a. Diog. Laert. praises
for a certain paedagogical talent.

Diog. Laert. V 65-66:

Auxow 'AoTTudcvaxTcx; TpcoaSeu^, cppacmxoc; avyjp xal TrepiTraiScov aycoy/jv

axpax; ouvTSTayfievos. e9aaxe yap Seiv Trape^eu^Oat, TOL<; vraial TYJV aiSca xai
c; TOIC; ITTTCOU; fJiucoTca xal x a^ lv ^ v T ^ ^' ex^pacTixov auTOu xal
-

ev TYJ epfjLTjveia 9aiveTai xavOevSe 973(71 yap TOUTOV TOV TpoTrov

5 STCL TrapOevou rcevt^pa<; Bapi> yap 9opTiov Trarpl xopY] 8ia cr7iavt,v 7rpoix6<;
v axfjiaiov TTJ^ Y]XiXLag xaipov.a Sio S'J]
xat 9aortv 'AvTtyovov ITI*

einrsl'v, a>^ oux ua)Sav xal x^P tv SXXoOi TUOU

Y^v cocTTisp [JLTjXou TYjv

aXX' STT* auTou TOU av0p(o7cou xaOaTrsp sTul TOU SevSpou TCOV

Xeyo[jLva)v exaaTov ISei OecopetaOat. TOUTO Se OTL sv (jiev TCO Xyeiv yXuxuTaTO^
^jv* Tuapo xai Tivec; TO ya[X(JLa auTou TCO ov6(iaTi TipoaeTLOearav.

We have a fragment of L. in the work of the rhetor Kutihus Lupus (II 7; Wehrli,
fr. 26), which is indeed remarkable from a stylistic point of view.

b. Cf. Cic., De fin. V 13:

Lyco, orationc locuples, rebus ipsis ieiunior.

729
His view of the highest good appears from a passage in Clemens, what he
Strom. 11, c. 21, 129, 9 (Stahlin II, p. 183), fr. 20 W.: "the end"
Aiixcov 6 IlepLTraTTjTixo^ TTJV aXyjOivvjv x a P^v T ^ ^ u X*te T^Xo^ eXeyev elvai,
(be; Aeuxipioc; TYJV 7ul TOU; xaXol<;.

Wehrli rightly remarks that, for Lyco, the "true joy of the soul" is

surely not the Aristotelian contemplation.

730
Probably Lyco was succeeded by Aristo of Ceos, the author of a
great characterological fragment preserved in Philodemus' Ilepl xaxicov X.

a. He is mentioned by Cicero in the above-cited passage, De Aristo

fin.
V 13 (after Lyco) :
 262 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [730]

Concinnus deinde et elegans huius (sc. successor), Aristo, sed ea quae

desideratur a magno philosopho gra vitas in eo non fuit. Scripta sane et
multa et polita, sed nescio quo pacto auctoritatem oratio non habet.

b. Strabo X 6, him among those who came from

486, mentions
lulis in Ceos and calls him an emulator of Bion of Borysthenes:
'Ex 8k TYJS 'louXt&o*; 6 TE SifiovtSyj^ 9jv 6 [isXoTroio*; xal BaxxuXi$Y)<; xal
ex TOO TTEpiTcaTou 91X0(7690^ 'AptaTCov, 6 TOO BopuaOevtTOU Bia>vo<; /)-

731 After Lyco, whose chief interest seems to have been in rhetoric,
A. develops another side of Aristotle's inheritance, namely, the description
of types of character. The first part of the fragment in Philodemus'
EL xaxuov X (col. X-XXIV; first part till XVI 27) deals amply with

This quality is not dealt with by Ar., cither in the Eth. Nic. or in the Eth. Eud.
Theophr., Char. 24, defined it as xaTa9p6vy]at<; TIC; TrXrjv <XUTOU TWV <5cXXcov.
As to A., he considers uTrspy^avia as a great fault, because it underestimates
our dependence on TUX"*) and on our fellow-men. Thus, he protests against the
Stoic idea of autarkeia of the individual.

The first part of our fragment seems to have been written in a pro-
treptical style, as may appear from the following passages.
A fragment a Philodemus, 0. xaxiwv X, X
from the
col. ^o-XIII 8
v (fr. 13 I-IVW.):
work "On 'Eav TCOTE ai>vaio~0av7)Tai, (iTG>pi6[Jievo<;, (JLETapLTTTetv TTJV Siavoiav em
relieving
g^poaGe TaTrsivaxrcLc; UTTO Ttfc TU/^, etTcoTS yeyovaaiv -- xal
TOCC;

arrogance
1 '
^po ocpOaXptcov TO TYJ<; TU^^ eTpoxXive<;
l
xal o^uaTpooov xal em
2 1
TO EupiTiiSou Xeysiv 8 xal Aiovuaio<; ou xaxw^
,

IxeXeuev Ttva Sic; T^ yjfjiepac;

10

opac; Tupavvou^; Sia (Jiaxpcov 7)u^[JLevou(; ;

l
xal svapycoc;, ov Tpoirov auTo<; StsTsOv]
-- (jLVTjfjioveiisLv

xaOaTrep xal ALCOV Tipoc; IlTOLoScapov TOV Meyapea,

rcpix; UTrspTj^avyjcravTa,
8<;
x
TroXuv XP^VOV 20
7rl TY]^ Oripac; 7iepi[JLV(ov Trpoc; TOV axoXouOov 9]
TTOU xal yj(Jt!'<;, ELTUEV,
))exL TtoXXa ToiauT* 7TOiou{JLv.a Kal oTav m Tac; uxXY]pia(; e^taTavY),
[17] 7rpoa7ULp7]TopUtv auTa<; TTpoc; TO (JLL^OV, ocXX* a7ro(T7rav STL SuvaTai,
1
xal Ta7Tivou- 30
7C<puxuia^
--
. . .
TYJC tdxvoT7]To<; (Ix; nepixXyjc;

l^pv 'AOiQvatoi)^, [XEyaXauxoujJi^voix; SE <ruvorTiX. xal

7Capa{XTpLV ai)TOV (AY) TTpO^ TOl)^ TTEVECTTEpOUC; aXX(X 7Tp6^ TOOC; XaO' Xa<TTOV XI
1
destitution of Wehrli.
* 2
Fr. 420 Nauck .

8
To relieve from.
 [73 1] ARISTO OF CEOS 263

eZ8o<; U7uepx<WTocs, eTceiSy) TO eaipei, TO Se auaTeXXei, TOUTO

JJLEV [lev e^' ayp&v
xTyjarsax;, TOUTO 8* ITU' apx?) xal (iaaiXeia^; TroXecov xal e0va>v
xeaOai 8e xal TOO auvavTav etco0OTO<; 906vou TOU; uTrepyj^avouCTLv, o<;

Ti ICTTIV <Jwx% xaOarcep TOIK; o90aX[ioi><; Y] T&V auvavTcovTtov yeyavoo-

COOTTS

/XavU evoxXst, xw^oTepov S' ^Tcep eav Trapt&v xal avapaXX6(JL8vo^ Sta-
T], TrapaTrXyjafcox; xal TOV 90ovepov XDTTEL (lev TaXXoTpia TWV ayaOciv,

8* OTav olov avaTTTepuYi^ovTa Tiva xaTajjiaG'/) Si* auTa xal

coCTTrep

e^aipofievov TOTS Se 7rpoa9i>c; eSaxev. "OaaL 8' dbrwXeiai Sia 906vov

TOU; aTracriv. 'Evvoetv 8e xal TY)V eTcixatpexaxiav, OTav
XuTtyjpa yap, OCTS ouvTci,TL0e[jLevo)v suXoycoc; TO> T^^
TWV xaT* e/Op&v ofJioXoyoujjievcov
TroXXcav OTI TYJ<;

TipoTepov UTUpy)9aviac avsjjiifjLVTjaxev. 816 xat 9a(Tiv a/06[Jivov auTov em TW

ov TtavTac; eTrt^atpetv Trpoc; 'Ap^eXaov aTreXOetv 1 .

2
b. "Greatness of soul" is to be separated from arrogance.
Philodemus, ib., col. XV, 1. 22-33 (fr- 13 VI W.):
Kal Staipelv (jieyaXo^uyiav U7uep7)9avia<;, aXXa [JLT] <TU(jL9iipeiv clx; ev xal

8ia9peL yap oaov xal em TOO dcofJiaTO^ oi8y]C7eG><; eue^ia, xal

TOU [Jtev (jieyaXo^ux 00 T ^ xaTa9povecv TWV Ti>x*yjp(ov UTcepe^ovTa TW T^
3 oyxo), TOU 8* U7rp7]9avou TO 8ia xou96T7]Ta TauTYji; X7rveu[JLaTO\i[jLevov UTCO

XTY)aeco<; urcepopav eTepoix;.

c. Arrogance may turn to madness.

Philodemus, ib., Col. XVI, 1.

15-27 (fr. 13 VII W.):
'EvvosEv 8' OTL xal ei [Jicopiav evioTe TO v6c77)[jLa TrepuaTYjat-v YJ fzavtav, ei (JLY)

Ta Hep^ou TCOV oux

e^eTat, vj OaTepou, TO ^euyviistv TOV 'EXXvjaTrovTov xal
8uet,'v

xaOtevai rceSa^ CL<; TTJV OaXaTTav xal TaXXa Trotel'v a Trepl auTou Xeyouatv

71
TO Oeoix; e^ avOpcoTicov eauToix; yeyovevai Soxetv xal TaXX* oaa ytveTai Trepl
TOU^ aveSTjv u7usp7)9avoijvTa<;.

The fragment of Aristo's Flepl TOU xou9^etv U7rep7)9avta^ 3 preserved ,

by Philodemus, is, as Wehrli remarked, our oldest example of Hellenistic

protreptic litterature.

732 The rest of Philodemus' fragment shows a very different style

and character. Wehrli considers it on good grounds as being taken from
another work of A.

1
It was Euripides who, by the (p06vo<; of his enemies which had passed over
into eTTixaipexaxlcc, was driven to Archelaus.
2 Which is often translated by "pride".
3 The title is mentioned by Philodemus in col. X, 1. 10-11.
 264 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [732]

a ' Dcscri P tion of the

a '08
Philodemus, II. xaxicov X, col. XVI 1. 29-00!. XVII, 1.
17 (fr. 14 MI W.) :

*
'0 8* auOa8y)<; Xsyofjisvo^ EOLXE (lev elvai (JLE&XTCK; l oWjascoc; xal u?cep-
2
7)9avia<; xal U7rspo^ia<;, (JIETEXCOV 8s xal 7roXX9j<; etxaioT7]TO<; TOIOUTOS yap
.

3
scmv, 9Y]CTlv 6 'ApfarcGv, olo<; sv ^u^pov aiTEtv JJLY)
7cpoavaxpiva<; TOV aufJipepTjxoT', EL xaxEivto cruvaplaxei, xal
Tfj [Jiax<T>pa 0sp[ji6v ?)

-- TratSa Tupia-

(JLEVO<; (jLYjSs Toovofjia TcpoaeptOTvjom [JITJT' auToc; OeaOai, xaXetv Se nctiSa. xal

(Ji7]6sv SXXo, xal TOV auvaXei^avTa [JLY]

av ctauvaXe^siv xal
avTt^evtdaL xal Oiipav aXXoTptav XOTCTWV, sTrspcoTTjaavTO^ Tt<; ECTTIV,
1

aTTOxptveaOat, fJLSXP 1 ^ v ?eXOy) xal appcocrTouvT aurov eTrtCTxeTTTOfzevou 91X01)

J

[Jty] Xeyeiv TTCJC; e^st, [jL7]S auroc; cmffxercTOfzevo*; Ttva TOLOUTO TI TCpoc'spWT^crai
5
xal ypa90)v ITCKTTOXYJV TO ^atpstv (JLT] Tcpocrypa^at, (XYjS eppwaOat TcXeuTatov.
he XVII I7-XVIII
b. Description of the auOexaaToc;. Ib., col. TI

'0 8' auOexaaTo*; ou ruavu (JLSV eixaco^ eaTtv ouS* aXoyo(; cocrTrsp 6 au
Si' o?Y)aiv Se TOO (JLOVO^ 9povLv iSLoyv(0(jLov(ov xal TtsiOojJievoc; ev aTtaaiv xaTOpOco- 20
J

cjetv. a(jLapT73(jG0ai S ,
av ETepou xpiasL Trpod^pYjaTjTaL, fJLTex wv Se xal fouep-

7)9avtac; olo^ [nqSevl TrpocravaOepievo^ aTro^YjfjLelv, ayopa^eiv, iccoXel'v, ap^v

s

[jLETievat, TaXXa auvTeXetv xav TrpoaspcoTTjav) TI<;, TI (JieXXei Troieiv oI8 30

eyco Xeyetv xav (jL(ji97)Tai TIC;, uTrci^eLStcov ))'E(jLe cru;(( xal 7rapaxXyjOel<; 7il

auveSpeiav pouXeuojjisvq) (r/) pouXecOai TO Soxouv etTrstv, SL (JLT)

TOUTO (xeXXet,

xal TUOCVT', ev ocrot^ aTTOTeTeuye, --- TeXetv xal (JLY) 7riTeOu(ry)xevaL

acxLv xal (JLYJ
8u(T(07TZcrOaL Touvo[JLa xaXoii(Jivo^ ca^ auOlxacrTO^, aXXa
xal Tt TuaiSapta Xytv Etvai, TOUC; co<; 7raL8aycoyo<; aXXot^ 7rpocravaTiO[jLvou(;
xal (JLOVOC; /t.v Trcoycova xal TroXia^- xal 9jv Suv7)Gr(j0aL yv6(jLvo^ V Iprjfjua. 10

c. Ib., col. XVIII 11-38 (fr. 14 III W.):

, , x f , x f x f/
1 OUTOV) O TL ^lpG)V GTIV O TTaVTEtOTJfJLCOV, ava7T7El,XO><; EaUTOV OTL

ytvwaxEt, TOC (JLEV (xaOwv ?rapa TCOV (jLaXicrr' iTrtaTafXEvcav, Ta 8* tSwv

J

(JLOVOV, Ta 8' auTO^ 7n,voy)aa<; a9 auToij. xaaTi TOLOUTOC; ou (JLOVOV olov 'i

TOV 'HXELOV LOTTOpEt IlXaTO)V, Saa TTEpl TO CT63(Jl' E!X V ?

aUT6> TTETTOlYJXEVai ^

XsysLv, aXXa xal xaTadxsua^stv oJxtav xal TrXocov SC auToij xal /copl<; a
TOVOC; xal ypa9iv <ruvOy]xa<; ai)T(p 80(JLva^ IfjiTTEtpta^ VOJJLLX^ xal

laTpEUEiv, [JLY] [Ji6vov EauTOv, imyzipzlv 8s xal aXXou<; xal 9UTijiv xal
Ta [jLaXtaO* UTUO TWV TE^vtxcoTaTcov xaTOpOoufjisva xal vauay&v
EV aTracri |jnr)8'
OUTCO TuauEaOai T^ aTcoTrXYj^ia^ olo^ SE xal TWV
TiavTcov aa^fAovELv xal TOIK; xaTaysXcovTac; arcEtpouc; X^ystv. -

2 8
Presumption. Thoughtlessness. Bathing-tub.
[732] ARISTO OF COS 265

Wehrli remarks that the list of characters dealt with by A. was probably longer
than our fragment in Philodemus, and that, in this case, the work of A. gave a
complete description of human characters, which formed "eiii bedeutendes Zeugnis
peripatetischer Erfahrungswissenschaft auch auf ethischem Gebiete".

733 Plut., De audiendis poetis 140, mentions, on a level with the

Abaris of Heracl. Pont., the Lyco of A., as a writing in which T<X Tcepi T&V
<^i>X<ov SoyfjuxTa were treated fjLe(JLety(jLsva (jtuOoXoyia. Cp. our nr. 782.

7 ARISTO OF COS

734 While we found in Lyco rhetoric accepted and cultivated as a

part of philosophy, Aristo of Cos, a pupil of Aristo of Ceos and his
successor, probably the author of the great fragments on rhetoric
preserved by Philodemus, went back to Plato's view in the Gorgias.

a. Strabo, XIV,19, 658:

OUTO<; (sc. Hippocrates) TE SYJ ECJTL TO>V evSo^cov Kcooc; dvyjp, xal xaO'

Y)f/,a<; Nixia<; 6 xal Tupavvyjc'a^ Kcpcav, xai 'AptoTcov 6 axpoacrajjievo^ TOU Ttepi-

TcotT/jTixou (i.e. Aristo of Ceos) xal xX7)povo(JL7]cra^ execvov.

lie is probably the same who is mentioned by Sextus Kmp., Adv. math. II 61,
as a yvcbpL^o? KpnroXaou, and by Quintilianus II 15, 19 as discipulus Critolai.

b. Philodemus, V alumina rhetor ica cd. Sudhaus I, p. 300, col.

LXXI, 1.
7-8:
TO

735 a. The rhetor is not worthy to pretend to be a governor. His rejection

Philddemus, o.c. p. 361, col. LXXII 1. 12-18:

<&Y)al SYJ Tipcorov aTtoTpSTrcov OTL xeAeuaTou xal ou xupepvY)TOi) So^av
6 pYjroip oux a^og <ru 7upocr7rotL<70ai xupepvyjTV]^ elvat,.

b. Since rhetoric as a whole has to do with falsehood, the man who

seeks truth has to avoid it.

Ib., col. LXXIII 1-4:

OTJCTIV fiXrjv TTJV auorTaCTiv ex tv ^ x T0 ^ ^^Sou<;, COGTC ^aiveaOai TCO ^i

In what sense rhetoric, in Aristo's opinion, does not achieve

c.

:ruth, may appear from the following lines, in which we are reminded
)f Plato's definition of rhetoric as a kind of xoXocxeta OTL TOO Y)8o<; GTO-
266 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [735]

<5cveu TOU PSXTC<TTOU (Gorg. 464 6-465 a). Cp. 4640: ou yvouo-a Xyco
aXXa

Philodemus, ib., p. 362, col. LXXIV, 1. 5-15:

Ei 8e TO xaTearToxaafJisvov eExoTa><; 73 TaX7)6eL <yuveyyiov TciOavov
2
<Sa7rep aSuvaTouv aXyjOe<; elvai xal dbropatveiv, 8 [m]0av&<; Xeyouaiv ol pyJTopec;,
rcepl TOU {J/yjS* OTtoiavouv a7c6Sei?;iv eiaeveyxetv.

d. A. denies the rhetor the right of uttering praise or blame,

since he isnot able to judge.

Philod., ib., p. 367!, col. LXXXIV,

5-10, 12-13: 1.
9X
H yap ouSe TOV TcoXiTt-xov spooatv TO eyxto^tacrai xal ipe^at SovaTov
(sc.
3
), 73 TOUTOV 6(JLoXoyOOVT<; TUCOi; OU SsSsl'XJX.GlV TpOV OVTa TYJ<; TCOV
'Tlar' ouS* eyxcofjiia^eiv xal
As Plato did in the above-cited passage of the Gorgias, he speaks of eixjcsipioc of
the rhetores, as opposed to the knowledge of the

e. The Socratic-Platonic distinction between those who know

their subject and the mass of ignorant people is seen in the following
lines: the author speaks of <xTexvot and evTexvot 7rt<7Tei<;, the first of
which are the common property of everybody, while the latter are proper
only to those who have some special knowledge.
Philocl., o.c. p. 369 f., col. LXXXVII, 1. 3-19:
"AEiov 4
S' 7ruTTacrsti><; Ta<; ( sc
[Jiev aTexvou
TcLaTci^) xotva^; a7ravTa>v
<5 -

TCOV S' EVTS/VCOV 5 TO stxo^ xal TO <77][JLetov xal TO TSX[JL7]piov ouOev

6
7rpo<ry]Xiv, aXXa TO (JLSV CTY][JLLOV elvat TOU TrapTjxoXouOyjxoTO^
olov TO ev voaotc; taTpt^v, TO 8* ev TO^ Trspl TO TrXstv xst^^ 01 ^
[jiev

TrapaTrXyjartcoc; Se xal ircl Toiv aXXcov TO S* eixo<; TOU Tcapa6eo)p7]aavTO^

6
Traic;
--
f. The rhetor, by his lack of knowledge, might even be harmful
to the state.
Philod., o.c. p. 375 f., col. XCVIII, 1. 4-16:
Toi Se fJiTjTe TTOU (jiTjTe 7roi(; (jiYjTe TTOTC TrXeuaTeov elSevat TcpoapXapYjc; av
yevoiTO [jiaXXov oux oIS' ei xal 6 pyjTCOp. Flepl yap to<peXi(jicov Te xal (3Xapepcov

1
Our nr. 198c. 2
Text of Wehrli. *
Col. LXXXIII, 1. 8-10.
4
Attention.
Ar., Rhet. 1355 b 36 makes the distinction between ^vre/voi and I&TSXVOI 7u(aTei<;
5

(our nr. 657a), and deals with etx6q, oYjjjLetov and Texfr/jpiov as means of proof
6 The man who knows his subject is here indicated by the terms 6 TrapTjxoXouOyjxcoc,
and 6
[735] ARISTO OF cos 267

oux SuvaiTO TrapaxoXouOetv, *

coc; TOiotjTCOv ocv et xai TK; auTOV evapxvjas voetv
TTJV TCO.VTCOV

g. The art of persuasion is perfectly useless if knowledge is lacking.

Philod., o.c., p. 379 f., col. CIV, 1. 6-16:
KOCL 7rpo T^ TpiTOv Se Xsye^Qw TO xav TTOCVU TCSICTTLXCX; 6 Xoyoc; YJ,
6 JJLT)
TO
TCCO? xai rtvac; eZ TretGeiv xat TUOTS xaTex^v TCOCVTCOV av a/pTjaTOTaTOc; sty)

xa0dc7rep xal 7ry)&aAiov 6 CTU(JLpepY)xs xal TW TOU pvjTOpo^, OTL

'
elvat

7A NOTE ON THE MAGNA MORALTA

736 To the remains of the early Peripatetic School doubtless belong The
the Magna moralia, attributed to Ar. by tradition. See our nrs. 561,
565b, supra.

"hypnotized".
 NINETEENTH CHAPTER
THE EARLY ACADEMY
T SPEUSIPPUS
List of 737
members of Diog. Laert. Ill 46 gives the following list of disciples of Plato.

the Academy Ma0Y)Tal 8* auTOu STTEUOITCTTO^ 'AOyjvatcx;, Sevoxpar/)*; XaXxYjSovios, 'Api-

<TTOTeXy)<; i/rayeipiTTj^, OiXurTro^ 'OTTOUVTLO^, *E(7Tiaio<; llepivOio^, Aitov

Xupax6<rio<;, "A(jiv>xXo<; 'HpaxXecoT7)<;, "Epa<rro<; xal Koptaxo

Xao<; Kuix7)vo<;, Euaicov Aa^axyjvoc;, IluOcav xal 'HpaxXeiSvjc; Atvioi, 'I
5

0aX7]c; xai KcxXXiTcrco^ 'A07)vaLoi, ATJJJLYJTPIO^ AfjL9i7uoXLT7](;, 'HpaxXeiSyjc; 5

IIovTix6<; xal aXXoi TrXetouc;, duv ol<; xal yuvatxec; 8uo, AaaOeveia MavTtvtxv)
xal 'A^toOea OXetaaia, vj
xal av^pELa Yj(jL7rtcr)(To, coc; 9Y]<yi,

Cf. Index Herculanensis col. VI, Mekler p. 33-37.

Organisation 733 jf^ Academy seems to have been organized as a Biacroc; for the
of the School p ,
cult of the Muses.

Diog. L. Ill 25:

'Ev Se Toi TrpcoTco TOW a7ro(JLV7)[jLovU[JLaTcov Oapcoptvou ^epeTat, OTI MiOpaaT7)c
6 IIepcj7](; dvSpiavTa lIXdcTCovoc; aveOeTO eic; T'/]v 'AxaSvjfJLetav xal eTteypa^e
'

))MiOpaSaT7)(; 'OpovTopaTOu OepaTjf; Mouaaic; elx6va aveOeTO HXaTCovo^;, YJV

Cp. Wilarnowitz, Philol. Unters. IV 263 if., and our next iir.

speusippus 739 a. Speusippus, successor of Plato. Diog. L. IV i :

AieSe^aTO auTov XTueuaurTroc; Eupu(j.e^ovTO^ 'AOyjvaLoc;, TO>V JJLEV SYJJ

8*

Muppwouaioc;, ulbc, Si T^^ a^eX^^c; auTOu IIa)TO)V7]<;. Kal eaxoXapx^crev TY)

J
OXTCO, ap^apievoc; OCTTO TT)^ oy^OTjc; xal exaToaT% 'OXup,7riaSo(; Xaphxov T'

ayaXjjLaT* aveQyjxev ev TCO (JLOUOTELW TCO UTTO IIXaTcavo^ ev 'AxaSy)(JLLa ISpuOevTi.

xal Ifjieive fjtsv sm TCOV auraiv IIXaTWvt Soy(JLaT<ov.
Zeller remarks rightly that the last sentence might prove something too much.
b. When struck by an incurable disease, he gave up the direction
of the School voluntarily. Diog. L. IV 2:

1
348-345 B.C.
 [739] SPEUSIPPUS 269

"H8>) Si UTUO TrapaXtiaeox; xal TO arc5|Jia Sie90apTO, xal Trpcx; Sevoxparyjv

8is7r{i7ueTO TcapaxaX&v auTov eXOetv xal TTJV a^oXTjv SiocSe^acrGat.

c. His reply to Diogenes, who told him that life was not worth
living in such a bad state of health.

Stob., Eel. IV, c. 52% 17:

2TceiKTi7t7ra> TiapaXuGsvu Ta axeXy) AioyevY)^ e^ayayetv auTov TOU PIOU
Trapyjvei, 6 8e ou TOL^ <ixeXe<ji,v<(, 597), &[Jiev, aXXa TCO VGJ.

740 IV The unity

a. Speus. believed in the unity of science. Diog. L. 2:
of science
, , > ,

Tcp&TOc;, xaOcx 97]<ri, AioScopo^ ev a7ro[JLV73^oveu(jLaTtov TrpcoTCO, ev TOI^;

eOeaaaTO TO XOLVOV xal duvq^xeicoae xaOocrov 9jv SuvaTOv aXXy)Xoi(;.
The method here referred to was applied by Speus. in his H6moia and had the
purpose of dividing things into genera and species.
f/

appears from fragments in Athenaeus, The

f/
b. Speus/ O[juHa were, as it O(zota
a survey of the different kinds of plants and animals, in which similar
phenomena were combined and dissimilar separated. Lang, fr. 5-26.

741 a. In the following passage of the Anal. post. Ar. is Definition

polemizing
against Speus.
6 - 11
Ar., Anal. post. II 13, 97 a (fr. 3ia Lang):

OuSev 8e Set TOV opi^ofievov xal Siatpoiipievov oforavTa etSevou Ta OVTOC.

xaiTOi dcSuvocTov cpaat TLVS<; slvai, TOCJ; 8ia9Opa<; ELSevat TOC^; Tipo^ exaaTov (JLTJ

SxaciTov. avei> Se T&V St,a90pcov oux elvai exacrTov eiSevai ou yap (Jf/)

ov elvai TOUTO), o5 Se St,a9epet,, ETSpov TOUTOU.

27
b. Cf. Philoponus in Anal. posL, p. 405, ,
Wallies (fr. 310 Lang):
TOUTO XeY et avaipwv TOU<; Xoyou<; 81,' oiv sTrsxeipei 6 27reum7U7to<; avaip^crai

xal T7)v Statpeatv xal TOIX; 6pi,a{JLou<;' STuexstpet yap OI>TO<; Seixviietv, we; oux
SCTTLV aTcoSouvai, opKJfJiov Tivoc;, Xeyeov ax; 6 GeXcav 81,'
6pia(JLOiJ TrapaciTYJaaL TYJV

9UCTLV TOU av6pc!)7uoi) 73

TOU LTTTTOU ^ aXXou Ttvo<; 69iXet yiva>c7Xi,v TravTa Ta
5 6*vTa xal TOCC; 8ta90pi(; auT&v xaO* a^ Sia9epouoriv aXXif]Xcov OUTCOC; yap Tuapi-
(TTaTai Y] 9iiat(; TOU av6pa>7rou 7) TOO LTTTIOU TQ aXXoo TLVCX; ev TW x^p^saOaL Tcav
<5cXXcov TOXVTCOV TO Se x^>P^^o^ev v &i<x TLVWV 8ta90pcov Set x^P^e^9 a t. eTrel 8e
aSiivaTOV TiavTa Ta ovTa yivaxixetv y] Ta^ 8ia9opa^ auT&v, XOLTTOV Si'

TI aSiivaTov.

742 He attributed more to sense-perception

r r than Plato did. Theory of
knowledge
Sextus, Math. VII (Adv. Log. I) 145 (Fr. 29 Lang) :

(xev xal IIXaTa>v STieuaiTCTtoc; Se, STrel T&V TrpayjJLaTCOv Ta jxev ataOvjTa,
 270 THE EARLY ACADEMY [742]

TOC 8e VOY)T(X, TCOV (lev VO7JTCOV XplTTjplOV cXs^EV elvai TOV 7Ul(7T7)[Jl(Mx6v X6yOV,
TCOV Se aiaOvjTcov TTJV e7ucrn]|JiovixYjV ataOvjaiv. e7tt(7Ty)[JiovixY)v 8e

UTreiXy)9e (jteTaXa^pavouaav TYJS xaTa TOV X6yov

xaOeaTavai TYJV

a><T7rep yap ol TOO auXvjTOU Y) TOU ^aXrou SaxTuXoi Texvixrjv [lev ei/ov evepyeiav, 5
5
oux ev 0cuToi 8e 7rpo7)you[zevco<; TeXeioujievyjv aXX <ex> TTJ.; 7rpo<; TOV Xoyicrfjtov
auvacrx^aeax; a7uapT^o(jievY]v, xac co^ 73 TOO {JLOUCTIXOI) OLlaQfiGic, cvepyeiav [lev
cxvTiXTjTiTixYjv TOU TS Y)p[jio<T(jievou xai TOU avap(JtoaTou, TauTTjv Se oux
aXX' ex Xoyiajiou TreptyeyovuLav, OUTCO xal 7] e7rw7T7][JLOVLXY) atorOyjaic;
,

Trapa TOU Xoyou TTJS eTciaTTjfJLovLXTJc; (JieTaXafjipavsi Tpi^<; 7rp6(; dcTuXav^ 10

TCOV U7roxet[JLva)v

Doctrine 743 the One from the Good and took the cvolution-
a jj e
separated
_
of the first . _ ..
. . ,
_ _ , . .

principles ary point of view the Good can, according to his teaching, not be at
:

the beginning but only at the end of being, as its perfection, reached by
a process of development.

Metaph. A 7, 1072 b -iO73 a (Fr. 34a, Lang):

30 3
Ar.,
f/
Oaoi Se uTToXocfjipavouatv, cicrTrep oE lluOayopeioi xal 27reu(rt,7C7ro<;, TO xaX-
XLCTOV xal apiaTov jr/) ev apxyj elvat, Sia TO xal TO>V ^UTCOV xal TOW ^towv TOCC;

ap^a(; atria TO Se xaXov xal TeXetov ev TOI^ ex TOUTCOV, oux opOco^

(Jiev elvat,
otovTai. TO yap a7rep[Jia e^ eTepcav eaTlv TupoTepcov TeXeicav, xal TO TcpcoTov ou

aTuepjJia eaTiv, aXXa TO TeXeiov olov rcpoTepov SvOpcoTrov av 9aiY] TI^ elvai TOU

G7iep[JiaTO<;, ou TOV ex TOUTOU yevofjievov, aXX' eTepov e^ ou TO aTrepfia.

b. The One itself is not even being.

Ar. opposes again this view of Speus. in Metaph. N 5, 1092 a
11 - 15

(Fr. 34 e Lang) :

Oux 6pO&<; 8* TOC<; TOU 8Xou ap/ac; TYJ

uTcoXafjipdcvei ouS* et TI? Tcapeixa^ei
TCOV cotov xal 9UTcov, OTI e
aopiaTCov aTeXaiv Se aiel Ta TeXeioTepa, 816 xal
e?rl TCOV TupcoTCov OUTCO<; 2xetv <P*iab, coaTe (JL7)8e 6v TI elvai TO ev auT6.

c. A reason why he denied that the One is the Good, was that, in
this case, multiplicity would be the bad.
Ar.,Metaph. N 4, 1091 b
30 - 35
(fr. 35 a Lang) :

TauTa Te SYJ aujj^aivei aTOTta, xal TO evavTiov aTOi/etov, el'Te 7uX^6o<; ov

etTe TO (Sviaov xal [Jieya xal [Jiixpov, TO xaxov auTo. Siovrep o S9euye TO dcya-
jjiev

06v TTpoaaTTTeiv TW evl clx; avayxaiov ov, eTceiS-/) e^ evavTicov r) yeveai<;,

TO
xaxov TTJV TOU 7rXy)0ou<; ^uaiv elvai.

d. Meanwhile, he seems to have placed the One on the side 01 me

good things in his scale of values.
[743] SPEUSIPPUS 271

Ar., Eth. NIC. I 4, 1096 b 5- 7 (fr. 37 a, Lang) :

IIiGavcoTEpov S* loixacriv ol HuGayopsioi Xeyeiv Tcspl auTou (TOU ayaOou)

TiOvT<; EV 17) T&V aya0&v oruaToi^ a TO sv ol^ 873 xal STUSUCTITUTTOC; ETWCXO-

XouOvjaai SOXEL.

744 He seems to have identified Plato's principle of the infinite Dyad

or the Great and Small with multiplicity.
Ar., Metaph. N i, 1087 b
4- 9
(fr. 48 b Lang):
01 SE TO ETEpOV T<OV EVaVTIOOV uXvjV TTOLOUGIV, 01 (JLEV
TG> vl TW CCTtO TO (XVICTOV,

<o<; TOUTO T7]v TOU TtXifjOou^ o5aocv 9u<Tiv ? ol Se Toi vl 7cX9)6o(;. yvvo>VTai yap
ot apiOfjiol TOL^ [JLv x TV);;
TOU avLCTOu SuaSo^ TOU [JiyaXou xal (Jiixpou, TW S*

EX TOU 7rAy)6ou, UTUO T^<; TOU vo<; Se:

745 From One and Mathematical

a. Multiplicity he derives mathematical
the
numbers, which in his system take the place of the Ideas in Plato, instead of
Plato's ideas
Metaph. M 9, 1086 a
2- 5
Ar., (Fr. 42 e Lang):
01 fjtv yap Ta (JtaOvj^aTixa JJLOVOV TIOLOUVTE^ Ttapa T<X aiaOTjTa, opwvTE^ TYJV
7Upl Ta tSv] Sucr/piav xal TrXaoriv, a7raT7)(jav OCTTO TOU EI&YJTLXOU api0(jtou
xal TOV jjiaOYjfjLaTixov 7roi7]<rav.

b. Ar. criticized this explanation of the universe at the end of

his book A of the Metaph., 1075 b 37 -iO76 a4 33 e Lang):
(Fr.
Ol XyovT<; TOV apiO(Ji6v Trp&Tov TOV (jiaGyjfJiaTtxov xal OUTCO<; atl (5cXXr]v

oua-tav xal ap^a^ xacrTy]<; dcXXa^, ETTEiaoSicoSy] TY]V TOU TcavTO<; ouatav
(ouServ yap 7] Tpa T^ Tpa aufxpaXXETai, ouaa r\ [LT\ oucra) xal ap^ac;
Ta SE ovTa ou ^ouXETai 7uoXiTUcr6ai xaxojc;. oux ayaOov TtoXuxotpa-
viY) E!(; xoipavot; aT6>.

In Metaph. M 6, 1080 b 11 - 18 Ar. states the difference between

c.

Speus. and Plato on the one hand, and between Speus. and Pythagorea-
nism on the other. From the latter Speus. differs in this way, that Pythag-
oreans did not separate their numbers from sensible things, while Speus.
did (Fr. 42 c Lang).
Ol o5v a{JKpOTpou<; cpaalv Elvai TOUC; apiOjjLoiic;, TOV fiv ^ovTa TO 7rpoTpov
[JiEV

xal ii(TTpov TOCS tS^a<;, TOV SE {JiaO^fJiaTixov Tuapa TOC<; iSEa^ xal Ta aia07)Ta,
*al x^p^^o^? afJicpoT^pou^ TCOV alcr67]T(ov ol SE TOV [xaOyjfjLaTtxov [xovov apiOfjiov
slvat TOV TrpwTov Ttov ovTtov xEX^opiajx^vov Tcov ataOrjTcov. xal ol IIuGayopEioL
y va, TOV [jLa07)(JLaTtx6v, TrXrjv ou xsxcopi(T(JLvov aXX* EX TOUTOU
:>uata<;
 272 THE EARLY ACADEMY [746]

Next geom. 74^ a. In his hierarchy of being, then, there followed after the One
next soul 'the numbers, then geometrical magnitudes, and next soul.

Ar., Metaph. Z 2, 1028 b -

18 24
(Fr. 33 a Lang):
ETI Tcapa Ta atcrOvjTa ol JJLEV oux. OLOVTOCI elvai ouScv TOIOUTOV, oi 8e irXeico
xai, (jiaXXov ovTa aiSia, caaTrep IlXarcov Ta T' el'S?) xal Ta (JtaO-yjfJiaTixa Suo

ouara<;, TptTTjv S TYJV TCOV aiaOyjTcov crcofjiaTOv oucriav. SjceuCTtjrTuoc; Se xal

ouaia<; arco TOO evoq apa[Jievo<;, xat ap^a^ exaarTY)<; ouaia^ SXXirjv JJLEV
v, (SXXyjv Se {JieyeOcov, SjueiTa ^DX^ xal TOUTOV SY] TOV TpOTuov sTrexTetvei 5

Tac; ouata^.
35 and 12
b. Asclepius in Metaph. 377, 379, Hayduck (Fr. 33 d Lang)
adds to this:
Nous xal TcaXiv aXX7]v oucjtav vou xal aXXyjv

NOUS 747 a. Aetius, P/ac. ap. Stob. I i, 29", p. "35,

3
W. (fr. 38 Lang):
calledGod , , M r % _ ,
(Ueov aTTe^yjvaTo) TOV vouv OUTS TW svt ODTS TO) ayaUci) TOV
auTov, 18109073 Se.
b. He seems to have localized this Mind or ruling power of the
universe in the centre of the earth, as it appears from a rather obscure
text of Theophr. J .

Theophr., Metaph. IX 32 ed. Ross-Fobes (fr. 41 Lang):

To oXov cnravtov TL xal ev oXtyoic; TO ayaOov, 7roXi> Se TrX^Ooc; elvai TO
8'

xaxov, oux ev aopicrTta Se fiovov xal olov uXyj^ ei'&si, xaOarcep Ta TYJC;
afJia0s<TTaToi>. Eix^ yap oi jcepl TTJC; 0X73^; ouata<; XeyovTS^ ciavrep
TL TO TifJtiov TTOISL TO TTspl T7]v Toij fjieaou /copav, Ta 8' axpa xal exaTe-
v. Ta [JLev
ouv ovTa xaXco^ eTu^ev ovTa. 5

In Cicero, and later by Minucius Felix, he is charged with

c.

atheism, in that he qualified this ruling Force of the universe as an

animal power.
Cic.,N.D. I 13, 32 (Fr. 39 a Lang) :

Nee multo secus Speusippus Platonem avunculum subsequens et vim

quandam dicens, qua omnia regantur, eamque animalem, evellere ex
animis conatur cognitionem deorum.
Cf. Minuc. Felix 19, 7.

immortality 743 He considers the soul as immortal, even its irrational part.
13
Olympiodorus in Plat. Phaed. p. 124, Norvin (Fr. 55 Lang) :

1
I give the text as it is read by Ross-Fobes. Several corrections have been
made in it.
[748] SPEUSIPPUS 273

ol Ji

01 8e ^XP L T% 9uaeco<;, a><; IlXcoTcvo^ f evt, OTCOU 2 ol 8s

TYJ<; aXoyiac;, a>^ T&V (JLEV TraXai&v SevoxpaTY)<; xal Sraiiawnros, TCOV

749 Speus. wrote several works on ethics. A few traces of them have Ethics
remained in later writers.
19
a. Clem. Alex., Strom. II 22, 133; Stahlin (Fr. 57 Lang): eudaimonia
p. 186,
STCEUOWTCOC; TS 6 FIXdcTcovo^ a8eXcpiSoii<; TYJV suSaifJiovtav 9Y)dLv e^iv elvai.
TeXetav ev TOU; xara cpiio-tv e'xoucriv >] ei,v ayaOcov, ^^ STJ xaTaaTacrEax; <5c7uavTa<;

jjLsv avBpcoTcou^ ope^iv ex lv ? crro^a^eaOai 8e TOUC; aya0ou<;

slev S* av at apsTal

b. Like Aristotle and other Academics, Speus. did not consider its relation

outward goods as indifferent things, though he held that virtue is in itself

sufficient for happiness.

Cic., Tusc. V 10, 30 (fr. 58 a Lang):

Noil igitur facile concedo ncque Bruto meo nequc communibus magis-
tris nee veteribus illis, Aristoteli, Speusippo, Xenocrati, Polemoni, ut,
cum ea quae supra enumeravi (paupertas, ignobilitas, humilitas, solitudo,
amissio suorum, graves dolores corporis, perdita valetudo alia similia)
in malis numerent, iidem dicant semper beatum esse sapientem.
c. Cp. Cic., Tusc. V 13, 39 (fr. 58 b Lang):
Hie (humanus animus) igitur si est excultus, etsi eius acies ita curata
est, ut nc caecaretur erroribus, lit perfecta rnens, id est absoluta ratio,

quod est idem virtus. Et, si omne beatum est cui nihil deest et quod in
suo genere expletum atque cumulatum idque virtutis est proprium,
est,
certe omnes virtutis compotes beati sunt. Et hoc quidem mihi cum
Bruto convenit, id est cum Aristotele, Xenocrate, Speusippo, Polemone.
Sed mihi videntur etiam beatissimi.

Seneca summarizes Speus/ doctrine shortly in the following

d.
sentence. Epist. 85, 18 (fr. 58 c, Lang) :

Xenocrates et Speusippus putant beatum vel sola virtute fieri posse,

non tamen unum bonum esse, quod honestum est.

Cp. also Plut., De comm. not. c. 13, p. io65a (fr. 59 Lang).

1
Lang reads dc^X u a conjecture of Bernays).
(
2 The meaning of these words is uncertain.
DC Vogcl, Greek Philosophy II 18
 274 TIIE EARLY ACADEMY [750]

pleasure 759 Speus. denied that, because pain

r is an evil, pleasure
r must
not a good , f
be a good.
a. Ar., Elh. Nic. VII 14,
1 7
1153 b - (fr. 60 a Lang):
'AXXa fjLTjv
OTI
Y) XUTTYJ xaxov, 6[jioXoyetTat,
xal cpeuxTov. Y) (jiev yap dbtX&s xa-
xov, Yj
&e TCO Try] IfJiTCoSicmxY) TCO Se 9euxT6) TO evavTiov YJ ^EUXTOV TI xal

xaxov, ayaOov. avayxY) ouv TYJV Y]8ovY)v aya66v TI elvai. <!><; yap ZTceiiaiTrTcos

IXuev, ou aufjipaivei 73 Xuai<;, cocrTrep TO fiel^ov T<O eXaTTOvt xal TW Ecrco evavTiov
1
ou yap av ^at*/] oTrep xaxov TL elvat TYJV YjSovyjv .

b. How Speus. meant his thesis, appears in the following passage

of Gellius, N.A. IX
(fr. 60 i Lang): 5, 4
Speusippus vetusque omnis Academia voluptatem et dolorem duo
mala esse dicunt opposita inter sese, bonum tamen esse, quod utriusque
medium foret.

2 ~ XENOCRATKS
The man
and his
751 a. Diog. L. IV 6; 7-8:
,_ ^,

character SsvoxpaTT]^ 'Aya0'/]vopo<; XaXx7]86viO(; OUTO<; ex veou HXaTCovoc; v^xouaev,

aXXa xal eic; SixeXtav auTco auvaTreSyj^aev. ^IIv 8s TTJV ^liatv vcoOpoc;,
Xeyetv TOV IlXaTcova (ruyxpivovTa auTov 'ApLCTTOTeXsi, ))TCO (JLEV [juito7uo<; Set,
TW Se ^aXivou.u 2e[Jiv6^ Se Ta T' aXXa SevoxpaTY]^ xal orxuOpcoTcoc aet,
uTW Xeyeiv CTUve^e^ TOV FIXaTcova, wSevoxpaTe^, Oue Tal<; XapLcri.(( 5
~Hv 8e xal a^LOTuaTog a^oSpa, coorTe e^ov avtajjioTOv (jtapTUpetv, TOUTCO
(JLYJ

ovw cuve/wpouv 'AOvjvaioi. Kal S'/) xai, auTapxeaTaToc; T)V. 'AXe^avSpou youv
au^vov apyiipiov arcoaTeiXavTo^ auTco, Tpia^tXta^; 'ArTixa^ acpeXa>v TO
XOITTOV a7re7re(jnj;ev, CLTTCOV exeivco TiXsLovwv Selv 7rXetova<; Tpe9OVTi. aXXa xal
'
TO UTT' 'AvTtTcaTpou TTej^Oev (Jiyj TcpoaeoOai, coc; 97jaL Mupcoviavo^ ev
b. Cp. Index Acad. col. VI, Mekler p. ^9:
s
01 8 ev 'AxaSiQf.ieta XeyovTai Trpoxptvat, TOV SevoxpaTYjv ayaaOevTec;

T7]V G(09pOGTUV7]V.

His works c. Diog. Laert. IV n:

Kal TrXel'crTa oaa xaTaXeXoivre <ri)yypa[JL(JLaTa xal eicYj xal
Follows a long list, in which are mentioned: a work Tuepi 9uaeco<;, several works
on logic, theory of knowledge (such titles as TT. emcrr/)^, TT. TOU ^euSouq, TT. TTJV Sidcvotav),
metaphysics (TT. TO\J OVTOC;, TT. eljjLap[jLVY)(;, TC. ISetov), on geometry, on numbers, on
avStronomy, and rather numerous works on ethical subjects.
Head of the <J. Ifo ^ :

25 years. AieSe^aTO Se STreuatTCTiov xal a97)yY)aaTO T^ a^oX^c; TTCVTC xal etxocriv STY).

1
"that pleasure is essentially evil".
 [752] XENOCRATES 275

752 a. With Speusippus he shared a predilection for Pythagorea-

nism. Iambi., Theol. arithm. p. 61 g.E. :

Ilapa HevoxpaTOUs ^atpeTco<; <77couSaa0i<itov asl IIu0ayopixcov axpoacFEcov,

^aXiCTTa SE TCOV <X>iXoXaou auyypa[JifJLaTCov.

Mathematical
b. Diog. L. IV 10 (fr. 2 Heinze):
it x *x x > x / / , / o /
studies a
llpo<; OE TOV [ry]T [JLOuaixyjv jjL7]T yECOfJiETpiav jjLY)T a<iTpovo(Juav (jL(Jta07)xoTa, necessary
(3ouX6[jivov SE Trap* auTov ^oiTav XaJa<; P r P aedeu8is
TtopEuou, 8973 (6 SvoxpaT7]<; ) yap
oux 2/L^ 91X00-09^. ol SE TOUTO 9aCTiv i7Ttv Trap* (jiol yap Ttoxoc; ou XVOCTT-

TTai.

753 a. Tripartition of philosophy.

Division
Sextus, Math. VII (= Adv. Log. I) 16; (fr. i H.):

Oat Soxouaiv, VTX(TTpov 8k Trapa TOUTOUC; ol EITTOVTE^ T^g 9tXo<ro9[ac; TO [JLEV

Tl filvai,
9UGl,x6v TO YjOt-XOV TO XoyiXOV ^>V Suva(JLL (JLV riXaTCOV EGTLV
ap/7]yoc;, ?rpl TroXXcov [Jiv 9UCTixa)v TroXXcov SE TjGtxcov oux oXtycov SE Xoytxcov
5 8t,aXx6c<; pr)TOTaTa SE ol Tcepl TOV SevoxpaTY] xal ol arco TOU TTEPITTOCTOU ETI

SE ol dare TYJC; orToac; S^ovTat TYjaSs TYJ<; SiaipEasax;.

b. Practical purpose of philosophy.

7 Practical
[Galenus], Hist. phil. 8, p. 605, Diels; (fr. 4 H.) :

AiTia SE 9iXoao9ia<; supEdsco^ EGTI XOCTOC SEvoxpaTV) TO Tapa^wSsc; sv TOJ

ta) xaTaTrauaai TCOV TrpayjjiaTCov.

754 of knowledge. three kinds of

r
Tripartition &
Knowledge
Sextus, Math. VII 147 (fr. 5 H.) :

8s Tpsi<; 97]atv ouaioc<; Etvai, TTJV [JLEV aiaO^Tyjv TTJV 8k VOTJTYJV

T7]v SE Q-UV0ETOV xal So^aaTYjv, cov aL(j6y]T7]v (JLEV Etvai TYJV EVTOC; oupavou, vo7)TY)v
SE TcavTCOv TCOV EXTO^ oupavou, So^aaTYjv SE xai a\iv0Tov TTJV auTOU TOU oupavou.

opaTY) [JLEV yap EGTTI 17) alcrOifjaEi, VOYJTT) SE

aaTpoXoyia^. TOUTCOV [JLEVTOL
Si'

5 TOUTOV E^OVTCOV TOV TpoTuov, Tvjc; fjisv IxTcx; oupavou xal voY)T% ouaia(; xpiTYjpiov

aTUE^atvETO TY]v ETUiCTTYjiJLTjv, T^

SE EVToc; oupavou xal ataOTjTTJ^ TTJV ataOyjaiv,

TYJ<;
SE [JLIXTTJ^ TTJV So^av xal TOUTCOV xoivcoc; TO [JLEV Sta TOU 7rtaT7][jiovLxoi)

Xoyou xpiT7]pLOv pE^aiov TE UTcapxstv xal aX7)0<;, TO SE Sia TYJC; aLaGyjcTEcoc;

aXyjOsc; (JLEV, ou^ OUTCO SE co^ TO Sta TOU EmaTYjfjiovixou Xoyou, TO SE auv0ETOv
10 xoivov aXvjOouc; TE xal <puSou<; UTrap^ELv. TT]<; yap SO^YJC; TYJV JXEV Tiva aXy)0^
>;
elvai T7)v SE ^EuSyj. oOsv xal Tpsi^ Moipa<; TuapaSsSoCTOai, ATpOT:ov (JLEV TYJV
TCOV VOYJTCOV, afjiETaOsTOv o5crav, KXcoOco SE TY]V TCOV ata07)Tcov, Aa^ecriv SE TYJV
TCOV So^aarTcov.

Cp. Ar., Metaph. E i, our nr. 432b.

 276 THE EARLY ACADEMY [755]

the cat- 755 i^e reduced the categories to two, namely

J the xa6' OCUTO and the
egories
Tl.

25
Simpl., in Ar. Categ. y 6 b; Schol. in Ar. 47 b Brandis (fr. 12 H.):
Ol yap Tuepl SevoxpaTYjv xal 'Av&povixov rcavTa T<O xaO' auTO xal TG> Tcpo<;
TI 7r5piXa(jt,pavet,v Soxouaiv, coerce TtepiTTov elvai xaT* auToix; TOCTOUTOV TCOV
ysvcov

the First 756 His doctrine of First Principles.

Principles
1
a. Aetius, Plac. I 7, 30; Dox. p. 304 b (fr. 15 H., first part):
'Aya07)vopo<; KaXxvjSovio^ TYJV fjiovaSa xai SuaSa 0eou<;, TYJV
appeva e^ouaav
TcaTpo<; TJX^IV ev
oupavip paaiXeiiouaav, ^VTiva Trpoar-
ayopeiiet, xai Z^va xal TcepiTTov xai vouv, Sartc; earlv auTO> rcpcoToc; 0eo^ TYJV Se
a><; 0Y)Xeiav, (jtTjTpoc; Oeo>v SLXTJV, TYJ<; UTTO TOV oupavov
auTco ^u^v] TOU 7ravTo<;.

15
b. Aetius, P/ac. 23; Dox. p. 288 b
I 3, (fr. 28 H.):

SevoxpdcTTjc; aoveaTavai TO Tiav ex TOU svo^ xal TOO asvaou, aevaov TYJV

uXyjv aiviTTO(Jievo(; SLOC TOU

The same doctrine of Xenocr. is mentioned by Theodoretus, Graec. aff. cur.
IV 12, p. 158 Gaisford.

His 757 From these two principles proceed first Numbers, not ideal
of being but mathematical Numbers, identified by Xenocr. with the Ideas ;

next geometrical, finally physical bodies.

24
a. Metaph. Z 2, 1028 b
Ar., (fr. 34 H.):
"EvLoi Se Ta (JLSV el'Syj xat TOU<; apt,0(jiou<; TTJV OCUTYJV e'xetv ^aat cpiiaiv, TOC
8e aXXa e/ofxeva, ypafjifjia^ xat sTuiTrsSa, [Jtexpt Tupo^ TY)V TOO oupavou ouatav
xal Ta

17
b. Asclepius, p. 379, Hayduck, explains this passage in the

following lines :

'EvTeuOev zic> TOV HevoxpaTTjv obroTeLveTai, xat 973(7^ OTI Ta sl'Sy) TO>V Trpay-

(JLOCTCOV TOL^ apLO[jLOL<; 7Upo<T7jy6pei)sv, eTreiSif), coaTuep ol api0{Jioi TueptopLdTi-xot

SLCTLV &v eic7iv api0{zoi, ouTw SY) xai Ta stSTj TcepiopicTTtxa T^<; 0X73^ uTrap/ouacv
etTa [jLETa Ta<; t8ea<; SeuTepa<; ou<7La<; 67uoTL0eTaL T<X<; Siavoy)Tai;, TouTeaTt Ta
(jia07](JLaTa, ypa(jt(Jia^ xai eTUTieSa- TsXeuTata 8^ Ta 9i)crixa.
Between geometrical and physical bodies, doubtless the celestial bodies were
interposed TOU oupocvou ouatav, Ar. I.e.; cp. our nr,. 743, supra).
(TTJV
Xenocr/ identification of mathematical numbers and Ideas is referred to in
several other places of Ar.'s Metaphysics, namely: i, 1069 a
33 A
i, 1076 a
19
; M ;
[7571 XENOCRATES 277

M 6, 1080 b M 8, 1083 b M 9, 1086 a

21
;
2
;
6
;
his doctrine of geometrical magnitudes
in M 6, 1080 b and N 1090 b 28
3,
21
.

On the place of Soul in this hierarchy, see nr. 748.

758 a. His doctrine of indivisible lines. Theory of

indivisible
Ar., Metaph. 1084 a M (fr. 41 H.)
8,
37 -b 2 : lines

T<X fjieye0Y) xal 8cra TOUXUTOC y.i%pi TTOCTOU (yevvaxri), olov YJ Trpcoryj

aTO[jio<;, elra 8ua<;, eiTa xal TauTa pi/pi

The meaning of this doctrine is, that all geometrical bodies should be finally
reduced to very small and indivisible lines. Thus, Simplicius says, commenting
on Ar.'s Phys. I 3, p. 142 Diels:
*Q<; oOv 6 llXdcTtov ETUTreSa slTcev elvai Ta Ttp&Ta xal eXa/iaTa awjxaTa, OUTGX; 6 Eevo-
xal auTa<; ouaa<;

b. Ar. opposes this theory in several places, e.g. De caelo III i,

6
299 a (fr. 41 H.):
STjXov OTL TOU auTou Xoyou SCTTL CTTepea (JLEV s^ erciTreSoiv auyxeLaOaL,
s
8 ex ypa[jifjiaiv, raiirai; S* ex aTt,yjJL(ov OUTCO S' e/ovTcav oux avayxrj
TO r^^ ypafJLfji-^ jjiepo^ ypa[i[JL7]v elvai Trepl Se TOUTWV eTceorxeTTTai Tcporepov
ev TOt<; Trepi xivvjaeax; Xoyoti;, STI oux eVrt-v aSiatpeTa JJLYJXTJ.

Cp. LAr.J, De lin. insec. 968 a'-b 21 (fr. 42 H.).

15
Philoponus in Ar. Phys. I 3, p. 84,
c. Vit., says that Xenocr.
admitted his hypothesis of indivisible lines in order to avoid Zeno's
consequences of indefinite division (Fr. 44 H.) :

"Ori xal TTJ ZyjVGivo^ dbropta Si* 735 xareaxeiia^e xal ev eivai TO ov xal axi-
VYJTOV ex TT^ iii aTceipov TO(JLTJ<; TWV [jieyeOwv, xaxco^ eveSoaav ^s^Sco^ UTTO-
0^|jievoi. [JIT]
elvai ere' aTieipov Ta (Jiey0Y) SiaipeTa. evSeScoxaai yap OTI ei m
aTreipov ia (JLeyeOyj SiaipeTa eirj, [ry)Te xivvjaiv elvai [X7)Te elvai TI xupico^ ev,

xai Sia TOUTO (jirjSe TroXXa, erceiS'/] TO TcXvjOo^ ex TroXXaJv (AovaSwv. evOev 6
avfjpei TTJV ere' oaueipov TO>V [jieyeOwv TO^YJV.

759 Definition
Soul is defined J Xenocr. as a self-moving
by * number. of Soul

a. Ar., De an. I 2, 404 b

27
(fr. 60 H.) :

Se xal XIVYJTIXOV eSoxei T)

U
4* X^
e ^v a^ *u yva>piaTixov, OUTO^ evioi

, a7co9y]va(Jievoi TYJV ^i)X^3 v aptOf^ov xivoiivG* eauTOv.

b. The commentators are unanimous in attributing this definition

4
to Xenocr. E.g. Alex. Aphr. in Ar. Top. II 4, p. 162, Wallies:
el SYJ xaToc SevoxpaTTjv ^X*) s<rciv api0(ji6<; eauTov xtvcov,
 278 THE EARLY ACADEMY [759]

c. Cp. Philoponus in Ar. De an. I i (402 a 22 ) A 15 :

Ol 8e UTTO TO TTCHTOV (sc. dcvayoixK T7]v ^w^v )

"
&v ^ aTt xo" 2evoxpaT7]<;

XIVG>V eauTov SOTTLV 7)

This 750 This definition

a. explained as indicating that soul
is first

ex plained takes an intermediate place between the Ideas (Numbers) and sensible
things.
4
Simpl., in Ar. De an. I 2 (404 b 27 ) p. 30, Hay duck (fr. 64 H., the
beginning) :

SevoxpaTou<; 6 TYJ<; <pi>x% OUTOC; Xoyo<; (SouXofJievou TYJV (jLecronqTa auTYjc;

TCOV TS eiStov xal TCOV etSoTTOLoujjievcov a(za xal TO I'Siov auTY]<; evSeiaa0at
6 yap api0[x6<; TO elSoc;, TO Ss XIVYJTOV TOLC; etSoTroLoufJievoLc; TcpoaYjxei. ex (JL^V
ouv Tc5v axpcov (Jiovov 8Y]Xot STI OUTS aptO(Ji6c; aTrXeoc; eaTat OUTE XLVTJTOV TOU

[xev yap u9etTai,, fj

TOU ajjieptcrTOU expepXyjTai, TOU 8e SCTTI xpeiTTcav, ^ TOO 5
UTTepe/ei TO (TuvajJicpoTepov oOv av TTCOC; SITJ a><; a(A9OTepoi<; xoivcovoijaa,

b. A
similar explanation is given by Philoponus, in Ar. De an.
4, (408 b ) E ii (fr. 65 H., 1. 24-29):
32
I

"EXeyev ouv apiOfjtov (alv TYJV tJ^xV Sta TO TcXyjpcojjia eiSwv elvat, TYJV
xal Xoyou ex TCOV Xoycov TTOCVTCOV yap ev eai)T^ TOIX; Xoyou^; l^et we;
api0(JLoi><; Se Ta ei'Sv] exaXouv co^ eipyjTai, xal auTO(; youv ev TOL<; e
xal ei5
SYJ ol XeyovTe^ TTJV ^O^TJV TOTCOV eLScovcc. apL6(ji6v (jiev
ouv Sta TOUTO
xivouvTa Se auTov Sia TO aOTo<o6v auT% ou yap 69* eTepou auTyj TO ^v, 5

oY] yap eciTtv.

c. Plutarch (De animi procr. i, p. 1012 d) derives the two elements

of soul in the definition of Xenocr. from the composing elements in
Plato's Tim., 35 a (Fr. 68 H., 1. 11-16, 18-23).
Ol [Jtev yap (sc. those who follow Xenocr. ) ouSev YJ yveaiv apiOfjiou S7)Xoua0at
vo[iiouat TYJ (JiL^ei TT^<; ajJiepiaTou xal [xepiaTY^c; ouata^ afiepKTTOv jjtev yap
elvai TO ev, jiepiaTOV Se TO TcX9jOo<;, ex Se TOUTO>V yeveaOai TOV aptOfjiov TOU

ev6(; 6ptovTO<; TO TcXv^Ooc;, xal T^ obteipia 7repa<; evTiOevToc;, YJV xal SuaSa xa-
Xouaiv aopt-aTOv. TOUTOV Se {JLYJTTO) ^U^TJV TOV api0[/,ov
elvat TO yap xivrjTtxov 5
xal Ti XIVTJTOV evSetv auTW TOU Se TauTOu xal TOU eTepou au[JL[Jn,yevTG)v, &v TO
jjiev ICTTL xtvYjaeoi; apx?) xal (JLeTapoXv)^, TO Se (JLOVYJ^, ^^xV yeyovevai, (JiYjSev

?JTTOV TOU Icnravai xal taTaaOai Siiva[JLLV YJ

TOU xiveta0ai xal xtvetv oSaav.

761 a. The soul's immateriality was proved by Xenocr. by the

following argument.
[761] XENOCRATES 279

Nemesius, De nat. horn. 30, p. 72 Matth. (fr. 66 H.) :

}),
el [ilv Tpe<peTai, UTCO aacofxaTou Tp^erat TOC yap
auTYjv ouSev Se acofjia UTUO aacajjiaTOU TpecpeTai, oux apa cr&fjux

SevoxpaTYjc; OUTCO auv9jyev.

We
find the argument back in Tertull., De anima c. 6: "De insignioribus argu-
meiitationibus erit ctiani ilia, quod omne corpus corporahbus ali iudicant, animam
vero ut incorporalem incorporalibus, sapientiae scilicet studiis."

Xenocr. held the immortality of the soul, not only of its logical
b.

part, but of the whole. Ar. opposes X. in the following lines of his De
anima (Fr. 73 H.) :

"ETI 8e TWO^ olov re ^copie<r6

si ye JAY) StaipouvTai ai ypajjifjial sic;

Philoponus comments on these lines (E 14; Heinze ib.) :

'
cTe Y) TlXarcovoc; cov x 03 ? 10 "^ sXeyev
(jLaOY)T-/)<; 1 slvat

Cp. our nr. 737 on Speus.

762 Xenocr. seems to have held that Soul penetrates the universe, Gods and
descending from the higher regions of being to the inferior ones, so
that not only the heavenly bodies are ensouled, and therefore divine
beings, but also the elements of the sensible world. Moreover, he admitted
the existence of half-divine beings (daemons) in the lower world, which
take an intermediate place between the gods and men.
1
Aetius, Plac. 1 7; Dox. 304 b (fr. 15 H., second half :

0eov 8* elvai xal TOV oupavov xal TOIK; aaTepa<; 7ci)pa>8ei<; 'OXuf^Tuoix; Oeouc;,
xal Tpou<; dopaTou^. apecrxei Se xal auTw <6eia^ Tiva<;
i>7ro<TX7)voi><; Saifjiova^
2
&ova(xei<;> xal ev^ivjxeiv TOL<; i>Xixoc; vcoi-xjzioK;. TOIJTCOV 8e TTJV (Jiev <8ia TOU

aepoc;
f<f

AiSr)v (!><;> aeiS^ TrpocrayopeueL, Sta TOU uypoii HoaeiSwva, TTJV

TYJV Se
8e 8ta T^^ yvjc; cpuroCTTropov Av)(jL7)Tpa. raura 8e /opyjyyjciac; TOI<;

TrpoTSpa Trapa TOU llXcmovoc;

763 Molecular theory. The elements

composed of
Aetius, Plac. 1 Dox. 315 b 23
(Fr. 50 H.):
17, 3; molecules

'EfATceSoxXv]^ xal SevoxpaTT]^ ex (juxpOTepcov oyxwv Ta a*coi'xzi<x. auyxptvei,

oauep eaTtv eXaxtaTa xal olovsl

764 Xenocr. held the eternity Eternity of

a. J of the kosmos, and, accordingly,
J
r _. the kosmos
defends a non-literal interpretation of the Timaeus.

1
The first part of this fragment has been cited supra, under nr. 756a.
2
Better: <6et<x<; TIV<X<; elvoti 8uvdcjxei<;>.
 280 THE EARLY ACADEMY [764]

32
Ar. De caelo I 9, 279 b (fr. 54 H.):
M
Hv 8e Tive<; (3oy)0eiav eTii^eipoiiai <ppstv SOCUTOU; TCOV Xey6vTCov <$c96apTov
[jLev elvat yevofievov Ss (TOV XO<T(JLOV), oux EOTTIV aX7)0Y]<;* 6(Jioi<o<; yap 9<xa& TOL<;
T<X 8iaypafJi|JiaTa ypacpouai xal acpou; eipvjxlvai icepi TYJ<; ysveaeog, oux <*><;

yevo(jLevou TCOTE, aXXa SiSaaxaXiac; x^P LV ^^ [JiaXXov yva>pi6vTcov, ciaTuep TO

ytyvojievov 0eaaa(Jievou<; TOUTO S' eaTtv, cicrTrep Xeyo[xev, ou TO 5
e^ dcTaxTtav yap TTOTC TeTay(JLeva yevlaOai 9aatv, fifjia Ss TO auTG
OCTOCXTOV elvai xal TETayfJievov aSiivaTOv.

The commentators explain the passage as referring to Xenocr.

b. One of the scholia mentions Xenocr. and Speus. :

Schol. cod. Reg. 1853, p. 489 a 9 Brandis (Heinze, p. 180, 1. 12-15) :

O SevoxpaTYjc; xal 6 STTSUCTITTTCO*; 7riXipouvT<; poY]0^(rai TW

f

e'Xsyov OTL ou ysvirjTov TOV XOCTJJLOV 6 HXaTCOv eSo^a^ev aXXa ayevvjTov,

Se StSacrxaXLa^ xal TOU yvcoptfrat, xal TrapaaTYJtraL auTo axptpe<7Tpov eXsys
TOUTOV yevyjTOV.
Plut., De an. pvocv. 3, p. 1013 a mentions Xenocr. and Grantor.

Ethics Xenocr. wrote a considerable number of works on ethics. Cp.

765
our nr. 742b. He was known in Antiquity as a severe moralist, though
he taught, with the whole Academy, that virtue is not the only good.

virtue and a C ic., De IV

.
fin. 18, 49 (fr. 90 H.):
goods Aristoteles, Xenocrates, tota ilia familia iion dabit (bonum omne esse

laudabile), quippe qui valetudinem, vires, divitias, gloriam, multa alia

bona esse dicant, laudabilia non dicant. et hi quidcm ita non sola virtute
fmem bonorum contineri putant, ut rebus tamen omnibus virtutem
anteponant.

b. Cp. Seneca, Epist. 85, 18 (fr. 91 H.):

Xenocrates et Speusippus putant beatum vel sola virtute fieri posse,
non tamen unum bonum esse, quod honestum est.

c. Cic., Tusc. V 18, 51 (fr. 86 H.):

Quid ergo aut hunc (Critolaum) prohibet aut etiam Xenocratem ilium
gravissimum philosophorum, exaggerantem tantopere virtutem, extenu-
antem cetera et abicientem, in virtute non bpatam modo vitam, sed
etiam beatissimam ponere?
Plutarchus, Comp. dm. c. Luc. i, opposes Xenocr. together with the Stoa to
Epicureanism.
 [766] XENOCRATES 28l

766 In what Xenocr., and the Academy in general, differed from

Stoicism, may appear from the following passages of Cicero.

a. De leg. I 21, 55 (fr. 89 H.)

Cic., :

Si Chius Aristo dixit solum bonum esse quod honestum esset,

ut
malumque quod turpe, ceteras res omnis plane paris ac ne minimum
quidem utrum adcssent an abessent interesse, valde a Xenocrate et
Aristotele et ab Platonis familia discreparet (Antiochus), essetque
ilia

5 inter cos de re maxima et de omni vivendi ratione dissensio; nunc vero,

cum decus, quod antiqui summum bonum esse dixerant, hie solum bonum
dicat, itemque illi summum malum, hie solum, divitias, valetudinem,
pulchritudinem commodas res appellet, non bonas, paupertatem, debili-
tatem, dolorem incommodas, non malas, sentit idem quod Xenocrates,
10 quod Aristoteles, loquitur alio modo.

b. Cic., Ac. pr. (Litcnllus) 44, 136 (fr. 93 H.):

Atrocitas quidem ista tua (Antioche) quo modo in veteran Academiam
inruperit nescio; ilia vero (7tapa8o!;a de sapiente) ferre non possum, non
quo mihi displiceant sunt enim Socratica pleraque mirabilia Stoi-
corum, quae TrapaSo^a nominantur: sed ubi Xenocrates, ubi Aristoteles
5 ista tetigit ? hos cnim quasi eosdem esse vultis. Illi umquam diccrcnt

sapientes solos reges, solos divites, solos formosos ? omnia, quae ubique
essent, sapientis esse? neminem consulem, practorem, imperatorem,
nescio an ne quinquevirum quidem quemquam nisi sapientem ? postremo
solum civem, solum liberum? insipientos omncs peregrines, exules,
10 servos, furiosos? denique scripta Lycurgi, Solonis, duodecim tabulas
nostras non esse leges ? nc urbes quidem aut civitates, nisi quae essent
?
sapieatium

767 He declared that the virtuous life is always happy, keeping to

Plato's view in the Gorgias, the Republic and the Laws (cp. our nrs.
275a, b and 374a).
7 10
a. Ar., Top. VII i, 152 a - (fr. 82 H.,
19-22):1.

SevoxpaTYjc; TOV euSatjiova (3iov xal TOV aTCOuSatov dbroSeixvucri TOV

sTuei&Tj TcavTCov T&V pitov aipT(OTaTo<; 6 GFTTouSato^ xal 6 euSaifjLcav ev yap

TO aipETCOTarov xal

b. Alex. Aphrod. in Ar. Top. II 6, 112 a32 (fr. 81 H., 1. 11-13):

Ei SY] Saijjtcx>v sxaaTou YJ ^ux*/), xa6* a SevoxpaT&t Soxel, ELY) av euSatfiaw 6

su T/JV ^^xV ^X 0)V '

*& ^T V4 /u X^l v ^X SL ^ <J7cou8ato(; 6 <
 282 THE EARLY ACADEMY [768]

768 Virtue not only in actions, but in the intention of the heart.
Interior
character of
Ael VaY hisL . X IV 42 (fr.
v 05
^ H.) '
:

, c , e

virtue SevoxpaTY]<; 6 OXaTCovoc; eTatpoc; eXeye fjnqSev Sta^epeiv, y) TOiIx; 7c68a<; ^

TOIK; o90aXfjioi) el<; aXXorptav olxtav TiOevai. ev TOCUTCO yap afjLapTavetv TOV

TS e<; a (jiY)
Set x^P^* pXrcovTa, xal e<; ou<; [JLT]
Set TOTCOIK; 7rapi6vTa.

769 Xenocr. a friend of animals.

Ad " Var HisL ' XIH 3I (fr< I01 H^ :

3evoxpaTY](; 6 KaXx^Sovtoc; 6 cTatpoc; IlXaTcovoc; T<X Te aXXa ^v 9iXotxTtp(jLcov

xal ou JJLOVOV 9iXavOpo)7TO<; aXXa xal TroXXa TG>V aXoycov ^cocav 7]Xeei xal ouv

xaOyjfjievou ev uTuaiOpco Sicoxofjievo^ piaia)^ onrpouQo^ UTUO lepaxo<; e<; TOIX;

auTOu xaTeTTTY] 6 8e aafxevcoc; eSe^aTO TOV opvtv xal Sie9\iXaev OCTCO-

xpu'j/a<;, eaTe 6 Sitoxcov a7i^X6ev. eTrei Se YjXeuOepcoaev aurov TOU 96^00, aTcXwaac; 5
TOV xoXTUov a9^xe TOV Spvtv eTTetTrwv OTI (JLTJ e^eScoxe TOV lxeT7)v.

770 Xenocr. as an ambassador.

Diog. L. IV 9 (fr. 109 H.):

'AXXa xal Trpeapeiicov Trpo^ 'AvTtTuaTpov rapl at^fJiaXcoTcav 'AOTjvatcov xaTa
TOV Aajziaxov vroXefJiov xal xX7)Oel<; evrl SetTrvov Tupoc; auTov TrpoTjveyxaTO
d> KtpxY], Tt? yap xev avyjp o<; evaL<rt[jto^ eiT)

Tiplv TXatT] TraCToraaOai, eSyjTiio^ yjSe 7roTyJTO<;,

TTplv XtiaaaO' sTapou^ xal ev o90aX[Jiotatv i

xal TOV a7T;oSe^a(JLevov TTJV euaTo^iav eu6u<; a9eZvat.

3 UERACLIDES PONTICUS
A disciple 771 a f{ e js mentioned among Plato's disciples in Diog. Laert.
Ill 46 (our nr. 726), in the Index Acad. col. VI, p. 33 Mekler, and by
Strabo XII 541.
b. He edited, as others did, Plato's lecture TT. TayaOou.

Simpl., in Ar. Pkys., p. 453 D., 1. 25-30 (fr. 42 W.):

'Ap^ac; yap xal T&V aiaO-yjTcTjv TO ev xal TYJV aoptaTov 9aat SuaSa Xeyetv
TOV IIXaTCOva, TYJV 8e aoptcrrov SuaSa xal ev TOLC; VOYJTOU; TtOel^; aireipov elvai,

eXeyev ev TOL^ Tcepl TayaOou Xoyoic;, ol<; 'ApiaTOTeXyj^ xal 'HpaxXeiSyjc; xal
'EaTiatoc; xal (icXXot TOU nXaT(ovoc; eTatpoi 7uapayev6(Jievoi aveypa^avTO Ta
prjOevTa aivtyfjiaTwScoc;, coc; eppy)6yj.
5

Head of the c Suidas says that Plato left him as head of the School during his
^
Academy . .

in 361 third stay in Sicily (fr. 2 W.) :

*
Od. X 383-385-
 HERACLIDES PONTICUS 283

el<; StxeXiav, TrpoearTavat

Speus. and Xenocr. accompanied the Master to Sicily (Plut., Dio 22; Diog.
L. IV ii).

d. In this light we have to read the account of Diog. L.V 86 (f r. 3 W.)

,
:

'HpaxXei8y)<; EuOi>cppovo<; 'HpaxXetoTTj^ TOU HOVTOU, avyjp 7cXou(no<;. 'AOyj-

vTjai 8 Trape^aXe Trpoyrov JJLSV STrsuatTTTTG) aXXa xal T&V IIuOayopELOiv 817]-
xoucre xal T<X IlXaTCovo<; e^TqXar/.si xal utrrepov 7)xou<rev
SCOTLCOV ev

Supposed that the statement is true, the meeting with Speusippus here mentioned
must have taken place during Plato's second stay in Sicily (367-364), while the
T<X TTXaTcovo? ly)Xcoxet. certainly implies that he knew Plato and heard him lecturing.

That he heard Aristotle too, refers doubtless to Aristotle's lectures in the Academy.
Cp. Strabo XIII 610, who says of Hermeias: yevoptevo^ &' 'A(hf)v7)criv YjxpoaaaTo xal
UXdcTcovcx; xal

772 a. When, after the death of Speusippus, Xenocrates was

chosen as the head of the Academy (338), Heracl. returned to Pontus.
Index Acad., col. VI, p. 38-39 Mekler (fr. 9 W.):
Ol Si veavtaxoL ^J/yjcpocpopYjcravTe^ o<m<; aiT&v 7)Y'/) creTat (sc. after the death
of Speusippus) SevoxpaTyjv siXovro TOV KaX^yj^oviov, 'ApiaToreXoix; [lev

aTuoSeSyjfjLTjxoTOc; sic, MaxeSoviav, MeveSvjfJLou Se TOU Iluppaiou xal 'HpaxXetSou

*HpaxXecoTou Trap* oXtyac; ^yj^ouf; 7]TTY]6evTO>v. *O [Jiev oOv 'HpaxXetSv)^
zlq TOV HOVTOV, 6 Se Meve8Y)(jLo^ exspov TieptTraTov xal 8iaTpL(37]v

Probably, after his return to Pontus, Heracl. held a school there, as may appear
from Diog. Laert. VI T 166, where it is said of a certain Dionysius, called 6 MeTa0-

Y^xouac S^, xa6a 973(11 At,oxX9j<;, Trpcorov [JLEV 'IlpaxXetSou TOU TroXiTou,
xal MeveSTjjxou, TeXeuraiov 8k Zrjvcovo<; (fr. 12 W.).

b. Later doxographi treat him sometimes as a Peripatetic, as by

Diog. L. his bios is placed at the end of the 5th book, after that of De-
metrius of Phaleron. Thus, among modern scholars, Wehrli treats him
in Heft 7 of his Sclmle des Aristoteles, and Heath in ch. XVIII of his
Aristarchus of Samos.
Proclus in Tim. 281 E (fr. 106 W.) does not deny that H. was in fact
a disciple of Plato. What he denies is, that he was legitimately called
a Platonist, since he held the rotation of the earth round its axis, while
Plato made it unmoved (see our nr. 352 and note 2 to
 284 THE EARLY ACADEMY [772]

'HpaxXeiS-yjt; [xev o5v 6 riovTix6<;, ou IIXaTtovoc; a>v axoucmfjs, TauTYjv E^TW

TTJV So^av, xtveov xuxXco TTJV y9jv TlXaTcov Se OCXIVTJTOV auryjv tciTTjaiv.
Instead of the ou in the first line of this text Fabricius conjected 6, Taylor TOU.
Schneider, in his edition of Proclus' Commentary of 1847, notes: "Fortasse Proclns
non auditum esse Flatonem, sed intellectum ab Hcraclide negat".

character 773 a. H.' character and writings. Diog. L. V 86 (fr. 3 W.):

OUTOC; <70TJTt T {/.aXaxTJ sxpTJTO xal UTuepoyxo^ T)v TO <7c5[Jia, <&GFT' auTov
UTCO T&V 'ATTIX&V (JIT)
IIovTixov ocXXa IlofjLTctxov xaXsujOai. rcpaoc; T' fy co

pX6fJL[Aoc xal ce(jLv6^. Oeperat S' aurou <yoyYpa(JL[JiaTa xaXXurrdc TS xal aptaTa.
Follows a long list of his works, among which many dialogues on ethical subjects
are mentioned.
Ethical jj b describes these dialogues
Diog. b in the following
6 lines.
dialogues
Ib., 88-89 (fr- 22 W.):
Toiirtov TOC plv xofjiixcac; rceTrXaxev, ax; TO Tcepl YjSov^ xal Tiepl
TOCSe Tpaytx<x)<;, &c, TO Tcspl TO>V xa6' a8y]v xal TO Trepl euaepeia^; xal TO Tcepl

e^ouata^. EGTI S' auTco xal (JLCCTOTY]^ TIC; OJJLIXTJTIXT] cpiXoaocpwv TE xal
Other works ytxcov xal TuoXtTixcov dvSpwv 7rp6(; aXXyjXou^ SiaXyo(jLev6)v. aXXa
<mv auTOu xal 8iaXXTixa. aXX<0(; T' v aTtacii TrotxtXoc; T xal St7]p[Jivo<; 5
<rci xal

Soul 774 Soul is defined by Heracl. as an aetheric body, shining, something

like light.

a. 49, 6 (Dox. 388) =- fr. gga W.

Stob., Eel. I :

'HpaxXEiSv]^ 9GiTOiS^ TTJV ^ U X^1 V <*>p^aTo.

We find this doctrine mentioned in Tertull., DC anima <), and in Macrobius,
Somn. Sc. I
14.

b. Philoponus, De an. A 4 (Dox. 214) = fr. 100 W. :

01 [Jiv tpy]xaatv ai6ptov lva'. acofia (TauTov S <TTIV EITTELV oupaviov)

coaTCp 'HpaxXEtSy]*; 6

775 a. Before entering bodies, souls abide in the milky way.

Iambi, ap. Stob., Ed. I 49, 39 (I, 378 Wachsmuth) = fr.98 W.:
Kal TOIJTOIX; (sc. the places whence the soul comes when it is incarnated
in a <TTpov a&(jia) 'HpaxXEiSyjv (JLEV
TOV HovTtxov a<popt^iv 7Tpl TOV yaXa^tav,
aXXou<; SE xa6* 8Xa^ TOU oupavou Tag acpaipa*;, a^' ^v SY) &iipo xaTiEvai Ta^
tpuxac; TOIK; 8k Tuepl aXr)vy)v yj
Iv TO> UTTO (TEXyjvyjv alpi XlyEiv auTac; xaTOixtv
xal ant auT&v xaT6> /copEiv sig TTJV TrsptyEiov yEVEoriv, TOUC; SE OCTTO aofxaTCOv
al (TTepscov TTITCTSLV ig ^Tspa acofjLaTa Sna^p^EaOai. 5

Cp. PL, Tim. 41 d e (our nr. 354a).

[775] HERACLIDES PONTICUS 285

b. He shares Plato's view that the universe, the planets, the earth
and the heaven arc gods.
Cic., N.D. I 13, 34 (fr. 112 W.):
Ex eadem Platonis schola Ponticus Heraclides puerilibus fabulis
refersit libros, et tamen modo mundum turn mentem divinam esse putat,
errantibus etiam stellis divinitatem tribuit sensuque deum privat et eius
formam mutabilem esse vult, eodemque in libro rursus terram et caelum
rtffert in deos.

776 a. The universe is infinite. Cosmology

Stob., Ed. I 21, 5 (Dox. 328, b 4)

= fr. 113 W.:
5
*
SeXsuxcx; 6 EpuOpaLo<; xal 'HpaxXeiSv]^ 6 Ilovuxog oareipov TOV XOCTJJIOV.

Each star is also a universe or world, suspended

b. in the infinite
aether and comprising an earth, an atmosphere and an aether.

Aet., Plac. II 13, 15 (Dox. 343, a )

7 = fr. H4a W.:
H paxXsiSvjc; xal ol riuOayopeioi sxacrrov TWV aorepcov xo<T[iov oTuapxsLV
yvjv Trepie^ovTa aepa TS xal alOepa ev T> Taura Se Ta SoyjiaTa
dbrsipc*) alOspi.
sv Tots 'OpcpLxotc; 9epeTai xoajioTuoiouari yap exaarov TCOV

c. The moon is earth surrounded with mist.

Stob., Ed. I 26 (Dox. 356, b 25 )

= fr. usa W.:
[xat "OxeXXo^] y^v

777 Heracl. held the rotation of the earth round its own axis. Rotation
of the earth
a. Aet. Ill 13, 3 (Dox. 378 a 10 ) = fr. 105 W. :

'HpaxXst&T]*; 6 HOVTIXO^ xal "Ex<pavTo<; 6 FluOayopeio^ xtvooat, JJLSV TYJV yyjv,

ou (JITQ.V ye fJLSTapaTixa)^, aXXa rpsTTTtxco^, rpo^ou &LXY)V evyj^ovKTfjLevyjv, OCTUO

8u<T[Jicov ETC* avaroXa*; Trepl TO tSiov auT^<; xevrpov.

The text has been reproduced under 44b, and is cited here again for the sake
of its utmost interest.
Heath, Aristarchus of Samos p. 252, suggests that the views attributed by the
Doxographi to Ecphantus the Pythagorean (who is, for the rest, unknown to us)
were expressed in a dialogue of Heracl. and put into the mouth of Ecph., repre-
sented as a Pythagorean.

b. Cp. Simpl. in Ar. De caelo, p. 444 1. 31 -

445, 2 Heiberg
(fr. 109 W.) :

Ar. admitted the possibility that both the heaven of the fixed stars and the
fixed stars themselves are at rest Sta TO ysyovevat Ttva^, &v 'HpaxXstSY)^ TS 6

IIovTixcx; 9jv xal 'AptaTapxo^, vo(Jii^ovTa<; aco^eaOai T<X (patvojjieva TOU (jiev

The astronomer Seleucus of Babylon.

 286 THE EARLY ACADEMY [777]

oupavou xal T<OV (ScaTpaw 7]pe|JiouvTCOV, TYJC; Se y9j<; rapl TOIK; TOU icnrjfjtsptvou

TuoXouc; aTuo Suffjxwv xtvoufjievY)^ exaaTT]^ Y](JLspa^ (xtav eyytara rapicrrpocpYjv.

Also ib. p. 519, 9 - n 541, 2H - 29 schol. in Ar. p. 505 b 46 - 47 Brandis. Cp. Simpl.
; ;

in Phys., p. 292, 20 infra, sub 768. ,

Copernicus refers to Heracl. in his dedicatory epistle to Paul Til and in I 5 of

his work De revolutionibus orbium caelestium.

Rotation of 778 Heracl. seems to have held also the theory that Mercury and
Mars Mars rotate round the sun, a theory which occurs later combined with
that of the epicyclia, as it may be seen in Theon of Smyrna, p. 186,
17-187, 13 Killer.
The passage is explained by Heath, Anstarchus p. 257 f. The same theory is
mentioned by Chalcidius, Tim. c. no, pp. 176-7 Wrobel. It occurs again in Ma-
crobius, Somn. Sc. I iy; Vitruvius, Architect. IX i (4), 6; Martianus Capella VIT1
854, 880, 882.

779 That he held the Copernican system, was defended by Schia-

parclli and again by Staigmuller, on the ground of Simpl., De caelo
1
f

444 and 452 Heiberg, and chiefly of Phys. 292 Diels. It is not accepted by
Heath, who follows Tannery in rejecting the name 'HpaxX. 6 IIovuxoc;
in 1. 21 of the last mentioned passage of Simplicius, as a gloss 2 .

The text of Simpl., Phys. 292, 15 - 23 (fr. in W.), runs:

Aia TI avcajjtaXox; -qXtos xai asX7)vy) xal oi TrXdcvyjTSc; (paivovTai xivoifjievoi ;
i
5

L, et U7ro0co(ji6a IxxevTpouc; aurcov TOU^ xiixXou^ 73

xar' eTuxuxXov TCoXou-
TOC aCTTpa, <Ho6y)0Tai 73 ^atvo^evy] avcofJtaXta auTcav, SsYjcrei TE eTue^eXOecv,

xaO' oaouc; SuvaTov TpoTroug Taura aTcoTsXeZcrOaL T<X cpouvofjieva, oiaTe eoixevai

T^ xaTa TOV lvSe}(6[jLvov TpoTuov atTioXoyta TTJV rapt TCOV TuXavcofxevcav 4<TTp6>v 20
7upay|jLaTetav. Ato xal TrapeXOcov Tt^ 97]crtv 'HpaxXetSyj^ IlovTixoc;, OTt xal

XLvoufJievT]^ TCOX; TTj^ y'O^j TO ^ ou

^^ H-^ ^VOVT ^^ ^^^ SuvaTai Y) Tcept
TOV i^Xiov

9atvo(jtevY] avcojjiaXta aco^eaOai.

By the TI<; in 1. 21, according to Tannery and Heath, Aristarchus of Samos is meant.

Atomic ygo His atomic theory differed from that of Democritus in that
Heracl. makes his oyxot TraO-yjTot, i.e. capable of being worked on by
each other.

a. Dionys. ap. Euseb., Praep. ev. XIV 23, 3 (Dox. 252) = fr. 119 W. :

TauTY)<; 8k 1% &6y)<; (sc. atomism) 'ETitxoupo^ yeyovaort xal AY)(ji6xptTO<;.

TOGTOUTOV &e 8t9cov7]aav OCTOV 6 [Jtev eXa^taTa^ Tracra^ xal Sia TOUTO

/ precursori di Copernico nelV Antiquita, Milano 1873.

Heath, Aristarchus, pp. 276-283.
 [780] HERACLIDES PONTICUS 287

'

TOU<;,6 8e xal {JteyiaTa*; elvat riva^ aTOfjiou^ 6 AvjfJioxpiTOs UTreXafiev.

Se elval cpaaLV ajjupoTepoi xal XeyeaOai, Sta TTJV #Xi>Tov aTepponrjTa. 01 S TOC<;

5 <XT6[AOU<; [jteTOvofjiaaavTec; ajjiepYJ 9aaiv elvai <rco(jiaTa TOO TravToc; fipY), e &v
aStaip^TCOv OVTCOV auvTiOerai TOC TTOCVTOC xal etc; a StaXueTat. xal TOUTCOV
TCOV afjiep&v ovo(JiaT07roi6v AtoSwpov ysyovevai. "Ovo[jLa Se, cpaatv,
aXXo 'HpaxXeiSv)^ Oefievoi; ExaXsasv Syxou^;.
On Diodorus, cf. our nr. 232 (Diodorus Cronus).
*~ b. Sextus, Math. X (= Adv. Phys. II) 318 = fr. 121 W.:
*E^ eSo^aaav TYJV
aTreipcov 8' TWV
7rpay(JiaTG>v yevsatv 'Ava^ayopav ol Trepl

TOV KXaJ^ofJieviov xal AvjfJLoxptTov xal 'ETttxoupov xal aXXoi 7ra(jLTcX7)6eL(;, aXX'
6 (jiev 'Ava^ayopac; e^ 6(Jioi6)v TOC<; yevvcofjievoic;, ol Se Tuepl TOV ATjfjioxpiTov xal

'Eirixoupov e^ avo(jLOL(ov TC xal arcaOoiv, TOUTSCTTI TOJV dcTOficov, ol Se ?cepl TOV

5 IIovTixov 'HpaxXeiSvjv xal 'A(TxXY)7tia87)v i% avofjiotcov (jtev, TraOyjTcov 8e,
xaOaTiep TCOV avapp.a)v oyxcov.
Asclepiadcs of Prusa was a medical man, who lived at Rome in the first century
B.C. He was influenced by Epicurus and Heracl. Pont., and is mentioned by later
authors as an adherent of the atomic theory.

c. Heracl. held that the atoms are joined together to a universe by

divine Reason. See our nr. 775b (Cic., N.D. I 13, 34).

781 One of the chief works of Heracl. was his books II. (jiouaix^^. Musicoiogy
An important fragment of these is preserved in Plut., De mm. 25-103.
Another passage is cited in Athenaeus XIV 624 -626 A. For the rest,
Philodemus, DC mus. col. XXII I 30-XXIV 4 may give us some idea
of the contents of Heracl/ work (fr. 163 W.). The text runs:
"A fJi^vTot ALoyevyj<; xaTavovjcravTa^ Yj[jLa<; <T>avayeYP a jl JL ^ va 7ra P
97)<rtv, ( {
>

'HpaxAei&T) Tcepi TrpeTiovTO^ (JisXou^ xal dbrpejcou*; xai, appevcov xal [jiaXaxcov
y)0cov xal Trpa^ewv apfjtOTTOUcrcov xal avap[i6aTtov TCH<; u7roxeL(Jivoi<;
ou fjiaxpav aTC7)pTY)[JievYjv 9iXoao9ia(; YjyYjaeaOai TO) 7rpo<;
TTJC;

5 TOU PLOD /pyjatfjieueiv TTJV (JLOIXTIXYJV xal TTJV Trepl aur/jv 9LXoTe

Trp6<; TrXeLOUc; apeTa<;, [jtaXXov Se xal Traaac;, exOevTo^ yj^eLi; ev TO>

TCOV U7ropiV7)(JLaT6)v, xal Ta Trap* aXXoi^ Ss ai>YY Vt ^ eLpY](Jiva Tcap-
e<mv
H., like Plato and Aristotle before him, held apparently that music should have
a moral value and influence on men, a thesis which was violently opposed by the
Epicurean Philodemus.

782 Heracl/ Abaris was a kind of life of a saint, which became the The Abaris

prototype of later lives of Pythagoras. It was adorned with spiritistic

stories, which made it very popular in Antiquity.
 288 THE EARLY ACADEMY [782]

Plut., De audiendis poetis i, p. 14 E (fr. 74 W.) :

8e TWV ev 91X0(1091^ Xeyo[jiva>v ol G9o8pa veoi TO&S [JLYJ

Soxouari 91X0(16-

y)8& <77couS9j<; Xye<yOai x^P ouaL l^aXXov xal rcapexouaiv u7CY)x6ou<;

OCTTO

SOCUTOIK; xal ^etpo^Oeic;, SyjXov ECTTLV 7](juv. Oii yap (JLOVOV TOC AidcoTceia (JioOapia
xal T<i<; TTOIYJTIXOU; U7ro0e<yet<;, xal TOV *'Apaptv TOV 'HpaxXeiSou, xat TOV Auxcova
TOV 'Ap<rreovo<; Siep/ofxevoi, [aXXa xal] TOC rcepl TWV ^DX<OV SoyjiaTa {JLe^iy^eva 5
(jtuOoXoyta

H.' name 733 On the whole, Heracl. was a celebrated and much read author
in later Antiquity, up to the Christian era. Varro was greatly influenced

by his dialogues; Cicero and Atticus admired him.

a. Cic., Tnsc. V 3, 8 praises his erudition (fr. 89 W.):
auditor Platonis Ponticus Heraclides, vir cloctus in primis.
Cp. also Div. I 23, 46.

b. Timaeus rebuked him for his mysticism. Diog. L. VIII 72

(fr.85 W.):
Timaeus opposes the stories of the miraculous disappearance of Empedocles.
a TIVOC SITTWV 6 Tt[iaio<; eTcixpepei' 'AXXa Sia TTOCVTOC; eanv 'HpaxXet-
TrapaSo^oXoycK;, xai ex TYJ<; CTeXvjvyj^ 7C7rT(oxevai avOpcoTrov Xeyova.

Cp. Plut., Cam. 22; De aud. poet. i.

c. Epicurus and his disciples covered him with invectives.

Plut., Contra Epicuri beatitudinem 2, p. 1086 E (fr. 20 W.):
Compared with Epicurus and Metrodorus, Colotes was very moderate in his

language. Ta yap sv av0pco7uoi<; ata^icrra pyjf

Xouc;auvayayovTSc; 'ApidTOTsXou^ xal ScaxpaTOi)^ xal HuOayopoi) xal np

yopou xal 0eo9paarou xal 'HpaxXeiSou xal 'iTTTuap^ou xal TLVOC; yap
wv xaTeaxSa<rav.

4 EUDOXUS, FHILtPPUS OF OPOUS AND THK ICPJNOMIS

784 Another famous disciple of Plato and teacher in the Academy
was Eudoxus of Cnidus, philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, medical
man and lawgiver.
Eudoxus a> L vill 86-88:
of Cnidus
Diog>

Ta [lev yecofjieTptxa 'Ap^uTa SiYjxouare, ra S' taTpixa OtXiaTtcovo^ TOU

SixeXicoTou, xaOa KaXXifjiaxoc; ev Tot^ Tctva^t 97]O't. Samcov S* ev Tai<;
 [784] EUDOXUS OF CNIDUS 289

Xeyei xal riXaTCOvo^ auTov axoucrai. yev6(Jievov yap ITCOV Tptcov TUOU xal ei'xocri
s

5 xal o~Tevco<; SiaxeifJievov xaTa xXeo<; TCOV DcoxpaTixcov sic, aTrapat

A6y)va<;
auv QeojJLeSovTi TCO laTpco, rpe96(JLevov UTI' aoTou OL Se, xal TiaiSixa OVTOC

xaTa^QevTa 8' etc; TOV Hetpaia 6ay)(jiepa& avievat 'AOyjva^s xal axouaavTa TCOV

o~09iaTcov auToOi uTTooTps^eiv. 860 SYJ {jLYJvac; Starpt^avTa oi'xaft' eTuaveXOetv

xal 7Tpo<; TWV 9iXcov IpavicrOevTa sic; Ai'yuTTTov aTrapat (jtsra XpudiTrrcoi) TOU
'
10 taTpou, aucrraTixac; cpepovra Tuap' AyY)ai,Xaoo irpo<; NexTavajiiv TOV 8e TOU;
auTov cruaT'^aaL. 'EvTSuOev TS yevsaOai ev Ku^ixw xal Tyj ITpoTuov-
KTTeiiovTa dcXXoc xal rcapa MauacoXov d^ixeaOat. eTrsiO* OUTO^C;

Oetv 'AOvjva^e, Travu TioXXouc; Trepl saurov e^ovra {JL

ev Tyj TcaTpiSi [xsyaXoTiptox;, ax; TO ys Tispl auToij ^r^KTjJia ysv6[JLvov

5 aXXa xal Tuapa TOC^ "EXXvjcriv e^i9aveaTaTO<; eyeveTO, ypa^ac; TO^C;

TioXiTaic; v6(JLOi)c;, co^ 97](JLv "Ep(jLt,7r7ioc; ev TeTapTT) Trepl TG>V eTCTa <709c5v, xal

atTTpoXoyoufjieva xat yecofjieTporifjieva xal eVep* aTTa a^

b. He died at the age of 53, before Plato. Diog. L., ib., 90:
Se TpiTov aycov xal TuevTTjxocTTov

c. His celebrity. Diog., ib. 91:

TOUTOV avTi EuSo^ou ''EvSo^ov exaXouv Sia TTJV XafjLTrpoTTjTa

785 He rejected
J J of the Ideas in
the theory its Platonic form. interpreta-
tion of the

a. Ar., Metaph. A 9, 991 a

8 - 18
(our nr. 529a).

b. Alex, explains the passage as follows:

EuSoo<; TWV llXaTCovo^ yvcoptfjLcov fxi^ei TCOV tSecov ev Totq Tupoc; auTa<; TO
slvat e'xou(7iv yjyetTo exaaTov elvai, xal aXXoi 8e Ttve^;, cl)^ eXeye . . .
(nei TCOV
tSecov ra aXXa.

786
In ethics, too, he held a view very different from Plato's, namely pl *asure

that pleasure is the supreme good. We found it in Aristotle's Ethics g 00<j

(our nrs. 594-596) and shall find it again in Epicurus.

a. Ar., Eth. Nic. X 2,

9 181
1172 b - :

jjiev
o3v TYJV YjSovyjv TayaOov weT* elvat Sia TO TravO opav e9ie(xeva
xal eXXoya xal #Xoya, ev Tracrt 8* elvai T& alpeTov eTTtetxe^, xal TO
xpaTiaTOv TO Se TCOCVT' eTil TauTo 9epeaOai jJLYjvueiv co<; rcaai TOUTO
(exaaTov yap TO auTco ayaOov supiaxeiv, 6a7cep xal Tpo9Yjv), TO
YJ
TraaLV ayaOov, xal oi5 TTOCVT* e9ieTat, TayaOov elvat ercLciTeiJOVTo 8' ot Xoyot

1
The passage referred to sub 596c.

DC Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 19

 THE EARLY ACADEMY [786]

5
Sta TYJV TOU 7]6ou<; aper/jv [jiaXXov 73
Si aurou^. Aia9spovTto<; y*P eSoxei aa>9pcov
slvai ou SY) co<; cpiXoc; TTJ<; YJ&OVYJ<; eSoxet Taika Xeyeiv, aXX* OUTOX; S^etv XOCT*

aXvjOeiav.

b. Plato himself was brought by this theory to write his Philebus

and to revise his own view of the best life (our nr. 348).
Theory of 737 As
to astronomy, Eudoxus' theory of concentric celestial spheres

spheres preceded that of Callippus and Aristotle's theory of a plurality of un-

moved Movers, expounded in Metaph. A 8.

Our nr. 517.

See on Eudoxus' hypothesis: Heath, Anstarchtis, p. 193-211.

Geometry 738 a. An important part of Euclides' Elementa has been taken

of proportion from Eudoxus. It was Eud. who invented and elaborated the theory of
proportion expounded in Elem. V. The essence of this theory is its ap-
plicability to incommensurable as well as commensurable quantities.
Eud/ conception of is embodied in Eucl. V, def. 5:
equal ratios
'Ev TCO auTto Xoyo> XeyeTai elvai Tip&TOv 7rp6<; SeuTepov xal TptTov
fjLeyeOy)

TETapTov, OTOCV Ta TOU TrpcoTOU xal TptTou laaxi^ TroXXaTrXaaia TWV TOO
xai TSTapTOU ICTOCXK; TroXXaTrXaortcov xaO' oTiotovouv TuoXXaTrXaaiaajjiov

sxarepov exaTEpou 73 ajjia UTuspeyy] YJ afjia foot 7) "/] ajjia eXXetTCT) XyjcpOevra xaraX-
Xv]Xa.
On the importance of this definition see Heath, Aristarchus p. 191.
His b
Secondly, he discovered the method of exhaustion, which is
2.

exhaustion at the root of all Archimedes' further developments in the mensuration

of plain and solid figures. The fundamental thesis has come down to us

by Eucl., Elem. X i.

The method is explained in Cantor's Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Mathema-
tih I
2
229, 254, 257 f. Heath, Works of Archimedes p. XLVUI ff. Zeuthen, Hist.
; ;

des math., 136 ff.

His curve He
c J means
by of a complicated curve, the problem of
3.
solved, v
for doubling
a cube doubling the cube.
Eutocius in Archim. Sphaer. et cyl. 66, 12 Heiberg:
(E(5SoJ;o<;) cpyjcrlv ev 7Upooi(jitoi,<;
Sia xajJLTuuXov ypa(Ji(Ji&v aiiryjv (TYJV supsaiv)

Cf. Proclus' account of the problem, in Eucl. Elem. I 213, 3-7. reconstruction A
of Eud.' method has been ventured by Tannery, Mem. de la Societ6 des Sciences
de Bordeaux, 2e srie, II (1878), 282 f., and by Kiinssberg, Eud. von Knidos II, 55 f.
Heath treats the question shortly in his Avistavchus, p. 190 f., and again, in his
Apollonius of Perga, p. XXII f.
 [789] PHILIPPUS OF OPOUS 2QI

789 A less dissentient Platonist and member of the Academy was

TYL-V r\ Of OpOUS
Philippus of Opous.
a. He is mentioned among Plato's disciples in the list of Diog. L.
Ill 46 (our nr. 726).
b. He is said to have transcribed the Laws and to be the author Author of the
r xi, T?JL- Epinomis?
of the Epinomis.
.Diog. L. Ill 37:
"Evioi Te 9aai OTI <&iXi7U7ro<; 6 'OTTOUVTIO^ TOU^ vofiou^ auTou (jieT^ypa^ev

8vTa<; ev x-yjpco. TOUTOU Se xal TYJV 'E7uvo|JiiSa cpaalv elvai.

Cp. Index A cad. 13, where he is called 6 dcaTpoX6yo<; and dvaypoccpeix; TOU TTXaTeovo?
xai dxoucmfjq.
f
Suidas says :
&<; TOU<; TTXaTtovo^ N6piou? SteiXsv el? (3i(3Xta $' T?> yap ty OCUT&S Tcpoa-
Oetvat X^yerat.
The authenticity of the Epinomis has been lately defended by J. Harward
(The Epinomis of Plato, Oxford 1928), by
A. E. Taylor (Proceedings of the Brit. Acad. XV, 235), by
H. Raedcr (Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Sclskab, Hist, filol. Medd. XXVI i, Kopcn-
hagen 1938), and by
E. des Places (Revue des Et. grecques XLIV, 153ff.), while many others reject it.

personally think the authorship of Philippus probable, though there is no

I
decisive evidence for it.

c. The list of his works presented by Suidas contains chiefly works

mathematical and astronomical treatises, but also ethical writings.

790Doubtless, certain features in the Epinomis may be mentioned wisdom

as being characteristic of the first generation of the Academy, during Epinomis
Plato's old age and after his death.
First, Wisdom is in the Epinomis essentially conditioned by the know-
ledge .of number.

Epin. 976 c-977 d :

176 'AXXa [iY]v Set 9avYJvai ye Tiva e7uaT7)[jnqv YJV ex* v <*<><?<>$ Y^Y VOIT> ^v ^

OVTGX; ct)v xal [JIT] [JLOVOV &oa6[Jievo<;. tScofJisv Syj. ^aXeTUco (jiev yap Xoyco
d Tcaaiv 7c^ipou(Jisv, er^pav 7cape T<OV eipyjfjtevcov eupclv, Y] ao^ta (^ev Xeyotr'
av ovT6) TC xal elxoTco^, 6 Sc Xapwv OUTS pavautroc; OUT' Y)XtOio<; earat, (T090C;
8e xal aya06<; SL* auTY]v TcoXtTY]^ TS xal ap^cov xal ap^ofjievo^ evStxw^ SaTai
afxa xal efjL{jLeXy]<;. xaTtSco(jiev STJ rauT7]v TrpcoTTjv, TI^ TTOT* ex TTJC;

9\iaeco^ e7ciaTY]jJL7j [Jtia

8ieeX0ouaa Y) (JLY) Tcapayevofx^vvj TWV vuv
Trapouacov avoY)T6TaTOV av xal a9pove<7TaTov Trapaa^otTo ^qiov TO TOJV avOpco-
7T<ov. ou ST) TOUTO ye Travu x^ 7c ov T& xaTtSetv. [Lion yap <5><; etTcetv Tipoc; [juav YJ

T^V apiOfjiov Soucra TtavTl T^> OVYJTO) yvet TOUT' av Spaaeiev Oeov 8* auTov

(jtaXXov 7j Tiva Tii^yjv 7]yoij(Jiai 86vTa Y)|JLIV crai^eiv 7][JLa^. ov 8e 0eov

 292 THE EARLY ACADEMY [790]

9pasiv ^p-y), TUCOC; oux OCTOTUOV a5

xaiTCEp OCTOTTOV 8vTa, xat TUOC; yap TO ayaOcov
ai'Tiov Yj[juv au(jL7ravTCOv ou xal TOU TcoXu [AsyicrTou, TYJC; 9povYjGCoc;, OUTIOV 9

YjyEiaOai Set ysyovEvai; Tiva SYJ xal O~|JIVUVG>V TUOTC Xeyco Oeov, oi MsyiXXs TS
xal KXetvia; a/eSov Oupavov, ov xal StxaioTaTov, obc; au[Ji7ravTc; aXXoi Sai[jiovEc;

a(jia xal OEOI, Ti[Jiav TE xal eu^eaOai 8ia9p6vT6)c; aurco. TO Se xat TWV aXXcov 5
acTiov ayaOwv TTOCVTCOV 7][Aiv auTov yeyovevat, 7uavT(; av ofjioXoyoifzev Souvai
Se ajjia xal <xpi0[Ji6v Yjfjietc; ys OVTCOC; auTov 9a[zev, ITI Se xal Scodeiv, eav TK;
auvaxoXouOeiv. sav yap IT] TIC; Im Oscoptav 6p6v]v TTJV TOU&, SLTC xoa^^vb
oXufjLTiov ei'TS oupavov ev TjSovyj TO) Xeyetv, XeyeTCO (JLEV, axoXouOetTCo Se

071:73
auTov xal Ta ev auTW aTpe9(ov aaTpa Tcaarac; Sie^oSoix; &pa^
TroixtXXcov

TE xal Tp097]v Tuaaiv Tuape^eTai,. xal TYJV aXXyjv Se ouv 9p6v7j(jLv, d><; 9ao(Jiv av, 5
auv dcpLOjJuT) TuavTt, xal TaXX* ayaOa TOUTO Se [isyiaTov, sav TIC; TT]V a
auTOu Soaiv Se^afJievoc; eTus^eXOy] Traaav TTJV TuepioSov.
"ETI Se afJLixpov eTravsXOovTSc; TTO^C; TOLC; Xoyotc; ava(JLV7]aOoj[jLv OTL xal

6p6coc; evoY]aa{JLv o*)c;, eiTcep apiOfjiov ex T^C; avOpcaTrtvyjc; 9uaea)c;

oux av 7UOT TI 9p6vt(jLoi yvoL(JiOa. ou yap av ETI TTOTE ^u^'/] TOUTOU TOU
Tiaaav apTY)v Xcipoi a^Sov, OTOU Xoyoc; a7TL7j J^coov 8k, OTI (JLYJ ytyvcoarxoi Suo
xal Tpia (JiTjSs: TTEpiTTOv (jiTjSs: apTLOv, ayvoot Ss: TO TcapaTiav apt,0[ji6v, oux av 5
TCOT StSovai Xoyov /oi 7ipl &v aLaOv]aic; xal (XVY)(jLac; [X0 (J-ovov ELY) XEXTYJ-
(JLVOV, TYJV & aXX7]V apT7)V, avSptaV Xal (T6)9pOaUVY]V, OUSV a7TOXG)Xut. d
SE aXy]6ouc; Xoyou (7096^ oiix av TUOTE ysvoiTo, OTCO 8e ao9La [JLTJ

Tuaoryjc; apETY^c; TO (jiEytaTov (JLEpoc;, oux av ETI TEXseoc; ayaOoc; ysvofisvoc;

uSai(Jia)v TTOTE ysvoiTO.

Moral 791 Second, the greatest virtue is, according to our author, piety,
it is learned by learning astronomy. To this purpose mathematical
studies studies are necessary.
2 5 1
Epin. 989 b -9go b 990 c -g9i a
l
a. ;
:

Metov (JLEV yap apST^c; (JtYjSslc; Y]fjiac;

TUOTE TCELCJY] TYJC; sucrspsiac; slvai TtTj

OVY)TCO yEvsi, TOUTO S* OTt, Si* aptaOiav TYJV (jtsyiCTTYjv ev Talc; apiaTaic;

ou ysyovev, XEXTEOV. apiaTai S' stalv at ^aXsTcwTaTa [JLEV av ysv6[jLvat,

SE o9Xoc;, av ytyvwvTai Ta TE yap TYJC; ^paSsiac; TE xal TYJC; IvavTtac; 9UCT6>c; 5

[jiETpicoc; aTcoSE^ofjLEVY) ^u/v]

xal Tcpao^c;, EuxoXoc; av E?YJ, TY)V TE avSpstav ayajXEVY],
xal Tcpoc; TO CT6>9povsiv U7Ct0Y]c;, xal TO y [Asyicrrov, EV TauTaic; Tatc; 9\jaOtv
SuvafJievY] [xavOaveiv xal {JLVYJ[JLCOV ouaa, u (JiaXa x a ^ps^ TOUTOIC; auTOLc; SiivaiT* c
av 9iXo[xa6Y3c; COCTT' Elvat. TaijTa yap OUTE p(ySta 9UaOai yv6(JLvdc TE, xal 7

Tp09Y]c; xal TuaiSstac; Tu^ovTa ^

Set, TOUC; TcXEtaTouc; auTcav xal xs^pouc; xaTXW
6p0oTaTa SuvaiT* av TW 9povtv xal TupaTTEtv xal XEysLv TCEpl Gsouc; SxaaTa coc; 5
Sei TE xal OTE SEC, Tuspl 0uatac; TE xal xa0ap[JLouc; TCOV rcspl OEOUC; TE xal avOpci-
 THE EPINOMIS 2Q3

TCOU<;, ou axvj[xoc(ji TE^va^ovTa^ aXXa aXvjOsia Tt[JicovTa<; apSTYjv, o 873 xal

d yiGTOV (m CTUfATCaVTCOV 7Ta(7Y] Tfl TToXsi. TOUTO $7] OUV TO (JlpO<; elva

9ucTi xuptcoTaTov xal SuvaTov co<; olov TE xaXXiaTa xal Spicra [/.aOeEv, ei
SiSaoxoi TI<;. aXX' ouS* av SiSa^eiev, ei (JLTJ GECX; u^'/jyoiTo si T* ouv StSaaxot,
5 xaTa TpoTcov E (JLYJ Spco TO TOLOUTOV, xpelTTOv [JLT] jjiavOavetv. Ofjia)<; S' ex TCOV vuv

Xeyo[jieva)v avayxT) jxaOetv TauTa xal (JLE Xeyeiv TYJV TOtauTY)v TS xat aptcrTyjv
e 9\iaiv. TcstpcojJLsOa STJ TCO TS Xoyco Sis^eXOeiv a T' scmv xal ola xal ax; Set (JtavOa-

^r% xaTa Suvafitv TYJV T' efjiyjv TOU XeyovTOc; xal TYJV TCOV SuvafJtevcov elcraxoucrai,

900 Oeoae(3eta^ qiTivt TpoTuco TI^ Ttva (jLa0Y]GrTai. <r/eS6v (Jiev

ouv ecmv ^TOTTOV
dxouoravTi, TO S' ovojjia auTou XeyofJiev Y](jtL^ ys, o TI? oux av TTOTS 6stev Si*

cxTreipiav TOU 7rpay(JLaTO(; cro^coTaTov avayxv]

aaTpovo[juav ayvoei TS on
5 TOV aX7]6co<; a<TTpov6[jLov elvaL, TOV xaO' 'HatoSov a<TTpovo(jLouvTa xal TuavTa^
(JLTJ

TOIK; TOIOUTOUC;, oiov Suajjia^ TE xal avaToXa^; 7reaxe(JL[jLvov, aXXa TOV TCOV
OXTCO TcspioScov Ta^ 7rTa TcspioSou^, SL^t,ouay](; TOV auTcov xiixXov exa<7T7]<;
b OUTCOC; oux av paS[co^ TCOTC Tuaaa 9\io"t<; Ixav/j yevotTO
d)c; OecopYJorai, [JL'/J
Oau-
c 5 |jia(TT7)<; [jLTX OU(7a 9uaco^. Aio [jLa07]{JLaTCjjv SEOV av LTJ
TO [jtEyiciTov
5
T xal TupcoTov xal apL0(jLc7iv auTcov aXX ou acopiaTa ^OVTCOV, aXXa 0X73^ T*^ TOU

7Tpl,TTOU T Xal apTLOU yV(7CO(; T XOCl SuVa[JLCO<;, OGTJV 7Tap^Tat 7Cp6(; T7]V
d TCOV OVTCOV cpuaiv. TauTa 8k (jia66vTL TOUTOI^ 595^? EGTIV o xaXouai (JLv cr9oSpa

yXoov ovo(jLa yCO|jLTpiav, TCOV oux OVTCOV <$

O(JLOLCOV aXXrjXo^ 9U(jet apiOfJtcov

6[JLOicocrL<; 7up6(; TYJV TOV 7U7C&cov {^otpav yyovula laTLv Sia9av/j^ o SYJ Oaujjia
5 oux avBpcoTULVov aXXa yyovo<; OLOV 9avp6v av yiyvoiTo TCO Suva(jLvco GUVVOEIV.
(JLT(X S TaUTYJV TOU^ Tpt 7)U^7][JLVOU^ Xal T^ (TTpa 9UCTt, 6[JLOLOU<; TOU^ Se
avofjLOLOUc; au yeyovoTa^; Tpa TE/VY] O(JLOLOL, TauTY) YJV SYJ crTp0[JLTptav Ixa-
e Xsaav ol TrpocrTu^sii; auTyj o Se OELOV T' ECTTIV xal 9au(jLaaTOv
yyovoTc;
eyxaOopcoai TE xal StavooufjLEvoLg Jx; Tuepl TO StTrXaciLOV
aTp9O{ivr]<; al
SuvaptECoc; xal T% E svavTta^ TauTY] xa()' ExaaTYjv avaXoyiav ElSo<; xal
99 T aTUOTUTUOuTat Tuaaa Y] 9ucrLc;.

b. Knowledge of the heavenly bodies is at the top, for its object

is divine. lb., 991 b^c 1 :

TauTa [JLv ouv STJ TauTT] ytyvEaOco TE xal E^ETCO cru(ji7ravTa TO S' ETU TOUTOLC;

TsXo^, zlc, Osiav yV(Kv a(jia xal TY)V TCOV opaTcov xaXXtaTTjv TE xal 6ioTaTY)v
9ucnv LTEOV, ocrrjv avOpcoTroic; OEOC; SScoxEV xaTtSeLv, T^V OUTTOTE SVEU TCOV vuv
JLYj
xaTiScov 7Tuy]Tat TI? paaTcovy) TcapaXapELv.

792These things are certainly not against the spirit of Plato's philo-
sophy, at least in his later years. Cp. the following passages:

a. Ebin. 08 1 e 3 - 6 :
The souls 0|

,
the celestial
No|Jiiaai SE SYJ Sst TraXiv T<X xaT* oupavov t^cocov y^VY), o SYJ 7:av xp^ 9avai bodies
 294 THE EARLY ACADEMY [792]

Oetov yevo<; SciTpeav yeyovevai, aco[jwcTO<; (Jtev TO^OV xaXXiaTou,

fiovsaTaTY)*; TS xal apiar/)^.

Cp. Plato, Norn. 89861-8990 (our nr. 391).

Ev** b ' Ebin
'
overcome by x t t , ~ , ,, ~, x ,

good Aio xai vuv y)fjicov a^ioovTcov, yu/)<; ou<77)<; ama<; TOO oXou, xai TravTcov |

ayaGcov OVTCOV TOIOUTCOV, TCOV Se au <pXaupcov TOIOUTCOV SXXcov, TTJ<; (lev

Tuaayjc; xal xivrjoreco^ ^ u xV a ^ s
av sivai 0au(i,a ouSev, TYJV 8 em Taya06v e
xal xivvjaiv TYJ<; api<TTY]<; ^i>X^ slvai, T/)V 8* srcl TOuvavTiov evavTTav,

vevixYjxevai Sei xal vixav Ta ayaOa Ta |r/)

ToiauTa.

Cp. Plato, Nom. 904 a b (our nr. 392a).

cods and 3 3
c pi Ut 9 8 4 d -e :

xal TOIK; aXXou^ TravTa^, 87^7] TI<; eOeXei, d

r/

(Jiev SYJ, Aia

eoix; TE xal Hpav
xaTa TOV auTov TiOea6co vofiov xal Trayiov e^ T6> TOUTOV TOV Xoyov
Oeouc; 8e SYJ TOUC; opaTou^, [xeyiaTouc; xal Ti[JUtdTaTOi><; xal o^uTaTov 6pcovTa<; 5
TCaVTT), TOUC; TTpCOTOU^ T7)V TCOV fitfTpCOV 9UCTIV XSXTEOV Xal Oda (JlTa TOUTCOV

aiCT0av6(ji0a ysyovoTa, {JLSTOC Se TOUTOU^ xal UTTO TOUTOK; SYJ<; 8ai[Jiova<;, a^piov c
8e yevo^, S^ov ISpav TpiTYjv xal

[iaXa XP C* )V 7^P IV ^^ eu^vjfjio

This, too, can be placed quite well in the Platonic view of the universe. And yet,
there is a nescioquid in these things which does give us the impression that they
are rather the work of the next generation than that of the Master himself. Indeed,
they fit in excellently with what we know of the character of Philippus of Opous.
Cp. Zcller, Ph. d. Gr. II i 5 1044 f.
,

5 __POLEMO, CRATES AND GRANTOR

Polemo 793 The next generation of the School turned from mathematics
to ethics.

Conversion a Polemo and his conversion to Xenocrates.

to philosophy
philosophy
r r J by
J

Diog. L. IV 16:

IIoX[xa>v OiXoofTpaTOu (xev fy ulo<;, 'A07)vouo<;, TCOV Svjfjitov OftqGev. vo<; 8'
cov axoXaaToc; T xai 8iaxe)O)[Jievo<; ?)v OUTOX;, (Scrre xal rcsp^epsiv apyiipiov

7tp6<; Ta<; sTOt(jtou^ Xii<iei<; TCOV eTuiGufJitcov aXXa xal ev TCHC; aTevcoTro^ Stexpu
xal ev 'AxaSrjfjieia Trpo^; xtovi TIVI TptcopoXov eup0Y] 7upo(T7re7uXacT{xvov
Sia TYJV 6(jio[av Tyj TupoeipYjfJievY) 7upo9a(nv. xat TTOTC auvO[ievo^ TOIC; veot^ 5
xal eaTe(pavco(Jievo<; etc; TYJV EevoxpaTou<; fj^e axoXvjv 6 8J: ouSev SiaTpa-
elpe TOV Xoyov 6[jioco<; v^v Se Trepl acocppocriivyj*;. axoijov SYJ T^ (Jteipaxiov

oXiyov e67)paOy) xal OUTCOC; eyeveTo <piXo7Covo<;, co<; u7rep(3aXXecr0at TOUC;

 [793] POLEMO 295

<5cXXoi)<; xal auTo<; SiaSe!;aa0ai TYJV (ixoXvjv, apa(ievo<; dbro TTJS SXTY)<; xal SexaTYjc;
TO xal exaTOcrTYJg 'OXufjuciaSoc *.

b. His further life and behaviour. Diog., ib. 17-18: His

TOCTOUTOV 8e emTeivai TO ^0o<; ap^ajjicvov ^iXoaocpetv, OHJT* em TauTou
<
JX^tJLaTO ^ ^^ pop?*)? TtavTOTe [Jieveiv. aXXa xal TYJV 9<ov7)v avaXXoicoTOc; ?jv
2
816 xal GTjpaOyjvat KpavTopa auToo. xuvoc; youv XuTTcavrot; xal
UTU' TTJV tyv ^ av

SiaaTcaeravTOc; (JLOVOV [JIT] w^piaaai- xal Tapaxvj<; yevofjiev/jg em T?j

TO yeyovot; &Tpe7TTov {Jtetvai. ev Te role, 0eaTpoi^

5 7uuUO|JLeveov

7)v. NtxoaTpdcTou youv TroTe TOU eTCtxaXoufjifvou RXuTatfJivrjaTpa avayivcooxovTO^

TI TOU TroiyjTOii auTw Te xal KpanQTi, TOV (JLSV auvSiaTtOeaOai 3 TOV S* iaa xal ,

[jiy]
axouerat. xal oXco<; 9jv TOIOUTO^ olov MeXav0io<; 6 ^coypa9o^ ev TOLC
97] ai

Tiepl ^o>ypa9ix7](; 97]al yap Seiv auOcxSetav Tiva xal axXvjpoTTjTa TOI^ epyoi^
i o emTpe/etv, 6(Jioieo<; Se xav TOO^ ^Oeaiv.

c. His main interest was more turned to practical life than to theory.

Diog. L. IV 18:

"E9aaxe Se 6 IloXe(JLOJv Selv ev TOLC; Tcpayfjiacri yujJLva^eaOat xal (Ji'J)

ev TOIC;

SiaXexTtxou;

794 His ruling principle in ethics was: living according to nature.

a. Clem. Alex., Strom. VII 6, 32, a (Stahlin III 1.

Livin
p. 25, 2):
~ \~ Q/ * t

ev TOLC; TuepL TOU xaTa 9U(Tiv PLOU auvTayjiaon.

/ according to
nature

b. Cic., Acad. II 42, 131:

Honcstum autem vivere fruentem rebus iis quas primas homini natura
conciliet, et vetus Academia censuit (sc. finem bonorum), ut indicant
script a Polemonis.
c. Plut., Comm. not. c. 23, p. 1069:
Tfcvac; Se SevoxpaT7]<; xal IloXefxcov XajApavouatv apxac;; Ou^l xal ZYJVCOV
TOUTOIC; 7)xoXou67](iev, uicoTiGefJievoc <TTOLXta TY)<; euSatfJiovta^ TY)V 9uo*iv xal
TO

795 The doctrine of the rcpcoTa xaTa 9\i(TLv is expounded more fully The theory

by Cicero in De finibus II n, 33 f., with reference to Polemo:

Omne enim animal, simul et ortum est, et se ipsum et omnes partes
suas diligit duasque, quae maximae sunt, in primis amplectitur, animum et

1
316-313 B.C.
2
The hollow of the knee.
3
Came under the impression.
 296 THE EARLY ACADEMY [7953

corpus, deinde utriusque partes. Nam sunt et in animo praecipua quaedam

et in corpore, quae cum levitcr agnovit, tune discernere incipit, ut ea,

quae prima data sint natura, appetat asperneturque contraria. In his primis 5
naturalibus voluptas insit necnc, magna quaestio est. Nihil vero putarc
esse praeter voluptatem, non membra, non scnsus, non ingenii motum,
non integritatcm corporis, non valctudinem, summae mihi videtur
inscitiae. Atque ab isto capite fluerc necessc est omnem rationem bonorum
et malorum. Polemoni et iam ante Aristoteli ea prima visa sunt 10
cjuae
paulo ante dixi. Ergo nata est sententia veterum Academicorum et
Peripateticorum, ut linem bonorum dicerent secundum naturam vivere,
id est virtute adhibita frui primis a natura datis.

Cp. also De fin. IV 6, 14 f.

virtue the 796 Virtue was, according to Polemo, the first and absolute condition

'dithmTo
* happiness, while exterior goods were considered by him as being not
happiness absolute conditions.
28 2
Clem., Strom. II 22, 133, 7 (St. II, p. 186, -i87, :

'0 yap SsvoxpaToix; yvciptfjio^ lloXejjioov 9aiveTai TTJV suSai(JiovLav auTapxeiav

elvai pouX6[jLvo<; dyaOcov TTOCVTCOV 73
TCOV TrXsLorcov xal [xeytarcov. AoyfjiaTt^ei

youv, X W P^ ^v ocpeTY]c; [jnqSeTtoTe av eu$ai(Jioviav uTcapxetv, 8i/jx. 8e xal TCOV

xal T&V exTog T'/jv apT'/]v auTapxyj 7rpo<; euSaifJiovtav elvat.

Grates 797 Of Crates, Polcmo's successor in the School, we know very little
for certain. Diog. speaks about his intimate friendship with Polemo
and his relations with Grantor.

Diog. L. IV 21-22:
TraTpoc; (jiev v^v 'AvTtyevoix; <'A0Y)vaZo^>, OpiaCTio^ 8k TG>V
xal epcofievo^ FloXefJicovoc; aXXa xal SisSs^aT TY)V
Kal ouTG)^ aXXvjXco 89iXsiTV]v COCTTS xal ^OJVTS ou (JLOVOV TCOV
Ssu(jiaT6)v, aXXa xal [JtexP^ ^X ^ v avaTuvo*^ e^cofjioicoaOyjv aXXvjXotv xal Oavovre
TTJ? auT7]f; Tacp^^; exoivcovsiTTjv. o(kv 'AvTayopa(; etc; a[Ji9co TOUTOV ITCOIYJCFS 5
TOV TpOTTOV

Mvy](JiaTt TcoSe KpaT^Ta OeouSea xal IloXeficava

evvETue xpuTCTeaOai, ^ELVE, Trapep^o^svoc;,
avSpa^ 6(jL09poauv7) [JLeyaXvjTopac;, civ OCTTO [Jiij0o<;

lepo<; ^taaev SaifJLoviou aTOfzaTOc;,

10
xal PLOTOC; xaOapo^; (709^ ini Oetov exoa(jLei
aicov' aaTpercToi^ SoyfJiacji
 [797] CRATES AND GRANTOR 297

IfvOev xal 'ApxearfXaov [JieTeX66vTa Tuapa 0eo9paorTou Trpoc;auTOU^ Xeyew co^

elev 0eo Tive<; YJ Xs^ava TCOV ex TOU xP u<T u yevoix;. ZuaatTiov Se 9Y)<7iv
15 auT& 6 'AvTiyovo<; elvai Tuapa KpavTopi, 6(zov6a><; CFU^PIOUVTCOV TOIJTCOV TE xal

'ApxeatXdou. TYJV 8e otxTjaiv 'ApxeaiXaov (Jiev e^eiv H-s^a KpavTOpoq, IloXe-

(jteova Se CTUV KpdcTTjTi (JLETOC AuaixXeou^ TIVOC; TWV

798 Something more is known to us about Grantor. Grantor

%
.a. Diog. L.
24: IV
KpavTtop HoXeuc; 0au[ia^6[Jivo(; sv T^ lauTou TraTpiSi aTcvjpev etc; 'A6if)va^
xal SevoxpaTOix; SiYjxouae IIoXejJiGM auaxoXa^wv. Kal xaTeXtrcev u7
et<; [jLUpiaSac; <TTI^COV TpeZ(;, 6v Tiva Ttvsc; 'ApxeoriXaco

b. As we saw before, he lived together with Arcesilas. He died

before Polcmo and Crates.

Diog. IV 27:
Kal xaTecrps^e Tupo rioXejJLcavoc; xal KpaT7]TO^.

799 a. mentions him as the

Proclus in Tim. 24 A first to write His corn-

commentaries on Plato, at least on the Timaeus: t h e Timaeus

(Kp. )
6 TTpakoc; TOO HXdcTOJvcx; eY)y7)T7)<;.

b. Plutarch cites this commentary in his DC an. procr. 2, p. 1012 f. :

The creation

01 8e Tcepl TOV KpavTopa (JtaXiaTa TTJC; ^u^c; I'Stov uTuoXafipavovTec; epyov elvat
TO xpiveiv TOC Te VOTQTCX xal TOC aia07}Ta, Ta<; Te TOUTWV ev auTOt^ xal

yivofjievac; Sta^opac; xal ofJioLOTTjTa^, ex TOXVTCOV ^aortv, Zva Tiavra yivciaxTj,

auyxexpaaOai TYJV 4IU X Q V ^auTa 8' eivai TeTTapa, TYJV vorjT*/]v 9Udiv ael xaTa
"
1

5 Ta auTa xal oiaauTcoc; exouaav, xal TY]V Trepl TOC acajjiaTa 7raOY]TLX*r)v xal
CTL Se TY]V TauToij xal TOU eTepou, Sia TO xaxeivcov exaTepav
xal

800 He The eternit y

again in the same work, a few lines further, on the
cites it

eternity of the world and the non-literal interpretation of the Timaeus.

Plut., De an. procr. j, p. 1013 A:

Ta 8' auT<i xal Trepl TOU xoajjLou Stavooujxevov, eTriaTaaOai (jiev
atSiov ovTa
xal ayvY]Tov TO Se & Tporcco auvTeTaxTai xal ScoixetTat, xaTajxaOetv ou
paSiov op&vTa TOL(; (JiYjTe yevedtv auTou [JiY)Te TCOV yevYjTLXtov auvoSov e
Tcpou7toOe[xvoi<;, TaoTYjv TYJV 6S6v

801 A fragment of his ethics is preserved in Sextus, Math. XI Ethics

(-= Adv. Eth.) 51-58:

 298 THE EARLY ACADEMY [8oi]

Some authors have been cited who call health the highest good. S. continues:
The highest 8* EiTuav auTTjv urcapxeiv, ou xai TrptoTov, TE a7uo TYJS 'Axa- 5
'AyaOov (JLTJV
oi'

SY)[Jita<; xal 01 dbri TOU IleptTraTOU. Ssiv yap UTisXapov ExaaTcp TCOV ayaOcov TYJV
oixEiav T<xj;iv TE xal aiav aTrovefieiv. SvOev xal 6 KpavTCop su; Sfj^aaiv TOU

Xyo[ivou Syeiv Ttavu ^apievTi aruve^pyjaaTO TcapaSetyfiaTt.

pouX6(jivo<; v)[za<;

ei yap voYjaaifAev, xoivov TI TCOV IlavsXXTjvcov Oearpov, eic; TOUTO TE 2xa-

9*/](ri,

(TTOV TCOV ayaOcov Trapiov xal TCOV TupcoTeicov avTL7uoioii(jLevov ^xetv, eu0u^ xal

zic, Svvoiav avax67)a6(jie6a TYJ? ev TOCC; aya6ol<; 8ia90pa<;. TrpcoTOv [lev

TrXouToc; TcapaTnqSTjcrac; epei- weyco, SvSpet; IlaveXXYjve^, XOCTJJIOV

Traaiv av0pco7uot(; xal Ta<; eaOrJTac; xal Tac; i)7To8eaet<; xal r/)v &XXY]v aTcoXauatv

XpstcoSy]^ et[jLl VOCTOUCTI, xal uyiatvouari, xal ev (jiev eipyjvy] Tcapex^ TOC TepTuva,

sv 8e TcoX(jLoi(; veupa TCOV Tipa^scov ytvofjiatw. TOUTCOV yap &r) TCOV Xoycov axoi- 54

<ravT<; ol naveXXYjveq 6[Jio0i)[JLa86v xeXeiiaouaiv dbuoSouvai Ta TcpcoTeia TCO

W. aXX* av TOUTOU ^8?) avaxyjpUTTOfjievoD eTciaracra 7] y]Sovy],

vi 8' LfjLEpoc;,
EV 8'
voov ?uuxa

Xyy) SE ELC; (jtsaov xaTaaTaaa, OTI auTYjv Sixaiov ECTTIV avayopsusiv 55

8* oX[3o^ ou ppaio<;, aXX*

ol'xcov, (jitxpov av0Y)cra(; XP OVOV

TE Trpo^ TCOV avOpcoTTCov ou Si' sauTOv, aXXa TTJV E^ auTou Trspiytvo-

aTToXauaiv xal yjSovyjv), TravTCO^ ot riavXXY)V^, oux otXXcoi; E^etv TO

Tcpayfjia 73 xExpa^ovTat 8siv TTJV Y]Sovy]v aT9avouv. aXXa

OUTCOC; uvroXapovTS^,
xal TauT7j<; TO ^papscov 9p(jOaL fjLsXXoucry]^, ETCTJV sicTpaXXy) 7) uysia (XETa TCOV
auv8pcov auT^ Oecov, xal StSadxr], coc; OUTE Y]8ov7j<; OUTS TuXouTou 09EX6? TI
<7Tlv

(TI yap (Jis 7cXouTO<;, <....> co9XL vocrov ;

[jLixp* av 0^Xoi,(jLi xal xa0' Y)(jipav s^^v

3
aXuTCOv OIXELV PIOTOV T)
TrXouTcov vocrstv) ,

axouaavTEc; TraXiv ol navsXXYjVEc; xal (jLTa(jLa06vT^, coc; oux EVECTTL xXivoTCETTj 57

xal voaouaav uTiocTTTJvai T"/]V suSaifJiovtav, 9Y)CTOuai vtxav TYJV uysiav. aXXa xal

TYJ^ uyE^a*; Y]8y] VIXCOOYJ^, ETTOCV EtaEXOv] Y) avSpsta TcoXu aTL90<; apicTT^cov xal

Tjpcocov l/ouaa TiEpl EauTYjv, xaTaaTacra TE X^yyj E(JLOU (JLYJ TrapoucT7j(;,

1
Jftas XIV 216.
2 1 6.
2
Eur., Phoen. 558 and Electra 944.
3
Eur., fr. 714 Nauck.
[802] GRANTOR 2QQ

^, dXXoTpia yiveTai Y) XTYJCFK; T<OV Trap' ujjuv ayaOcov, eu^aivTO T* av

01 7toX{uoi Ttepiouaid^eiv 6[Aa<; ayaOou; Traai TOL<; <o<

xp<XTetv, xal TOUTCOV o3v axou<ravTe<; ol "EXXy)ve<; ra

t, TOC Se Ssurepeca Tyj uyeia, TOC 8e Tptaa TTJ ?)8ovfl, TeXeuratov Se
TOV TUXOUTOV.

802 a. Cr. was the author of a which became the T he

IIspl TOvOou^, ,

puttgrn of Plutarchus quotes

many later Consolationes. it in the following

passage of his Consol. ad Apolloniitm, 3, p. 102 :

Ou yap Sycoye (TU(/,9epofJLat rot<; TTJV ayptov 6{jLvoG<rt xat (ixXYjpav aTcaOetav,
!fc> xal TOU SuvaTou xal ToG <ru|jL9epovTo^ o5aav a9aipy](TeTat yap Y)|JLCOV
auTTQ TTjv sx TOO <piXs!'<70ai xal 9tXel'v euvoiav, 7)v TiavTOc; [JtaXXov

avayxatov. To
Se Trepa TOU {JLSTOOU 7uapex<pepea0ai xal cruvaii^eiv Ta

Tuapa ^liatv slvai 9^3 (Jit, xal UTCO TYJC; sv yjfjitv 9aiiX7j^ ytveaOat S6^r]<;. Aio xal
TOUTO (Jisv eareov co<; pXa^epov xal 9auXov, xal aTrouSato^ avSpcxatv
7rp7uov TTJV Se (jLeTpLOTraOetav oux ocTcoSoxijiaaTeov. M9] yap voaoL[jLev,
6 'AxaSyjfjLal'xo^ Kpavrwp, vocryjaaarL Se TrapstYj TI^ al'cr0Y]ai^, etr' oOv TS(i-
VOITO TI TCOV Y)(jieTepo>v, SIT' (XTCOCTTUWTO TO yap ava>Suvov TOUTO oux aveu [jieya-
Xcov syytvsTai (iiaOcov TW dvOpcoTcco T07)picoa0ai yap eixo^, sxet (JLEV aa>[JLa

TOIOUTOV, evradOa Se
How may be seen in Cicero, Tusc. Ill 6, 12:
far the quotation goes,
Nee absurde Grantor qui in nostra Academia vel in primis fuit nobilis,
ille,

'minime', inquit, 'adsentior iis, qui istam nescio quam indolentiara magno opere
laudant, quae nee potest ulla esse nee debet. lie aegrotus sirn; si' inquit 'fuero,
sensus adsit, sive secetur quid sive avellatur a corporc. nam istuc nihil dolere
non sine magna mercede contingit inmanitatis in animo, stuporis in corpore'.

b. Again, Cicero quotes the same work of Grantor in the following

passage.

Acad. pr. (= Lucullus) 44, 135-136:

Sed quaero quando ista fuerint Academia vetere decreta, ut animam
sapientiscommoveri et conturbari negarent mediocritates illi probabant :

ct omni permotione naturalem volebant esse quendam modum.

in

legimus omnes Crantoris veteris Academici de luctu est enim non magnus ;

verum aureolus et ut Tuberoni Panaetius praecipit ad verbum edis-

cendus libeUus, atque illi quidem etiam utiliter a natura dicebant per-
motiones istas animis nostris datas, metum cavendi causa, misericordiam
aegritudinemque clementiae ipsam iracundiam f ortitudinis quasi cotem
;

esse dicebant recte secusne alias viderimus atrocitas quidem ista tua ;

quomodo in veterem Academiam inruperit nescio.

 3OO THE EARLY ACADEMY [803]

Cr.'sname
as a moralist
393 Horatius, Epist. I 2, 4 mentions him as a moralist on a level
with Chrysippus:

qui quid sit pulchrum, quid turpe, quid utile, quid non,
planius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore dicit.

His view S04 Grantor's view of as in Plutarch's Consol. ad

of life .
life, it appears
rr
A
A poll. 27:
yap xa ^ ^090^ avSpaatv, &c, 973(71 KpavTcap, ou vuv, dXXa "TcaXat

TavOpcoTutva, Ti(jL<opiav yjyou^voK; elvai TOV piov, xal apx>3 v TO

avOpcoTrov aufjL9opav TY)V {jteyLCTTTjv.

Plut. quotes it together with the young Aristotle's tale of Midas and
Silenus in the dialogue Eudemus (see our nr. 41 7a).
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I ARISTOTLE
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Aristotle's Prior and Posterior Analytics, text with introduction and commentary
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Text with introd. and commentary by H. H. Joachim, Oxford 1922.

Aristotelis De caelo 11. IV rec. D. J. Allan, Oxford 1936 (Bibl. Oxon.).
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Aristotle, Generation of Animals, Text and transl. by A. L. Peck (Loeb. Class.
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Aristotelis De Anima 11. Ill recogn. A. Forster, Budapest 1912.
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4
Text and commentary by Alex. Grant, 2 vol., London, i885.
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C TRANSLATIONS

The works of Aristotle translated into English, under the editorship of W. D. Ross,
12 vol., 1908 ff. =
1928 ff., Oxford Clarendon Press.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 303

Aristoteles, Philosophische Werke, hrg. von E. Rolfes, Leipzig 1921/22.

-
Aristote, La Mdtaphysique, trad, et notes par J. Tricot. Paris 1948.

- 2
Organon, vol. I -VI, trad, et notes par J. Tricot. Paris i939-*46, i947-i95o.
De I'dme, trad, et notes par J. Tricot. Paris 1947.
-
Of the same author: De
-
la Generation et de la Corruption,
Les Mettorologiques, 1941.
2
i95i.

-
--
J.
Traitd du del suivi du Trait6 pseudo-aristotejicieii Du Monde, 1949.
Parva naturalia suivi du Traite ps.-ar. De Spiritu, 1951.
Tricot,Aristote, La Mttaphysique. Nouvelle edition entierement refondue,
avec cornmeiitaire, 2 vol. Paris 1953.
fjie <ehrschrif ten dcs Aristoteles, hrg., iibertragen u. in ihrer Entstehung erlautert
!

von P. Gohlke. Paderborn 1949 if.

Aristoteles, Sdmtliche Werke iibersetzt von O. Gigon, Artemis veiiag Zurich, 5 vol.
(vol. 1-2 just out, 1951).

\y GENKRAL WORKS ON ARISTOTLE

W. Jaeger, Aristoteles. Grundlcgung emer Gebchichte seiner Entwicklung. Berlin 1923.
2
English transl. by K. Robinson, Oxford i948.
-- Trad. ital. da G. Calogero, Fireiize 1935.
W. D. Ross, Aristotle. London 1923 ( 4 i944).
2
O. Hamelin, Lc systeme d' Aristote, Paris 1921 ( i93i).
L. Robin, Aristote. Paris 1944.

E WORKS ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS

E. Bignone, L'Aristotelc perduto e la formazione filosofica di Epicuro, 2 vol., work*
Fircnzc 1935.
J. Bidez, Un singulier naufrage htteraive dans I'Antiquite: a la recherche des
e paves de I' Aristote perdu. Bruxelles 1938.
P. Wilpert, Zwei anstotehsche Fruhschnften itber die Ideenlehre, Regensburg 1949.
On the riepi <pt,Xoao<pi<xc; see our nr. 43 le.
P. Moraux, Les listes anciennes des ouvrages d' Aristote, Louvain 1951. Important
review of G. Verbeke in Revue philosophique de Louvain, 1952, p. 90-102.
H. Maier, Die Syllogistik des Aristoteles. 3 vol., Tubingen 1896-1900. Logic
F. Solmsen, Die Itntwicklung der aristotehschen Logik und Rhetonk, 1929.
A. Becker, Die anstotelische Theorie der Moglichkcitsschlusse, Berlin 1922.
P. Gohlke, Die Entstehung der aristotehschen Logik, Berlin 1936.
E. Kapp, Greek foundations of traditional Logic. New York 1942.
S. Mansion, Lc jugement d' existence chez Aristote. Paris-Louvain 1946.
J. Lukasiewics, Aristotle's Syllogistic from the standpoint of modern formal logic.
Oxford 1951.
L. M. de Rijk, The place of the Categories of being in Aristotle's philosophy
Assen 1952 (diss. Utrecht).
A. Mansion, Introduction a la physique aristol elide nnc. Paris-Louvain 2 i946. Vhil. of
Nature
J. M. le Blond, Logique et me'thode chez Aristote. Etude sur la recherche des principes
dans la physique aristotelicienne. Paris 1939.
F. Ravaisson, Essai sur la me'taphysique d'Anstote. 2 vol., Paris 1913. Metaphysics,

Jos. Owens CssR, The doctrine of being in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Toronto 1951.
On the theory of the Unmoved Mover(s) see our nr. 410.
L. Olle-Laprune, Essai sur la morale d Aristote, Paris, 1881. Ethics
M. Wittmann, Die Ethik des Aristoteles, Regensburg 1920.
A. Goedeckemeycr, Aristoteles' praktische Philosophic, Leipzig 1922.
 304 BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.de Munter, Studie over de zedelijke schoonheid engoedheidbijAristoteles, Brussel 1932.

H. Schilling, Das Ethos dev Mcsotes, Tubingen 1930.
A. Mansion, Aristoteles en het vrijheidsprobleem, in Tijdschrift voor Philosophic I
(1939), pp. 483-510-
J. L6onard S.J., Le bonheur chcz Aristote (Academic Royalc de Belgique, Classe
des Lettres et des Sciences morales et politiqucs, M6moires, Tome XLIV,
fasc. i) Bruxelles 1948.
Psychology H. Poppelreuter, ZUY Psychologic des Anstoteles, Theophyast u. Strato, Diss. Krlangen
1892.
L. Keller, Aristoteles und die moderne Psychologic, Diss. Fribourg 1927.
tl
H. Cassirer, Anstoteles' Schrift Von der Seele" und ihre Stellung innerhaV? der
anstotelischen Philosophic, Tubingen 1932.
M. de Corte, La doctrine de I* intelligence chez Aristote, Paris 1934.
M. Grabmaiin, Mittelalterliche Deutung u. Umbildung der anstotelischen Lehre vom
vou<; TTOUJTIXO^, Miincheii 1936.
P. van Schilfgaarde, De zielkundc van Anstoteles, Diss. Amsterdam 1938.
F. Nuyens, Ontwikkelingsmomenten in de zielkunde van Aristoteles, Diss. Amster-
dam 1939.
French translation: L' Evolution de la psychologied'Avistote, Paris-Louvain 1948.
Rhetoric K. M. Cope, Introduction to the Rhetoric of Aristotle, London 1867.
Poetic^ F. W. Trench, Mimesis m Aristotle's Poetics, in Hcrmathena vol. XXIII (1933),
pp. 1-24.
The place of Katharsis in Aristotle's Aesthetics, in Hermathcna vol. LI (1938),
pp. 110-134.
See further sub nr. 664a.

11 THE PERIPATETIC SCHOOL

A TEXTS, TRANSLATIONS AND COMMENTARIES
Theophrasti Eresii opera omnia ed. Fr. Wimmer, Paris 1866, i93i.
2

Theophrastus, Metaphysics, with transl., commentary and introd. by W. D. Ross

and F. H. Fobes, Oxford 1929.
Th6ophraste, La Metaphysique. Traduction et notes par J. Tricot, Paris 1948.
Th6ophraste, Caracteres, texte 6tabli et traduit par O. Navarre. Paris 1920.
F. Wehrli, Die Schule des Anstoteles, Texte und Kommentar,
Heft I, Dikaiarchos, Basel 1944.
Heft II, Aristoxenos, Basel 1945.
Heft III, Klearchos, Basel 1948.
Heft IV, Demetnos von Phaleron, Basel 1949.
Heft V, Straton von Lampsakos, Basel 1950.
Heft VI, Lykon und Anston von Keos, Basel 1952.
Aristo of Ceos in Philodcmus, llspl xaxwov X, ed. Chr. Jensen, Teubner 1911.
Aristo of Cos in Philodemi Volumina rhetonca ed. S. Sudhaus, Teubner 1885/6.

B WORKS ON THE PERIPATETIC SCHOOL

0. Hegenbogen, Thcophrastos von Eresos, Stuttgart 1940.
1. M. Bochenski, La logique de Theophraste, Fribourg 1947.

G. Rodier, La physique de Straton de Lampsaque, Paris 1891.

M. J. Lagrange, Les pe"ripaleticiens jusqti'a Vere chre"tienne in Revue Thomiste
XXXII (1927), pp. 196-213.
A general work of Wehrli on the Perip. School is to be expected.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 305

III. THE EARLY ACADEMY

A TEXTS AND STUDIES
De Speusippi Academici scriptis. Accedunt fragmenta. Scr. P. Lang, Bonn 1911.
U. Heinze, Xenokrates. Darstellung der Lehrc und Sammlung der Fragmcnte,
Leipzig 1892.
O. Voss, De Heraclidis Pontici vita el scriptis. Diss. Rostock 1896.
To be published in 1953 F. Wehrli, Die Schule des Aristoteles, Heft VII, Herakleides
:

von Pontos.

B GENERAL WORKS
H. Chcrniss, The Riddle of the Early Academy, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1945.
A general work on the Early Academy is shortly to be expected of Ph. Merlan
(T953).

De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II

 INDICES
I NAMES
Aclianus 769 exoteric writings 415-431
Aenesidemus 722 b logic 432-468
Aeschylus 662 b philosophy of nature 469-518
Actius sub 718 b; 747 a; 756; 763 metaphysics 519-560
Albertus Magnus 431 d ethics 561-607
A 1cm aeon 431 d politics 608-632
Alexander of Aphrodisias 421 b; 519, psychology (De anima) 633-653
p. 105 n. 3; 527, n. 5; 674; 675 b; rhetoric 654-659
704 c; 759 b; 785 b poetics 660-666
Alexander (the Great) 398, p. 4 n. i ; mentioned by Cic. 696 a
405 criticized by Theophr. 676; 677;
Anacharsis 605 b 681; 682
Anaxagoras 420; 473; 529 a; 591 b; and by Strato 717 c; 721 b; 722
651 a, b; 780 b cited sub 698 a; 715 a; 757 b;
Anaximenes 474; 519, p. 105, n. 3 758 764 a 766 771 d 786 787
; ; ; ; ;

Andronicus 401 b; 402, p. y Aristoxeiius 699-704

Antigonus of Carystus 726 Arnim, H. von, 565 b
Antiochus of Ascalon sub 715 a; 766 Asclepiades of Prusa, 780 b
a, b Asclcpius 746 b 757 b;

Antiphon 483 a Athenaeus 399 c; 401 a, p. 7 n. i;

Antisthencs 433 a 566, p. 138 n. 2; 726 a; 740 b; 781
Apellicon 401 a, b Atticus, friend of Cic., 783
Apulcius 431 a Atticus, a Platonist of the 2nd century,
Arcesilaus 797 798 a,
; b 561
Archelaus 731 a Averroes sub 524
Archimedes 704 a, c; 722 a; 788 b Avicenna sub 524
Archytas 632 e; 700 b; 784 a
Aristarchus of Samos 777 b; 779 Bergson, H. 501 f

Aristeas 710 b Bcrnays, J., 396, n. i and 2

Aristo of Ceos 730-733 Bias 585; 659 b
Aristo of Chios 766 a Bidcz, J., 410; 424 a
Aristo of Cos 734-735 Hignone, 1C., 410; 431 e
Aristoclcs 702 c Bio n of Borysthenes 730 b
Aristophanes 704 a Bochensky, I. M., 672 b; 673 a; 674 b;
Aristotle 675 b
source problems 395-397 Boehmc, Jacob, 431 d
life398 Boethius 673 b
poems 399 Bonaventura 431 d
lectures 400 Bonitz, H., 559, sub a
library 401 Bousset, M., 410
works 402 Brandis 435 b
chronology 403-414 vSchol. in Ar., 716 a; 764 b; 777 b
 I NAMES 307

Brehier, E., 410 Dittenberger, 398, p. 4 n. i ; 727 b

Brentano, F., 516 a, n. 5 Doring, I., 414
Brink, K. O., 402, p. 10 n. i; 565 b Drossaart Lulofs, H. J., 414
Burnet, J., 566, p. 138 f. n. 4; p. 143 Dufour, M., 654 n. i
n. 2 Duns Scotus 431 d; 524

Callimachus 704 a Ecphantus 777 a

Callippus 408; 517 c, n. 787 Empedocles 473; 498 a; 499 a; 649 a;
Callisthencs 398, p. 4 n. i 661 a; 763, 783 b
Cantor 788 b Kpicharrnus 724 b, n. i
Casstinder 667 d; 706 Epicurus 410; 718; 780 a, b, 783 c,
Chalcidius 778 786
Chilo 659 a Erastus, 398, n. 3; 737
Chrysippus 803
Euclides (the mathematician) 704 a;
Cicero 401 a, p. 7 n. 4; 415 a; 427; 788 a, b
430 n. i; 563 a; 566, p. 138 n. 2; Eudemus of Cyprus 415
689; 690 a, b; 692 b; 693; 694 a; Eudemus ion. i
of Khodos, 402, p. ;

696; 703 a; 704; 706 c; 710 a; 407 ;

563 b; 565 a; 672 a,
b;673b;
711; 715 a; 730 a; 747 c; 783; 674 a, b; 675 a, b
795; 802 b Eudoxus 408; 517 c, n. 3; 529 a;
Clemens Alexandrimis 729 749 a ;
596 c; 698 a; 784-788
Cleophoii (a poet), 661 b Euripides 632 a (1339 a 19); 731 a,
Colotcs 783 c n. i; 801
Eusebius 561
Copernicus 777 b
Coriscus 398, p. 3 n. 3 737 Eutocius 788 c
Corte, M. de, 412
Craiitor, Academicus, 764 b; 793 b; Fcstugiere, A. J., 430, n.i; 431 e
798-804
Crates, Cynicus, 709 Galenus 692 a
Crates, Polemo's successor in the Aca- Gaye 483 a, n. 2
demy, 797 Gellius 400; 750 b
Critolaus sub 734 a; 765 c Gohlke, P., 435 b
Cyrillus Alexandrinus 700 c, d Gorgias 399 c; 611 (1260 a 28)
Guthrie, W. K. C., 424 b, n. 2

Damon 704 a
Demetrius of Phaleron 398, p. 4 n. i; Hackforth, R., 596 a, n. 2
705-713 Hardic 483 a, n. 2
Demetrius Poliorcetes 706 Harward, J., 789 b
Democritus 471 a; 474; 717 a; 780 Heath, Sir Thomas, 517 c, n. 3; 772 b;
Dicacarchus 688-698 777 a; 778; 779; 787; 788 a, b, c
Diels, H., 483 a, n. 3 Hegel 412
Diodorus, the historian, 705 c; 740 a Hegemon, a poet, 661 b
Diodorus Cronus 780 a Helena 574 c
Diogenes Cynicus 739 c Heliodorus 566, p. 130 n. 6
Diogenes Laertius 399 b, c; 401 a, p. 7 Heraclidcs Poiiticus 696 a; 733; 737;
n. 4; in ch. XVI II and XIX fre- 771-783
quently cited Heraclitus
Dionysius Halicarnassensis 398 cited in DC part. an. I 5, 406; 474
Dionysius, 6 ^TaO(/.svo<; (an apostate of in Theophr.' Metaph., 677 a
Stoicism) 772 a Hermias 398, p. 3 n. 3, p. 4 n. i;
Dionysius, a painter, 661 b 399 b, c; 771 d
 INDICES

Hermippus 401 a, p. 7 n. 4; 784 a Mclissus471 a; 472 a, b

(the end) Mencdemus 772 a
Hero 719c, d Meno 407
Herodotus 666 Merlan, Ph., 410, p. 16 n. i; 518
Hesiodus 566, p. M6; 608 a; 695 b; Mctrodorus 783 c
791 a Midas 417 a
Hesychius 562 b Minucius Felix 679 a 747 c ;

Hieronymus 686 b Mithradates 738

Hippocrates 704 a, c 734 a ; Moreau, J., 430, n. i; 431 e
Hoffmann, E., 410 Mugnier, K., 410
Homerus 574 c (Helena) 591 a; 649 ; a; Muhll, P. von der, 565 a.
661 a, b, c; 665 b; 770; 801 Mulvany, C. M., 566, p. 138 f. n. 4
Homolle, 398, p. 4 n. i Mure, G. R. G., 465, p. 63 n. 4 and 5,
Horatius 803 p. 64 n. i

Musaeus 632 c
lamblichus 418 b, 419; 420-423; 748; Myrto 700 d
775 a
Jmmisch, O., 624, p. 194 n. i Neleus 401 a
Isocrates 419 Nemcsius 691 761 a ;

Lvanka, von, 411 b; 412 Nicomachus 563 b

Numcnius 748
Jackson 527 n. 8 Nuyens, F., 412 n. 5, 6; 413-414;
Jaeger, W., 395; 396, 398 n. 3; 399 c; 418 a, p. 23 n. i; 425 c; 427
402 (third group, sub VI) 403-414 ; ;

416; 420; 424 b; 425 c; 426; 427; Olympiodorus 399 a; 748

431 a; 516 a, n. 4; 518; 564; Olympus (the musician) 632 d
565 a, b Onomacritus 424 b
Julian us 680 b Orphici 424 b; 776 b

Kant 465, p. 64 Parmcnides 471-472; 474

Kapp, E., 434; 435 b, c; 448; 565 a Pausanias 706 a
Kommerell, M., 664 a Pauson (a painter) 661 b
Kunssberg 788 c Philippus of Opous 737 789; sub ; 792 c
Philistion 784 a
Lactantius 703 b 717 b
; Philo 431 a
Lagrange, M. J., 410 Philodemus 731; 732; 734; 735; 781
Lucianus 702 b Philolaus 752 a
Luyken, Jan, 431 d Philoponus 416; 424 b; 434; 675;
Lyco, Strato's successor in the Lyceum 758 759c; c; 760 b
725-729 Pittacus 659 a
Lycurgus 766 b Photius 697
Places, E. des, 789 b
Macrobius 778 Plato 395; 398, n. 3; 399 a; 402 (first
Mansion, A., 397; 402, p. 8 n. 2; 411; group) 403; 404; 424 a; 425; 427;
;

412; 427, p. 32 n. 2; 469; 482 a; 430, n. i, 434; 440; 463 a, p. 60 n.

485; 496 b, 498 b, d; 501; 502; i; 480; 485, 498 a; 501; 525-532;
518; 565 a, b 566, p. 135 n. 2, p. 136 n. i, p. 137;
Mansion, S., 402, p. 8 n. i; 438 a p. 139-140; 581; 584; 611; 613
Martianus Capella 698 a; 778 Life of by Aristoxenus, 702
Meeuwesse, A. C. M., 431 d, n. i opposed by Strato, 717 c;
Mekler, Index A cad., 737; 751 b view of rhetoric, 734; 735;
's

Melanthius 793 b List of disciples, 737;

 1 NAMES 309

doctrine of Numbers 746 a; Schachcr, E. J., 402, p. 10 n. i 565 a, b ;

tripartition of phil., 753 a; Schaerer, R., 434

doctrine of indivisible planes, 758 a ; Schilfgaarde, P. van, 412
Gods and daemons, 762; Schleiermacher 565 b
interpretation of the Tim., 764 b; Seleucus of Babylon ('EpuOpocToc;), 776 a
the virtuous life is happy, 767; Seneca 428 a; 749 d, 765 b
Heracl. Pont, heard him, 771 d; Sextus Einpiricus 426 a, b; 690 c;
772 b; 753 a; 754; 780 b; 801
cited sub 775 a, b; Silenus 417 a
and Eudoxus, 786; Simonidcs 519, p. 105 (b 30)
-- and the Epinomis, 789 b; 792 Simplicius 418 a; 716; 719; 720; 721
Plotinus 416 a; 748 a, b, c; 723; 755; 760 a; 771 b;
Plutarchus 401 b; 417 a; 425 b; 694 c; 777 b; 779
700 d; 701; 709; 713; 717 c; 724; Socrates 431 d; 611 (i26oa22); 700
733; 748; 760 c; 764 b; 765 c; b, c,d; 701
781; 782; 783 b, c; 802 a; 804 oi 2coxpaTixoi Xoyoi, 661 a
Polemo 793-796 Solmsen, Fr., 435 b
Polygnotus 661 b Solon 579 a, n. i 612 a (1256 b 32 f.)
; ;

Porphyrius 695 b; 700 d 766 b

Posidonius 402, p. 8 Sophocles 658 a (1375 a 33 ff.) 662 b ;

Proclus 425 b; 772 b; 788 c Sotion 771 d; 784 a

Protagoras 702 d Souilhe, J., 566, p. 143 n. 2
Ptolemaeus (Philadelphus) 401 a, p. 7 Speusippus 404; 532 b, n. i; 566, p.
n. i; 667 d; 710 a, b 140 (1096 b 7); 594 a; 596 a; 737-
Pythagoras 680 b; 695 a; 700 a 750; 764 b; 771 c, d
Pythagoreans 463 a, p. 60 n. i 566, ; Staigmiillcr 779
p. 140 (1096!) 5 f.); 743 a, d; 745 c; Stebbing, S.,443 c, n. r

752 a; 776 b Stoics 433; 434; 686 a, n. i; 762

Strabo 401 a; 730 b; 734 a; sub 771 d
Quintilianus 734 a Strato of Lampsacus, 714-724
Rackham 566, p. 141 n. 3; p. 143 n. 2; Stryckcr, E. de, 424 a
594 n. i; 596,
Snidas 789 c
b, p. 172 n. i;
597 Sulla 401 a, b
a, n. 3; 602, n. 2
Raeder, H., 789 b Syrianus 425 a
Ramsauer, G., 566, p. 138, n. 4; 597 a,
n" 3 Tannery 779; 788 c
Robin, L., 463 b Taylor, A. E., 789 b
396 n. Tertullianus 722 a; 761 a
Rose, V., i

424 Thales 420; 519, p. 105, 11.3; 591 b;

Ross, Sir David, 397; 402; 410; b,
n. 3; 433 a; 435 c, n. i; 455 b,
695 a
n. 5; 460 b, n. 2; 461; 478 a; 527, Theiler, W., 565 b
n. 8; 565 a; 566, p. 135 n. i; p. Themiso 419
Thcodorctus 700 d, 719 a; 756 b
137 n. 3; p. 141 n. 2; p. 142 n. 2;
581; 582; 583; 597 a, n. 3; 624, Theognis 585; 604
p. 194 n. i and 2;
Theon of Smyrna 778
Theophrastus 398n. 4; 401 a, b; 565 b;
Ross-Fobes, 747 b, n. i

Rutilius Lupus 728 a 667-687; 696 a; 710 a; 715; 747 b

Rijk, L. M. dc, 402, p. 8 n. j; 438 a; Thompson, 398, n. 4
559 a, n. i
Thomas Aquinas 431 d; 465, p. 64,
sub II sub 516 a, n. 5 641 651 a,
; ; ;

Sardanapallos 566, p. 138 (1095 b 22), n. i

with n. 2 Timaeus of Tauromenium 783 b
3io INDICES

Tredennick, H., 455 b, n. 5 Wehrli, Fr., 693, n. i 698 b; 701, n. i ; ;

Trench, F. W., 664 a; see also bibliogr. 727 b; 729, 731; 732; 735 c; 772 b
P- 304 Wendland, P., 710 b
Trendelenburg 395 Wilamowitz, 399 a, c; sub 706 c; 726 a
Tumarkin, A., 664 a n. i; 738
Tyrannion 401 a, b
Xanthippe 700 d
Xenocrates 398, n. 3; 404, n. 2; 409;
tJberwcg 410 737; 739 b; 748^; 749 d; 751-770;
771 c
Varro 695; 783
Verbeke, G., 414 Zarathustra 424 a
Vcrmchren 602, n. 2 Zeller, E., 396, p. 3 n. 2; 401 a, p. 7 n. 4;
Vitruvius 778 483 a, n. 3; 739 a; 792 c
Vollgraff, W., 399 c, n. i Zeno of Citium, 695 a sub 772 a ;

Zeno of Elea 758 c

Watt, J., 566, p. 138 n. 4 Zeuthen 788 b

II SUBJECTS
Abaris 566, p. 140 f., n. 6
the of Heracl. Font., 782 Analytics
abortion 627 b See 'AvaXimxa
abstraction angels 431 a
See d^poupeaii; See also 8oct[jLcov

Academy 398 403; 404; 405

n. 3, 4; anima sub 648 a; 690 a; 722 a
n. 2; 413; 415; 419; 424 a; 430; (unitatem c)
434; 532; 594; 737-804. Index See further: soul and <JwX7)' also vou<;
Acad. cited sub 737 Aristotle's De anima, 633-653
Organization, 738; animus 651 a, n. i ; 690 a
agreement with Stoicism and the See further: an( l vo ^
1

soul, i^ux *),

Peripatetic School, 715; apodeictic 443 b ;
445 a, b
difference from Stoicism, 766 a priori
accent in Ar.'s theory of knowledge 465
kind of sophism) 468 b
(a p. 64;
accidens rejected by Strato, 723
(a kind of sophism) 468 c art
Sec further ai>[j.pef}Y3x6<; opposed to nature, 481 ;

act (actuality) imitates nature, 490 a

and potency, 479 c 548-556 ; artefact a
action Ideas of 527 n. 5 ,

only complete when the end is pre- assertoric 443 b

448 ;

sent in it, 552; Assos 398, 402 (first group), 403;

n. 4;
always aims at some good, 566, p. 135 ; 404; 413; 416 a, n. i; 427
See further TcpaJfo and evfpyeta (ac- astronomy
tivity) position of 488; ,

activity 552; 566, the beginning of Aristotle, 517

actuality, see act a necessary propaedeusis for
aether 430; 431 philosophy, 752 b
aethericbody 774 of Heracl. Pont., 776-779;
amphiboly 468 b of Eudoxus, 787
analogia moral purpose of in the Epinomis,
attributionis and proportionalitatis, 791 a
 II SUBJECTS

atheism character
Ar. on428 b;, forming of the by actions, 567-
Theophrastus, 679 b 570;
autarkia by the influence of music, 632 d ;

Sec ocuTapxeia cp. 781;

the of man of different ages, 659 ;

description of types of 687 ,

Barbara 449 b
beatus (Theophrastus); 731-732 (Aristo
of Ceos)
a vita, 686 a
See also 9jOo<;
See further eu8od(ji<ov and eu8ai(jt.ovta
choice 576-578
becoming circumstances
Ar.'s theory of , 476-480
value of outward , 686 a 749 b
; ;

being
See 6v, and elvoci 765-767; 796;
See also 802 b
Eternal b., see
well-being, see comedy 663 a
biological research compositum
with Aristotle, 398, n. 4; 405; 413 (form and matter) 484; cf. 406,
works 469; 500-501 the end;
biological
See further auvOerov, a6vOeai<; and
body
relation with the soul in the Exote- cruvoXov

rica, 413; 417 c; 422 b; 423; conclusion

in the De anima, 633 d-637; 651 a; See oujjLTTEpaajjia
cp. 653; composition 468 b
with Xenocr., 761 a; conscquens
with Heracl. Pont., 774 b; 775 c (a kind of sophism) 468 c
bonum contcmplatio680 b
,
finis orum, see aya06v contemplation 464
botany 405; 668 See further PICK; Oswpr)Tixo<; s.v. p(o<;
Sec also
contingent
443 b;
TO sv$ex6[4svov
Camestres 450 a no knowledge of the c., 457;
in nature, sub 505 b;
Categories
authenticity of the , 402 (third things, 559 a, with n. 2
416 438 a; contracts, Ar., Uhet. I 15, 658 b
group I i) n. T; a;
elate 413; contradiction
doctrine of the 416 sub c; 435
, c; See pyincipium contradictionis
436-439; contradictories 443 c
The ten categories, 437 b ; Sec also principium contradictionis
With Xenocr., 755 contraries 443 c
causa conversion
non c. pro c., 468 c of terms, 448;
cause of propositions, 672
See ocma and SIOTL Copernican system 777, 779
the four causes, 492-495 Corpus Aristotelicum 402
Celarent 449 b courage
celestial bodies See
having a soul, 430; 431 creation
516a
See further aaiipes and &JTpa Creator
celestial spheres 408; 430; 517-518 See also the interpretation of Plato's
:

Chalcis 398 Timaeus, s.v. Timaeus

312 INDICES

curve with Theophr. 669; 670-671

Kudoxus' for doubling the cube, epic poetry 663 b
788 c Epinomis
[Plato's], 431 b, c; 789 b; 790-792
Daemonology, daemons 431 a; 762;
790; 792 c equity 589; 658 a;
See also Sou^wv See also sTrisSxEia and e7rtetxe<;
Davapti 451 a equivocation 468 b; 566, p. 140, n. 6
Darii 449 c essence 437b-439;
death 417 a, c; 422 b =--
Form, 497;
definition 464; 541; 542 See also ouatoc and TI vjv etvac.

Impossibility of , 741 b Ethica

See also 6pt<r(jL6<; and 6po<;
See ethics
Delphi 398, p. 4 n. T (decree of the ethics
Delphians); 727 b three works in the Corpus Arist. on
deus , 402, p. 9, sub VI;
Strato deo immunitatcm magni mu- date, 403; 404; 409; 413; 414;
neris dat, 717 a object, 432 a;
See further Oeoc; testimonia, 561-563;
development difference in character, 564;
of mankind, 695; modern judgment, 565
the Good results from a process Ethica Eudemia
of 743 a
,
character and authentic! ty, 464;
dialectical 465 a
(proposition or syllogism) 445 a, b Ethica Nicomachea
dictum compared with the Ethic. Itiid.,
a dicto secundum quid ad dictum 464; 465 a;
simpliciter, 468 c Books T-II15, 566-580;
divination Books IIT5-X, 581-607
See (jiavTixifj Magna M or alia
division date and authenticity, 565 b
(a kind of sophism) 468 b On the starting point of Ar.'s ethics,
of philosophy, see philosophy see 566, p. 135 n. i ;

dreams 405, n. 4; 415 on the application of his formal

Demiurge 427 view, sub 581 b

Earth Speusippus' works on , 749;

Xenocrates, 765-768;
spherical form of the , 698 a ;
Heracl. Font., 773 b;
its circumference, 698 b ;
Eudoxus, 786;
rotation, 772 b; 777;
Polcmo, 794-796;
the a god, 775 b
Grantor 801-804
surrounded with mist, 776 c
See also 731-732 (Aristo of Geos)
eclipse 463 b 464 ;

education 568-569 moral

Eudemus
(exercise of Eudemus 415-418
ArivStotle's
virtue) ;

evil
settled by law, 628;
in general, 629;
no among the dctSia, 556 c;
value of music for overcome by the good, 792 b
630; 632; ,

value of gymnastics and athletics, evolution 743

631 exclusum tertium
Eleatics 472; 479 See principium exclusi tertii

empirical method exhaustion

with Aristotle, 405; 406; 413; method of , 788 b
 II SUBJECTS 313

experimental method history,

See empirical method. research on the field of , 398, p. 4
exposure of infants, 627 b n. i; 405;
Facts h. of the sciences, 407;
See T& cm h. of phil. 407; 668;
fallacies 467-468 repetition in h., 424 b;
family inferior to poetry, 666
the germ-cell of the state, 608 a, b homonymity
Fate three kinds of , 566, p. 140 f.,
-=-. Nature (Theophr.), 680 a with n. 6
Soe ei[i,ap[jivY]. Also TUX?) Ideas
Ferio 449 c
theory of criticized, 404; 413;
figura dictionis 425 b; 525-532;
(a kind of sophism) 468 b
accepted by Ar., 417 b; 421 a, b;
figure 425;
s of the syllogism, see syllogism
abandoned, 427;
finality in nature PL's ideal numbers and Ar/s un-
See teleology moved Movers, 518;
form
rejected by Speusippus, 745;
See eI8o<;and (^0997) identified with mathematical num-
friendship 600-604 bers by Xcnocr., 757;
funera considered as immanent in things
um sepulcror unique magnificeu- by Eudoxus, 785;
tia, 706 c Sec also eZSos and LSeoc.
Genera ignoratio elenchi 468 c
See yvo<; Iliad 665 b
Dividing into and species, 740 imitation 660-664
a, b inconstant a i

quint um genus (aether), 431 d Theophrasti 679 a ,

geometry 488 induction 455; 463

a necessary propaedeusis for philo- infants
sophy, 752 b exposure of , 627 b
Eudoxus' inventions in , 788 education of , 628
the name, 791 a [intcntionalism |

God(s)a in ethics, 768

proofs of the existence of , 426- intellectus agens ( vou<;) 412; 413;
430; 418 a-d; (mens) 430; of the same
(rod and nature, 502 substance as the celestial bodies,
See also Prime Mover and Oeo<; 431 d;
Good, the, function of the 465; ,

See 'Aya06v in De An. ill, 652-653

gradus See further vou?
argumentum ex gradibus, 429 a inter pvetatio

greatness of soul de ne, see TU.

p[nr)veioc<;, s.v. epjzyjveta
See intevrogatio
facere ex pluribus interrogationibus
Happiness unam, 468 c
See euSat(jiov(a
Justice
hierarchy of being
with Speusippus, 746 See SixatoauvY)

Xenocrates, 757 Knowledge

As to Aristotle, see 432 b-d and 524 pre-existing , 456;
314 INDICES

conditions of k., 457; major

and sense-perception, 463; 465 See
With Theophr. 669-671; man
Strato 723, 724 See <5tvOpco7to<;
See further ITUOTYJ^T] the young , 659 a ;

kosmos elderly men, 659 b ;

See x6ar(/.oc; men in their prime, 659 c

marriage 627 a, 686 b
Laws Mars
Plato's L., 403; 431 b, c; 485; rotation of , 778
498 566, p. 136 n. i; 789 b;
a; materia prima 496
law of contradiction etc., see princi- mathematics
piitm contradictionis and exclusi history of 407; ,

t BY til
object of 432 a, b;
, 487 b, c;
See further legislation, and vofjtoq applied m., 488;
lawgiver 784 See also geometry and yeco^eTpioc
See also 706 (vo[io0ry}<;) matter
lectures, See uXy) and UTTOXEI^EVOV
Aristotle's , 400 mean
legislation Sec JJLSCTOV and ^ea6TY)<;
presupposes responsibility, 579 b; means
of Demetrius of Fhaleron, 706 c; TOC rcpoc Ta TEX?) 577 b
of Kudoxus, 784 a medicine
Lesbos 398 n. 4; 405 n. 2; 413 history of , 407;
library, studies of in the Lyceum, 407
Aristotle's , 401 Mercury
life rotation of , 778
and death, 417 a, c; 422 b; metaphysics
three main types of --, see (Sioc;; the name, 402, p. g, sub V;
a phenomenology of human , 659 the work, tb.\ 403; 404;
logic as opposed to empirical research
place of in Ar.'s system, 432-434 406; 409 sub 3;
See further: logical treatises; chronology of the M., 409; 411;
of Theophrastus, 672-675; 413; 414;
of Strato, 716 object of m. 432 a-d; 519-524
logical treatises opposed to physics, 491 cp. '523 a; ;

titles, 402 (third group 1); 524

date, 403, 413; Metaphysics,
interrelation, 435; Aristotle's M., 519-560;
the Categories, 436-439; of Theophrastus, 676-680
De interpy., 440-442; Meteorology
Analyt. pr. and post., 443-465; See MsTE
Topica, see s.v. Topica; middle term
P. Soph. /<;/., 467-468 (in a syllogism)
also under the Greek titles See (jtlaov.
Lyceum 400; 405; 409; 437 b, with mind
n. i See Siavota and
Lyco minor
the "L." of Aristo of Ceos, 733 See sXaTTcov
modality
Magna Moraha 561; 565 b; 736 of propositions, 443 b
See also Ethics -
logic of in Theophrastus, 672 b 674
;
 II SUBJECTS 315

molecular theory 763 outward goods

monotheism 518 value of , see circumstances
monstrosities 496 b
mood Particular
s of the syllogism, see syllogism See (jLspo?: ev (jt.spst

motion, movement knowledge of s impossible, 463 a

eternal m. 430; perfect
nature a principle of 469; 481; , (of a syllogism) see TXSIO<;
of the heavenly bodies, 517; Peripatetic School
defined by Ar., 506; as opposed to the Academy, 406;
correction of Theophr., 681; the Magna Moralia a work of the
defined by Strato, 720 565 b; its members, 667-735
See also XLVVJOK; petitio pnvcipli 452 d; 454; 468 c
Mover phantasm a
See Prime See cpavTaa[jLa
and Unmoved s Philebus
music, Plato's ,594 a; 786 b
in education, 630; 632 philological studies
musica 704 a, b foundation of , 398, p. 4 n. i

musicology 704; 781 philosophy

Sec also jjiooaixY) history of 407; 668; ,

mysticism speculative ph. opposed to empirical

of Heraclides Ponticus, 783 b science, 406; 413;
cultivated for its own sake, 419 b;
Nature defined as XTTJCTI^ TE xocl xprjai<; aocpta<;,
Ar.'s phil. of nature, 469-513; 420 b;
a principle of motion, 469; 481 ;
of religion, 426;
two aspects, 483-484; 489-490 first ph. 432 a-d;
as an intelligent artist, 406; 427; division of ph. 432-433;
498-502; concerned with the first causes, 519,
Theophrastus' view of , 678; p. 104 ff. ;

679; 680 a has no practical use, 519, p. 105 f. ;

Nile the most divine science, 519, p. 105 f . ;

rising of the , 405 the science of being as such, 521;

nonieii concerned with substances, 522;
Sec* ovofxa with axioms and first principles, 523 ;

nous with the OUCTIOC axLvrjToc;, 524

Sec intellectus agens and voGq Division of with Xcnocr., 753 a;
-

Numbers practical purpose of 753 b ,

doctrine of ideal N. criticized: See also 9iXoao<pia and CT09toc

425 a; 518; physical bodies
See further apt6(jLo<; See 9uaixa, s.v. <puatx6<;
nuptiae physics
Theophr/ book de nuptiis, 686 b object of physics 432 a, b; 487 b;
border-line between and meta-
Odyssey 665 b physics, 491 ;

organisms ph. not the highest wisdom 523 a

forming of 498 , See also 524
Organttm with Theophr., 681-682;
See logical treatises with Strato, 717-721;
organum hydraulicum 722 a with Xenocr., 763;
Orphic poems 424 b Heracl. Pont., 780
 INDICES

Physics Prime Mover 408; 410; 411; 427;

date, 403; 404; 413; 430; in Phys. VIII, 513; in Metaph.
introduction, 469; A 7-10, 514-518;
Phys. 470-480;
I, the is first actuality, 555 b

481-505;
II, Theophr. opposes Ar.'s theory of
I1I-IV, 506-512; the 676 b ,

Vlli, 408, 513 principium contradictions 443 c 444 ;

phrase a, b; 461; 523 b

See Xoyoc; principium exclusi tertii 444 c; 461
planets Problemata 402 (Third group IV)
eternal motion of the , 517 a; problematic 443 b
the gods, 775 b procreation 627 a
plants proof 445 449 a ;

See 9UTov proportion

classification of , 671 a, b; 740 b geometrical, 587;
pleasure arithmetical, 588;
See YjSovY) Eudoxus' theory of 788 a ,

poetics, poetry 660-666 analogia proportional] tatis, 566, p.

general definition, 660; 140 11. f>
means and objects, 661 ;
proposition
origin, 662; See X6yo<; (arco9avTix6<;) and obroepavaLc;
comedy and epic poetry, 663; Division of s, 443 a, b;

tragedy 664-665; relation between s, 443 c

more philosophical than history, 666 conversion of s, 672 a, b

political reforms 398, 11.3 protreptic literature

politics Set 1
Aristotle's Protrepticus, and
the object of , 566, p. 135 f. ; Aristo of Ceos: 731, the end
method, see practical sciences s.v. [providence] sub 427, 2 ; 502 sub 516 a,
;

science with n. 5
See further state providentia
Dicacarchus a great writer on ---, denied by Strato, 717 b
696; psychology
Demetrius of Phaleron combined Aristotle's -
, 413
phil. with 711 , In the Eudetnus, 416-418;
Politics 402 (third group Vll i); Pro/r.,418b;422b, c;423b;
date, 403, 404, 409; 413; ---
Metaph. A, 418 c;
Pol. I, 608-612; Ethica Nic. X, 418 d;
II, 613; the De Anuva, 633-653;
614-620;
Ill, practical in the Rhetoric, 659
IV, 621-625; Pythionikai
VII-VIII, 626-632 list of the , 398, p. 4, n. i

polytheism 518
See also 792 c Quality
of propositions, 443 a
potency the category of ,
see TCOI^V
and actuality, 479 c
See further Suva[zt<; [quantity]
quantitative division of propositions,
practical sciences 443 a
See science
the category of , see TTOCTOV
premiss
See TTpOTOCCU; Reincarnation 775 c
knowledge of the first es, 455 b; religion
cp. 465 philosophy of , 426-430
 II SUBJECTS 317

repetition the nutritive , 640;

(in history) 424 b sense-perception, 641 - 647 ;

replicatio thinking, 648-653

replicatione quadam 430, with n. i With Dicaearchus, 690; 691 692 a; ;

responsibility with Strato, 722;

conditions, 575-579 thinking a movement of the 723 , ;

objections, 580 the subject of perception, 724;

rhetoric with Spcusippus, 746-748;
f
Ar. s Art of Rh., 654-659; with Xenocr., 759-761;
cultivated by Lyco, 728; penetrates the universe, 756 a,
rejected by Aristo of Cos, 734-735 762;
Rome 401 a, b with Heracl. Pont. 774-775
rotation s of the celestial bodies in the
of the earth, 772 b; 777 Efitnomts, 792 a;
of Mercury and Mars, 778 Creation of the with Crantor,
799 b
Scepsis 401 a space
science defined by Ar., 480; 507;
sc.and empirical research, 406; 413; this definition opposed by Theophr.,
history of sc., 407; 682
hierarchy of -s, 432 c 462 ; ;
spheres
tripartition of 487 b; 524;
, number of the celestial , 517 c;
knowledge of the causes, 519; 518
practical s less exact, 566, p. 136 vstars
See further emerr/)^ the dttSio<; oOata of the ---, 517 a;
self-love eternal motion of the 517 a, , b
basis for friendship, 602; 603 star gods 430; 431; cf. 517 a
senses, state
sense-perception, sec aiaOirjaLc; structure and aim, 608-612
Census interior 648 statua
sentence treccntas s Demetrio Phalereo,
See X6yo<; 707
slaves Stoa, stoicism
610 a;
definition, agreement between the the ,

whether by nature, 610 b, c; Acad. and the Perip. School, sub

ca have virtue? 611 715a;
sophismata 467; 468 difference, 765 c; 766
soul Stoics 433; 434; 686 a, n. i; 762
in Aristotle: subaltern 443 c
relation with the body, 413; 417 c; subcontraries 443 c
422 b; 423; substance
110 harmony, 416; idea of in Aristotle, 402, p. 8, n. i ;

immortality of the 417; ,

relation to the nous, 418;
in the DC anima, 633-653;
aporiai, 633;
subject of affections? 634;
unity of the 635; ,
definition, 636;
its implications, 637
in the Categories, 437 b- 439;
in the Metaph., 533-547;
soul a s. 416 a;
See further TL SCTTI, TI TJV elvai, ouata,
and T68e TL
syllogism 435; 443-465
apodeictical and dialectical, 445;
; definition, 447 a ;

principle of life, 638; perfect and imperfect, 447 b;

various powers, 639; figures and moods of the s., 449-451 ;
 INDICES

rules, 452; 453 tragedy 664-665

induction treated as a s., 455 b truth
scientific s., 458; defined, 557;
new moods added to the first figure excluded from metaphysics, 558 a;
by Theophr., 673; depends on combination, 558 b;
modality in s, 674 ;
559 a (in composites) ;

hypothetic and disjunctive s, 675 in incomposites, 559 b, c;

both in composites and incompo-
[Tabula rasa] (ypa^fiaTetov) 651 c sites, 559 d
teleology
principle of , 423 a; 498-502; Unitas
accepted by Theophrastus, 678; animae, 722 a
difficulties about , 677 universal see xocOoXou
temperance universe
See aco9poauvY)
eternity of the , see x6a{io<;
tessara logica 443 c a teleological explanation of the ,

theology see teleology

the term, 402, (third group, sub V) ;
a purely physical explanation of the
history of th., 407; , 717
object of th., 432 a, b; 524; Unmoved Movers, 408; 410; 411; 430;
inconsistency in Ar/s theology 517-518
according to Cic., 430;
the same is said about Theophrastus,
679 a; Veins
and arteries, 402, p. 9, n. 2
Theophr/ theology, 679 b; 680;
See also Prime Mover and religion verbum
theoretical thinking 432 a-c; 519, p.
See PYJI/.OC

vice
104 ff. ;

See xaxta and xax6<;, (jtoxO^pia and

thinking
See voeiv, 651, and vou<;
virtue
In Theophrastus xpiaeiq x. Oscopiai,
684 See apery)
virtus
Timaeus
See
spirit of Plato's , 428; 430; 431 apsr/)
void
a, d; 480; 485; 501; 529 b, n. 6
Xenocr.' interpretation of the
the , 719
,

764 voluntary
Grantor's 800 and involuntary acts, 575 a-e
commentary, 799,
time
defined by Aristotle, 508-512; Wisdom
by Strato, 721 = first phil., 519;
Topica in the Epinomis, 790
Early date of the , 413; 414; witnesses
435 a, b; 445 a, b; 464 c Ar., Rhet. I 15, 658 b

111 GREEK WORDS

'Aya06v xal Taya06v, 498b; 519,
a as opposed to avayxata, 419 b; 105;
P-
good is what the <pp6vt(io<; chooses in the Eth. Eud. 564;
for himself, 420 a in the Eth. Nic., 566, p. 135-143;
 Ill GREEK WORDS 319

Plato's criticized, p. 1396.;

XyeTat TCO OVTI, p. 139 (1096 a v acofjia, 774 b
(aether) 430; 431 a-d; 776 b
distinction between primary and
secondary goods, p. 140 f. ;
TT. ew<; x. ataOyjTtov, 402 (third
TO not to be connected with TO v group 111 2);
(Speus.), 743 c Ta yyuTepov T^J; aia0., 458 b, sub 3;
finis bonorum ap. Cic. (
TO TXO<; e7ii(jTY)pn7 and ,
463 ;

xal Taya06v) 765 a first stage of cognition, 465; 519;

Also summum bonum, 766 a e.g., TO oXov xaTa TTJV v yv<opt(jLa>Tepov,
Plato's lecture Trepl Taya0ou, 771 b 470;
vtxav Ta a Ta ToiauTa 792 b
JJLY)
in De anima, 638 639 641 -647 648 ; ; ;

aya06<; differs from thinking, 649

in the Epinomis, 790, the end 7) St&axnv apx<x<;, 669 C ; cp. 670-
671
ayav ;

TuavTa ol veoi, 659 a with Strata, 722 b; 723; 724;

TTpaTTOuaiv
with Spcusippus, 742;
(1389 b 4)
with Xeiiocr., 754;
ayevTjTov
TOV 428 b; 764; 800 voarjaaai. TrapetT) TIC; 802 a ,
xoajjLov,
645; 648; 722 b
ayvoeiv, <3tyvoia
Trapa TTJV v Xey/oi> (a kind of so-
TO 639 a, b
phism) 468 c
,

the alternative to truth concerning

and 541 d;
aouvOeTa, 559 b, d /] VOYJTYJ,
(with Xenocr.
7) ),
754
<5cypot(po<; 625 (1295 a 14)
ol 01 v6(i.oi, 658 a (1375 b 7)

Ta a, 579 a
Tuepl T&V xocO' YJV, a dialogue of a. atTiov 457 a, 458;
Heracl. Pont., 773 b See also 8i6Ti
TO a LTIOV 463 b ;

three meanings of the term, 584; (IT)

aiTiov <!>? ai^Ttov TLOIvat 468 c;
Trapa vo(jLo<;, 585 TTpcoTat at TYJS ^IXJECOI;, 469 470 ; ;

443 a; 448 four kinds of aiTtov, 493-495;

687 a knowledge of the 519, p. 103 , ff.;
<xvaoc;.756b 521; 522;
606 b (1177 b 33) Plato's Ideas an ? 529 a; 530;
679 b 531; 532
aOeoT7)<; 428 b
d6X7)TLXY) 432 b, d; 487 b
efo, 631 a axtvrjTov (T6 jupcoTov XLVOVJV) 517 a;
421 a; 422 a; ouota axtvr]TO<;, 524
517a;
-popa f _, 659 c
E

ouafca 517 a; 659 c (1390 b 10

dbqjir) ff.)
atSia always actual, 555 c ;
dxpaata 594
no evil among the dtSia, 556 c ;

Tcepl TCOV pouXeueTai 577 a

cov ou8el<; ; TO different degree
,
of in
T6 v 6tvw oco^a (the fifth element), different sciences, 566, p. 136
642 b; axpipecrraTai
T6v x6a[iov, 800 TWV iTTLaTTjfjLcov 462; 488 b; 519 r
572 (no8a32) p. 104; cp. 566, p. 136
320 INDICES

dxpiplcrrepoi TO: dvaXuTtxd ( logic) 433 a

ol TCOV X6ycov, 527 dvaTrauaic;
dxpoaTtxd, 400 vexa TTJC; IvepyeCa?, 605 b;
<5txpo<;, Ta a (in a syllogism) 449 b; x^-P LV <0 ? 632 c
450a; 451 a; dvaTTvetv
al <5cxpai (8ia0aei<;), in ethics, 573 a. TO ,
643 b; 645
See also uTreppoXv) xal eXXei4n<;. Also
TOC #xpa, 574 a .
-
<;,
402 (third group III 2)
dXa^oveia 572 (no8a2i) -, 643 b
dXy)Oeia 407
object of contemplation, 419 b, the dvSpeta 572 (the beginning); 581
end dveiXt5t<;, ap. PL, Polit. 270 d, 430, n. I
- T& aXyjOsi; (relation with being)
557-559; the possession of wisdom (= phil.)
as a virtue, 572 (1108 a 20) oux YJ, 519, p. 105 (Q82b28ff.);
cp. 606 b (i 177 b 26 if.).
440; avOp COTTON
445 b; o TpLToc; 527 , ;

wv 449 a; 458; 7roXiTix6<;,604 (ii6gbi8);

xal vou<; del ,
465 ; cp. TTOXLTLXOV ^(OOV, 609 b ',

559 b, c Xoyov (xovov ^yet, 609 b;

TO dX7]Oe<; (relation with being), man alone knows moral principles,
557-559 ; ib.',

object of a virtue, 572 (iro8aig) TT. tov 96opac;, 693

768 448
422 b Y3
453 a
TO yeXoiov ecmv apLapTr^jia TL, 663 a 445 a, b
a>pXco<Ti<; 627 b
YJ Tuepl TOV ^Xiov etc., 779
TO 760 a;
v, doptoTa 421 b ;

ooata, 760 c aTeXoiv del Ta TeXetoTspa, 743 b

oqxsaa 458 a, 459; 465 460 b; 461; 523 a
802 a; cp. 802 b
vou<; in the active sense is , 652 aOyji;
468 b the vou<; is 634 b , ;

dvayxatov, dvdyxY) not in every sense, 651 b, c;

a opposed to dyaOd, 419 b; the active voij<; is 652 ,

of a proposition, 443 b
of a syllogism, 447 b;
;

- OUX SCTTl 7Tpl Td<; [JL't] CTUvOeT(X<; OU-

s, 448 ;
559 b, d; 641;
aiac;,
xa06Xou xal 81 cov, 457 b; TO ^TraTYJaOai, 649 a
TO 15 dtvdyx7)(; nature), 505;
(in dTTstpdxic; 424 b
(Ts^vat) Tcpoc; Tavayxata, 519, p. 104 o^eipov 472 a
and 1 05 ; ~a, 421 b
#veu TCOV tov dSuvaTOV xal ^YJV xal sij

9jv, 610 a Y) (JIT) (a kind of sophism) 468 c;

dvatoOTjata, dvataOYjToi becoming and becoming T6Se TI,
572 107 b 8); 582 b
(i 476 a;
dvaXoyta 566, p. 140 (1096 b 28), with Ix (jtrj ovToq, 479 b
n. 6
'AvaXuTixd 402 (third group I 3, 4);
435 a; 443-465;
'
 Ill GREEK WORDS 321

eav>T6v XLVCOV, 759 ;

760 ;

449 a; 452 a; 453 b; in the Epinomis, 790

Ix TCttfTOT^pCOV Xal TTpOT^pCOV, 454; apttiToxpaTta 617; 623 a, b
conditions, 458; 463; 464; <5cplCTTOV

apx"^ eo> oux a., 465 ; T6 ^v Tfj 9uasi TTcxau, 519, p. 105
110 about particulars, 545 a See also aya06v
TO xaXXiaTov xal (Jt'/)
ev apxfj elvai
TCOV YtYv JL
{
^ vcov > 627 b 743 a
a7uoxp6T7)(jLa 566, p. 138, n. 2 ocppyjv
a7uoXai>cmx6<;, the supreme Principle called by
, 566, p. 138 (1095 b 16-22) Xenocr., 756 a
'OfjtYjptxa, 398 p. 4, n. i

l ,
479 a
in metaphysics, 520 429 b;
a7i6cpavmc; 440; 442 a- c T6 e? apxrjc alreiTai, 452 d; 454;
aTu6 ? aaic; 440; 442 a- c, 445 b definition of a. in logic, 460 a ;

a7uo9aTtx6<; 448 special at, 460 b ;

6cpaxvat 499 d apprehension of at, 465;

aper/), Tuxpa TO v fj Xa[jL(3aveiv (a kind
hymn to 'A., 399 c; of sophism) 468 c;
TT. apeTtov x. xaxtcov, 402 (third al TcpaJrat at, 470 ;

group, sub VI) ; one or many? 471-472;

apery) in the TuoXiTixoc; ptoc;, 566, how many ? 473-475;
p. 138 (1095 b26ff.); the three at, 476-478;

Stavo-yjTtxY) and ^OtxYj ,

567 a, b; this theory compared with preceding
origin of TjOixT) 568; , theories, 479-480
how can be tested, 569;
it Of the Prime Mover, 515 b; 517 a;
difficulties in this theory, 570; phil. the science of at and alrtat,
virtue defined, 571 ; 519, p. 104 (982 a i); 521; 522;
table of moral virtues, 572; 523 b (pepatoTaTY) TCOV ap^cov ) ;

practical rules, 574; X6yot dt7r& TCOV cov and STrl Ta<; a<;,

responsibility, 575
- 579 ; 566, p. 137, with n. 3;
choice, 576-578; pi* (with Theophr.) 676 a;
objections to this theory, 580; Strata's doctrine of at, 718;

special virtues, 581-604; Speusippus, 743-747;

the intellectual virtues, 590-593; Xenocrates, 756-757
at XOCT* v TTpa^ei? TCOV cV afora atpe- (office), 585 (1130 a if.)
TCOV, 605 a ; <5cpxcov 616b, c
eu8at[j,cov fUos XOCT* v, 605 c;
moral virtue ranged as second, 606c ; See astronomy
relation of to euSat^ovta, 749 b-d; the term in the Epinomis, 791 a
765-767, 796; 801; acruipeq
interior character of 768; ,
(Oeot), 762; cp. 775 b
8taTtOvat TTp&s TrXeiou? as, 781 ; xaaTcov TCOV cov x6a[JLOv ijT

in the Epinomis, 790; 791 a 776b

dtpiOfjLYjTtxY) 519, p. 104 a*oTpa
dcpi6(ji6<; 425 a; 510 a, b; 511 c; 512; Oetov Y^VO?, 792 a, c
the Ideas o ? 531;
belongs to the sensibilia com- T 6 __Vj 761 a
munia, 641 ;

e87)Ttx6<; and (jLa07)piaTLx6<;, 745 a, (of syllogisms) 453 a

b, c, 746a; 756; 760; <5tTojjLot 780 a, b
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II
322 INDICES

p., 605 c;
object of philosophical amazement, superiority of the p. 0ecop7}Tix6<;,
519, p. 105 (982 b 13 f.) 606-607;
732 a 6 repays, ou TTO^OLC;, 610 a (1254
732 b a 7);
aura pavauGFOt; x. dtyopalos ,
626 b (1328
aura Ta TipcoTa ) ... T , v -~ a 39);
(the Ideas) 421 a
6T*-i*dbcp#ij{ The 0ecopy)Ttx6q with Thcophras-
680 b;
tus,
See Si aura and Sc' auTrjv Opposed by Dicaearchus, 694;
c

auTapxeia EXXdos, 695;

of eu8ai[jLovia, 566, p. 142 (1097 b 7uu0aYoptx6c;, 700 a
6-21); TOV v TL|jt.copLav elvai, 804; cp.
of theoretical life, 606 b (1177 a 417 a and 422 b
27 if.); 607 a; DX-y], pouXeuea0ai 577

TEXo? xocl peXTicrrov, 609 a

Ar. protests against the idea of al ei<; <5t8y)Xoi, 607 a;

of the individual, 731 (introd. a psychic power, 639 a

remark) PpOVTT)
definition of 464 b
TO , defined in 566, p. 142 (1097 b PW(JLO<; 9tXux<;, 399 a
15)
auToexacjTov 566, p. 140 (1096 a 35) ; 775 a
<xuT6(jLaTov 499 a; 503-504; 717 c 627 a
6[jLtXCa

yeXotoc;
T6 TYJS ^j 760 b T6 TOU ala/pou ioTt, ji6ptov, 663 a

TOC e <*><;, 463 a, with n. i, p. 60; II. <reo)<; x. 90o pas, 402 (third
465, p. 64 sub III; group, II 3);
cf. 487, subb; 488 a Ar.'s theory of becoming, 476-480;
582 a; 639 a, b; 641; 646 II. coov y. see >a;
paia y. 90opa, 498e
and ;
545 a ;

ou x6ajjiou, 428 b TOU TXOUC; ^vexa Y) ,

554 d

6 xoa[jLo<;, 428 b; 764 in logic, 438 a; 464 c; 535 a

695 b ,

582 a; 643 b
a ptoc; not suitable for citizens,
626 b (1328 b 39); a necessary propacdeusis for philo-
TO v ou |jtTXt T^? 7r6Xeco<;, 626 b sophy, 752 b;
(1329 a 20); 096Spa yeXotov 6vo[ia, 791 a (Epin.
v gpyov defined, 629 b 990 d 2)
yewpyoi 626b (1329 a 35 if.)
of the atoms, 718 a yvj see earth
617; 620 yiyvea0at 476
YJ? 643 b yvcopijxot;
a, piaio?, 575 a, b yvcapifji^Tepa 458; 470; 519; 566
yvo>at<; 456 a; 465
three pfoi, 566, p. 137 f. (Eth. Nic.
1095 b 15 - 1096 a 10) ; the nous a tabula rasa 651 c
0ecopy)Tix6<;, 419; 566, p. 138
(1096 a 4-5); instance of special dtpxafc, 460 b ;
 Ill GREEK WORDS 323

al xal ^TthreSa, 757 a, b ; also in 419 b (the Protr.), 1. 5 (Si*

, 758; auTdc) and 1. 19, 81' lauTTjv;
uXcov a>v (Eudoxus' curve), cp. 519, p. 105 (982 b 28), phil.
788 c alone is a6T7J<; Svsxev
664 b Also xaO' aunfjv, 605 a

TI ,
642 b
;, 762; Siaqpopa
^ UX*) 767 b
^
IxaoTou Y) part of the definition 464 c ;

es xal Oeoi, in the Epinomis, 790 ; $1

TeXeirrata 8. ^ ouala TOU
792 c 542;
See also 431 a (angels) knowledge of the at presupposed
in SiaLpeaLs, 741 a;
in a classification of rcoXiTeTai, 617- in defining, 741 b
618;
justice in a 619 a; , Tuaaa S. Ix Tupo07uapxouaYj<; yvcoaeox;,
true democracy, 621 a; 456 a
its perversion, 621 b;
restored by Demetrius of Pha- arj^etov TOU SuvaaOat S.,
leron, 706 b 519, p. 103
Staatov
7] v rq> TcOvavai ,
417 a TO TS 6Xiyapxix6v xal
8iapeai<; 468b; 741 b; cp. 740; 741 a 619a, b
(StatpsiaOai )
See further
8iaXexTix6<; Sixaioauvvj 584 589
7) TupayiAarefca, 434 ;
See also Stxaiov
445 449a '

auXXoYio|i6<; $
;
T6 _, 457 a; 462; 519, p. 103; 566,
7) 7)
the counterpart of rhetoric, p. 137 (i95 b 7)
654 a; both are dvTtXoyixafc, 655b $6a
opposed to iTrtaTYjfjLTj, 457 b;
T& , a power of the soul, 639 a with Xenocr., 754, 1. 7
8iavoia SouXefca see 8ouXo<;
general term for intellectual activity, SoGXcx;
432 a; TL ^^ UX OV >
610 a;
a function of the soul, 639 b ; TOIOUTO?, 610b, c;
in tragedy, 664b; aperif) Tt<; ou, 611
with Strato, 722 b;
cp. vpyeiai TTJ<; ^ux^Ci 723 ; (a6pt<jTO<;)
= T& (jtya xal (j.txp6v, 744;
Hepl T. v, a work of Xenocr., sub Xenocr. called the god, 756 a;
751 c dc6piaTos, in Plato's lecture II.
Taya0ou, 77 lb
x. irjSovYjv x. vouv x. Traoav
alpo6(j.eOa 566, p. 142 (1097 b) , ; and evlpyeia, 479 c ;

cp. 570 a, p. 146 (1105 a 32), Trpo- 8. defined and explained, 548-550;
aiporjjjLevoc; St* aura Suvdqjiei, 484; 548 C; 553;
alpeTa (TOC xaXa xal oTrouSata 605 a )
most ouafou are SuvapLsiq, 546 a;
8. subsequent to "energy", 554;
jv so5ai(Aovav ael aipoujxeOa , good and bad 8., 556;
566, p. 142 (1097 b); ^ 5Xyj 636 ,

dyaTTaaOai (Soxet i\ OeopyjTtXT) 8ia- SuvaoTela

TJ), 606 b (1177 b i); a perverted kind of oligarchy, 622
(1292 b 10)
324 INDICES

SUVOCTOV Definition of i. t 467 b;

(of a proposition) 443 b; 451 a two groups, 468

'EyxpaTeia 594 in the definition of tragedy, 664 a

eXeu0epi6TT)<; 572 (
1 107 b 9-10)
ou<;
eXeuOepoc;
567 a
Tyranny not acceptable for the ,

eT8o<; 625 (the end);

soul an 416 c;
,
a pya, 629 b
418 a;
TCOV slStov SsxTixY),
in Ar.'stheory of becoming, 476; in the life of a
477; 483 b,c; 489; 491; young men, (>59

formal cause, 493-495; (1389 a 21 if.)

= the essence, 497 cf 406, the end ; .

third stage of cognition, 465; 519

(6X73 ouawc);
etfr/j (Platonic Ideas) 526-532;
695 b, 1. 6; 748
not substances 544;
&v, 651 a ;
xTTJfidc TI ,
610 a;
Suva^ei TCX vj, ib. ;
characterized by life, 638 a
T<X Y) xal oi dpiOjjLoi, 757; 760
el &m 457 a; 464 T^ TtoXXax&c; XiyeTat, 472 a ;

E&XCOV TO xal TO 6v, 520, p. 107

enjoyment of man in seeing a<;, TO inl TuoXXtov (argument for
even of unpleasant things, 662 a Plato's Ideas) 527;
el{jLap(jiv7] 680 a TO not a substance, 546 b ;

Ilepl s, a work of Xenocr., sub TO elvat -=

auyxetcrOai xal v elvaL,
751 c 559 a; cp. 559 d;
elvou the Pythagoreans placed it in their
PEXTIOV TOO ^7) ,
498 c, d ; series of good things, 566, p. 140
= auyxetaOat xal Sv elvai, 559 a; (1096 b 5 f.);
in asyntheta, 559 b, c; TO xal
d<p* evo<; :rp6<; v, 566, p. 140,
both in syntheta and asyntheta, n. 6;
559 d not to be identified with T& <xya06v
See also 6v
(Speus.), 743 c;
572 (1108 a 743
elpcovefoc 22) yet on the side of good things, d.
See also 746 a
T<X xa6* gxaaTa opposite to ra xa06Xou,
T& Tcav ex TOO 6<;, 756 b;
458 b sub 3; 470; T& in Plato's lecture II. TayaOou,
TCOV xaO* ^xaara OUTE oiire
6pia(z&<; 771 b
545 a
, evavTi6TY]<;, IvavTttoaic; 474; 475
439 a, c;
(of the atoms) 718 a
exouotov
Sei SuvaoOat Trettkiv, 655 b
and dxouatov, 575 a-e
(of a proposition) 443 b ; 448 ;

T6 I.
559 a
,
*xpov> 449b 45Qa 451a
' '

7UpOTaCTl<; 6.
^

l7ctaTY)(jLYj $ eXaTT6vcov, 462; 488 b; ,

445 a;
519, p. 104 449 a
Ivexa TOU
TT.
009. eX., 402 (Third group, I 6); T6 TravB* ,
677 b
435 a; 467-468 See also jjLaryjv :
 Ill GREEK WORDS 325

a hierarchy of sciences, 462;

and 479 c; 500d; 515;
Suvajjitq, and ataOr)ot(;, 463; 465; 519,
Y) Y<fcp vou i. coif),
516 a; p. 102-104;
i. defined, 551 a;
purely theoretical, 519, p. 105 f.;
explained, 551 b; Ix TWV oiv ("the argument from the
difference from motion, 552; sciences") 527;
prior to potency, 554; different degrees of precision in dif-
either in the object or in the agent ferent sciences, 566, p. 136;
555; good and bad , 556; XOCTOC (jitav iSav (zEa TU; , 566,
activity, 567 b; 568 b; p. 139 f.(1096 a 30 f.);
eu8cit(iovta TIC;, 605 a; II. <;, a work of Xenocr., sub
XOCT* apeTYjv 606 a; , 751 c;
YJ vou ,
ib. ; only of the VOYJTY] ouofoc, 754, 1. 5 f.

XLVYJCN? defined by Theophr. as TI?

<XTeXY)<; TOU Suvdc^si OVTOS, 681 ; , 458;
T<xq q TYJS 4* U X*)S XIVYJCJEK; elvat Y), 742
(Strata), 723
456 a; 654 b Tiapa TO (a kind of sophism) 468 c
484; 515; 541 c; , 663 b
in the definition of soul, 636
565 a . 402 (third group,
<;,
I 2), 435 c;
440-442, 443;
TP. cov, 402 (third group, III 2) gvexa Toij e5, 643 b
See further: dreams
TCX TiXeico lpa)TY][iaTa Sv TUOLEIV, 468 C
445 a, b
virtue a 571 , a, b; 572 (1108 a ,
TO (in a syllogism) 449 b
26); 580 a; 624
TCOV ecov ouva^Tioi TTGX; OCUTOI vetv, TO (consists of virtue and
580 b, c; pleasure) 632 c (1339 b 19)
euSaijiovla oux ^artv ,
605 a
TI<;, 504 a;

TL, 493 the supreme end, 566 (Eth. Nic. I

1-7); definition, p. 143;
the term, 400, 401 a; dealt with in Eth. Nic. X, 605-607;
writings of Ar., 415-431 in a 7u6Xis, 626 a, b ;

rj
455 ;
463 Y] !cm, 664 b;
ev 7Tpaei
with Theophr., 685; 686 a;
1\ TTJV TOU 7iavT6<; ouatav Tcotouot, 745 b with Speusippus, 749 a-d;
Titetx^ 589 ; CFToixetoc TYJS <;,
794 c ;

TOL ITTIEIX^ a>g 8ixai6Tepa, 658 a (1375 relation with virtue 749 b-d; 765-
a 29) 767; 796, 801
,
399 a;
in Ar.'s De anima, 639 a; el ^tXcov (6
SeYjcreToci ), 604;
with Theophr., 684 6 XOCTOC vouv ivepywv, 607 d ;

605 c;
pto?,
xal a, 757 a, b; 758 a, b TToXis, 626 a, b (1329 a 23) ;

6 (J7uou8ato<; 767 , ;

), 419b; in the Epinomis, 790, the end

conditions of 457; 458; ,

Traaa i. dcTroSetXTixY), 459; Ilepl <;, a dialogue of Heracl. Pont.,

of the sciences, 459-461; 773 b;
326 INDICES

in the Epinomis, 791 a characteristic of animals, 639 a ;

572 (iio8a24); According to Speus. not an dcya06v,

659 a (1389 b n)
, 750,
Eudoxus' theory, 786;
TOG 576 c (mi b 30), 576 d,
, I iepl
YJS, a dialogue of Heracl. Pont.

(mi b 32/33); 577 a (1112 a 30); 773 b;

578; 579 a, b; 580 a (1114 a 29); in a fragment of Grantor's ethics, 801
580 c (1115 a 2) YJN,
iv 437 b TO xal XuTC7)p6v 572; 639 a
'H0ixa see Ethics
Zeus r,0o<;
the supreme Principle called by the influence of music on the ,

Xenocr. 756 a 632 d; 781;

yjv and eft YJV, certain maTeit; are Iv TC) et TOU
TOU rjv dXXa jjLT)
TOU rjv e X^yovToq, 657 a;
420 b; T) Ta
Tuepl TI TTrpayfJuxTeLa, 657 b;
yjv "y^ac; rclxoXaaei, 422 b; Ta at different ages, 659;
Y)

T& eft TJV xal TO eu TipaTTeiv in //*. in tragedy not of primary impor-
A ic.
r
566, p. 137 (1095 a 19);
I 4, tance, 664 b
in the Politics, 608 b; 610 a; 511 c; 721 b
TXO<; ir6Xeco<; r6 eu TJV, 619 b;
T& T]V the characteristic of animals,
638 a, b; 640; T6 the beginning of philosophy,
TrXeovax&s Xlyefat, 638 a; 519, p. 105 f. (982 b ff.) n
Y) epjnqvefac Ivexev TOO eft (vjv), 643 b Oea{xaTa, exet 0. (= the Ideas) 417b
c7)a Oeto<;
402 (third group, IV 1-5); a TWV TUCTTY](ACOV, 519, p. 106
have ocEaO-yjai?, some of them also (983 a 5 ff.) ;

(ZVY^T), 519, p. 102; the vou<; is 0st6v TI, 418 b; 606 a, b

characterized by ai'aOy]ai<;, 638 b (1177 b3o); 653;
See also ato0Y)Tix6v and ata07)at<; 0eta Y^veaLC and 0eioTaTT) 9uai<;, 791 b ;

?c*4 v yvo<; (ScoTptov, 792 a

II. <; x. OavaTou, 402 (third group, OeoXoyta,
III 2); 402 (third group, sub V)
Attto?, 430; 516 a;
defined in De Anima II i, 636 yj ,
432 b; 524
(412 a 14) 0c6<; 408;
6 vou<; yap ^cov 6 ,
418b 426 a, b
; ;

6paT&s ,
428 b;
TO ,
724 a, 1. 13 6 xal Y) cpuau;, 502; cp. ad 427.
Life and character, 516 a, b;
ocl xal XuTuat as object of virtue and Cp. 519, p. 105 f. (l7TiaTY)[JLY) T}V (JUxXwiT'
vice, 572 (110705, iioSbiff.); av ^xot Oe6<;), and 607 b;
the test of virtue, 569 a, b; T. u7c6XY)^iv i^v ^OJJLEV TC. TWV 0eojv,

(jLaXXov TCe9iixa[/.ev T:p6? T<X<; a<;, 573 b 632 b (1339 b 7 If.);

(1109 a 15); 574 b, c; 6(jioiouaOai co, 680 b;

f)ao>9poauvy] Ttepi a^ ICJTIV, 582 a, b ; Speusippus called the vou? , 747;

dealt with in Eth. Nic. VII 11-15, Xenocr. 756 a;
594-596; and in X 1-5, 597-599; TOV oupav6v x. TO^J? AaT^pat;, 762 ;

defined, 597 b; in the Epinomis. 790; 791 a; 792 c;

intellectual 606 b; , See also deus, providentia and [pro-
of music, 632 d ; vidence]
 Ill GREEK WORDS 327

xaxia
6 XOCT& vouv ivepycov, 607 d 573; 580 a, b; cp. xaxa or al
461 TupdtTTeiv, 579 and (jLoxO'qpfoc,
a, ib.
Ilepl cov, see Philodemus
Y) emaTY)[ry), 519, p. 104, 105 f; xaxo-/]0eia 659b (1389 b 20); 701
524 (Tpeis 9 1X0009 iou 0. ) ; xax6v
$) evfpyeia, 606 a ; no among eternal things, 556 b, c ;

ptoc;, see po<; see also 9XocOpov

Oecopla xaxoq
an intellectual function 684 elvat, 579 a
0yjXu<;
the second Principle (8ua<;) T6 TrpaTTetv v, 579 a;
called by Xenocr., 756 a T& v 8el TrpcoTaytoviaTetv (opposed
to T6 Oy]pt&8e<;), 631 b;
ou T& Set TTpcoTayeoviaTelv, 63 lb ol vot, (jtaXXov alpouvTai TcpaTTetv Tot
738s, a TWV <Ji>{JL9ep6vTcav, 659 a (1389
0pe7mx6v, 639 a, b; cp. 640: r t 73 a34)-
0uti6<; 639 a XOCTCYjXlXOV
0\jpaOev T6 612 ,

TOV vouv (ji6vov eTreiai^vai, 653 xaTdt9aaiq 440; 442 a- c; 445 b

xotT<x9aTix6<;, 448; 450b; 451 b
662 b xaTrjyopeTv,
421 b, 425 a, b; 526-532; 545b; xarnnroptlneai f
745 c; ;
447 c 449,,
.

xaTTjyopoujjLevov >

Ilepl cov, a work of Xenocr., sub 450 a; 451 a; 452 c

751 c; xaTTjyoplai402 (third group, I i 435 c,
= aptOfjtoi, 757 b; 436-439 ;
) ,

with Eudoxus, 785 T& dtya06v XeyeTai, ev Traaatc; Tat<; x.,

566, p. 139 (1096 a 28 ff.)
opposed to xoiva, 460 b ;

T& tStov exa(7T7)<; ataOyjoecoi;, 641 448; 452 d

; rj (7rp6Taot(;)
T& TTJ? ^UXYJC;, 633 c; 760 a xeljievov,
tepeuc; 626 b (1329 a 27 ff.) r6 (the assumption) 452 d
xeur0ai 437 b
inferior to poetry, 666 xexXdcoOai (of a line) 460 b
s xevoXoyetv 529 b
ol e<; ^covoi, 643 b xev6v,
, denied by Strato, 719
Ka0apot<; 469; 506; 517 a:
in the definition of tragedy, 664 a See also 96015 and XP^ VO ?
XOC0' <XUT<X x. distinguished from actuality, 552;
and aOryjv, used by Ar. like
xa0* the 7ra0yj of the soul are ei$, 634 a;
aura and St* aunfjv
St*
belongs to the sensibilia commu-
one of the two categories admit- nia, 641;
ted by Xenocr., 755 denned in Theophr.' Phys., 681;
xa06Xou opi&iq and emOujjitat explained as
398 n. 3; 438 c, d; 443 a; 448; 450; ei? of the body, xpteeu; and 0eeo-
451; 452 d; 455 a; 456 a; 457 b; piai as etq of the soul, 684;
458 b sub 3; 463; 465; 470; 519; Strato's definition, 720;
535 a; T&C Ivepyeta? T^<; <Jji>xv}<; et? elvat, 723
the not a substance 543; XLVY]Ttx6v
T& dtya06v, 566, p. 139 (1096 a n ft.) xaTA T6?rov, 639 a, b
328 INDICES

xivouv 494 a;
TrptoTov , 513-518; 555b; 7) TTpay^aTeta, 434
T& in Theophr.' Metaph., 676 b c;,a function of the soul, 639 b
X6yo<; 440; 442 a- b;
of young children, 628 in the sense of 9avTaapLa, 465, with
xoiva remark II, p. 64;
(basic truths in the sciences) 460 b ;
6 TOO TI fy elvai, 493; 494b;
6
(sensibilia communia), 641 ; 497 a, b, cp. 536 b-c; 539, 540;
lOeaoaTo TO 6v, 740 a 541 b; 545 a;
xotpavo<; 515 c; 745b; v jz6vov <5tvOpco7ro<; ^x et 609b-,
See also 429 b the (theory) must be based on
facts, 669. See also at
ITUI et (xeyaXcov a(jLapTY)fia-

TWV, 422 b ,
632 b (i339a28ff.)
iv 776 b
Mayoi 424 a
Ilepl x6a[jLou, 402 (third group, sub II) ;

eternity of the 428; , v TOIC; ai, 523 a;

with Thcophrastus, 683; TCX TOL<; vuv y) 91X0009^, 532 b;
TOV v ou > ov efo*t| 717 c; ra , ypa(jLjJLa<; xal l7rl:TeSa, 757 b
eternity of the taught in the
Academy, 764; 6 (opposed to 6 (puaix6c;), 486-
#7Teipo<; 6 776 a , ; 487;
exaoTov TCOV aaiipov v ujcdtpxeiv, 776 b Y) H-a87)^aTixr), 487-488; 524;
see also T<X jjLaOr)[jiaTa

7\
xar* #v0peo7rov, the ra fjiaOrjpLaTtxa, 487 a
606 b (1177 b 26); with Speusippus, 745
cf. 519 (Metaph. A 982 b 28 ff.)

xpCaic; Traaa [x.

Ix TTpoOTrap/ouay)*; yvcoaeox;,
judgment, as an intellectual func- 456 a;
tion, 684 XUTTY)<;, 632 b (1339 a 28/29)
455 b
opyavov 7rp6<; v, 610 a;
6 8oGXo<; TL IT. TTQTOC; x. ppaxi>pt6T7jTo<;, 402
(third group III 6)
TYJS oix[a<;, 610 a; (xaXax6aapxo<;
6pyavcov, t&. ; ol 01 eti<puet<;, 644
on in general, 612; (xaXXov xalyjTTOV
in the ideal state, 626 a (1328 a 33 439b;571b(no6b2o)
ff.); 626 b (i32Qai8ff.) See also uTteppoXy) xal ^XXei^i?
(zavOdveiv
TTJ<; , 610 a; 612 ou (Ji6vov TOI<; 91X0069015
XUOTU; 500 C 662 a
608 b 475 a

forbidden for children, 628; .

T7]<; xa0* UTTVOV $, 402 (third
definition, 663 a group, III 2); 405, n. 4; 692
s, (JiapTupCai 658 b
(JldtTTJV

TTJV Xw, 468 a, b, with n. 2 6 6e6<; x. ouS^v Ttotouai, 502

&> ^ (in
ewq, 468 a, c;
tragedy), 664 b
cp. ad 427
Also in the Politica, 609
Y^ 9iiat<;

b
;
 Ill GREEK WORDS 329
1
In Theophr. Metaph., 677 b; cp.
678 a, b in poetics, 661 a; 662 b; 663 b;
ya xai 664 a; 666
r t> _ (jnxp6v
744 Time defined as xivrjaeax;
x. {JLOVYJS, 721 d

sub 727 b 6v
572 (i 107 b 1 7); JJL7)

ou8v ytyverai a7rX<5<; Ix

572 (i 107 b 583 479 b
22);
To be jjLY]TY]p, 0eaiv, 756 a
distinguished
731 b 572 (no7b23)

ot vot, 659 a elderly men are 01, 659 b (1389 b

24
of Lyco, sub 727 b f.)
421 a
1/lyeOoc
dcxoXouOet TW ei 7) xlvqatq, 509 b, c ;
the essence of poetry, 660;
one of the sensibilia communia, 641
various means and objects, 661;
Place of T<X 7]
in Speusippus' hier-
au[jL9i>TOv T. dtv9po>Tcoi,, 662 a;
archy of being, 746 a;
with Xenocr., 758 a-c; cp. 757 comedy a 9auXoTlpwv, 663 a;
tragedy 7rpdc5eco<; a7touSaia<; x. Te
JJLEl^OV,
664 a, b

II. ? x. avafjLVYjoecx;, 402 (third

in tragedy, 664 b group, III 2);

second stage of cognition, 465; 519;
c, 687 c in the life of elderly men, 659 b
(1390 a 6)
T& v, 760 a;
oticioc, 760 c instance of special 460 b;
ouota #GsTo<;, 462
(jLova<; ;
v xocTtx (particular)
[xepet, Xenocr. called the , 756 a
443 a; 448; 450;
xal T& 6Xov, 472 b; 539; 540
5, 398 p. 4, 11. i
ov
721 d
epTjfjtCa),
in a syllogism, 449 b; 450 a; 451 a;
T)
476 b; 477; 483 b; 497 b
452 c; in induction, 455 b;
Cp. 406, the end
Moucrat 738
in ethics, 571 b (i io6a 29 fL, 615 if .( ;

(louaelov 739 a
572-574
the intermediate place of soul in the
as a part of education, 630; 632
hierarchy of being, 760 Aristoxenus a great authority in
l/.ea6Ty)<; TK; ojjuX'/jTixY), 773 b
-YJ, 704;
a necessary propaedeusis for philo-
a TWV elSwv, 529 b 532 a
sophy, 752 b
;

MeTeeopoXoytxa
Ilepl a work of Heracl. Pont.,
402 (third group, II 4) ;
<;,

781
date 405;
469 579 a, b
(introduction to the )
782
,

)
51 la, b 519, p. 105 (982 b 19);
6 rrjs TpaytjjStas, 664 b, 665 b
51 lc 499 d
330 INDICES

572 (1108 a 35, b i) 06 Tot? axXeai ^w^ev, dtXXot TCO vc>,

739 c
TCOV tov TCX 659 a
^OTJ, With Speusippus, 746 b; 747 a-c;
veOeiv (of a line) 460 b Xenocr. called the supreme principle
voeiv 756 a ,

T& 90apvToe ((argument for

TI See also intellectus agens
Plato's Ideas) 527;
T& SoxsT cooTrep alaOdcveaOal TI elvai, "Oyxo? 763; 780 a, b
649 a, b; 60ev
ytveToci T^ 7) dcpx^ T7j<;

<;, 494b; 495

463 b; ,
516b
] xoivcovfac, 608 a, b ;

tiXT) 7),
541 d ;
moral principles needed for founding
Suvdt(jiei TTOX; Icrri ra a 6 vous, 651 c ;
an 609 b, the end; ,

with Xenocr. 754 XTTJCJK; ^po<; TTJ<; 610 a <;,

Olxovojjitxa 402 (third group, VII 2)

6 Sfcxaioc 585 ; ,

Imefoceia e7rav6p0co{xa ou Sixatou, 589 6 , 610a;

(1137 b 12-13) il ^ 612
v6(jua(xa 612 (1257 b 5 f.)
706 b aya06<; (TJ 96015) 500 a
dcvvjp 706 c; cp. 784 617; 618;
justice in an 619 a; ,

the task of law in general, 585; described, 622

law is necessarily general, therefore
defective in special cases, 589 406, the end
(1137 D I2 f-) T& Iv 6Xco elvai, 447 c; 449 b;
6 yeypa|jt,(jivo<; opposed to the T6 _
470; 472 b; 539; 540
, 658 a (sexual) 627 a, c
776 c
T7J<; vJ^X^S xpehrtov, 418 a; 7)
496 a
6eiov, 418 b; cp. c, d;
TCOV dcpx&v eaTtv 465 ; T6 v TCO 6(jtoCco yvcop^et-v, 649 a
y)
voO ev^pyeta (of the Prime Mover) Speusippus'
f

'O(jLoioc, 740
516 a; 6(jLOto5ci0ai, 0eqi 680 b
Y) voO Ivlpyeia e&8ou{jLOva, 606 a, b 6[ia>vu(jLO(; 436 a
6 xaTa T&V vouv Pto<;,6 06 b (i 178 a 7) ; three kinds of 6{jLcovuiia, 566' p. 140 f.,

6 XOCT<X voGv Ivepytov 0eo9tXeaTaTO<;, with n. 6

607 d; 468 b
an o&cla and i7ra0^, 634 b; 638 c; Sv
639 a-b; 651; 652-653 ^V TCOV 6vTcov (pucTiv 0ecopetv, 41 9 b,
nobs in the passive sense a tabula the end; T& 6v f) me-
6v object of
rasa, 651 c; taphysics, 432 d; 521;
the active nous, 652, 653 TtoXXaxco? XyeTai, 472 a; 533 a;
A part of soul ? 651 a (the end), 15 TOS T6 ytyvsTai, 479 b
652, 653 T6 Sv xal T& 520, p. 107 (996 a 5) , ;

With Theophr., 684 T& no substance, 546 b

Aristotle's doctrine of the rejected Various meanings of 6v and 6v, ^
by Strato, 722 a 557;
6pfj xocl axorjet (Epicharmus) , the supreme (in the Eth. Eud.)
724 b 564;
 Ill GREEK WORDS 331

Ilepl TOU TO?, a work of Xenocr., sub Speusippus admitted a multitude

751 c of at, 746 a, b ;

6vetpo<; 692 a. See also (JUXVTIXT) Xenocr. three, 754; 757

6vo(j.a 440, 441 a t<; 641 ;
642 ;

470 in tragedy, 664 b

(hole or crack), 722 b
488
tfpyavov, logic an 6*., 434 (attributes) 460 b;
opyy) 572 (1108 a 4) (Iv ^UXYJ) 571 a (the beginning);
6pexTtx6v 571 b (no6b 16);
a.power of the soul, 639 a (jtea6nr)Tec; Iv Tot? TC., 572 (noS a 31);
575 a;
in Ar.'s anima, 639 a;
><?
T^<; ^i>x^?, 633 c, d ;
634 :

with Theophr., 684 words may lead to a certain o<;,

6pt<j(jt.6<; 657 a
461; 464; 536b-c; 537; 539;
541c; 542; 545a; TWV TotouTcov
impossibility of 741 b , 664 a
opo<;
term of a syllogism, 446 447 452 ; ; ; the vou<; 652 (the end)
,

definition, 464 b; 572 (1108 a 23) 605 b, c ;

difficulty of ot in the classification

in the education of young children
of plants, 671 a a
O<T(JLY)
645 ^628 (1336 33);
(JIT) c, Ivexa 8et rcat^euetv TOU? veout;,
645 632 b;
whether music is TT., 632 c
T6 TI, 457 a; 462; 519; 566,
7ravTetSr)(JLOiv 732 c
P- 137 (1095 b 6)
0$ Svexa
73 0ecopta TOU 7ravT6<;, 419 b, 1. 24;
TO 490 b; 493-495
,
^v Ta Ta, 472
Y) 9uat<; TeXog xal 497 b ;

^ U X*1 T0 ^ T0 ?5 756 a;
to peXTtaTov, 498b, 609b TO Ix TOU 756 b
v6? ouveaTavat,
See also TVO<; gvexev
7rapa8ety(Jia, TrapaSety^ocTa 456 a
oupavto<;
774b
TO eWo? xal T6 493; 497 a;
,

(== alOeptoc) Plato's Ideas as Ta, 529 b

oupav6<;
TrapaSo^a de sapiente 766 b cp. 802
;
II. ou, 402 (third group, II 2);
TOO ou ouatav (with Xenocr. ) 7rapa8ooX6yo<; 783 b
TYJV ,

TrapaXoytajjLot 467 a; 468 c

757 a, b;
7uapavo(jLo<;
0e6v elvott r6v v, 762; cp. 775 b
Also in the Epinomis, 790
6 aStxos 584; 585
7uapcovujjLo<; 436 c
437 b; 438; 439;
TTaaxetv 437 b
<3c0eTO<; 462;
0eT6<; 462 ;
the supreme Principle called by
7c6Tepov TOC 472; 475 a, b;
TravTa
Xenocr. 756 a
^) 6Xr) , 406, the end ;

dcxtvY)TO<;, 524 ;

Ideas only of at, 528;

Grantor's Ilepl ou<;, 802; 804
Substance in Metaph. Z, 533-547; TreTcepacj^vov 472 b ;
473
T& xaO* a6r6 xai ^) 566, p. 139 , TueptepyCa, 687 b
(1096 a 2 f.);
TQC oct>^.aTa ai, 636 rot? ex Tc5v cjv, 401 a
332 INDICES

7TSptTT6v TToXtTeia
the supreme Principle called by at, 402 (third group, sub VII);
Xenocr., 756 a the A0. TToX., ib.\

Tct0av6<; aplar/) , 404;

the function of rhetoric is to see classification of at, 617, 618;
TOC
uTrdp^ovTa a, 655 d ; description of various forms, 619;
cp. the definition of rhetoric, 656 a form of constitutional government,
624;
al TuaTetc;, the technical part of T) dptaTTj ,626-628;
rhetoric, 654 b ;
defined in 626 b (1328 b 35)
three kinds of etc;, 657 a, b ;
The best according to Dfcaear-
the #Texvot etc;, 658 a ;
chus, 697;
with Aristo of Cos 735 e Plato's 702 , d
500 c; 643 b
743 c; 744 404, n. 4;

e8&v, 760 b definition, 614 a, b;

TrXoGToc; 612 a, b; 801 the good ? 61 6 a, b, c
a good man ;

a pavauooc; ^ dyopatoq [ito<; not suitable

II. 402 (third group, III 2) for the TT., 626 b (1328 b 30);
TO?,
TO ,
see dvaTrvoY) and dvaTtvetv the TT. must possess land, ih. (1329
7u60oc;, 399 c a 18 and be priests,
ff.); ib. (1329
Troieiv
a 27 ff.)

one of the ten categories, 437 b IIoXtTtxd

402 (third group, VII i); 403; 404
differs from 610 a; 7ToXtTtx6<;
(Jto?, 566, p. 138 (1095 b 22 ff.);
taToptac; 666 6 <5cv0po>7to<;, 604 (1169 bi8);
v <j)ov 6 oVJpcoTuoc;, 609 b ;
7TOtY)TtXY)
$, 402
xupt<oTaT7) xai p.aXt(7Ta apx^Tex-
n. (third group, VIII
y) r),
2);
TWV ^7rtaT7](jLcov, 566, p. 135
TovtxY)
660-666;
(Stdvota), 432a; cp. 566, p. 135 n. i (1194 a 26 ff.);
its method, 566, p. 136 (1094 b 1 1 ff.) ;
], 519, p. 104 f. 524; ;

a later term, 653 relation with rhetoric, 657 b

vou?,
TioXuxotpavto) 429 b; 51 5 c
437b, 472a; 476a, 533a,b; 536d; 7Toa6v 437 b 472 a 476 a 533 a, b
; ; ; ;

566, p. 139 (1096 a 20) 536 d; 566, p. 139 (1096 a 25)

time defined as T& v Tat?
7UOt6TY)<;
7uoo6v, 721 c
(in tragedy) rb TeXo? repays TI? ecmv,
ou , 664b; TTOT 437 b, 476 a
the re? as elements 718 b 7106 437 b, 476 a; 533 b
716X15
404, n. 4; its genesis 608 b; its ol 566, p. 138 (1095 b 22 f.);
ot,

nature 609 a moral principles ;

Stdvota Y),
432 a;
needed for founding a 609 b, , cp. 566, p. 135 n. i;
the end; the pto<; superior to the pto<;
the identity of the 615 a, b; , <;, 694
TeXoc; 7u6Xeco<; T& e5 YJV, 619 b
the best according to Ar., 626- 522; 566, the beginning;
628; f} 7)0tx9) dpeTY) loTt Trepl TtdOrj xal et?,
education in the ideal , 629-632 571 b (no6bi7); 575 a;
TT. defined in 626 (1328 a 35-37) TCOV ecov xiiptot ^o(iv, 580 c;
 Ill GREEK WORDS 333

al XOCT' dper^v et T&V 8t* auT<x aipe- P7J[/.a 440; 441 b

Tciv, 605 a;
differs from 7rotyjai<;, 610 a (cp. The 'P., 402 (third group, VIII);
432 a) ; 403; 654-659;
Y] TpaycpSta {jdjiTjcru; eco?, 664 b ; p. the counterpart of dialectic,
time defined as T& Iv Tai<; eat 7roa6v, 654 a;
721 c how to treat of it, 654 b ;

7rpa6TY]<; 572 (1108 a 6) its use, 655 ;

definition, 656;
<ov TO: 7)0Y), 659 b it is olov 7rapacpu<; TI TTJ? 8iaXexTiX7J?,
576-578 657 b;
a see Problemata a demonstration of rhetoric as
(in logic) 445 a /
)
658

Ix ecos, 462 488 b; 519, p.

; 104; 537
TI 73
oux ^aTi T6 aloOiQTf)ptov,
437 b; 476 a; 648
matter belongs to the , 490 c ;
470
Ideas of TOC ,
527 ;

T& dyaOov xal Iv TG> 566, p. 139 ,

instance of special dpxat, 460 b
(1096 a 20 ff.) ac(z6<; 487 c, d
One of the two categories admitted CTI^TYJS 489; 537; 540 a
by Xenocr., 755 axXv]p6oapxoc;
c 468 b ol ot a9uet^ TYJV Siavoiav, 644
443; 445; 452 b
Ta a, 645
a x. p^P^^'repa* 458 a, b;
Ttp. 9uaet and ?rp. 7rp6<; rjfjta<;, 458 b, defined as the 8uvaf/.i<; of the 8ta9av^^,
sub 3; or aTlp7)(Ji<; of light, 642 b
T& v xai uaTepov, 509 c, d; 510 a: 0096? ^
512; 566, p. 139 (1096 a 17 ff.), 009^ S

with n. 4; 420. ao9^a in the sense of :rp. 9iX. 519 ;

Strata's work Ilepl ToO ou xal as a StavoTjTixY) apsTY), 590-592 593 b ;

u, 716 in the Epinomis, 790

745 c T6 xivouv, 494 a

1

Garepov,
T& TrpcoTov ou ,
743 a
402 (first group) 403; 413; ; 419-423
TtpoOirapxetv TCX a T&V yeXoCcov, 605 c ;

yvcoaic;, 456 a; 465 TOL xaXa xal a, 605 a ;

epos and tragedy a jju^au; ov,

aura TOC Tupcora ((the Ideas), 421 a; 663 b (1449 b 10) 664 a ;

15 dcXyjGwv xal o>v, 449 a; 458; 6 767a, b; 802a

,

Can first principles (TOC irp.) be known ?

459 fxeTa YJC;,
605 c
ox^jfAa rep., 449 d; 453 a;
if) TUPCOTYJ (91X0009^), 402 (third 791 a (Epin. 990 d 8)
group, sub V), 487 b 476; 478 a; 479; 480
v xtvouv, see Prime Mover
6e6<; (with Xenocr.), 756 a (negative) 448; 450 b; 451 b
<Hri, 640b 462; 758b; 761 b
475 a ia 470; 496 a; 718; 763
334 INDICES

627 a ocl6piov ,
774 b;
see syllogism dcrc6 TCOV elq ^Tepa ra TTITTTELV, 775 C
ai>[z(:kp7)x6<; (accidens) aco^etv
Tiocpa TO CT. (a kind of sophism) 468 c; Tot 9aiv6fjteva, 777 b; cp. 779
in Ar.'s theory of becoming, 478- CTcocppoauvrj
480; 572 (i 107 b 5-6); 582;
the 7rp6<; TI fe'oixe au^(3epY)x6Ti TOO ov- of Xenocrates, 751 b;
TO<;, 566, p. 139 (1096 a 21 f.) ITepi <;, a dialogue
of Heracl. Pont.,
oupLTu^paajjLa (conclusion) 449 b 773 b
au(iTCTto|jLoc 499 a

(JLTJ rcpoq TO xpivetv jryjSev, 659 a T& v TCO pio> xaTaTiauaai, 753 b
(1389 b i); TexvoTioda 627 a, b, c
?rp6<; TO aufjL9^pov coaiv, 659 b (1389 TeXeioua0<xi 453 a
b 36) T^Xeto? of a syllogism, 447 b; 449 d;
(avayxata) 41 9 b 450 a;
472 b TrpcoTov elvat TO v, 743 a
the composition of a natural
,
490 b; 493; 494;
TXO<;
object, 406, the end; xal oQ Svexa, 498 a
^) 9u<jt(; ;

a kind of sophism, 468 b T6 xai Tdcya06v, 498 b; 566

(Eth. Nic. I, 1-7) ;

the compositum of form and matter, TWV 577 b;

pouXeu6{JL0a ou Trepl cov,
484; eaT^v, 609 a;
yj 9uan;
the term o. in 418 d; in tragedy, T& 7Cpoc^<; Ttq caTlv,
cf. 406, the end;
a6v0eai<; in ou Tcot6TY)(;, 664 b
cp. also ativoXov in 541 a, c; 496 b
545 a;
), 465; 519;
a6v0eTO<; ouafac, with Xenocr. 754
compared with 9001*;, 481; 483 c;
490 b; 499 c;
Trepl cov, 658 b (1376 a 33
fjiifieiTai TTjv 9uaiv 490 a
ff.)
auvoXov 541 a, c 545 a
;
626b (1329 a 35 if.)
auvtovu[xo<; 436 b
-rt eaTt 437 b; 438 a; 457 a, 464;
517 C
726 a, 533 a, b; 536 d; 547 b;
1.
17
T6 566, p. 139 (1096 a 20)
TI,
TI Tjv elvai 437 b; 438 b
figure of the syllogism, see syllogism
Xew<; 468 b;
6 X6yo<; 6 TOIJ 493; 494 a; 497 a; ,

one of the 535 a; 536; 538; 547 a

sensibilia communia, 641

{xaXXov alpeT^v TO ,
630 the "end" of practical or political
life, 566, p. 138 (1095 b 22);
8oxei iv in the table of virtues, 572 (1107
?) eu8ai(iovfca Tfj fj elvai,
606b (1177 b 4);
b 26 ff .) ;

cp. 519, p. 104 (981 b 20-25) tAe'yiaTov TCOV CXTO<; ayaOtov, 583
acopia (1123 b 20)
relation with the soul, 413, 417 c;
422 b; 423; 633d; 634; 635; life a 422 b; 802; cp. 417 a
,

636; 637; TVO<; gvexev 519, p. 105

oux euXoyov T&V vouv (jie(jLtx^ at T ^ *l >
T68e TI 533 a; 534; 536 d
651 a; cp. 653. See also 690 a Toruxdc
(corpus) ; 402 (Third group, 1 5), 435 a, b 466 ; ;

ou 7) ^uxvj, 761 a; cited in Rhet. I i, 655 a

 Ill GREEK WORDS 335

T67COS defined by Ar., 507;

criticized by Theophr., 682 a, b; 462; 472 a; 475 a; 476; 477; 478;
elStov, 651 a, with n. 2; 760 b 535
664-665 U7TOXptT7)<;

x6<; 697
T6 TCOV cov 7rXyj0o<; 66 lb

the (3foi of animals distinguished by

their Tpo9Y), 612 a (1256 a 22); Ta aXY)07J elvat 649 a
7Toacov, 627 b, 628; (concerning the
^etv T<X 9aiv6(jteva
a function of the soul, 636; 638-640 heavenly bodies), 777 b; 779
617; 625
499 a; 503 in animals, together with
of Demetrius of Phaleron, 519;
Ilepl <;

713; TYJS q ou xiiptot, 580 b;

a psychic function, 639 a, b; 649
TO XOCT<X v, 717 c
Our dependence on underesti- b; 650; defined in 650 b
mated by the 67tepY)<pavc5v, 731 465, p. 64, sub II
(introd. remark) ; 731 a
tfpyavov Tfj avaTTvoyi, 643 b
90opa 498 e; 545 a
659 a a, 572 (no8a28); 600-604
in the young man's character,
uyefoc 801
6 91X60096*; TTOX; ICTTIV, 519, p. 105
tfXY}
(b 18)
406, the end; 476 c, d; 480; 483 a,
c; 484; 487 d; 489; 490 b, c;
II. ?, 402 (first group) 403; 404;
491; 494-495;
relative character of
405; 413, 414; 424-431;
, 496;
TupcoTT) 402 (third group, sub V)
resistence of against form, 496 b ;
, ;

432 a-d;
Is a substance c; ? 535
Does Tpel? at OeoiprjTixat, 524 ;
belong to the definition
?
the object of first phil., ib.\
540; 541; individuating principle,
Soxet OaufiaaTac; YjSova? ex etv
541 a; 7) >

606 b (1177 a 25)

ata0Y)TY) and VOYJTYJ, 541 d;
See also ao9^a
Y) Suvajit?, 636 dcvao<;, 756 b ;

9iX6Tt(jio(; 572 (1107 b 30)

TOO or v TCO 443 b 9XaOpa 792 b

(assertoric) ;

448; 449 b, d; 451 a;

Tuepl ou^ x. 0appY) dvSpeta jjLea6T7j<;,
TOC UTH&PXOVTOC, 460 b;
572; 581 a;
r6 uTicfcpxov, a species of dtvayxatov, in the definition of tragedy, 664 a
672 b, with n. i
90VCUSLV
695 b
xal xXei^i?, 571b (no6a 29 ff.,

b25ff.) 572; 573 TUpCOTY) TCOV (XETOcpoXtOV, 515 a (1072

731
b8, 9 );
$)
TOO 7ravT6<; ,
517 a; cf. 430 n. i

Hep! 402 (third group,

ou, III 2)
&7r60eai<;, 445 b; 461 &rf)p, 728 a
1% eco? 7uepavea6ai, 675 b 9poveiv
T6 voeiv xal T6 649 a; 651 ,

,
675 a 9p6vY)CTts 420 ;
464
590 ; ;

cf. Trepa(vea0at, 675 b relation to ao9(a 592; 593 b;

336 INDICES

to moral virtue, 593 a

in the Epinomis, 790 a necessary condition for the seeing
of colours, 642 a ;

the 9p. has the arbitrium of what is defined as the "energeia" of the
good: 420 a; 571 b (noyai) $i<X9avq, 642 b
Ouaixa 9COTOE ./]<;
TOC 402 (third group, II i) 470;
, ) f
774a
See further Physics and 9i>aix6<;
Theophrastus' 681-682
ir^<; ^u/^c;, 729
ol 471 a Xaptevreg,
ol , 566, p. 137, 138
6 opposed to the
,
the excess near to
(67ieppoXif))
486-487; opposed to the meta-
Xo^u^ta, 572 (no7b23); sub
physician, 491 727 b
(pucrixa (acojjuxTa), 406; 486-487;
490 b; 757 b; QfjLaTLCTinfc, 566, p. 138 (1096 a 5 ft.)
with n. 4
Yj 9ucjixVj, 432b; 487b; 490 a; 495;
523 a; 524 j, 612
Theophr. Ouaixcov 86at, 668 striven after ou
Strato surnamed 9., 714 knowledge is eo><;

TLVO? Svexev, 519, p. 105 (982 b 21)

cp. the Protr., 419 b
(Empcdocles) 661 a
whether philosophy should be use-
definition 481; cp. 554 a (1049 b
ful, 419 a-b; 519, p. 105 f.
10);
aei v UTUoxeijjdvco, 482 a;
defined by Aristotle, 508-512;
two aspects of ,483-484; 489-
490;
defined by Strato, 721
490 b; 498 a; 695 b
TXO<; xal oS Svexa
f)
642
609 a; ,

works gvexa TOD 499; instances Xcopa 480

530
500; explanation 501
6 Geoc; xal ^ 502 ; cp. 609 b (ou(tev
Tuoiet
a, 432b; 487b; 491,
jjLaTYjv ) ;
the active nous is 6^, 652;
the same words in Theophr., 677 b,
whether soul is TOU ao>j
678 a; YJ

761 b
9uaet and XOCT<X 9u<nv 481; 482 b;
T^XVTJ compared with see
T& XOCTOC v gjceaOat TO> XOCT<X X6yo?, 440;
717c 86a and ,
465
r6 xara ^v 794 a, c;
TOC TTpcora xara v, 795 opposed to truth, 557-559
v Tat? 9avTaatat<;, 650 a, b
a aco(jt.a 9uatx6v 6pyavix6v, 636 ;
in rhetoric, 735 b, c
cp. 638 a TQL 9u6[zevoc TtavTa Soxei ^rjv
; ; Ilepl TOU ou<;, a work of Xenocr.,
on the "soul" of plants, 639 and 751 c
640 641 643 ;

Theophrastus' works II. 9UTcov, 668 tv 773 b

9 coW) 440; 609 b;

^6905 / in Aristotle: II. ? (== Eudemus),
643 b
S 402 (first group), 415-418;
 Ill GREEK WORDS 337

II. q (= De anima) 402 (third vou? a part of ? 651-653;

group. III 633-653;
i); with the Peripatetics and Acade-
defined, 636; mics, see soul.
its various powers, 639 euSat^ovsaTdtTTj xal apfamr), 792 a, b
See further psychology and soul alrla TOU 8Xou, 792 b
relation with time 512;
relation with nous, 418; 634 b; 'npio^va 421 b
638 c; am>OXaSta<; 726 b
T67TO? e^Scov, 651 a (cp. 418); o>9Xt(zo<;, see x
 ERRATA
419 b, 1. 8: TI oftv ufjLtv ocpeXo^ read:
424 b, fourth al. See also Metaph. AS
: read: A 8.
Sub 429 b: the final passage of Metaph. A 8 read: A 10.