Module 1 Page 1 of 21 Mechanical Measurements & Metrology

Introduction to Metrology
Metrology is the name given to the science of pure measurements. For engineering purposes, it is restricted to
measurements of length and angle quantities which are expressed in linear or angular terms. Metrology is concerned
with the establishment, reproduction, conservation and transfer of units of measurements and their standards. It is
also concerned with the methods, execution and estimation of accuracy of measurements, measuring instruments
and also the inspectors.

Objectives of Metrology:
o To provide the required accuracy of measurement at minimum cost.
o Thorough evaluation of newly developed products and to ensure that components are within specified
dimensions.
o To determine process capability.
o To assess the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that they are adequate for their specific
measurements.
o To reduce the cost of inspection by effective and efficient utilization of available facilities.
o To reduce the cost of rejections and rework by applying statistical quality control techniques.
o To standardize measuring methods by proper inspection methods at development stage itself.
o To maintain the accuracies of measurements through periodical calibration.
o To prepare designs for gauges and special inspection fixtures.

Metrology is separated into different categories with different levels of complexity and accuracy:
o Fundamental metrology: It may be described as scientific metrology supplemented by those parts of legal
and industrial metrology that requires scientific competence. It signifies the highest level of accuracy in the
field of metrology. Fundamental metrology is divided in accordance with the following eleven fields – mass,
electricity, length, time & frequency, thermometry, ionizing radiation & radioactivity, photometry &
radiometry, flow, acoustics, amount of substance and interdisciplinary metrology.
o Scientific Metrology: It deals with the organization and development of measurement standards and their
maintenance, development of units of measurement & measurement methods, transfer of traceability from
these standards to the users in the society.
o Industrial Metrology: It ensures the adequate functioning of measuring instruments used in the industry as
well as in production and testing processes. This includes the need for traceability, which becomes just as
important as measurement itself. Recognition of metrological standards/competence at each level of
traceability, a chain of standards can be established by mutual recognition agreements or arrangements.
o Legal Metrology: It is concerned with accuracy of the measurements where these have influence on the
transparency of economical transactions, health & safety. It seeks to protect the public against inaccuracy in
trade. It also includes a number of international organizations aiming at maintaining the uniformity of
measurements throughout the world. National Service of Legal Metrology is the national organization. The
functions of legal metrology also include regulation, advice, supervise and control the manufacture and
calibration of measuring instruments, organize training on legal metrology etc.

Measurement is the process of comparing a quantitatively unknown magnitude with a predefined standard.

Need for Inspection:

o Inspection is necessary to check all materials, products and component parts at various stages during
manufacturing, assembly, packaging and installation in the customer’s environment. It is the quality
assurance method that compares materials, products or processes with established standards.
o Production output meets the interchangeability of manufacture
o It provides the means of finding the problem area for not meeting the established standards
o To produce parts having acceptable quality levels with reduced scrap and wastages.
o To purchase good quality of raw materials, tools and equipments that govern the quality of finished
products.
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o To take necessary efforts to measure and reduce rejection percentage for forthcoming production batches
by matching the technical specification of the product with the process capability.
o To judge the possibility of rework of defective parts and re-engineer the process.

Principal Aspects of Measurement:

o Accuracy: Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the quality characteristic agrees with the
true value. The accuracy of a method of measurement is referred to its absence of bias to the conformity of
results to the true value of quality characteristics being measured. As exact measurement of a true value is
difficult, a set of observations are made and whose mean value is taken as the true value of the quantity to
be measured. The measured value is the sum of the quantity measured and the error of the instrument. As
both of them are independent of each other, the standard deviation of the measured value is the square
root of the squares of standard deviation of true value and the square of the standard deviation of the error
of measurement.

o Precision: Precision is the degree of repeatability in the measuring process. Precision of a method of
measurement refers to its variability when used to make repeated measurements under carefully controlled
conditions. A numerical measure of precision is the standard deviation of the frequency distribution that
would be obtained from such repeated measurements. Precision is mainly achieved by selecting a correct
instrument technology for application. The general guide line for determining the right level of precision is
that the measuring instrument must be ten times more precise than the specified tolerances. Precision is the
closeness of agreement between independent test results and those obtained under stipulated conditions.
o Repeatability conditions are where test results are obtained with the same method on identical test items in
the same laboratory by the same operator using the same equipment within short intervals of time.
o Range: It is the capacity within which an instrument is capable of measuring.
o Resolution: It is the smallest change of measured quantity which changes the indication on a measuring
instrument.
o Sensitivity: It denotes the smallest change in value of measured variable to which the instrument responds.
It denotes the maximum change in an input signal that will not initiate a response on the output.
o Response time: It is the time which elapses after a sudden change of measured quantity until the instrument
gives an indication different from the true value by an amount less than the given permissible values.
o Errors in Measurement: The error in a measurement is the difference between the measured value and the
true value of the measured dimension. Errors in measurements are classified into two types- one, which
should not occur and can be eliminated by careful work and attention; and other, which is inherent in the
measuring process/system. Error may be absolute or relative.
o Absolute Error: This is further divided into types
 True absolute error: It is defined as the algebraic difference between the result of
measurement and the conventional true value of the quantity measured.
 Apparent Absolute error: It is defined as the algebraic difference between the arithmetic
mean and one of the results of measurement when a series of measurements are made.

If absolute value = x and approximate value = x+dx then

Absolute error = dx
o Relative Error: It is the quotient of the absolute error and the value of comparison (may be true
value or the arithmetic mean of a series of measurements) used for calculation of the absolute error.
It is an error with respect to the actual value.

o Percentile error (Ep): Relative error is expressed in percentage form and is called percentile error.

Types of Error: There are different types of error which occur during measurement and can be divided into 2
major categories:
o Systematic errors: The systematic or controllable errors are in the form of experimental mistakes
and can be controlled in magnitude and direction. These errors have a definite magnitude and
direction and they are repeated consistently every time when a reading is repeated. The different
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types of systematic or controllable errors are alignment error, environment error, support error, Dirt
error, contact error, reading error.
o Random error: This type of error occurs randomly and they cannot be determined. These errors are
generated due to a number of unpredictable and fluctuating causes such as vibrations, friction,
backlash in instrument, etc. The frequency of occurrence of random errors depends on the
probability for the different values of random error and the most reliable value of the size being
observed in series of measurements is the arithmetic mean of the obtained result.
o Calibration: It is a set of operations that establish, under specified conditions, the relationship between
values of quantities indicated by a measuring instrument or values represented by a material measure and
the corresponding values realized by the standards. The result of calibration may be recorded in a document
called calibration certificate. The result can be expressed as corrections with respect to the indications of the
instrument.
o Nominal Value: It is a rounded or approximate value of a characteristic of a measuring instrument that
provides a guide to its use.

Methods of measurement: Measurement is a set of operations done with the aim of determining the value of a
quantity which can be measured by various methods of measurements depending upon the accuracy required and
the amount of permissible error. The methods of measurements are classified as follows:
o Direct Method: Here the value of the quantity to be measured is obtained directly without any calculations.
It involves contact or non contact type inspection. In case of contact type of inspection, mechanical probes
make manual or automatic contact with the object being inspected. On the other hand, the non contact type
of method utilizes a sensor located at a certain distance from the object under inspection. Human
insensitiveness can affect the accuracy of measurement. Examples are measurement by scales, vernier
calipers, micrometers, bevel protractor etc.
o Indirect Method: the value of quantity to be measured is obtained by measuring other quantities which are
frequently related with the required value. Example is the angle measurement by sine bar, three wire
method for measuring the screw pitch diameter, density calculation by measuring mass and dimensions for
calculating the volume.
o Absolute Method: This method is also called fundamental method and is based on the measurement of the
base quantities used to define a particular quantity. Examples are measuring a quantity such as length
directly in accordance with the definition of that quantity (definition of length in units).
o Comparison Method: The value of quantity to be measured is compared with a known value of the same
quantity or another quantity related to it. In this method, only deviations are noted and examples are dial
indicators or other comparators.
o Substitution Method: The quantity is measured by direct comparison on an indicating device by replacing
the measurable quantity with another which produces the same effect on the indicating device. Example of
this process is measuring mass by means of Borda Method.
o Coincidence Method: It is also called differential method of measurement. In this, there is a small difference
between the value of quantity to be measured and the reference. The reference is compared by the
observation of the coincidence of certain lines or signals. Examples of this method are measurement by
vernier calipers, micrometer, etc.
o Transposition Method: It is the method of measurement by direct comparisons in which the value of
quantity is first balanced by an initial known value (P) of the same quantity. Then the value of the quantity to
be measured (Q) is put in place of that known value and is balanced again by another known value. If the
position of the element indicating equilibrium is same in both cases then the value of the quantity to be
measured is . Example of this method is the determination of mass by means balance.
o Deflection Method: The value of the quantity to be measured is directly indicated by the deflection of a
pointer on a calibrated scale. Example is dial indicator.
o Complementary Method: The value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a known value of the
same quantity. Example is determination of volume of a solid by liquid displacement.
o Method of Null measurement: It is a method of differential measurement. In this method the difference
between the value of the quantity to be measured and the known value of the same quantity with which it is
compared is brought to zero. Example is measurement by potentiometer.

Classification of Measuring Instruments:

o On the basis of function
o Length measuring instruments
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o Angle measuring instruments
o Surface roughness measuring instruments
o Geometric form checking instruments
o On the basic accuracy
o Most accurate instruments
o Moderately accurate instruments
o Below moderate-accurate instruments
o On the basis of precision
o Precision measuring instruments
o Non precision measuring instruments

Selection of Measuring Instruments:

o Range of measurement carried by the instrument
o Sensitivity of the instrument
o Accuracy and precision of the instrument
o Error generated during the measurement
o Scale spacing and scale division value of the instrument
o Pressure applied on the component while measurement
o Effect of surrounding conditions on the instrument
o Life of the instrument
o Repeatability of measurements
o Cost and maintenance of the instrument
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Systems of Measurement
A measurement system is based on few fundamental units. All the physical quantities can be expressed in terms of
those fundamental units. Following are the systems of measurements are use in different countries:
o F.P.S System: In this system unit of length is yard, unit of mass is pound, unit of time is second.
o Metric system: In this system unit of length is meter, unit of mass is kg, unit of weight/force is kgf unit of
time is second.
o S.I. system: The basic seven (7) units, meter, kg, second, kelvin, ampere, candela, mole.

Standard: It is defined as “something that is setup and established by an authority as a rule for the measure of
quantity, weight, extent, value or quality”. The role of a standard is to achieve, uniform, consistent and repeatable
measurements and to support the system which make such measurements possible throughout the world.

Types of Standards:
a) Material standard: In material standards the fundamental unit is specified based on the material and not on
phenomenon happening in nature. Material standards have to be carefully maintained and there is a change of
damage to the standard and the same cannot be easily transferred. Length is of fundamental importance as even
angles can be measured by combination of linear measurements.

o Line Standards: When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between 2lines and then it is
referred to as line measurement. Line standards donot provide high accuracy as that of end standards.
Examples are scales, Imperial standard yard, etc.
Characteristics of Line Standards:
o Scales can be accurately engraved but it is difficult to take full advantage of this accuracy.
o A scale is quick and easy to use over a wide range since only one is required.
o The scale markings are not subject to wear although significant wear on the leading ends leads to
under sizing i.e., bias towards negative component errors.
o A scale does not possess a built in datum which would allow easy scale alignment with the axis of
measurement and this again leads to under sizing.
o Scales are subject to parallax effect, a source of both positive and negative reading errors.
o Scales are not convenient for close tolerances and length measurements except in conjunction with
microscopes.
o Accuracy is affected by temperature changes.

o End Standards: When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between 2 surfaces, it is
referred to as end measurement. End standards consist of standard blocks or bars which are used to build
the required length.
Examples are slip gauges, ends of micrometer anvils, etc.
Characteristics of End Standards:
o These are highly accurate and are well suited to measurement of close tolerances.
o They are time consuming in use and prove only one dimension at a time.
o Dimensional tolerances as small as 0.0005mm can be obtained.
o End standards are subject to wear on their measuring faces.
o End standards have built in datum, because their measuring faces are flat, parallel and can be
positively located on datum surface.
o They are not subject to parallax effect since their use depends on feel.
o Groups of blocks are wrung together to build up any length, faulty wringing leads to damage.
o Accuracy is affected by temperature changes.

Disadvantages of Material Standards

o The material standards vary in length over the years owing to molecular changes in the alloys from which
they are made thus affecting the free measurement.
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o The replicas of material standards were not available for use somewhere else.
o The material standards are damaged or destroyed then exact copies could not be made.
o Conversion factor was to be used for changing over to other units of measurements.

b) Light Wave or Optical Length Standard: In order to define a standard length it is necessary to find a suitable light
source from which a given radiation can be easily selected and whose wavelength can be used as a basic unit of
length. Meter is thus defined as equal to 16,50,763.63 wavelengths of orange radiation in vacuum of the Krypton-86
isotope at 68K. Yard is defined as 15,94,458.35 wavelengths of orange radiation in vacuum of krypton-86 isotope at
68K. The substance Krypton was used because it produces a sharply defined interference lines and its wavelength
was the most uniform known at the time the wavelength standard was defined.
Advantages of Wavelength standard:
o It doesnot change in length
o It can be reproduced easily if destroyed.
o Identical copies can be kept in all standard rooms and physical laboratories.
o It can be used for making comparative measurements of much high accuracy than was possible with the
older material standards.
o It will give a unit of length which could be produced consistently at any time in all countries.

Meter is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 seconds. This is achieved
in practice through the use of iodine stabilized helium-neon laser, the reproducibility is 3 parts in 1011 (i.e. similar
to comparing earth’s mean circumference to an accuracy of about 1mm)

Imperial Standard Yard: The imperial standard yard is a bronze bar of 1” square cross section and 38” long. A round
recess one inch away from the 2nds is cut at both ends up to the center or neutral plane of the bar. A small round
recess of 1/10” in diameter is made below the center and is fitted with gold plugs having engravings so that the
engraved lines are in the neutral plane.
Yard is defined as the distance between the 2
central lines (transverse) of the gold plug at 62⁰F.
The purpose of keeping the gold plugs surface in
line with the neutral axis is to ensure that the plug
is well protected from accidental damage and the
neutral axis is not affected due to bending. The
imperial yard shrunk at a rate of one millionth of an
inch in 50years

We have 1yard=0.91439841meter.
1feet = 1/3 x yard

International Prototype Meter: International prototype meter is defined as the straight line distance at 0⁰C between
the engraved lines on platinum-iridium alloy of 1020mm length and having a tresca cross section.
The graduations are on the upper
surface of the web which coincides with
the neutral axis of the section. Tresca
section gives greater rigidity for a given
amount of material involved and is
therefore economic in the use of the
expensive metal. Platinum-Iridium alloy
is non oxidizable and retains good
polished surface required for engraving
good quality lines.

End bar or Length bars: These are made of steel, tungsten carbide,
chromium carbide and ceramic materials having a cylindrical cross
section of 22mm diameter with faces lapped and hardened at the
ends and are available in various lengths. Reference and calibration
grade end bars have plane end faces but inspection, workshop grade
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end bars can be joined together by studs screwed into the two tapped holes in their ends.
The end faces are hardened to 64RC(800HV) and lapped to meet requirements of finish, flatness, parallelism and
gauge length. These are available up to 500mm in length in 8 piece set. Length bars can be combined using studs to
get different lengths.

Slip Gauges: Slip gauges or gauge blocks are rectangular blocks of steel having a cross section of about 30x10mm and
are universally accepted standards of length in industry and are working standards of linear dimensions. They are
used for two main purposes:
o For direct precise measurement where the accuracy of the work piece demands it.
o For use with high magnification comparators to establish the size of gauge blocks in general use.
Slip gauges are also used to check the accuracy of measuring instrument, setting up a comparator to specific
dimension, enabling a batch of components to be quickly and accurately checked or when a standard of known
length is needed.

Airy Points: In order to minimize slightest error in the neutral axis due to the supports at the ends, the supports
must be placed such that the slope at the ends is zero and flat end faces of the standards are parallel and such
support points are called Airy points.

Support distance = , where L is length of bar and n is number of supports.

For simply supported beam the distance between airy points is 0.577L.
In case of airy points, some sag is permitted at the center which is just is just sufficient to pull the ends of the bar
square with the measuring plane. In case of points of minimum deflection, the central sag should be minimum.
When a bar is supported at points of minimum deflection, its ends sag and lift the center portion of the bar
minimizing the central deflection. The distance between the supports is 0.554L, (Bessel Points) for the minimum
deflection condition.

Bessel points are suitable for line standard and are not indicated on straight edges and reference planes, etc. Airy
points are indicated on length bars above 150mm length.

Subdivision of Standards: Depending on the importance of accuracy required for work, the standards are subdivided
into 4 grades.
o Primary Standards: To define a unit most precisely, there is only one material standard which is preserved
under specially created conditions. Such type of material standard is known as primary standard. The
International meter is an example of primary standard. This should be used for comparison with secondary
standards and cannot be used for direct application.
o Secondary Standards: These should be exactly alike the primary standards by all aspects including design,
material and length. Initially they are compared with primary standards after long intervals and records of
their deviation are noted. These standards should be kept at a number of places in custody for occasional
comparison with tertiary standards.
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o Tertiary Standards: The primary and secondary standards are applicable only as ultimate controls. Tertiary
standards are used for reference purposes in laboratories and workshops. They can again be used for
comparison at intervals with working standards.
o Working Standards: These are also called secondary line standards and are necessary
for use in scientific laboratories and other similar institutions. The shape of the
standards may not be identical to primary standards. A line standard of H section is
common and the neutral surface of the H-section bar is polished and carried
graduation lines defining the standard with necessary sub divisions. Materials used for
secondary standards are Invar (alloy of nickel and steel), fused silica, Elinvar (alloy of nickel and chromium).
All these materials have very low coefficients of linear expansions.

Standards are also classified as

o Reference Standards: used for reference purposes
o Calibration Standards: used for calibration of inspection and working standards.
o Inspection Standards: Used by Inspectors
o Working standards: Used by operators

Calibration: Calibration is a comparison of instrument performance to standards of known accuracy. Calibrations link
customer’s measurement equipment to national and international standards. Calibration means finding out whether
the instrument gives correct reading or not. It also includes minor adjustments in the instrument to minimize error.
Calibration can be done In-house calibration lab, Professional calibration labs. National Accreditation Board for
Testing and Calibration Laboratory (NABL) certification is given to those laboratories which have the instruments as
per the NABL norms. In house calibration labs donot need this certificate.

According to ISO, Calibration is the quantitative determination of errors of measuring instruments and adjusting
them to a minimum.

Traceability: This is the concept of establishing a valid calibration

system of measuring instrument or measuring standard by
comparing with standards upto specified limit. It maintains trace of
the establishing calibration system with the standard system and
the results are traceable to national standards. For achieving
traceability of credible measurements, it is necessary to use
hierarchical calibration systems and it must be compared with
appropriate measurement standards.

Calibration of End bars: The procedure of calibration of 2bars of basic length 500mm with the help of one piece
meter bar is as follows:
o The calibrated meter bar is wrung to the surface plate and the two 500mm bars are wrung together to form
a length bar of approximately one meter.
o This combination bar is wrung alongside the
meter bar on the surface plate.
o The difference in the height X1 is obtained.
o A comparison is made to determine the
difference in length of the 500mm bars which
is noted as X2.

Let L=actual length of the meter bar

LA, LB = Lengths of the two 500mm bars
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From the first measurement we have,

–
From the second measurement we have,

Substituting (2) in (1) we get

The procedure can be adopted for calibrating any number of end bars wrung together in combinations or of same
basic size. When comparing the individual bars, one of them is used as reference and the difference in the length of
others is obtained relative to this bar.

Transfer from line to End standard or NPL method of deriving End standards from Line standards
Line standard of length is inconvenient for general measurement applications. The end standards have to be
produced to highest accuracy in relation to line standards for practical use. A line standard comparator is used to
calibrate the end standards from the Line standards.
o A line standard comparator is used which has two microscopes mounted about a yard apart over a table. The
table can be traversed across the microscopes. A line standard is placed on the table such the markings are
located below the viewing microscopes. The distance between the 2 engraved lines on the line standard is
36” (yard standard is used).
o An end standard of 35.5” is produced with ends flat and mutually parallel faces. Two 0.5” blocks are wrung
to the ends having an engraving at the center of the two end faces. The distance between the engravings on
the 0.5” blocks wrung would be 36” (approx).
o Let the actual length of the 35.5” bar be l and ignoring the effect of wringing film between the surfaces in
contact and other possible errors like misplacing the line on the 0.5” blocks, error in measurement of 35.5”
bar, the distance between the markings on the wrung end bars should be 36”.
o But the 2 end blocks may be arranged in 4 different positions and one arrangement is shown. (In different
arrangements, different parallel faces will be in contact with the end faces of the 35.5” end bar.)
o The apparatus compares the position of the lines on the line standard with the lines on the end standard,
then with micrometer eyepiece any small longitudinal variations between can be determined. (X 1, X2) The
difference in the variations at the two ends be d1 in one position, then d1=X1-X2

o Let a, b, c and d be the distance of the central marking to the end faces of the 0.5” blocks. If the difference in
the variations d1, d2, d3 and d4 respectively for the 4 positions of the 0.5” blocks then we have
o
o Taking the mean of the 4 readings we have

o It should be noted that the error due to the possible misplacing of the lines between the end faces of the
0.5” blocks are eliminated.
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o The 35.5” end standard is then wrung with one of 0.5” blocks and is
compared with the 36” end bar on a Brooke’s comparator and the deviation
D1 is noted. If L is the actual length of the 36” bar under calibration then we
have

o Taking the average of the above equations we get

o From Equations 1 and 2 we get

o From Equation (3), the length L of the end bar was obtained and the length
of any sub multiple of a yard can be derived. The 36” end bar is thus calibrated and by this method the
unknown errors in the 35.5” end standard and the 0.5” blocks are symmetrically eliminated.