USSR ACADEM Y OP S C IE N C E S

In stitu te o f O rie n ta l S tu d ie s . L e n in g r a d B r a n c h
S o v i e t O r ie n t a lis t s ' A s s o c i a t i o n

M .B .P io t r o v s k y

THE A R A B IA N RO O TS OP IS L A M

P a p er P re s e n te d
a t th e 3 2 n d In te r n a tio n a l C o n g r e s s
fo r A s i a n a n d N o rth A f r i c a n S t u d ie s
(H a m b u r g , 1 9 8 6 )

N a u k a P u b lis h e r s
C e n tr a l D e p a rtm e n t o f O r ie n ta l L ite r a tu r e
M o s c o w 1 98 6

E d ito ria l B o a r d
G .F .K IM ( C o rre s p o n d in g M em b er,
U S S R A c a d e m y of S c ie n c e s ),
L .B .A L A Y E V (D r .S c .H is t .) , N .M .K A R P O V IC H
257
(^Институт востоковедения АН СССР, 1986.
T h e birth o f Islam w a s part o f th e m ajor h is ­
to r ic a l c h a n g e s w h ic h m a rk ed the tra n s itio n from
th e A n c ie n t T im e s to th e M id d le A g e s . Its e m e r­
g e n c e w a s la r g e ly stim u lated b y e x te r n a l in flu en ­
c e s - s o c ia l, p o litic a l a n d cu ltu ral - w h ich te n ­
d e d to b rin g A r a b ia to th e s o c io - c u lt u r a l le v e l
o f the s u rro u n d in g w o rld a n d c h a n g e d th e p attern
o f life o f its p o p u la tio n 1. F rom A r a b ia Islam s p r e ­
a d to th is s u rro u n d in g w o rld - th e N e a r an d M id ­
d le E a s t - a s th e p r e v a le n t id e o lo g ic a l e x p r e s ­
s io n o f th e fe u d a l s o c io - e c o n o m ic form ation.
H o w e v e r , the h is to r ic a l e s s e n c e o f Islam a s
w e ll a s its s u c c e s s e s an d a b ility to r e s is t d is ­
s o lv in g in a lie n cu ltu ral a n d id e o lo g ic a l in flu e n c e s
c a n n o t b e u n d e rs to o d b y a n o n -M o s le m if h e h a s
not fo rm ed a c o r r e c t id e a ab o u t the A r a b ia n p r e ­
r e q u is it e s for, an d s o u r c e s of, Islam a n d the
Islam ic sta te. S c h o la r s h a v e not y e t e v o lv e d su ch
a c o r r e c t id ea . N e w e p ig r a p h ic an d a r c h a e o lo g i­
c a l d is c o v e r ie s a n d n e w p r o c e d u r e s fo r the stu­
d y o f p r e -Is la m ic A r a b ia n o w make p o s s ib le a
fr e s h a p p r o a c h to th e s tu d y o f the A r a b ia n ro o ts
o f Islam . T h e a fo re m e n tio n e d q u e s tio n s a r e of
g r e a t th e o r e t ic a l r e le v a n c e to the p ro b lem o f c o n ­
tin u ity in th e c a s e o f a c h a n g e o f e p o c h s an d
c u ltu re s , in o th e r w o rd s , to the p rob lem o f the
m ech a n ism o f s y n th e s is o f con tinu ity a n d c h a n g e
in th e h is t o r ic a l p r o c e s s .
T h e s tu d y o f th e A r a b ia n ro o ts o f Islam h a s
b e e n c h o s e n a s o n e o f the b a s ic a s p e c t s o f a
v a s t p rogram m e o f the s tu d y o f the a n c ie n t an d
e a r ly m e d ia e v a l h is to r y o f the A r a b ia n P e n in s u la ,
w h ic h is n ow b e in g c a r r ie d out b y a s s o c ia t e s o f
th e L e n in g r a d B ra n c h o f th e Institute o f O rien ta l
S tu d ie s o f th e U S S R A c a d e m y o f S c ie n c e s . B e ­
lo w is a n ou tlin e o f c e r ta in fundam ental p rin c ip le s ,
id e a s an d re s u lts o f th is b y fa r not c o m p le te d r e ­
s e a r c h 3.
1
6th c e n tu rie s , w h e n alm ost the w h o le of its t e r ­
rito r y b e c a m e d iv id e d b e tw e e n s e v e r a l s ta te s o f
the north a n d s o u th 10. S h o r tly b e fo r e the e m er­
g e n c e o f Islam th e s e k in g d o m s (K in d a , Lahm ide,
S h a s a n id e and H im y a r ite ), b a s e d o n d yn am ic in­
te r c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n the n om adic an d the s e t­
tle d p o p u la tio n (p a r t ic u la r ly c h a r a c te r is tic o f p r e -
Islam ic tim e s ) d is in te g ra te d . H o w e v e r , th e y le ft b e ­
hind m em ory, tra d itio n s a n d e x p e r ie n c e , u s e d
an d d e v e lo p e d b y Islam , w h ic h fo r the first time
im plem en ted th e p o litic a l u n ifica tio n of A r a b ia . A
p a rticu la r r o le w a s p la y e d b y th e c e n tu r ie s - lo n g
tra d itio n s o f th e tw o K in d a k in g d o m s, o ld an d
n ew , w h o s e h is to r y is o n ly b e g in n in g to b e un­
c o v e r e d th a n k s to e p ig r a p h ic a n d a r c h a e o lo g ic a l
fin d s 11.
W ith th e s e p r o c e s s e s w a s a ls o c o n n e c te d the
s lo w ly in c r e a s in g s o c ia l s tra tific a tio n o f s o c ie t y
an d the fo rm a tio n o f e a r ly c la s s s tru c tu re s , an d
with th e la tte r th e d is c o n te n t o f the u n d e r p r iv ile ­
g e d , c o n flic ts an d c r is e s , a s a re s u lt o f w h ich
( in com b in a tio n with e x te r n a l in flu e n c e s an d the
com m on form a tion a l p r o c e s s e s w h ic h w e r e at
w o rk a ll o v e r th e N e a r E a s t) th e r e lig io u s s e a r c h
o f o n e in d iv id u a l e v o l v e d into a s p iritu a l an d s o ­
c ia l m ovem en t o f w o rld s ig n ific a n c e .
T h e g r e a t n e s s o f M uh am m ad's m is s io n an d
its n a tu ra ln e s s in th e c o n te x t o f A r a b ia n h is to ry
c a n b e s e e n from a c o m p a ris o n o f th is m is s io n
with o th e r s p iritu a l p h en o m en a in the life o f p r e -
Islam ic A r a b ia , w h ich s h o w a s in g le d ire c tio n of
the d e v e lo p m e n t o f id e o lo g ic a l v ie w s in its d iffe ­
ren t p arts. T h is e m b r a c e s A r a b ia n m onotheism ,
o r H anifism , a n d Y e m e n i R ahm anism , an d th e t e a ­
c h in g s o f v a r io u s C h ris tia n a n d Judaic s e c ts .
F rom th is m ixture o f id e o lo g ic a l tr e n d s a r o s e
the A r a b ia n p ro p h e t m ovem ent, t y p o lo g ic a lly a k in
to b ib lic a l p ro p h etism a n d r e p r e s e n t e d b y p e o p le
w h o p ro c la im e d c e rta in sim ila r m on o th eistic p rin ­
257
c i p l e s 1 2 . Islam s u r p a s s e d a ll th e s e p h en om en a
in term s o f c o n s is t e n c y an d d ep th o f te a c h in g
an d o f s p iritu a l, s o c ia l a n d p o litic a l re s u lts . H o w ­
e v e r , th e p r e s e n c e of a c e r ta in s im ila rity b e tw e e n
them a ll s h o w s that this n ew r e lig io n w a s not
som eth in g a lie n p la n ted from th e o u tsid e . A ll its
b a s ic ro o ts lie in A r a b ia n s o il.
4 5
Islam r e fle c te d a num ber o f e s s e n t ia l c h a n ­
g e s w h ic h to o k p la c e in 4 th -7 th -c e n tu r y A r a b ia ,
c r e a tin g e a r ly m e d ia e v a l p r e -Is la m ic A r a b ia , w h o ­
s e e s s e n t ia l d iffe r e n c e s from a n c ie n t A r a b ia in c ­
lu d e d a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f e c o n o m ic , p olitica l,
eth n ic a n d cu ltu ral h o m o g e n e ity an d unity. It d e ­
v e lo p e d th e s e c h a n g e s further.
R e c e n t r e s e a r c h c o n c e r n e d with e a r ly m ed ia­
e v a l A r a b ia y ie ld s in d ic a tiv e an d in fo rm ative mate­
ria l w h ic h s h o w s h o w p r e -Is la m ic cu stom s an d
in stitu tion s p a rtic ip a te d in the fo rm a tio n o f Islam
an d in its gro w th from p r e -Is la m ic h e r it a g e 12. M a ­
n y im portant elem e n ts o f th e s o c io - p o lit ic a l o r g a ­
n iz a tio n o f p r e -Is la m ic A r a b ia n s o c ie t y w e r e f o ­
und to b e c o n v e n ie n t to o ls o f the p ro p a g a tio n
a n d p lan tin g o f n ew id e a s an d re la tio n s . A t the
e a r ly s ta g e the M o s le m com munity, o r ' umma -
a c a t e g o r y o f human en tity c o m p le te ly n ew to
A r a b ia - in o p p o s in g th e M o s le m s to the en em i­
e s a s s u m e d the fu n ctio n s o f a tra d itio n a l trib e,
a p a tria rc h a l an d c la n a s s o c ia tio n . T h e cu sto m a ­
r y fe e lin g o f trib a l -s o lid a r ity p a s s e d into the s o ­
lid a r ity o f c o - b e lie v e r s .
R e s e a r c h b y R .B .S e r je a n t h a s s h o w n h ow
b ig r o le w a s p la y e d in p r e -Is la m ic A r a b ia b y s a ­
c r e d e n c la v e s k n o w n a s haram s. T h e y r e lie v e d
a man w ho g o t th e re o f th e lo a d o f com mitments
to h is trib e , o f h is d e p e n d e n c e o n tra d itio n s and
cu sto m s. T h e statu s o f s u c h a te r r ito r y e n a b le d
th e s e ttle r s to p r e a c h u n o rth o d o x id e a s an d e s ­
ta b lis h n e w c o n n e c tio n s with o th e rs m ore fr e e ly ,
without fe a rin g b a n s o n the part o f e ld e r s in the
trib e an d clan . M uham m ad's jo u r n e y to Y a th rib
r e p r e s e n t e d not o n ly a b re a k with n a tive tra d iti­
o n s, but a ls o a s p e c ific w a y o f th e ir u tilization .
Y a th rib c h a n g e d into a h ara m , an d tra d itio n a l
r e s p e c t fo r s a c r e d e n c la v e s e n s u r e d a m ea su re
o f p ro te c tio n an d a g r e a t e r p o s s ib ility o f r e c o g ­
n iz in g the id e o lo g ic a l an d s o c ia l in n o v a tio n s p ro ­
c la im e d an d im plem en ted t h e r e 14. S im ila rly , the
d e p a rtu re o f so m e M o s le m s to E th io p ia w a s a
h e g ir a in the tra d itio n a l A r a b ia n s e n s e o f the
w o rd (w ith d ra w a l to h a r a m ). In E th io p ia M o s le m s
fou n d p ro te c tio n from b a n s an d the v e n g e a n c e o f
th e ir k in s fo lk an d fe llo w -trib e s m e n . O n ly th e re
c o u ld M u h am m ad's m a rria g e with th e d a u g h ter o f
the M o s le m 's w o rs t e n e m y A b u S u fy a n b e c o n c lu ­
d e d in h is a b s e n c e 1 5
T r a d itio n a l in stitu tion s a n d c o n c e p tio n s w e r e
a b ly u s e d in th e e ffo rts to r e d u c e the r e a l an d
p oten tial s o c i o - p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s is t a n c e to n ew
id e a s . T h e a b s o lu te t h e o c r a t ic p o w e r o f the p r o ­
phet in th e com m unity ( " d e le g a t e d " to him b y
A lla h ) in its c o n c r e te form s c o n c e n tr a te d in h is
h an d s s e v e r a l fu n ctio n s o f au th ority, w h ic h in the
A r a b ia n tr ib e s w e r e u s u a lly d iv id e d b e tw e e n d if­
feren t in d iv id u a ls . A lla h 's m e s s e n g e r w a s sim u lta­
n e o u s ly , a s it w e r e , a trib a l c h ie f ( s a y y id ), a
m ilitary c a m p a ig n le a d e r ( 'a q id ), a n a r b ite r ( h a k a m ),
an d o ra to r ( h a tib ) , a p o e t ( s h a 'ir ), a c u s to d ia n
o f sanctum ( s a d in ) , an d a s o o t h s a y e r ( k a h in ).
T h e fo rm er s o c i a l r o le s a c q u ir e d a n e n tir e ly dif­
fe re n t c h a r a c te r an d a q u a lita tiv e ly n ew con ten t.
H o w e v e r , th e p r e s e n c e o f m any e lem e n ts o f tra d iti­
o n a l form m ade it e a s ie r fo r p e o p le to a d o p t the
id e a s o f M u h am m ad's a b s o lu te p o w e r. T h u s p r e ­
s e n te d , it w a s fou n d to b e n o n - id e n tic a l to the
p o w e r o f a k in g ( m a lik ), w h ic h w a s at v a r ia n c e
with the e n tire A r a b ia n s o c ia l m a k e -u p 16.
M uham m ad's tr a n c e s h ad a g o o d d e a l in com ­
mon with th e p r a c tic e o f th e p re —Islam ic s o o th ­
s a y e r s - k a h in s w h ic h w a s n o tic e d b y M uham m ad
h im self a n d b y h is fe llo w - t r ib e s m e n 17. Of c o u r s e ,
M uhamm ad w a s not a kahin. T h e con ten t an d c h a ­
r a c t e r o f h is s e rm o n s w e r e e n tir e ly d ifferen t. T y p o -
lo g ic a lly , h e w a s a k in to th e b ib lic a l p ro p h e ts , w ho
a ls o o p p o s e d t h e m s e lv e s to the a n c ie n t s o o t h s a y ­
e r s . H o w e v e r , both in M o s le m a n d in b ib lic a l p r o ­
p h etic m ovem en t a m ajor fa c to r b e h in d the s u c c e s s
o f a s e rm o n w a s the human h abit o f b e lie v in g in
the d e e p a n d d iv in e m ean in g o f what w a s s a id in
a sta te o f t r a n c e 18.
P u rify in g a n d r e in te rp r e tin g them, Islam a d o p ­
te d m any a n c ie n t ritu als o f A r a b ia , e s p e c ia lly th o ­
s e c o n n e c te d with p ilg rim a g e - circu m am bu lation
of the s h rin e , s o le m n v ig il, ritu al r e p a s t s , e tc 1 9
T h e p attern o f Is la m 's attitude to th e p r o fe s s a n ts
of o th e r r e lig io n s w a s not a b s o lu te ly n ew eith er.
D iffe re n tia tio n b e tw e e n b e lie v e r s o f lo n g -s ta n d in g
an d Islam ic c o n v e r ts an d th e id e n tific a tio n o f an
6 7
in term ed ia te c a t e g o r y ( "m en of the S c r ip tu re " -
'A h l a l - K i t a b ) b e tw e e n the b e lie v e r s an d the
in fid e ls w e r e p a r a lle l to a tra d itio n a l A r a b ia n s y s ­
tem w h ich d iv id e d tr ib e s into g ro u p s d e p e n d in g
o n h o w s c r u p u lo u s ly th e y p e rfo rm e d the sh rin e
w o rs h ip ritu a ls 20.
T h e u s e o f tra d itio n a l in stitu tion s fo r p ro p a ­
g a tin g n ew id e a s w a s s u p p le m e n ted b y the p r e ­
s e r v a t io n o f in d iv id u a l e lem e n ts o f tra d itio n a l e v e ­
r y d a y life an d id e o lo g y . T h e s o le a n d s in g le M o s ­
lem g o d w a s c a lle d A lla h - the name o f a d eity
w id e ly k n o w n in a n c ie n t A r a b ia 21. H e w a s w o r­
s h ip p e d , in p articu lar, b y the M e c c a n s an d b y
th e ir c lo s e n e ig h b o u rs r e fe r r e d to in the Q uran -
the T h a m u d ia n s 22. M e c c a 's k a a b a , o n e o f the
s ta n d a rd s h r in e s o f the s a c r e d e n c la v e s , b e ­
cam e a s y m b o l o f this s in g le g o d . O ld -tim e sm al­
le r A r a b ia n d e itie s - jin n s - p a rtly cam e to " b e ­
l i e v e " in A lla h , thus s e ttin g a n exa m p le to p e o ­
p le 24.
T h e f o r e f a t h e r o f th e A r a b s an d Jew s, Ib ra ­
him, o r A b ra h a m , b e c a m e o n e of the c e n tra l fig u re s
o f th is n e w re lig io n , the main p r e d e c e s s o r o f P r o ­
phet Muhamm ad, h is "d o u b le ", th e first M oslem
w h o s e c o r r e c t faith h ad to b e r e s t o r e d b y A lla h 's
m e s s e n g e r . S u c h a n im a ge of Ibrahim, with w h o ­
s e m em ory w e r e c o n n e c te d the hadj ritu a ls , b e c a ­
me th e s y m b o l an d id e o lo g ic a l e x p la n a tio n o f the
a n c ie n t A r a b ia n s o u r c e s o f Islam.
T h e Q u ran le g e n d s fu rn ish o n e o f the c le a r -
e s t illu s tra tio n s of h o w A r a b ia 's cu ltu ral h e r ita g e
an d c u ltu ra l en viro n m en t w e r e u s e d an d a d o p te d
b y Islam . T h e Q u ran ic c o n te x t an d p r e -Is la m ic
p oem s s h o w v e r y w e ll that the m ajority o f the
b ib lic a l a n d p o s t - b ib lic a l le g e n d s w e r e a ls o k n ow n
in p r e - Is la m ic A r a b ia an d a lr e a d y b o r e fe a tu r e s
w h ic h p o in te d to th e ir com m on o c c u r r e n c e in A r a ­
bia. ( In p a rticu la r, m any p e r s o n a g e s s u c h a s
N u h -N o a h , L u t-L o t an d Ib rah im -A b rah am w e r e
r e g a r d e d a s h a v in g liv e d in A r a b i a ) . T h e sam e
Q u ran ic te x t s h o w s that the in te rp reta tio n o f ma­
n y s t o r ie s r a is e d o b je c tio n s in M uham m ad's l i s ­
te n e r s , a n d not o n ly Ju daists. B ib lic a l le g e n d s
an d A r a b ia n le g e n d s p r o p e r a r e p u rp o s e fu lly an d
o p e n ly in te rp re te d b y the Q uran a s e v id e n c e o f

the fu n dam en tal t h e s e s of th e Q u ran ic te a c h in g -
th e p o w e r o f A lla h , th e in e v ita b ility o f h is c h a s ­
tisem en t, a n d h is c o n c e r n fo r th e p ro p h e ts . M a ­
ny o f the d e ta ils , r e a lia a n d d ia lo g u e s c o n ta in e d
in th e s e Q u ran ic s to r ie s a r e d id a c tic p a r a lle ls to
M u h am m ad's argu m en ts with the M e c c a n s , to h is
e x h o rta tio n s to th e in fid e ls . B a s ic a lly , th e y r e p ­
r e s e n te d a n a d d e d s p e c ific form o f the re p e titio n
o f Q u ran ic s e rm o n s . A g a in , tra d itio n a l an d fam i­
lia r form s a n d p lots w e r e u s e d fo r c o n v e y in g
n ew id e o lo g ic a l m e s s a g e 25.
F in a lly , o n the p u re ly te r m in o lo g ic a l p la n e
the p r e a c h in g o f Islam put new, con ten t into m any
c u s to m a ry a n d fam iliar n o tio n s - id e o lo g ic a l, eth -
n o s o c ia l a n d p o litic a l - o f A r a b ia n life 26. T h e
n ew r e lig io n , Islam , w a s p r e a c h e d not o n ly th ro ­
ugh the medium o f A r a b ic , a la n g u a g e k n o w n to
the s u rro u n d in g p e o p le , but a ls o th ro u gh the m e­
dium o f fa m ilia r n otion s an d im a g e s . Just a s the
la n g u a g e , th e y a c q u ir e d a n ew m ean in g an d a
n ew im plication .
It a ll d i s c l o s e s the m ech an ism w h e r e b y th e
h is to ric a l c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n Islam an d its
"b irth p la c e ", A r a b ia , b e c a m e m a te ria lize d . T h e s e
c o n n e c tio n s e n s u r e d triumph to the n ew id e a s
n ew s o c ie t y a n d n ew w a y o f life , g iv in g them
"s ta b le " h is t o r ic a l su p p o rt a n d a s p e c ific form,
w h ich fa c ilita te d th e s o c i o - p s y c h o lo g ic a l a d o p tio n
o f this n ew re lig io n . W h en Islam m ade its a p p e a ­
ra n c e o u ts id e A r a b ia th e s e h is t o r ic a l ro o ts h e lp e d
it to p r e s e r v e its s e lf - r e lia n c e in c o llis io n with
p o w erfu l o ld id e o lo g ie s a n d cu ltu res.
T h e form ation o f Islam an d M o s le m s o c ie t y
a s s tu d ie d o n the lin e s p r o p o s e d in th e p re s e n t
p a p e r fu rn ish a c le a r e x a m p le o f h o w h is to ry
e ffe c ts a s y n th e s is o f con tin u ity a n d c h a n g e ,
w h ich is fou n d to b e e d ify in g in ou r time.
REFERENCES
1. Cf. L M . L ap id u s. T h e A r a b C o n q u e s ts an d
the F o u n d a tio n s o f Islam ic S o c ie t y . - S tu d ie s o n
the F ir s t C en tu ry o f Isla m ic S o c ie ty . E d w a r d s v ille ,
1982, pp. 4 9 -7 2 .
8
2. S e e , fo r in s ta n c e , W .M o n tg o m e ry Watt.
T h e A r a b ia n B a c k g ro u n d o f the Q u r'a n . - D ira s a t
ta 'rik h a l- ja z ir a a l- 'a r a b iy a . L A r - R iy a d , 19 79,
pp. 3 - 12.
3. T h e y a r e c o n ta in e d in a s e r ie s o f a lr e a ­
d y p u b lis h e d a r tic le s an d in the b o o k O b s h c h o s t-
v o d r e v n e y i r a n n e s r e d n e v e k o v o y A r a v ii ( S o c ie t y
o f A n c ie n t an d E a r ly M e d ia e v a l A r a b ia ) p r e p a r ­
e d fo r p u b lica tion . A u th o rs : M .B .P io t r o v s k y ( E x ­
e c u tiv e E d it o r ), P .A .G r y a z n e v ic h , A .G .L u n d in ,
LS h .S h ifm an , A .G .G r u s h e v o y , V l.V .P o lo s in , Y e . A . R e -
zvaa
4. S e e , fo r in s ta n c e , I.Ephal. T h e A n c ie n t
A r a b s . N o m a d s o n th e B o r d e r s o f the F e r tile
C r e s c e nt: 9 th -5 th C e n tu rie s B .C . L e id e n , 1982,
pp. 149, 163.
5. F o r th e p attern s e e Ibn H abib. K ita b a l-
M u h a b b a r. H a id a ra b a d , 1946, pp. 2 6 3 -2 6 8 .
6. S e e , fo r in s ta n c e , B .V .A n d ria n o v . N eosed-
lo y e n a s e le n iy e mira (N o n - S e t t le d P o p u la tio n of
the W o r l d ) . M o s c o w , 1985, pp. 5 3 -5 5 .
7. W. C a s k e l. Z u r B e d u in is ie ru n g A r a b ie n s . -
Z D M G . Bd. 103. 1953, S .2 8 -3 6 ; W .D o sta L T h e
E v o lu tio n o f B e d o u in Life. - L 'a n tic a s o c ie t a b e -
duina. R om a, 1959, pp. 1 1 -3 4 ; W .D o sta L T h e D e v e ­
lopm en t o f B e d o u in L ife in A r a b ia S e e n from A r ­
c h a e o lo g ic a l M a te ria L - D ira s a t ta 'rik h a l- ja z ir a
a l- 'a r a b iy a , pp. 1 2 5 -1 4 4 .
8. G . v o n G ruhnebaum . T h e N atu re o f A r a b
U n ity b e fo r e Islam. - A r a b ic a . VoL 10, L e id e n ,
1963, p p .5 - 1 4 .
9. S e e P .A .G r y a z n e v ic h . A r a v iv a i a r a b v :
k is to r ii term ina a l- a r a b ( A r a b ia an d th e A r a b s .
T o w a r d s the H is to ry o f th e T erm a l - a r a b ) ;
P .A .G r y a z n e v ic h . F o r m ir o v a n iv e a r a b s k o v n a ro d -
n o sti ( k p o s ta n o v k e p r o b le m y ).—Islam , R e lig iy a ,
o b s h c h e s tv o , g o s u d a r s tv o ( T h e F o rm a tio n o f the
E a r ly M e d ia e v a l A r a b N a tion ality: T o w a r d s the
F o rm a tio n o f the P r o b le m ). - Islam. R e lig io n ,
S o c ie t y a n d S tate. M o s c o w , 1984, pp. 1 2 2 -1 4 4 .
10. S e e , fo r e x a m p le , A .G .L u n d in . G o s u d a r s t-
v a A r a v ii IV-VI w . i s o ts ia ln y ie k orn i islam a. -
B a r t o ld o v s k iy e c h te n iy a ( T h e A r a b ia n S ta te s in
th e 4 th -6 th C e n tu ries a n d the S o c ia l R o o ts of
Islam . - B a rth o ld C om m em orative R e a d in g s ). M o s ­
c o w , 1982, p p .3 4 -3 6 .
9

11. S e e K h . A l- A s a li. T h e R e la tio n b e t w e e n
K in d a a n d S o u th A r a b ia . - J ou rn al o f the C o l­
le g e o f A r ts . U n iv e r s ity o f B a g h d a d . Vol. 16,
1973, p p .2 2 1 -2 4 5 ; A . A l- A n s a r i. Q a rya t - a l- P a u :
A P o rtra it o f a P r e is la m ic C iv ilis a tio n in S a u d i
A r a b ia . A r - R i y a d , 1982.
12. M .B .P io t r o v s k y . M uham m ad, p ro ro k i, Iz h e -
p ro ro k i, k a k h in y. - Islam v is to r ii n a r o d o v V o s to -
k a ( M uhammad. P r o p h e ts , F a l s e P r o p h e ts an d
K a h in s . - Islam in the H is to r y o f th e P e o p le s o f
the E a s t ) . M o s c o w , 1981, p p .9 -1 8 ; M .B .P io tr o v s k y .
P r o r o c h e s k o v e d v iz h e n iv e v A r a v ii VII v . - mans. L e r e p a s ritu el d a n s le r e lig io n s u d - a r a b e .-
Islam : r e lig iy a , o b s h c h e s tv o , g o s u d a r s t v o ( P r o ­
phet M o v e m e n t in 7 th -C e n tu ry A r a b ia . - Islam : R e ­
lig io n ...) , pp. 1 9 -2 7 .
13. F o rm u la tio n o f th e p rob lem : P .A .G r y a z n e -
v ic h . P ro b le m y iz u c h e riiy a is to r ii v o z n ik n o v e n iy a
islam a. - Islam : r e lig iy a , o b s h c h e s tv o , g o s u d a r s t­
v o ( P ro b le m s o f the S tu d y o f th e H is to r y o f th e
R is e o f Islam . - Islam : R e lig io n . . . ) , pp. 5 -1 8 .
14. R .B .S e r je a n t. H aram an d H aw ta: th e S a c ­
re d E n c la v e in A r a b ia . — M e la n g e T a h a H u sain ,
l e C a ire , 1962, p p .4 1 -5 8 . R .B .S e r je a n t. T h e S u n -
nah Jam i'ah, P a c ts with the Y a th rib J ew s, a n d
the T&hrim o f Y a th rib : A n a ly s is a n d T r a n s la tio n
o f the D o cu m en ts C o m p ris e d in the S o - C a lle d
"C on stitu tio n o f M e d in a ". - B S O A S . VoL 41, pp.
1 -42 .
15. Ibn S a a d . B io a r a o h ie n M uham m eds, s e i ­
n er G e fa h r te n und d e r s p a te r e n T r & g e r d e s Is -
lam s. B a n d 8. L e id e n , 1 9 0 4 -1 9 2 8 , S .6 8 ; M .B .P io t­
r o v s k y . Ob e fio p s k o y k h id z h re E fio p s k iy e is s le d o -
v a n iy a ( C o n c e rn in g E th io p ia n H e g ir a . - E th io p ia n
S t u d ie s ). M o s c o w , 1981, p p .1 6 -2 2 .
16. M .B .P io tr o v s k y . O p r ir o d e v la s t i M ukham -
mada. - G o s u d a r s tv e n n a y a v la s t i o b s h c h e s tv e n n o -
p o litic h e s k iy e s tru k tu ry v a r a b s k ik h stra n a k h : is -
to riy a i s o v r e m e n n o s t ( C o n c e r n in g the N a tu re o f
M uham m ad's P o w e r . - S ta te P o w e r an d S o c io -
P o litic a l S tru c tu re s in A r a b C o u n trie s : P a s t a n d
P r e s e n t ) . M o s c o w , 1984, p p .6 -1 1 .
17. T h e Q uran H I, 29; L X IX , 4 0 -4 2 ; Ibn S a a d . 1,
pp. 1, 129; I. N. V in n ikov. L e fie n d a o p r iz v a n ii M u k -
ham m eda v s v e t e e tn o g ra fii. - S e r g e y u F y o d o r o -
v ic h u O ld en b u rgu . S b o rn ik s ta te i ( L e g e n d ab ou t
10
M u h am m ad 's V o c a tio n in the Ligh t o f E th n o g ra ­
p h ic D ata. - T o S e r g e i F y o d o r o v ic h O ld e n b u r g ).
L e n in g ra d , 19 34, pp. 1 2 5 -1 4 6 .
18. M .B .P io t r o v s k y . M ukham m ad, p ro ro k i...,
pp.. 1 0 -1 5 .
19. C o n c e rn in g th e Y e m e n i p a r a lle ls w h ich
fo rm e d p art o f a ll- A r a b ia n r e lig io u s h e r ita g e s e e ,
fo r in s ta n c e , J .R yck m an s. D v e y u z h n o a r a b s k iy e
is p o v e d a ln y ie n a d p is i iz L e n in g ra d a . - V estn ik
d r e v n e y is to r ii ( T w o S o u th -A r a b ia n C o n fe s s io n a l
In s c rip tio n s from L e n in g ra d . - V estn ik d r e v n e i is to ­
r i i ) . M o s c o w , 1972, N o 1, pp. 1 1 9 -1 2 0 . J .R y c k ­
S y m b o la e b ib lic a e et m e so p o ta m ica e. L e id e n ,
1973, pp. 3 2 7 -3 3 3 ; J .R yck m a n s. R itu al M e a ls in
th e S ou th A r a b ia n S tu d ie s. Lon don , 1973, p p .3 0 -
36; J .R y c k m a n s , L e s in s c rip tio n s s u d - a r a b e s a n ­
c ie n n e s et le s e tu d e s a r a b e s . - A n n a li. Vol. 35.
N a p o li, 1975, p p .4 4 3 -4 6 3 ; A .G .L u n d in . "D o c h e r i
b o g a " v y u z h n o a r a b s k ik h n a d p is y a k h i v K o r a n e
( "D a u g h te rs o f G o d " in S outh —A r a b ia n In s c rip tio n s
a n d in th e Q u r a n ), - V estn ik d r e v n e y is to rii. M o s ­
c o w , 1975, N o 2, p p .1 2 4 -1 3 1 ; M .B .P io tr o v s k y .
Y u z h n a y a A r a v iy a v r a n n e y e s r e d n e v e k o v y e ( S o -
u th ern A r a b ia in th e E a r ly M id d le A g e s ) . M oscow ,
1985, p. 108. S e e a ls o LS h .S h ifm an . O n e k o to ry k h
u s ta n o v le n iv a k h ra n n e g o islam a. - Islam : re lig iy a ...
( C o n c e rn in g C e rta in P r e c e p t s o f E a r ly Islam . -
Islam : R e lig io n ...), pp. 3 6 -4 3 .
20. T h e s y s te m w a s m ade up o f a i - hums,
a l- h illa a n d a t-tu ls ; Ibn Hisham . S ira t a n - nabi.
a l- K a h ir a , 1963, 1, pp. 1 2 8 -1 3 2 ; Ibn H ab ib . K ita b
a l- M u h a b b a r, pp. 1 7 8 -1 8 1 ; a s - S u h a y li. A r - r a u d
a l-u n u f. B a yru t, 1978, 1, pp.229, 231; Ibn M a n zu r.
L is a n a l—'a ra b . B u laq, 1307 A .H ., 7, p.308; 13,
p.175.
21. W .M o n tg o m e ry Watt. B e lie f in a "H ig h G o d "
in P r e - I s la m ic M e c c a . - Journ al o f S em itic S tu ­
d ie s . Vol. 16, M a n c h e s te r , N o 1, 1971, p p .3 5 -4 0 ;
W .M o n tg o m e ry Watt. T h e Q uran an d B e lie f in a
H igh G o d , - D e r Islam. B a n d 56. B e rlin , 1979,
S . 2 6 5 -2 7 1 ; A .G .L u n d in . A lla h . - M ify n a r o d o v
mira ( A lla h . - M yth s o f th e P e o p le s o f the W o r ld ).
VoL 1, M o s c o w , 1980, p.61.
22. S e e a N a b a ta e a n in s c rip tio n in a r - R a w -
w a fa in N o rth e rn H e ja z : C o rp u s In scription um S e ­
ll
miticarum. II, 3642a; J .T .M ilik . In s c rip tio n s g r e c ­
q u e s et n a b a te e n n e s d e R a w w a fa h. - B u lletin o f
the Institute o f A r c h a e o lo g y . Vol. 10, Lon don , 198
1971, pp. 5 7 -5 8 .
23. C o n c e rn in g o th e r k a a b a s s e e , fo r in sta n ­
c e , H isham b .a l- K a lb i. K ita b a l—asn am . A l - K a h i -
ra, 1924, pp. 4 4 -4 5 ; J a cu t's G e o g r a p h is c h e s W o r -
te r b u c h . L e ip z ig , 1867—1870, 3, p.703; 4, pp. 278,
756; Ibn M a n zu r. L is a n a l - a r a b , I, p. 213.
24. T h e Q uran LX X II, 1 -1 5 .
25. S e e , fo r in s ta n c e , s p e c ia l s e c tio n s d is ­
c u s s in g th e p la c e o f th e a p p ro p ria te p e r s o n a g e s
in M uh am m ad's p r e a c h in g in H .S p e y e r . D ie b ib -
lis c h e n E rz a h lu n g e n im Q oran . G ra fe n h a in ic h e n .
/1931/, S. 1 0 9 -1 1 6 , 1 7 5 -1 8 6 , 2 2 3 -2 2 4 , 3 5 0 -3 6 3 ;
s e e a ls o M .B .P io tr o v s k y . K o r a n ic h e s k iy e s k a z a -
n iya k a k is to rik o -k u ltu rn y i pam yatnik. - V s e s o -
y u z n a y a k o n fe r e n ts iy a po p roblem am a r a b s k o y
kultu ry ( Q u ran ic L e g e n d s a s a M onum ent o f C u l­
tu ral H is to ry . - A ll- U n io n C o n fe r e n c e o n P r o b ­
lem s o f A r a b C u ltu re ). M o s c o w , 1983, p p .3 8 -3 9 .
26. S e e T .Izu tsu . G o d an d M a n in the K o r a n .
T o k y o . 1964; M .M .B ravm an n . T h e S p iritu a l B a c k ­
g ro u n d o f E a r ly Islam. L e id e n , 19 72; M .J .K is te r.
S tu d ie s in J a h iliy y a a n d E a r ly Islam. L o n d o n , 19 80;
Y e . A . R e z v a a K o r a n i d o is la m s k a y a kultura ( p ro b -
lem a m etodiki iz u c h e n iy a ) ( T h e Q u ran an d P r e -
Islam ic Culture/ P ro b le m o f R e s e a r c h P r o c e d u r e / ) ;
Y e .A . R e z v a n. Adam i b an u A d am v K o r a ne. -
Islam: R e lig iy a ... ( A d am a n d B a n u A d am in the
Quran. - Islam: R e lig io n ...) , p p .4 4 -6 8 .

P rin te d in the U S S R