Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Time for Expansion and Clarification

Edwin A. Locke

University of Maryland

Kaspar Schattke

Université du Québec à Montréal

Author Note

Edwin A. Locke, Dean’s Professor of Motivation and Leadership, Robert H. Smith

School of Business, University of Maryland, College Park, USA; Kaspar Schattke, Assistant

Professor in Work and Organizational Psychology, Department of Psychology, Université du

Québec à Montréal, Canada.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kaspar Schattke,

Université du Québec à Montréal, Département de psychologie, CP 8888, Succ. Centre-Ville,

Montréal, Québec, H3C 3P8, Canada, Email: schattke.kaspar_philipp@uqam.ca. Tel: +1-514-

987-3000 ext. 5387.

© 2018, American Psychological Association. This paper is not the copy of record

and may not exactly replicate the final, authoritative version of the article. Please do not

copy or cite without authors' permission. The final article will be available, upon

publication, via its DOI: 10.1037/mot0000116.

 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 2

Abstract

The goal of this paper is to provide a long overdue clarification and upgrade to what has been

called the intrinsic-extrinsic dichotomy in the realm of motivation. We argue that the concept of

intrinsic motivation should be limited to refer to the pleasure gained from an activity, divorced

from any further elements. It means liking the doing. The term has been confounded with a

different type of motivation, which is properly labeled achievement motivation and which refers

to competition against some standard of excellence (subconscious or conscious). Achievement

motivation means wanting to do well. One can like doing something and not care about how well

one does it. Conversely, one can strive to do well even if one does not like an activity. The third

type of motivation, known as extrinsic, has been focused heavily on the effect of withdrawing a

monetary incentive. We argue that this focus is far too narrow and that extrinsic motivation should

be generally defined as doing something as a means to an end. It means doing something now in

order to get something later. Nor should money be regarding as “controlling” since people

routinely make many choices in the realm of money. We suggest a research program on the three

types of motivation, their possible interrelationships, and their outcomes. We hope to spark a

discussion and invite comments on this paper.

Keywords: intrinsic motivation; extrinsic motivation; achievement motivation; work motivation;

satisfaction;
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 3

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Time for Expansion and Clarification

Going as far back as 1918 (Woodworth, 1918 and noted by Rheinberg & Engeser, 2018) it has

been generally assumed that there are two basic types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. In

this conceptual article we argue that the traditional dichotomy is seriously inadequate particularly

with regard to applications to work and organizational psychology. We recommend a trichotomy,

which would include achievement motivation as well as clearer definitions of intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation. Both the expansion and clarifications have applied implications and

applications for future research. Our ultimate goal is to motivate a discussion and a research

program about the differences and the similarities of the three types of motivation and their

possible interrelationships.

The Concept of Motivation

We start by suggesting that the terms “intrinsic” and “extrinsic” themselves are somewhat

problematic when applied to humans. Intrinsic conventionally means inside the entity and

extrinsic means outside the entity or object. This makes sense at the physical (including

inanimate) level, but a human consciousness is always interacting with the environment

(observing, evaluating, choosing) and thus factors pertaining to motivation have both an internal

and an external aspect. Consequently, Schultheiss and colleagues (2009, p. 268) have called

motivation “a natural linchpin between the person and the situation”, between internal and

external.

Motivation at the internal level means having desires or aversions. It means wanting or

fearing. One cannot be motivated if one is an empty organism as the behaviorists used to imply.

Motivation orients, energizes, and selects behavior towards anticipated goal states (Heckhausen

& Heckhausen, 2018; McClelland, 1987; Rheinberg & Vollmeyer, 2018). Thus, one can say that
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 4

all motivation involves people wanting to get or avoid something. Ordinarily we want or fear

something in the environment, although some desires are psychological such as wanting to

reduce anxiety. The ultimate source of the values that cause these wants are varied but there must

be an internal locus in some form to motivate action, even as external conditions play a role.

Consider an extreme case of situational influence: a person confronts you on the street with a gun

and demands your money. This represents obvious, external coercion but a normal person will

give over the money because they want safety. Of course, one may choose values out of

conformity but passively chosen values can still motivate action. Values differ in importance

within and between people and related to this, commitment to any given values varies along a

continuum. (Motivation, as we all know and will be noted later, can be conscious and/or

subconscious.)

Selected Concepts Related to Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Aristotle. Aristotle identified a distinction in his Nicomachean Ethics between pleasure

as an essential element of an activity and pleasure that stems from outside the activity (see

Schneider, 1996). Presumably he was referring to what we would call intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation though he did not use those terms.

Woodworth. As noted, Woodworth (1918) first used the terms intrinsic and extrinsic in

psychology. The former referred to an “activity running by its own drive” (p. 70) and the latter to

an activity “driven by some extrinsic motive” (p. 70). He postulated that an extrinsic motive

would focus attention on the reward and distract attention from and absorption in the activity,

making intrinsic motivation less likely. He also argued that motivation for an activity might

change during its pursuit in the sense that one might start for extrinsic reasons but find the main
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 5

pleasure in its pursuit later (for an overview see Rheinberg & Engeser, 2018). Woodworth did

not include achievement motivation in the discussion.

Bühler. Bühler (1922) differentiated pleasure from doing or creating something

(“Funktionslust” and “Schaffenslust”) and the pleasure of having completed an activity or by

gaining satisfaction from the result (“Endlust” or “Befriedigungslust”). The first implies intrinsic

motivation and the second implies achievement motivation but Bühler did not use these terms.

Drive Reduction Theories. Classical drive-reduction theories (e.g., Freud, 1952; Hull,

1943; Spence, 1956, 1960) argued that people were driven to reduce the discrepancy between a

desired (goal) state and their current (goal) state, which were energized by a general drive or

need deprivation. The reduction of this drive was perceived as pleasurable (for an overview see

Heckhausen, 2018). The modern version of this is control theory (see Carver & Scheier, 1981).

However, the primary goal of action cannot be simply to remove discrepancies between wants

and reality as such, which logically would have to include abandoning goals. Life and thriving

demand that (at least some) goals are actually attained. Therefore, discrepancy reduction can

only be a correlate of goal directed action, not its primary cause (cf. Bandura & Locke, 2003).

Moreover, focusing on discrepancy-reduction is misguided in another way: it implies that all

motivation is negative, that is, aimed psychologically at reducing pain or discomfort. Of course,

some motivation is negative, but it cannot be the whole story since obviously people must and do

work for positives (Bandura & Locke, 2003).

Self-Determination Theory. Deci and Ryan’s (2000) self-determination theory (SDT)

conceptualizes intrinsic motivation as inside the person but not as an interaction with an activity.

Furthermore, SDT explicitly confounds intrinsic motivation (enjoying the task) and achievement

motivation (pursuing goals and challenges), when describing intrinsic motivation as “the inherent
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 6

tendency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise one's capacities, to explore,

and to learn” (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 70). To add further confusion, extrinsic motivation can be

inside or outside the self, depending on the degree of self-determination by which goals are

sought. Self-determined goals reflect one’s value systems (integrated regulation) or one finds

them important (identified regulation). Less self-determined goals are chosen because one feels

an inner pressure to seek them (introjected regulation) or because they are based on external

demands (external regulation). The more self-determined one’s goals are, the more they satisfy

the three basic human needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy. The theory includes

elements of determinism. Volition (autonomy) is viewed as a need, whereas we view it as an

axiom (Locke, 2018). Nor do we view money incentives as controlling as SDT often does. We

argue that people have the power, by thinking, to choose their own goals and that external

demands or incentives, in line with our previous definition of motivation, must work through the

value standards that one has chosen or accepted.

Means-Ends Fusion Theory. Kruglanski and colleagues (2018) introduced a theory not

based on human needs in contrast to SDT: the Means-Ends Fusion Theory (MEF). The theory

accepts the intrinsic-extrinsic dichotomy but posits that intrinsic motivation is a result of the

perceived fusion of the activity (means) to achieve a goal (end) with the goal itself. The authors

point out that any activity can be experienced as intrinsically or extrinsically motivated

depending on how similar the activity and the goal are perceived. They posit a continuum from

extrinsic (i.e., means and ends are completely separate) to intrinsic motivation (i.e., means and

ends are completely fused) rather than two qualitatively different types of motivation. For

example, the activity of running is perceived as very close to a fitness goal because running “is

subjectively experienced as (the attainment) of fitness” and therefore intrinsically motivated

 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 7

(Kruglanski et al., 2018, p.167). But what this actually implies is that intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation can work together. The authors also claim that “the attainment of any goal is

satisfying by definition” (Kruglanski et al., 2018, p. 171). There is merit to this (e.g., goal setting

theory; Locke & Latham, 1990) but there are exceptions. Goals that do not integrate with one’s

underlying values and subconscious motive dispositions may lead to less emotional well being

(Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Grässmann, 1998), less life-satisfaction (Hofer, Busch, Bond, Kärtner,

Kiessling, & Law, 2010), and even psychosomatic symptoms (Baumann, Kaschel, & Kuhl,

2005).

The 3-C Model. This model is based on McClelland’s (1985) Motive Disposition

Theory. Kehr (2004) proposed that intrinsic motivation is enhanced when there is a

correspondence between implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) motives. In other words,

when people enjoy what they find important at both levels, they will be intrinsically motivated,

which makes the pursuit of the activity less effortful because no volitional regulation (i.e., self-

regulation, will-power) is needed (Kehr, Strasser, & Paulus, 2018). Intrinsically motivated here

means motivated by ones implicit motives. The motivation type is actually classified in terms of

individual differences in the strength of three motives for achievement, power, and affiliation.

Each of the above models make some contribution in its own way but none of them make

a clear distinction between the three types of motivation which we propose. We argue that

intrinsic, achievement, and extrinsic motivation are three distinguishable forms of motivation.

There are particularly relevant at work, although we believe they are also relevant to other life

domains.
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 8

Intrinsic Motivation

We suggest confining the meaning of intrinsic motivation to liking or wanting an activity

for its own sake divorced from any specific outcome level. The enjoyment is in the doing; the

doing can range from passive to active. An example of the more passive form lies in the field of

art (defined broadly to encompass all of its forms, e.g., music, books, TV, movies, shows etc.)

where the pleasure is from contemplating or experiencing the art work. (For an explanation of

the critical, motivational role of art in life, see Rand, 1969). On the more active side, intrinsic

motivation can encompass hobbies, for example walking, cycling, gardening, cooking, games,

stamp collecting, etc. At work, active intrinsic motivation involves liking a certain type of work

or specific tasks, for example selling, analyzing, inventing, computing, programming,

coordinating, managing, experimenting, problem solving, or acting. It means liking a specific

type of job content, for example banking, sports, restaurant management, machining, repairing,

construction, law, medicine, teaching and subcategories within each (teaching math, etc.).

Traditionally, these would be called interests (which some researchers distinguish from intrinsic

motivation, e.g. Krapp, 1999). Although that term may seem emotionally mild, interests can

range from mild to passionate.

People can prefer different aspects of any activity and likings may come and go over

time. The goal in intrinsic motivation is pleasure and enjoyment from the action or experience. In

some form the activity makes one feel good, relaxed, happy, contented, and joyful. If activities

have a further goal than just the pleasure of engaging in them, then they are not purely intrinsic.

(We will talk about mixed motivation later).

We believe that it is an error to assume that simply because people like doing something

that they will necessarily attain a high level of skill at it. Pure intrinsic motivation involves doing
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 9

things for fun and the goal is not to improve as such. For example, the first author plays tennis

with other players his age. All of them have obvious weaknesses in their games. Not one of them

takes lessons in order to improve. For them the fun is in the playing and the exercise. They

definitely prefer winning but that is not their primary. While doing the same thing a lot may

improve skill up to a point, skill building and improvement is not the essence of intrinsic

motivation – it is not the reason why one engages in the activity. To get to a high level of skill at

anything requires another form of motivation, achievement motivation, which unfortunately has

been almost universally confounded with intrinsic motivation (see Pinder’s 1998 discussion of

this literature).

Achievement Motivation

McClelland pioneered research on achievement motivation in the 1950s (McClelland,

Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953). He viewed its essence as competition with a standard, as a

striving for excellence in some form. The authors agree with this formulation. The issue is not the

doing or enjoyment of the activity as such but doing well and/or doing better than before, in

other words improvement. Note, however, that improvement, if it occurs, may be enjoyed but the

activity that leads to the improvement may or may not be. For example, a person may work hard

to succeed in the law profession but not really enjoy being a lawyer. Achievement motivation

can be conceptualized on different levels.

Dispositions and Traits. For McClelland, the achievement motive was subconscious

(implicit) and measured, as noted earlier, by projective tests, especially the Thematic

Apperception Test, which involved guided story telling based on pictures, which are then coded

for achievement imagery (e.g., Pang, 2010). He viewed it as most relevant to entrepreneurship

and it is in fact related to entrepreneurial occupational choice and performance (Collins, Hanges,
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 10

& Locke, 2004), though there are exceptions (Locke, 2015). Collins and colleagues also found

that conscious self-reported achievement motivation, based on trait scales, had the same effect.

However, the conscious and subconscious measures seem unrelated (no covariance, mediation or

moderation, Köllner & Schultheiss, 2014; Spangler, 1992).

Subconscious or implicit need for achievement has been found to be related to other types

of actions (e.g., Brunstein & Maier 2005; Spangler, 1992; Wegner & Teubel, 2014), particularly

after initial failure (Schattke, Taylor, Brandstätter, & Kehr, 2014). It may be related to

performance in professional service firms (cf. Spangler, Tikhomirov, Sotak, & Palrecha, 2014).

Quasi-traits. In recent years a quasi-trait approach has been proposed that includes what

are called learning and performance orientations (reviewed by Morisano, 2013). Both are

achievement related. Quasi traits are general but may also be framed in terms of specific

situations (e.g., learning in school). In a learning or mastery orientation (LO) the focus is on

acquiring new knowledge and skills, whereas performance orientation (PO) stresses doing well

on the task in some way.

There has been considerable confusion regarding PO because it has been measured in

quite different ways (Morisano, 2013) such as focus on success in order to impress others,

competition, or simply doing well, and the different conceptualizations can lead to very different

results. For example, “impress through success” goals can lead to setting very easy goals, which

would lead to low performance according to goal setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990, 2013).

However, when the focus is on simply doing well, the combination of learning and performance

orientations seems to lead to the best performance, especially when the measures focus on an

“approach” rather than an “avoid” orientation, that is, seeking success rather than avoiding

failure (Morisano, 2013).

 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 11

States. Conscious, state achievement motivation is task and situationally specific and is

most logically related to goal setting (Locke & Latham, 1990, 2013). In goal setting theory,

performance attainment is based on the type and level of task-specific goal that is set in addition

to various moderators (task knowledge, commitment, feedback). Performance is best if the

standard is specific and challenging and there is high commitment, relevant knowledge or skill,

and feedback showing progress in relation to the standard. Assigned goals work best if they are

accepted or committed to. This is most critical when goals are hard (Klein, Cooper, & Manahan,

2013). Satisfaction comes from goal success or the perception of progress toward one’s goal, not

just from taking action (Locke & Latham, 1990). Specific goals can be set for learning as a

means of improving task performance, in combination with performance goals, through

acquiring new or upgraded skills (Masuda, Locke, & Williams, 2015; Seijts, Latham, &

Woodwark, 2013). At a deeper level, performance improvement and goal achievement based on

one’s own efforts is a source of pride (Mento, Locke, & Klein, 1992). Achievement satisfaction

and pride, of course, give pleasure but the source is not just from action but action that leads to

attainment.

Morisano and colleagues (2010) found, contrary to the usual goal assumptions, that if

college students were made to reflect at length on their life goals in writing, their college

performance improved even if their list of goals did not include academics. This finding clearly

requires additional research studies.

Goals and goal orientations may be aroused through subconscious priming (Chen &

Latham, 2014; Latham, Brcic & Steinhauer, 2017). They work like conscious motivation but

regulate action separately (Friedman, 2013). However, there is mounting evidence that priming
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 12

effects have some conscious mediators. Latham and colleagues (2017) found that primed goal

difficulty was partly mediated by consciously, self-set goals.

Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), which is also a state theory, pertains to the confidence that

one can execute a course of action to bring about certain performance outcomes. Self-efficacy

plays critical and multiple roles in achievement related action. Aside from main effects, it affects

self-set goal level and goal commitment, it is affected by assigned goals, affects the response to

feedback, and leads to the use of better task strategies (Locke & Latham, 1990, 2013).

A note about flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 1996). The essential elements of flow appear

to be the experience, based on feedback from the current task that indicates smoothly running,

goal-directed progress on a valued activity and during which one loses track of time. The goal

must be clear so that one is not focused on other non-goal actions and one must feel up to the

challenge rather than being preoccupied with self-doubt. Csikszentmihalyi states that flow

appears particularly (but not exclusively) during “autotelic” activities, which people pursue for

the sake of doing it. In this sense, flow resembles intrinsic motivation and, consequently, Kehr

(2004, p.490) called flow “a special case of intrinsic motivation”, which also means that not

every intrinsically motivated or autotelic activity automatically leads to flow. Baumann and

Scheffer (2011) also see flow as a “state of intrinsic motivation in which people get fully

immersed in difficult tasks for the sake of the activity itself” (p. 267). In addition, these authors

proposed a “flow motive” as the disposition to seek flow in the achievement domain but others

have also discussed flow in contexts that are not achievement-related (Schiepe-Tiska & Engeser,

2012). Despite its clear relationship to intrinsic motivation, it is important to note that the

experience of flow shares many characteristics of achievement motivation such as clear goals
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 13

and goal progress, challenge, perceived skills, and feedback. These elements are all part of goal

setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990) and also self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1997).

Flow is a pleasant experience that does not occur all the time because in life everything

does not always go smoothly. Sometimes one fails, feels stymied, needs help, needs a new plan,

and has to persist in the face of failure, which all break the flow. All his requires self-efficacy,

goal commitment (Bandura, 1997; Locke & Latham, 1990, 2013), and often hard thinking. Flow

should be more likely to occur as one becomes more and more skilled on a task that one

performs repeatedly so long as boredom does not set in.

Extrinsic Motivation

There have been many confusions regarding extrinsic motivation. For example, it has

been tied into the demonization of money on the grounds that it causes problems because of the

capitalist system, (e.g., see Kasser, Cohn, Kanner & Ryan, 2007, and Locke’s, 2007, rebuttal).

Ironically, both Communists (Marxists), who are atheists, and religionists condemn money

making. The Communists claim that making a profit is evil (the exploitation theory) and

Christians claim that love of money is the root of all evil. (An exception was Calvinism, which

claimed that making money was proof of God’s grace).

Money has also been viewed (e.g., by Deci, 1975 and others) as controlling, an extension

of the idea of environmental determinism endemic to behaviorism. However, money cannot

control action unless one values it in a given circumstance in some way and the means of gaining

it. Money (specifically paper money) is only inanimate matter; it is a tool of exchange.

Consequently, it is not the money per se that motivates people but the value significance of the

money because nothing can motivate an empty organism. Further, people have the capacity to

choose their values (Locke, 2018b) and therefore money can have many different meanings for
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 14

people, which can be beneficial or detrimental for people’s psychological health (Thibault

Landry, Kindlein, Trépanier, Forest, Zigarmi, Houson, & Brodbeck, 2016). For example, money

can be seen as a means of gaining material goods, as a status symbol, as a means of supporting

one’s loved ones, as providing security for the future, as allowing freedom of choice in one’s

actions, as a backup in case of emergencies, as a way to relieve self-doubt and more (Srivastava,

Locke, & Bartol, 2001).

In psychology, the main focus has long been on what happens when money is given for

performing a task and is then withdrawn, aside from the fact there are a many moderators of this

phenomenon (e.g., Cerasoli, Nicklin, & Ford, 2014). (There have been bitter, conflicting meta-

analyses of this literature, which will not be discussed here, e.g. Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996;

Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999; Cameron, Banko, & Pierce, 2001; Cerasoli et al., 2014).

Obviously, in a real work setting you do not get paid and then have it suddenly withdrawn.

Failing to attain a bonus can be discouraging but this does not eliminate one’s salary unless one

quits the job. Employees do not work for nothing. Not getting paid would lead to a very high

turnover rate! The fundamental issue, as some have acknowledged (Thibault Landry, Gagné,

Forest, Guerrero, Séguin, & Papachristopoulos, 2017) is how to design effective incentive

systems, which is a very complex matter (Weibel, Wiemann, & Osterloh, 2014).

We believe that research on the motivational effects of money has been far too narrowly

focused, not only with respect to the issue of money itself, but with respect to the issue of

extrinsic motivation in general. So what would be the best way to define extrinsic motivation?

We would define extrinsic motivation as involving means-ends relationships; it is doing

something in order to get some future value (or avoid some future disvalue). Because humans
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 15

need to live long range, acting for the future is not only not inferior to other forms of motivation,

as is sometimes suggested, but is essential to happiness and survival (e.g., see Locke, 2018a).

A critical point needs emphasis here: extrinsic does not mean outside the person but

rather outside the task; it pertains to what value a chosen activity can lead to (Rheinberg &

Engeser, 2018). Of course, achieving goals can lead to future benefits but the core of

achievement motivation is the pleasure one gets from task performance, improvement, or

mastery.

Because so much human action, to varying degrees, is taken as a means to an end, it

encompasses any number of action-outcome possibilities (i.e., instrumentality) relationships.

These include, for example, choice of food and drink (what makes your body function well and

free of damage), physical activity (exercise), health management, (e.g., brushing one’s teeth,

getting checkups, taking medication), psychological counseling (increased self-esteem, lowered

depression and anxiety), education (gaining knowledge and skill), saving and investment

(financial security), developing friendships and romantic relationships, having and raising

children, pursuing a career, etc.

We argue that money itself needs to be seen in a much broader framework than worrying

simply about whether, under some circumstances, it is harmful to intrinsic motivation. It is said

that money cannot buy happiness, but to an extent it can (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008; Smith,

2003). The former found that income, up to a certain level, was related to life happiness both

within and between cultures. Smith points out, that humans need material goods to survive and

money is one’s means of getting them. Further, money buys time, which means that one can

avoid things one likes doing less and spend more time doing things one likes more. Money

supports autonomy in the sense that it allows more choices in life. Money expands options.
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 16

Money makes life less precarious. Money provides resources for creating wealth through trade.

Honest wealth creation is a spiritual process in the sense that it requires the best use of one’s

rational faculty (Locke, 2008).

Srivastava and colleagues (2001) found in two studies that there were many self-reported

motives for seeking money. Subjective well-being was associated with wanting money for:

security, family support, getting just compensation for efforts, pride, leisure activities, starting

one’s own business, and supporting favorite charities. These “positive” motives as a group were

related positively to subjective well-being among both student and entrepreneurial samples. Two

“negative” motives, social comparisons and alleviation of self-doubt as a group were negatively

related to subjective well-being in both samples. The rated importance of money was not directly

related to subjective well-being but was correlated with negative motives. Thus, it matters what

you seek money for and why you seek it. (See, for example, Rand’s famous money speech, e.g.,

“[Honestly earned] money is the product of virtue, but it will not give you virtue and will not

redeem your vices”; Rand, 1957, p. 384).

The money issue does not end there. In life, including career selection, job hunting and

job selection (when the job could possibly be gotten) or is offered, there are virtually always

trade-offs between money and other values, for examples, location, commuting, housing,

opportunities for learning and self-development, job security, the organization’s reputation,

company culture, family considerations (spouse’s career, children’s schooling) travel, life style,

saving, stress, hours of work, etc. It is grossly misleading to say that one is controlled by the

money offered—people make choices that involve money and other values based on their

personal value hierarchy virtually every day and have the power to determine and change that

hierarchy. Therefore, “controlled by money” can only mean that it is very near the top of one’s
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 17

value hierarchy and unaffected by other values or moral principles. In reality, monetary values

can always be weighed against non-monetary values (e.g., self-esteem, moral character, romantic

love). Furthermore, character can affect one’s ability to earn money. To the degree that one is

pro: reason, honest, independent in thinking, productive in work, and pro-justice, one’s earning

potential is enhanced (Locke, 2008).

Table 1. Summary of the Trichotomy of Motivation

Intrinsic Achievement Extrinsic
Motivation Motivation Motivation
Short Liking or wanting an Recurrent concern for Doing something in
Definition activity for its own a standard of order to get some
sake. excellence. future value.
Core aspect Enjoyment Achievement Outcomes
Related goals Pleasure form the Meeting a standard, Attainment of valued
experience improvement, skill outcomes
building
Locus of Inside the activity, In the improvement, Outside the activity,
incentive the pursuit of action in the challenge in the consequences
Affective Happiness during the Pride in achievement, Satisfaction with
reaction pursuit of action success, or progress outcome
Example of a Enjoying interacting Improving one’s Valuing the good
salesman with others. sales’ rate. salary.
Example of Enjoyment of one’s Precise execution of Training to win a
fencing movement, elegance, moves. Challenging bout or a tournament.
and exercise. opponent.
Example of Enjoyment of Improving one’s skill Learning for a new
learning a learning. Having fun level. Personal job. Relate better to
foreign at expressing oneself development. Liking others. Requirement
language differently. the challenge. for a study program.
Applications Reflect likes and Clear performance Make goals
in dislikes. Affective standards. Give meaningful. Link
Organizations task visualization. feedback. Encourage goals to company
Match task with Learning from vision. Recognize
interests. mistakes. merits.
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 18

Extrinsic motivation, when it leads people to think, plan, and act long range, should help

to prevent or lower stress and put one on the road to life happiness insofar as that is in one’s

control. Of course, there are caveats. If one’s value choices are based on impressing others or

overcoming self-doubt by showing off (Locke & Kenner, 2016), one has surrendered control of

one’s life and may experience a life of not so quiet desperation. Table 1 summarizes our

trichotomy of motivation.

We end this section with a trick question: which of the three types of motivation is best?

We think the most likely answer is: an integration among all three tied into one’s idealized life

style. What could be better than loving the work (and other things) that you are doing, doing it

well by a rational, personally relevant standard, and gaining long term life benefits as a result of

your efforts and choices? Although the three types can be identified and discussed separately and

can vary independently, they can relate to one another in various ways. Below we suggest

possible relationships.

Interrelationships between Types

Mutual facilitation. Intrinsic motivation does not guarantee high achievement but it may

contribute to it. People who like an activity are usually anxious to spend more time on it and that

may facilitate some skill development. Achievement motivation, at the same time, may facilitate

intrinsic motivation because people tend to like things they are good at. Bandura (1997) has

noted that higher self-efficacy can lead to higher intrinsic motivation. Achievement motivation

can tie into extrinsic motivation. By propelling people to perform at a high level, it increases the

chances that one will be successful in some form, which may help them make money and gain its

associated rewards and benefits. Circling back, money can provide leisure to purse activities that

one loves but which do not bring income (e.g., travel). Completing the circle, intrinsically
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 19

motivated activities can provide ideas for turning the activity into a money-making business

which then involves achievement.

Compensation. Sometime people do not have and perhaps cannot get careers or jobs that

they love, or even like. Nevertheless, they can try to do a good job (achieve some excellence)

and take pride in it. It is often said that many or most lawyers hate their careers. But they can get

some satisfaction (happiness) and pride in being good lawyers. Further, they can make enough

money to allow them to pursue other ends in their leisure time. Thus, achievement and extrinsic

motivation can compensate to a degree for the lack of intrinsic motivation. Going in the other

direction, people can accept less achievement and lower salaries to give them more time to

pursue things they love doing, for example the lawyer who loves painting. The fun of painting

can help make up for the lack of pleasure in the other realms.

Conflict. The compensation issue implies that people can be in conflict about their wants.

They may want a high salary plus lots of free time but cannot get both. The usual reason for such

conflicts is conflicting value hierarchies; they want A and B but cannot have both and do not

want to give up either. This can be caused by family obligations: they need money for the

children’s education but can only get it by working 70 hours a week and giving up painting.

Conflict resolutions of this type require hard (creative) thinking and communication with

significant others who are involved, directly or indirectly. It usually means rethinking one’s

priorities. The existence of possible interrelationships between the three types of motivation is

shown in Figure 1.
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 20

Intrinsic Motivation
•Liking or wanting an
activity for its own sake

Extrinsic Motivation Achievement Motivation

•Doing something in order •Competition with a
to get some future value standard of excellence

Figure 1 – Possible interrelationships between the different types of motivation.

Practical Applications for Organizations

How, specifically, could organizations apply these concepts?

Intrinsic Motivation. Look for employees who like or think they would like the type of

work available in your organization. Explain vividly the main tasks involved in the job. Give

work samples. Find out what previous experiences they have had that are similar to the open job.

Encourage affect-focused visualization of task and goal pursuits related to the intended job (Job

& Brandstätter, 2009). Place them in a job that matches their interests. Give them variety in order

to let new interests develop. Encourage them to grow the job around themselves. Make them

aware of new task opportunities. Encourage them to reflect on their likes and dislikes.

Achievement motivation. Make clear that there are standards of performance. Make

those transparent. Provide sufficient means to attain them. Support the required skill

development. Goals can be self-set (within limits) and/or be assigned. Fun and games in
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 21

organizations have to lead to results. Provide objective feedback about attainments or progress.

Encourage learning from mistakes. Goals in real life settings should be challenging but not

impossible (see Locke & Latham, 1990, Appendix D guidelines). The definition of challenge

should reflect business conditions, employee skills, and organizational resources. Stretch goals

do not have to be fully reached, but can be assigned to stimulate creative thinking (Kerr &

Lepelley, 2013). The appropriate time span depends on the context. Proximal goals can be tied to

distal (longer term) goals. Group (mutually shared) goals are effective (Kramer, Thayer & Salas,

2013) especially if they motivate knowledge exchange and intellectual stimulation. Build self-

and team-efficacy through training. Use learning goals when employees need to acquire new

skills (Seijts et al., 2013), though, it may be possible to combine them with performance goals

(Masuda et al., 2015).

Extrinsic Motivation. Give employees opportunities for self-development. Help them

upgrade their skills. Allow autonomy commensurate with trust in skill and ethics. Make goals as

meaningful as possible and provide a rationale for imposed goals (Güntert, 2015). Emphasize a

higher purpose by relating goals to the vision of the organization (Rawolle, Kehr, & Glaser,

2008). In addition to market sensitive base pay, recognize merit based on fair and objective

judgements (e.g., see Bock, 2015). Facilitate career progress. Encourage and support retirement

and life planning. Try to help coordinate the job with family responsibilities (e.g., flexible

schedules, work at home policies).

 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 22

A Recommended Research Program

Frequently when presenting a conceptual paper, scholars are urged to formulate a theory

consisting of propositions deduced from other theories. We have chosen not to follow this

tradition. The first author has been a long-time fan of the inductive method, which means

building theory from accumulated evidence rather than building a theory in advance (cf. Locke,

2007; Locke & Latham, 1990). In our view, premature theorizing cuts off the discovery process.

In science there is an enormous amount of trial and error; if one knew what was going to be

discovered, no experiments would be needed at all. Trial and error can be guided by a

hypothesis, but a hypothesis does not necessarily have to be guided by a wider theory. There can

even be studies done with no hypotheses. The impetus can be: “Let’s see what will happen if I do

this.” In science, we need to “try stuff” in order to identify conditions and processes. Moreover,

trying will lead to new and creative ideas, albeit inevitably also to some failures, which should be

viewed as learning experiences.

Our view of replication is that exact replication of single studies, though useful, is

insufficient by itself (Locke, 2015). If you replicate one study 100 times, you still have only one

study. To be able to generalize across tasks, subjects, procedures, measures, and time you need

deliberate replication with variation (e.g., see Locke & Latham, 1990). This allows the discovery

of moderators (interactions) and causal mediators.

We recommend a research program on the three types of motivation described. It would start

simply with question asking. Here are some suggestions:

 What are some concrete examples of the different type of motivation based on people’s

personal experiences? What are some intrinsically pleasurable activities that you have

experienced? What are examples of times you have attained excellence or succeeded in
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 23

reaching performance goals? What things do you do mainly for future benefits? What

types of attainments are most important to you?

 Could questionnaires be constructed to measure people’s experiences in each category?

 Should the questions be general or tied to specific life domains (e.g., work, family)?

Should both types of scales be developed?

 Should there be attempts to use projective as well as conscious, self-report measures in

these realms? If so, which types?

 How do scores on each type of scale correlate with various outcomes (e.g., life, family,

financial, career attainments, self-esteem and satisfaction)?

 Does it matter how people weight the three types of motivation? Are there individual

differences?

 How can or do the three types of motivation combine? Is the best job, career, or life when

one gets pleasure from all three types or are there exceptions?

 Do people experience conflicts between the types? If so, why? How do people try to

reconcile them? How does that work?

 Do some types compensate for failings in other types? How do people process this? Are

their different profiles that lead to the same outcome (e.g., life satisfaction)?

 Have we overlooked other influential types of motivation (e.g., power lust)?

This is by no means a complete list. We do not suggest an a priori theory as we do not

want or can anticipate the research people will come up with. This is what inductive research is

all about (Locke, 2007).

 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 24

Conclusion

Intrinsic motivation has often been inappropriately glorified, seen as somehow superior

(even morally superior) whereas extrinsic motivation, specifically wanting to make money, has

often been inappropriately demonized in the popular and scientific literature. Furthermore, the

debate about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has almost entirely ignored a third, crucial type,

namely achievement motivation, which has often been confused with intrinsic motivation. The

concepts have also suffered from definitional problems. We suggest that all three types of

motivation are independent, yet related concepts (all are sources of pleasure) that can mutually

facilitate, compensate, or be in conflict with one another. We have proposed some guiding

questions for a future research program and we hope that this will spark the discussion about the

three types of motivation, their differences and communalities. In the end, a personally satisfying

combination of intrinsic, achievement, and extrinsic motivation, we predict, is optimal for a

fulfilled and happy life.

 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 25

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