Laboratory 5

Penetrant Testing (PT)

Contents
Definitions..................................................................................................................................................... 1
Abbreviation ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Standard ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Generalities ................................................................................................................................................... 2
Penetrant Equipment ................................................................................................................................ 3
Penetrant Materials .................................................................................................................................. 3
Precleaners ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Penetrants ............................................................................................................................................. 4
Developers ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Prerequisites ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Penetrant Testing Applications ................................................................................................................. 7
Steps of Penetrant Testing ............................................................................................................................ 8

Definitions
Testing – Testing or examination of a material or component in accordance with this class
guideline, or a standard, or a specification or a procedure in order to detect, locate, measure and
evaluate flaws
Defect – One or more flaws whose aggregate size, shape, orientation, location or properties do
not meet specified requirements will be rejected
Discontinuity – A lack of continuity or cohesion; an intentional or unintentional interruption in
the physical structure or configuration of a material or component
Flaw – An imperfection or discontinuity that may be detectable by non-destructive testing will
not necessarily be rejected
Indication – Evidence of a discontinuity that requires interpretation to determine its significance
False indication – An indication that is interpreted to be caused by a discontinuity at a location
where no discontinuity exists
Non relevant indication – An indication that is caused by a condition or type of discontinuity
will not be rejected. False indications are non-relevant
Imperfections – A departure of a quality characteristic from its intended condition
Quality level – Fixed limits of imperfections corresponding to the expected quality in a specific
object. The limits are determined with regard to type of imperfection, their amount and their
actual dimensions
Acceptance level – Prescribed limits below which a component is accepted
Planar discontinuity – Discontinuity having two measurable dimensions
Non-planar discontinuity – Discontinuity having three measurable dimensions.
Linear indication – An indication in which the length is at least three times the width
Nonlinear indication – An indication of circular or elliptical shape with a length less than three
times the width
Aligned indication – Three or more indications in a line, separated by 2 mm or less edge-to-edge
Open indication – An indication visible after removal of the magnetic particles or that can be
detected by the use of contrast dye penetrant

Abbreviation
IACS - Guidelines for non-destructive examination of marine steel castings
PT – Penetrant Testing
NDT – Non-Destructive Examination

Standard
EN ISO 23277 - Non-destructive examination of welds – Penetrant testing– Acceptance levels.
EN ISO 6520-1 - Welding and allied processes – Classification of geometric imperfections in
metallic materials – Part 1: Fusion welding
EN ISO 5817 - Arc-welded joints in steels – Guidance on quality levels for imperfections.
Welding – Fusion welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam welding
excluded) – Quality levels for imperfections
EN ISO 3059 - Non-destructive testing – Penetrant testing and magnetic particle testing –
Viewing conditions
EN ISO 3452 - Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing – Part 1: General principles; – Part 2:
Testing of penetrant materials; – Part 3: Reference test blocks; – Part 4: Equipment
EN ISO 12706 - Non-destructive testing – Penetrant Testing – Vocabulary

Generalities
Penetrant testing (PT) is one of the most widely used nondestructive testing methods for
the detection of surface discontinuities in nonporous solid materials. It is almost certainly the
most commonly used surface NDT method today because it can be applied to virtually any
magnetic or nonmagnetic material. PT provides industry with a wide range of sensitivities and
techniques that make it especially adaptable to a broad range of sizes and shapes. It is extremely
useful for examinations that are conducted in remote field locations, since it is extremely
portable. The method is also very appropriate in a production type environment where many
smaller parts can be processed in a relatively short period of time.
 The basic principle upon which penetrant testing is based is that of capillary “attraction”
or “action.” Capillary action is a surface tension phenomenon that permits liquids to be drawn
into tight openings as a result of the energies that are present at the surfaces of the openings.

Penetrant Equipment
Penetrant systems range from simple portable kits to large, complex in-line test systems.
The kits contain pressurized cans of the penetrant, cleaner/remover, solvent, and developer and,
in some cases, brushes, swabs, and cloths. A larger fluorescent penetrant kit will include a black
light. These kits are used when examinations are to be conducted in remote areas, in the field, or
for a small area of a test surface. In contrast to these portable penetrant kits, there are a number
of diverse stationary-type systems. These range from a manually operated penetrant line with a
number of tanks, to very expensive automated lines, in which most steps in the process are
performed automatically.
In summary, the equipment used will be greatly influenced by the size, shape, and
quantity of products that are to be examined. If there are large quantities involved on a
continuing basis, the use of an automated system may be appropriate, whereas with small
quantities of parts, the use of penetrant kits may be more suitable. The size and configuration of
the part will also influence the type of penetrants that will be most appropriate.
Penetrant Materials
The various materials that will be used in the different penetrant processes must exhibit
certain characteristics. Above all, these materials must be compatible with each other and
collectively provide the highest sensitivity for the application. The term “penetrant family” is
sometimes used to indicate a group of materials all from the same manufacturer. The intent is to
provide a degree of assurance that the different materials will be compatible with each other.
There are usually some provisions for using materials outside the “family” if the combination of
the different materials can be proven compatible through qualification tests.
The materials used in the penetrant process are classified into four groups. The
characteristics for each will be presented in detail. The first group of materials who are essential
for a penetrant test is precleaners. The second group of materials, which has the greatest
influence on sensitivity, are penetrants and the third is the developers.
Precleaners
Precleaning is an essential first step in the penetrant process. The surface must be
thoroughly cleaned to assure that all contaminants and other materials that may prohibit or
restrict the entry of the penetrant into surface openings are removed. Thorough cleaning is
essential if the examination results are to be reliable. Not only does the surface have to be
thoroughly cleaned, but openings must be free from contaminants such as oil and water, oxides
of any kind, paint or other foreign material which can greatly reduce the penetrant sensitivity.
Typical cleaners include the following:
 Solvents – are probably the most widely used liquids for precleaning parts in penetrant
testing. There are a variety of solvents that can be effective in dissolving oil, films,
grease, and other contaminants.
 Ultrasonic Cleaning. Of all the precleaner materials and processes, ultrasonic cleaning is
probably the most effective. Not only will the contaminants be removed from the surface,
but also if there are entrapped contaminants in discontinuities and other surface openings,
 the power that is generated in the ultrasonic cleaning process will usually be effective in
breaking up and removing them.
 Alkaline cleaning. Alkaline cleaners used for precleaning are nonflammable water
solutions that, typically, contain specially selected detergents that are capable of
removing various types of contamination.
 Steam Cleaning. In some rare instances, steam may be used to remove contaminants from
the surface. Although very effective in removing oil-based contaminants, this is not a
widely used technique.
 Water and detergent cleaning. There are various devices that utilize hot water and
detergents to clean part surfaces. This technique depends largely upon the type of
contamination that is present on the test surfaces. Usually, if parts are covered with oil or
grease, the contaminants will not be satisfactorily removed from the surface with this
cleaning technique.
 Chemical cleaning. Chemical cleaning techniques usually involve etchants, acids, or
alkaline baths.

Penetrants
The most important characteristic that affects the ability of a penetrant to penetrate an
opening is that of “wettability.” Wettability is a characteristic of a liquid and its response to a
surface. If a drop of water is placed on a very smooth, flat surface, a droplet with a very
pronounced contour will result.
The penetrant must possess a number of important characteristics:
 spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide complete and
even coverage;
 be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action;
 remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part;
 remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the drying and
developing steps;
 be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications;
 not be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.
Penetrant materials are not designed to perform the same. Penetrant manufactures have
developed different formulations to address a variety of inspection applications. Some
applications call for the detection of the smallest defects possible while in other applications, the
rejectable defect size may be larger. The penetrants that are used to detect the smallest defect
will also produce the largest amount of irrelevant indications.
Standard specifications classify penetrant materials according to their physical
characteristics and their performance.
Penetrant materials come in two basic types:
 Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants: they contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when
exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
 Type 2 - Visible Penetrants: they contain a red dye that provides high contrast against the
white developer background.
Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems because
the eye is drawn to the glow of the fluorescing indication. However, visible penetrants do not
require a darkened area and an ultraviolet light in order to make an inspection.
Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess penetrant from the part.
The four methods are:
 Method A - Water Washable: penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing with
water alone. These penetrants contain an emulsifying agent (detergent) that makes it
possible to wash the penetrant from the part surface with water alone. Water washable
penetrants are sometimes referred to as self-emulsifying systems.
 Method B - Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic: the penetrant is oil soluble and interacts with
the oil-based emulsifier to make removal possible.
 Method C - Solvent Removable: they require the use of a solvent to remove the penetrant
from the part.
 Method D - Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic: they use an emulsifier that is a water soluble
detergent which lifts the excess penetrant from the surface of the part with a water wash.
Penetrants can also be classified based on the strength or detectability of the indication
that is produced for a number of very small and tight fatigue cracks. The five sensitivity levels
are:
 Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity
 Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
 Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
 Level 3 - High Sensitivity
 Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
The procedure for classifying penetrants into one of the five sensitivity levels uses
specimens with small surface fatigue cracks. The brightness of the indication produced is
measured using a photometer.

Developers
There are four basic types of developers:
 Dry developer
 Solvent-based developers, also referred to as “spirit” or nonaqueous
 Wet developers suspended in water
 Wet developers that are soluble in water
Developers have been described as “chalk” particles, primarily because of their white,
chalk-like appearance.
In order for the developers to be effective in pulling or extracting the penetrant from
entrapped discontinuities, thus presenting the penetrant bleed-out as an indication that can be
evaluated, they should possess certain key characteristics, such as :
Be able to uniformly cover the surface with a thin, smooth coating
 Have good absorption characteristics to promote the maximum blotting of the penetrant
 that is entrapped in discontinuities;
 Be non-fluorescent if used with fluorescent penetrants;
 Provide a good contrast background that will result in an acceptable contrast ratio;
 Be easily applied to the test specimen;
 Be inert with respect to the test materials;
 Be nontoxic and compatible with the penetrant materials.
 Be easy to remove from the test specimen after the examination is complete
There are other types of developers that are used on rare occasions. These are referred to as
strippable, plastic film, or lacquer developers. They are typically non-aqueous suspensions
containing a resin dissolved in the solvent carrier. This developer sets up after application and is
then stripped off the surface, with the indications in place. It can then be stored and maintained
as part of the inspection report.
Selecting the correct technique for penetrant testing is very important. Prior to
performing the examination, a procedure should be developed and qualified. When preparing the
procedure, the following should be considered:
 The requirements of the code, specification, or contract
 The type and size of discontinuity that is anticipated
 The surface condition of the test specimen
 The configuration of the part
 The quantity of parts to be examined
 Systems and equipment that are available
Prerequisites
Prior to any penetrant test, there are certain prerequisites that have to be addressed.
Temperature
Penetrant materials are influenced by temperature variations. Most codes and
specifications require that the test part and the penetrant materials be within a specified
temperature range, typically between 40 °F (4.4 °C) up to as high as 125 °F (51.6 °C). The part
and the penetrant materials must fall within the specified temperature range. If the test part or the
penetrant is extremely cold, the penetrant becomes very thick and viscous, which will affect the
time it will take to penetrate the discontinuities. If the test surface or penetrants are high in
temperature, some of the more volatile constituents may evaporate from the penetrant, leaving a
thick residue that will not effectively penetrate the discontinuities.
Environmental Considerations
Since some of the solvent cleaners and removers used with penetrant testing can be
somewhat flammable, it is essential that the penetrant test be performed in an area where there
are no open flames or sparks that may tend to cause the penetrant materials to ignite. Typically,
penetrant materials have relatively high flash points, but some of the cleaner/remover solvents
could ignite when exposed to sparks or open flames. Also, some of the solvents may give off
fumes. Therefore, penetrant testing should be performed in an area where there is adequate
ventilation.
Lighting
There must be adequate lighting in the examination area, especially during the time when
the evaluation is performed.
Surface Condition Considerations
Surfaces to be examined having coatings such as paint or plating, or extremely rough
conditions, must be addressed. If the surface contains scale and rust, some type of strong
mechanical cleaning process is required. Many codes and specifications do not permit the use of
some mechanical cleaning techniques, such as shot-blasting, shot-peening, or sandblasting, since
these processes tend to peen over the test surface, potentially closing a crack or other surface
discontinuity. If wire brushing is used to remove scale or rust, it should be done with extreme
care for the same reason. If extreme pressure is applied to a grinding wheel or power wire brush,
it is possible to cause a smearing of the metal on the surface.
Penetrant Testing Applications
Penetrant testing is extremely versatile and has many applications. It is used in virtually
every major industry and for a wide variety of product forms. Industries that widely use
penetrant testing techniques include:
 Power generation, both fossil- and nuclear-fueled
 Petrochemical
 Marine/Shipbuilding
 Metalworking, including foundries and forging shops
 Aerospace
 Virtually all of the various welding processes and metals-joining industries.
Another unique application of penetrant testing is for the detection of through-wall leaks.
With this application, penetrant is applied to one surface, for example, of a tank, and developer
applied to the opposite surface. If there is an unimpeded through leak, the penetrant will follow
that path and be exposed on the opposite developed surface as an indication. Some leak tests,
such as those for complex components and piping systems that must be evaluated to determine
the source and location of a leak path, are conducted using fluorescent tracers.
Limitations:
 Only discontinuities open to the surface of the test specimen can be detected
 There are many processing variables that must be controlled
 Temperature variation effects
 Surface condition and configuration
 Surface preparation is necessary
 The process is usually messy
Advantages:
 High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).
 Few material limitations (metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic, and
conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected).
 Rapid inspection of large areas and volumes.
 Suitable for parts with complex shapes.
 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
 Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans)
 Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)
Disadvantages
 Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
 Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
 Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
 Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed.
 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
 Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
 Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
 Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
 Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
Steps of Penetrant Testing
The exact procedure for dye penetrant testing can vary from case to case depending on
several factors such as the penetrant system being used, the size and material of the component
being inspected, the type of discontinuities being expected in the component and the condition
and environment under which the inspection is performed. However, the general steps can be
summarized as presented in the table below.

Table 1 Step of penetrant testing

No Step of penetrant testing Drawing

1 Preparation and pre-cleaning of the surface

2 Drying the surface

3 Penetrant Application and Dwell Time

4 Excess penetrant removal

5 Drying the surface

6 Developer Application

7 Inspection

8 Cleaning the surface

a) Preparation and pre-cleaning of the surface
Contaminants, e.g. scale, rust, oil, grease or paint shall be removed, if necessary using
mechanical or chemical methods or a combination of these methods. Pre-cleaning shall ensure
that the test surface is free from residues and that it allows the penetrant to enter any
defects/discontinuities. The cleaned area shall be large enough to prevent interference from areas
adjacent to the actual test surface.
Scale, slag, rust, etc., shall be removed using suitable methods such as brushing, rubbing,
abrasion, blasting, high pressure water blasting, etc. These methods remove contaminants from
the surface and generally are incapable of removing contaminants from within surface
discontinuities. In all cases and in particular in the case of shot blasting, care shall be taken to
ensure that the discontinuities are not masked by plastic deformation or clogging from abrasive
materials. If it is necessary, to ensure that discontinuities are open to the surface, subsequent
etching treatment shall be carried out, followed by adequate rinsing and drying.
b) Drying the surface
As the final stage of pre-cleaning, the object to be tested shall be thoroughly dried, so that
neither water or solvent remains in the defects/discontinuities. Where wire brushing or grinding
is applied to remove imperfections that would interfere with the examination, the material
thickness shall not be reduced below the minimum thickness permitted by the design
specification and the dressed areas shall be faired with the surrounding surface.
After surface preparation and cleaning has been performed, a visual examination of the
surface is usually undertaken.
c) Penetrant Application and Dwell Time
The penetrant can be applied to the object to be tested by spraying, brushing, flooding or
immersion. Care shall be taken to ensure that the test surface remains completely wetted
throughout the entire penetration time.
In order to minimize moisture entering defects/discontinuities, the temperature of the test
surface shall generally be within the range from 10°C to 50°C.
The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as much penetrant as
possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the
penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended by the
penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The times vary depending
on the application, penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the material being
inspected, and the type of discontinuity being inspected for.
Minimum dwell times typically range from five to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no
harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The
ideal dwell time is often determined by experimentation and may be very specific to a particular
application.
d) Excess penetrant removal
General
The application of the remover medium shall be done such that no penetrant is removed
from the defects/discontinuities. It is not allowed to spray the cleaner directly upon the surface to
be tested.
To remove the excess of penetrant we can use:
 Water – The excess penetrant shall be removed using a suitable rinsing technique.
Examples: spray rinsing or wiping with a damp cloth. Care shall be taken to minimize
any detrimental effect caused by the rinsing method and to avoid excessive washing. The
 temperature of the water shall not exceed 45°C. The water pressure shall not exceed 50
psi (3.4 Barr).
 Solvent – Generally, the excess penetrant shall be removed first by using a clean lint-free
cloth. Subsequent cleaning with a clean lint-free cloth lightly moistened with solvent
shall then be carried out. Any other removal technique shall be approved by the
contracting parties. Care shall be taken to minimize any detrimental effect caused by the
rinsing method.
 Emulsifier
o Hydrophilic (water-dilatable): To allow the post-emulsifiable penetrant to be
removed from the test surface, it shall be made water washable by application of
an emulsifier. Before the application of the emulsifier, a water wash should be
performed in order to remove the bulk of the excess penetrant from the test
surface and to facilitate a uniform action of the hydrophilic emulsifier which be
applied subsequently. The emulsifier shall be applied by immersion or by foam
equipment. The concentration and the contact time of the emulsifier shall be
evaluated by the user through pre-test according to the manufacturers’ instruction.
After emulsification, a final wash shall be carried out. Care shall be taken to
minimize any detrimental effect caused by the rinsing method and to avoid
excessive washing.
o Lipophilic (oil-based): To allow the post emulsifiable penetrant to be removed
from test surface, it shall be rendered water washable by application of an
emulsifier. This can only be done by immersion. The emulsifier contact time shall
be evaluated by the user through pre-test according to the manufacturers’
instruction and the contact time shall be stated in the procedure. This time shall be
sufficient to allow only the excess penetrant to be removed from the test surface
during the subsequent water wash. The emulsifying time shall not be exceeded.
Immediately after emulsification, a water wash shall be carried out. Care shall be
taken to minimize any detrimental effect caused by the rinsing method and to
avoid excessive washing.
e) Drying the surface
In order to facilitate rapid drying of excess water, any droplets and puddles of water shall
be removed from the object.
Except when using water-based developer the test surface shall be dried as quickly as
possible after excess penetrant removal, using one of the following methods:
— Wiping with clean, dry, lint-free cloth
— Forced air circulation
— Evaporation at elevated temperature.
Drying is generally needed to prepare the surface for the application of a powder
developer, which would otherwise clot at wet places. It also decreases the adverse effect of
insufficiently removed traces of penetrant. Here again excess should be avoided. Penetrant liquid
left in flaws should not be allowed to dry, and this can happen when hot air is used for drying.
f) Developer Application
The developer shall be maintained in a uniform condition during use and shall be evenly
applied to the test surface. The application of the developer shall be carried out as soon as
possible after the removal of excess penetrant.
 The developing time shall as a minimum be the same as the penetration time, however,
longer times may be agreed. The developing time shall be stated in the test procedure to ensure
repeatable test results with respect to defect sizing. The development time begins:
— Immediately after application when dry developer is applied
— Immediately after drying when wet developer is applied.
To verify the penetrant procedure it is recommended to use a reference object with known
defects such as test panel type 2 described in ISO 3452-3 or equivalent. The test panel type 2 and
penetrant products shall before testing achieve the same temperature as relevant for the actual
testing to be performed. The minimum defect size to be detected shall respond to the maximum
acceptable defect size.
g) Inspection
Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications from any
flaws which may be present.
Generally, it is advisable to carry out the first examination just after the application of the
developer or soon as the developer is dry. This facilitates a better interpretation of indications.
The final inspection shall be carried out when the development time has elapsed.
Equipment for visual examination, such as magnification instruments or contrast spectacles, can
be used.
Whenever acceptance criteria are defined in the rules, approved drawings, IACS
recommendations or other agreed product standards, these criteria are mandatory. If no
acceptance criteria are defined, acceptance criteria as specified below may be applied.
Table 2. Acceptance levels for indications
Acceptance level a)
Type of indication
1 2 3
Linear indication
l ≤ 2mm l ≤ 4mm l ≤ 8mm
l=length of indication
Non – linear indication
d ≤ 4mm d ≤ 6mm d ≤ 8mm
d=major axis dimension
a) Acceptance level 2 and 3 may be specified with suffix “x” which denotes that all linear
indications detected shall be evaluated to level 1.
However, the probability of detection of indications smaller than those denoted by the original
acceptance level can be low. Linear defect such like crack, lack of fusion and lack of penetration is
NOT acceptable regardless of length.

The indication produced by penetrant testing do not usually display the same size and
shape characteristics as the imperfections causing that indication, it is the size of the indication,
(bleed out) which shall be assessed against the values shown below or referred to.
h) Cleaning the surface
After final inspection, post cleaning of the object is necessary only in those cases where
the penetrant testing products could interfere with subsequent processing or service
requirements.