1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Recently considerable emphasis is being positioned on the development of air breathing

propulsion systems for the high Mach number and high altitude applications. The inherent
advantages of air-breathing engines make them desirable to conventional rockets and missiles.
With the purpose of meet the challenging performance requirements of High Mach number,
High altitude and several advanced propulsion concepts have been proposed namely ramjet,
scramjet and dual combustion ramjet. Neither ramjets nor scramjets need be axially symmetric
about a centerline because they contain no rotating machinery. Ramjet are the engines if
optimal for flight in the Mach number range 3-6 , and are principally used for hypersonic flight.
The first conventional thermal power cycles is compression, which the ramjet consummate by
the fore body of the vehicle or the diffuser. The flow is compressed by slowing the oncoming
airflow through one or more oblique shock waves generated in the deceleration of the
supersonic flow into subsonic flow in a convergent duct, renovating the supersonic flow into
subsonic flow through a normal shock wave system and further decelerating the subsonic flow
in a divergent duct. Fuel is injected into the subsonic flow, it mixes and burns in the combustion
chamber. The hot and high pressure flow is then accelerates back to the supersonic exit speed
using the convergent divergent nozzle.

Fig.1.1 Ramjet Engine

When the flight Mach number exceeds above 6, this effect becomes so prominent that
 2

it is no longer advantageous to decelerate the flow to subsonic speeds. Depending upon the flight
conditions and details of the diffuser operation, the adverse pressures is too high for practical
burner design, excessive performance losses due to the normal shock wave system, excessive
wall heat transfer rates and combustion conditions that lose a large fraction of the available
chemical energy to dissociation.

Fig.1.2 Scramjet Engine

In case of hypersonic flight, incoming air is partially compressed and decelerated,

avoiding the particular normal shock wave system which results that the flow entering the
combustor is supersonic. The resulting engine is known as supersonic combustion ramjet engine
(SCRAMJET) fig 1.2. While the scramjet have most common with ramjets. Even though the
diffuser is responsible for some of the desired compression and deceleration, much of it is
invariably accomplished by oblique shock waves originating from the vehicle fore body located
upstream of the engine. Moreover, the diffuser exit flow is supersonic and their geometry is
entirely convergent. Fuel is injected into the supersonic flow just downstream of the diffuser and
important of achieving rapid and thorough mixing because the time available for the combustion
process in 1ms. The heat loads are highest in the burner, primarily because of the combination of
the high energy of the oncoming flow and the local high gas density due to compression. The
exhaust nozzle need only be divergent because the accelerating flow is supersonic throughout.

To achieve supersonic combustion our ultimate task to design the fuel injection, ignition
and flame holding methods. In fuel injection process injector can generates stream wise counter
rotating vortices. As a result, during vortices the broadening of fuel air interfaces at micro level
 3

to increase the interfacial area and steepen the local concentration gradient to boost the effective
mixing of air and fuel.

On the other hand the Ignition and flame holding are the other two important factors in
the high speed combustion. If ignition established, the combustion efficiency directly depends on
fuel-air mixing. But flame holding is the most exertion to increase the efficiency of combustion.
For self-ignition to be accomplished in a combustible mixture, it is necessary of four quantities
like static temperature, static pressure, fuel air mixing and residence time. In ignition process,
some free radicals are formed to initiate the reaction until no heat can be produced. Combustion
velocity is larger, ignition requires longer distance. The primary objective of a flame holder in
supersonic combustion is to reduce the ignition distance.

Flame holding is recognized by different techniques like: 1) association of recirculation

area where the fuel and air can be mixed partially at low velocities, 2) collaboration of a shock
wave with incompletely and entirely mixed fuel and oxidizer and 3) finally formation of coherent
structures encompassing unmixed fuel and air. Above said three techniques is applied in
supersonic combustion in different ways.

On the simplest approach fuel injection interacts with supersonic cross flow, a bow
shock produced. As it generates boundary layer separation, then fuel and air mixed subsonically
at the exit of the jet. This region is important in transverse injection flow fields because of its
flame-holding capability in combusting situations. However, this injection configuration has
stagnation pressure losses due to stronger bow shocks formed by the normal jet penetration,
particularly a high flight velocities. Another flame holding method is larger recirculation area
with hot gases. But it can produce low pressure and it also increases the drag. In an inclined
injector such as 60 and 30 degree angled injection generates weaker bow shocks so that diminish
the stagnation pressure losses. If 90 degree angled injection stronger bow shocks can be formed.
To achieve efficient combustion within a manageable length, a successful fuel injection scheme
must provide a stable flame holding system.

In this century, many flame holders are used to holding the flame that includes Cavity and
Bluff body. Cavity is one of the concept and the experiments have shown that cavity based flame
 4

holders proposition relatively low drag replacements to conventional intrusive flame stabilizing
devices in scramjet combustors. Cavities are premeditated in central aviation motors (CIAM) in
Moscow. The research work was started early 1950s it is work under both experimental and
computational methods in subsonic and supersonic flows. These devices are generally small
recesses in the combustor wall with geometries categorized by their aspect ratio (L/D) and aft
ramp angle (ϴ). Key issues controlling the performance of cavity flame holders include
entrainment rate, residence time and distribution of fuel and air within the cavity. But during
shear layer formation bow shocks can be produced. So it leads to enormous amount of stagnation
pressure losses. The cavity is divided into two types depends upon aspect (L/D) ratio. That
includes:

• open cavity

• closed cavity

In open cavity L/D<10 in which the upper shear layer reattaches to the back face fig. 1.3
(away from the cavity downstream) whereas the closed cavity condition is L/D >10 in fig. 1.4,
the shear layer reattaches to the bottom wall in the cavity, which causes higher drag than open
cavity . Because shear layer stiffens at the reattachment point and it forms the cavity oscillation.
During oscillation causes pressure fluctuation such as pressure increasing in the aft wall of the
cavity and pressure decreasing on the upstream wall of the cavity. Another type of cavity is
varied along their shape were rectangular cavities, triangular cavities, circular cavities, aft ramp
cavities etc. for modifying different shapes vortex can be varied.

Fig.1.3 Open Cavity

 5

Fig.1.4 Closed Cavity

Fig.1.5 Cavity Configuration.

In normal cavity (refer fig 1.3 and 1.4), the back wall is perpendicular to the bottom
wall. Another one cavity, back wall is inclined to the bottom wall as degree as 22 in fig. 1.5. Such
inclined cavities creates weak bow shocks to reduce the stagnation pressure losses. Fuel air
mixing is better compared to other normal cavities. Cavity drag is also increased in aft wall
cavities. So our focuses on the characteristics of aft wall cavity flow for past two dimensional
cavities in a blow down type non-reacting supersonic flow facility. The facility consists of a
supersonic nozzle which provides a flow Mach numbers of 1.5.In experiment we investigate the
flow analysis for the effect of slot in the aft wall angled cavity in the supersonic flow field.
 6

Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Cavity plays a major role in a mixing and flame holding device for scramjet combustors.
Experimental and numerical investigation were carried out in past to understand the past flow
phenomena.

Jeyakumar et al [2016] work in the circular cross-sectional test section is fastened at the
exit of the nozzle. Cavities of constant length and width, and varying depth are used for the study.
As the result shown that the depth of the cavity is increased, residence time of the fluid as well
as the mixing characteristics are enhanced and stagnation pressure loss also increased. Twin
cavities are also arranged symmetrically, which further leads to an improvement in mixing with
marginal rise in stagnation pressure loss.

Barth Wheatley and Smart [2015] investigated his experiment the potential benefits of
hydrogen fuel injection in a three-dimensional scramjet inlet, flow through a Mach 12
rectangular-to-elliptical shape transitioning scramjet inlet was simulated with and without
hydrogen fuel injection along its body-side compression surface. It was found that robust mixing
of the fuel allowed it ignite just upstream of the inlet throat. The impingement of a strong shock
on the fuel-laden boundary layer allowed the flame to spread across the entire body- side surface,
with almost 53% of injected fuel completely burned by the time it reached the throat. Despite
this, the mainstream mass capture of the inlet was unaffected. Total inlet drag only increased
slightly because combustion is not initiated along the primary compression surfaces of the inlet

Eunju et al [2008] conducted experiments on angled injection of hydrogen upstream of

the cavity in a supersonic flow path. The results indicate that the separate shear layer reattaches
and generate oblique shock wave at trailing edge of the cavity. The heat release due to the
combustion was mostly initiated by the shock wave from the cavities trailing face and the ignition
above the cavity does not have a strong influence on the downstream combustion.
 7

Li et al [2001] describes his experiment in Mach 5.5 flight condition, total pressure of
1.6 MPa, and stagnation temperature of 1486 K. The properties of dual-cavity structure on
ignition and flame holding were studied. Two cavities like T1 and T2 can be designated. The
experiment investigated in spark ignition and flame stabilization of kerosene in a dual cavity
combustor. The result of the experiment is the T2 cavity could stabilize the flame convected
downstream from the T1 cavity. With the help of the T2 cavity flame holder, a rigorous
combustion could be established. Second, compared with the T1 cavity, the T2 cavity is a more
suitable ignition location because the fuel has a longer distance for evaporation and mixing.

Li et al [2013] using a plasma jet (PJ) torch with 1.5 kW input power as a igniter,
successful ignition for liquid-kerosene fuelled combustion experiment was conducted in a direct
connected supersonic test facility at Mach 1.8 and total temperature 950K, The process of ignition
and flame front propagation were obtained through high speed photography.

Mohamed Ali and Kurian [2008] conducted experiments for a Mach of 1.76 for two
cavity configuration a low aspect ratio (L/D= 3mm) and high aspect ratio (L/D= 6mm) with cavity
length is kept constant (L=60mm) with varying depth (D= 20mm and 10mm) and with varying
ramp angles (Θ = 30o, 45o, 75o and 90o) . The conclusion of the experiment is lower aspect ratio
cavity is more stable with lower aft ramp angle than higher aspect ratio cavity. In general the
flame holding appearances is good for lower aspect ratio than higher aspect ratio.

Zuncai et.al. [2016] suggested that fuel and oxidizer mixing process in supersonic
combustor with a rear wall expansion cavity. In his experiment optimum injector is located
upstream of the front and middle part of the rear wall expansion cavity. The experiments done on
both experimental and analytical data. The results showed that the fuel mass fraction inside the
cavity was shown to increase. The local turbulent intensity was also shown to increase due to the
local fuel jet flow, which would enhance the mixing process leading to an increased mixing
efficiency.

Charwat et al [1992] studied several types of separated regions such as blunt base wakes
and cavities formed in cut outs in the boundaries and forward of or behind two dimensional steps
in supersonic and subsonic flow. Labelling the cavities as open or closed, they reported that there
 8

is a maximum length of the separated free shear layer to the depth of the despair in the boundary
yonder which the cavity flops leaving behind independent and separated regions at each of the
protrusions. They revealed the extent of heat transfer from the cavity depending on the thickness
of the potential boundary layer.
Ukai et al [2013] characterize the flow field view using Schileren photography, particle
image velocimetry and oil flow measurements. The investigation was performed on a rectangular
open cavity with upstream injector model in a free stream Mach number of 1.9. In that case the
separation shock formed at the front edge of the cavity oscillates pointedly for the case where the
jet is located at certain distance because the separation shock location coincides with the
compression shock behind the jet.

Taro et al [2014] described the novel wall mounted cavity and it is having three
dimensional shape is proposed for enhances mixing. In the experiments, time-dependent pressure
measurements and oil-flow surface visualization are carried out. The experimental results show
that the newly anticipated cavity persuades not only self-sustained flow oscillation but also
secondary flow, both of which successfully enhance mixing. The oil-flow visualization results
showed that a secondary flow moving around the jet is produced in the duct with the newly
proposed cavity. This secondary flow collides with that coming from the other side of the jet, and
an upward secondary flow may be produced behind the jet.

Gruber et al [2001] conducted experiments and computational studies were made.

Experiments were conducted for Mach 3 with open type cavities with varying aft ramp angles.
The results reveal that the reduction in cavity aft ramp angle below 90o the character of the
separation wave changes from compression to expansion and the pressure at the base cavity
decreases. Changes in the offset ratio impacts more drastic changes in the cavity flow field. Also
reduction in aft ramp angle results in higher drag coefficient and shorter residence time.

Yu et al [1999] conducted combustion studies in a Mach 2 flow. Increased flow

residence time and mixing enhancement were able to be achieved and the static pressure
decreased continuously till the combustor exit and a fully developed flow was able to be obtained.
 9

Lee et al [2008] investigated numerically using three dimensional Navier-strokes

Equation on passive control technique of cavity flow oscillation for triangular bump (or) a Sub
cavity for a Mach of 1.8 over a rectangular cavity. The computational work is validated for steady
and unsteady solutions. The results reveal that effectiveness of triangular bump was not clear.
The sub cavity gives a reduction in pressure oscillation energy near the trailing edge. However
sub cavity length plays an important role. Longer sub cavity provides reduced in pressure
oscillation.
Barnes et al [2015] studied the numerical and experimental investigation of both
reaction and non-reacting flow field he flow field within and in the vicinity of a cavity is complex
involving a strong coupling between hydrodynamics and acoustics. When employed as a flame
holding device both fuel injection and heat release – which is closely coupled to local mixing
processes – alter the flow field and further complicate the interaction between the cavity and the
core supersonic flow. The complexity of this flow field makes the identification of the dominant
flame holding mechanisms and prediction of the flame stability limits substantially more difficult
than in the case of premixed systems.

Ben yarkar et al [2001] described about the cavities of specific dimension (L/D= 5mm
and 3mm) give good flame holding and mixing quality with minimum stagnation pressure loss.
In a cavity, the depth of the cavity determines the ignition time based on the free stream condition
while the length of the cavity has to be chosen to sustain a suitable vortex to provide sufficient
mixing inside the cavity. That is cavity dimensions need to be optimized for stable combustion.
Further investigation revealed that for open cavities, aft ramp angles play an important role in the
flame holding performance.

Ozalp et al [2009] carried out Experimental and Numerical work on the flow structures
for Rectangular cavity, Triangular cavity and Semi-circular cavity with length to depth ratio are
2:1 . In his experiment water is used as a working fluid, The results reveal that apart from the
cavity shape, Reynolds number also plays an important role in the flow structures. Large
amplitude and velocity fluctuations in shear layer occur at downstream leading corner of the
cavity. No oscillations occur at upstream of the trailing corner of cavity. Rectangular cavity and
triangular cavity have maximum turbulence intensity at cavity lid than semi-circular cavity.
Rectangular and triangular cavities have largest amplitude than semi-circular cavity.
 10

Abdul and Gupta [2011] studied the effect of swirl on mixing in under expanded
supersonic flow. The presence of a cavity on an aerodynamic surface could have a large impact
on the air flow surrounding it, and this makes a late difference to performance of the engine,
namely it may improve the combustion efficiency and difference and increase the drag force.

Daniel and James [2008] studied the combustion characteristics of dual mode scramjet
combustor with cavity flame holder. The study explains how the position of the cavity affects the
overall flow patterns. The average L/D ratio will be 2:1. Comparing the rectangular and triangular
cavities the circular one has short amplitude. There will not be any organized oscillations in the
flow field. The trailing corners of the cavity have more turbulence than the leading corners.
Specifically triangle and rectangular cavities have more turbulence than the circular and spherical
one.

Lee and Sung [1994] made the study of turbulent axis symmetric cavity flow. The flow
configuration consists of a sudden expansion and contraction pipe joint. Three values of the cavity
length (L =300, 600 and 900 mm) are chosen, and the cavity height (H) is fixed at 55 mm. Both
open and closed cavities are considered. They made the Special attention to the critical case L =
600 mm, where the cavity length L is nearly equal to the reattachment length of the flow. The
growth of the separated shear layer, i.e., the vortices thickness, for L/H=16.4 is slightly higher
than those of the other two cases (L/H = 5.45 and L/H=l0.9). This implies that the cavity length
was an important factor in the shear layer development and augmentation of mixing.

Hyung et al [2009] investigates the effect of the cavity size on the air-fuel mixture.
Experimental, Numerical and PSP test analyzes are carried out to study the air fuel mixture for
the various cavity size where the length- height ratio is kept constant (L/H=1). Sonic jet is injected
vertically through 1-mm-diameter nozzle vertically at 5-mm downstream of the cavity. A 3-D
viscous Navier-Stokes solver is used to examine the characteristics of the mixture and the results
were compared with the shadowgraph and PSP tests results. The numerical results show that
larger cavities yield to vortices which give better air fuel mixture.

Wang et al [2012] inspected the effect of the cavity size on the air-fuel mixture.
Experimental, Numerical and PSP test analyzes are carried out to study the air fuel mixture for
 11

the various cavity size where the length- height ratio was kept constant (L/H=1). Sonic jet was
injected vertically through 1-mm-diameter nozzle vertically at 5-mm downstream of the cavity.
A 3-D viscous Navier-Stokes solver was used to examine the characteristics of the mixture and
the results were compared with the shadowgraph and PSP tests results. The numerical results
show that larger cavities yield to vortices which give better air fuel mixture. Shadowgraph flow
visualization revealed that a larger cavity corresponded to thicker shear-layers between the
combustor and the cavity, and downstream of the jet nozzle near the lower wall, yielding good
agreement with CFD results.
Anavardham et al [2008] carried out experimental investigation of the transverse liquid
injection (Distilled water is used as a replacement fuel) on supersonic flow past a cavity. The
effects of cavity depth in the presence and absence of liquid injection on acoustic field was carried
out. In this study the length of the cavity is fixed (L = 50mm) by varying the Depth (D = 10 to 72
mm). The comparison results were given with injection and with no injection. Effect of cavity
depth, liquid injection pressure and injection location on acoustic field were investigated for the
Mach of 1.5. The acoustic amplitudes increased in the presence of liquid injection than in the
absence of liquid injection. This increased amplitude occurs to the entire cavity depth. Schileren
images were taken to study the shock structure due to liquid injection at the leading edge of the
cavity. The increased amplitudes could be certified to the unsteady normal shock standing a head
of the leading edge of the cavity.

Rasmussen et al [2005] investigated stability limits and flame holding mechanism of

cavity-stabilized flames with direct cavity injection. When injected from the aft wall, the fuel
came into immediate contact with hot combustion products from the reaction zone under the shear
layer. Primary combustion occurred under the shear layer and in the aft region of the cavity
volume. But when fuel was injected from the floor, a jet driven recirculation zone of hot products
near the upstream wall of the cavity served as a flame holder.

Lin et al [2001] conducted experiments on angled injection of hydrogen upstream of the

cavity in a supersonic flow path. The results indicate that the separate shear layer reattaches and
generate oblique shock wave at trailing edge of the cavity. The heat release due to the combustion
was mostly initiated by the shock wave from the cavities trailing face and the ignition above the
cavity does not have a strong influence on the downstream combustion.
 12

Zhuang et al [2008] accompanied experiments and detailed study over a three

dimensional cavity for a Mach 2 was carried out. Shadowgraph visualization, unsteady surface
pressure measurements and Particle image velocimetry are used in this study. Large scale
structures in the cavity shear layer and visible disturbance inside the cavity were clearly observed.
From his detailed study the author concluded that large recirculation zone along with high speed
reverse flow was observed in the cavity. Along this, supersonic micro jets are used at the leading
edge to suppress flow unsteadiness within the cavity. The micro jets injection also modified
cavity mixing layer and significant decline in the flow unsteadiness inside the cavity.
Mathur et al [2001] conducted experiments on a cavity based flame holder with low
angle flush wall fuel injection upstream of the cavity using gaseous ethylene in two facility
nozzles to simulate supersonic combustor, with the inlet flow properties appropriate to flight
Mach numbers between 4 and 6 at a dynamic pressure of 47.9kPa. The results reveal that the
cavity flame holder concept proved the effectiveness over a wide range of operating conditions
and the combustor fuel and air equivalence ratios.

Sun and Zhem [2008] investigated on flame characteristics in supersonic combustor

with hydrogen injected upstream of the cavity. The result indicates that the cavity shear layer
plays an important role in the flame holding process. But it indicates more stagnation pressure
losses. So more and more thrust can be produced.

Yu et al [2001] experimentally evaluated the flame-holding and mixing supersonic

enhancement characteristics of reacting flow over acoustically open cavities. .The resulting
changes in combustion characteristics were assessed using Schileren apparatus. They compare
the result with the baseline case which has no cavity. The flames were created with high
temperature fuel-rich products infected into a Mach 2 airstream at a 45-deg angle showed that
cavities with a short aspect ratio provided good flame holding. The combustor pressure and the
exit recovery temperature were sustainably increased when compared with the no cavity. The
total pressure also becomes uniform at the exit indicating the better mixing.

Das Kim and Kurian [2014] evaluated his experiment the effect of wall-mounted three-
 13

dimensional cavities on the entrainment of gaseous injecting into a supersonic stream of Mach
number 1.7. Velocity measurements carried out in the vicinity of three-dimensional cavities
brought out the increase in turbulence level in the flow due to the cavity. The width of the cavity
is observed to have profound influence on the magnitude of turbulence generated. The widest
cavity shows higher turbulence and it augments entrainment better as compared with the narrower
cavity models. Turbulence generated can be presumably one of the reasons for this enhanced
entrainment.

Nakaya et al [2014] described his experiment to investigate the combustion behavior of

ethanol at Mach 2.0 and stagnation temperatures between 1800 and 2200 K using a supersonic
combustor with a cavity flame holder. The fuel droplets can be measured by the laser diffraction
spray analyzer. They tell as two combustion modes that is intensive and transient, were observed
for liquid ethanol injections. Under intensive combustion, increased pressure was observed in
front of the cavity’s leading edge. On the other hand, under transient combustion, the rise in

pressure over the cavity compared with water injection is rather low.

Sun et al [2015] evaluated his experiment on Wind tunnel tests were conducted at
different back pressures in a vacuum-type wind tunnel for a novel supersonic fluidic oscillator.
The results show that periodical flipping between the two cavities of the supersonic jet appears
from NPR = 3.4 to 5.6 according to Schileren visualization. The cross-junction mode for
estimating the resonance frequency in a pipe with two closed side branches has been modified
and obtained comparable estimations of the frequency of jet flipping with experimental data. The
coupling of the modified cross-junction mode and the Rossiter mode for cavity resonance tends
to result in the flipping of the supersonic jets. Compared to free jet, the oscillating jet achieves
significant mixing enhancement based on the comparison of axial peak velocity and the mass
flow rate of jet plume.

Shengli and Liseng [2015] investigated the injection of kerosene in a supersonic flow
field. PLIF and high-speed Schileren are used to visualize flow-field of kerosene injected from a
single injector at low plate and cavity walls. The results show that vortex or three-dimensional
surface waves appear along boundary of fuel jet plume. With increasing dynamic ratio qj, start
 14

point of surface waves move upwards to the injector. In this paper, flapping flows at rear ramp of
a cavity lead to oscillation of shock waves generated by shear layer upwards the cavity and
separation bubble near shock reflection point on upper walls. Wavy rear ramp of cavity reduces
shock strength and separation bubble disappears.

Based on the above literature review it is concluded that supersonic flow over an
inclined aft wall angled cavity provides a less cavity drag then rectangular cavity. In addition
aft wall angled cavity provide less mixing and stagnation pressure loss. The recent work
focuses on the flow characteristics of a modified aft wall angled cavity in a supersonic flow
field.
Chapter 3

EXPERIMENT SETUP

3.1 TEST SETUP

The non-reacting supersonic flow experiments were carried out in a blow down type
supersonic flow facility. fig. 3.1 shows the test facility with a combustor test model. The
experimental setup consists of a 20HP three cylinder air cooled reciprocating air compressor with
2000 liters capacity air storage reservoirs. Air from the storage system passes through a settling
chamber in order to reduce the velocity of air to 2m/s to avoid the flow disturbance in the expand
through convergent-divergent nozzle of Mach number 1.5. The flow was allowed to expand
through convergent-divergent nozzle which is having flow Mach number 1.5, a stagnation
pressure of 0.4 MPa and a total temperature of 300 K. A supersonic combustor of rectangular
cross section, 15 mm height and 160 mm in length and 30 mm Width, was attached at the exit of
the nozzle. Cavities were placed inside the duct at a distance of 30mm from the inlet. Cavities
used in the test setup has L/D ratio is less than 10 (open cavity) with constant aft wall angled and
varying slot depth slot are placed at aft wall angle at a distance of 112 mm from the inlet of
combustor. The details of cavity configuration used in the test setup are tabled below table 3.1.

Upstream Fuel injection port is placed at a distance of 50 mm from the inlet of combustor.
 15

Fig. 3.1 Schematic Diagram of the Proposed Experimental Setup.

Fig. 3.2 Schematic diagram of Combustor.

The pressure measurement includes pitot and static pressures were measured at the exit of the
supersonic combustor in radial direction. The pitot – static system of instruments use the
principle of air pressure gradient. It measured pressures or pressure differences and using these
values speed was assessed. Velocity of air increases from the tip due to gradually increase in
the cross section. Conventional Pitot probes and long cone supersonic static probes were used
for pressure measurements. The Pitot tube is a flat cut (1.3 mm outer diameter), with 1mm flow
facing the flow path. If a half-open tube is placed so that its open end faces the oncoming flow
stream, then the stagnation pressure of the flow stream can be measured at that point. Velocity
of air is zero due to constant area of cross section. The static probe was a stainless steel tube of
 16

1.5mm outer diameter having an 18mm long cone, vertex pointed to the flow. The four
symmetrically located (90 degree part) 0.35mm diameter orifices of the static probe are at 22mm
from the vertex of the cone. The static and pitot pressure probes were shown in fig. 3.4 and
fig.3.5.
Table 3.1 Details of cavity configuration.

SI Length Depth Angle Cavity Aft Ramp Aft Ramp Aft Ramp
No Lc Dc ᶿ Ratio Slot Depth Slot Length Slot(Ls/Ds)
(mm) (mm) (Lc/Dc) Ds Ls Ratio

1 40 10 22 4 4 5 1.25

2 40 10 22 4 3 5 1.67

3 40 10 22 4 2 5 2.5

Fig. 3.3 Details of the Cavity Configuration

3.2 INSTRUMENTATION

3.2.1 Pressure Measurements:

Wall static pressure taps of 1.0 mm in diameter were placed along the combustor side
wall along the stream direction to observe the wall static pressure distribution as shown in
fig.3.6. The measurements in the mixing studies include Pitot and static pressures at the exit of
 17

the supersonic combustor. Conventional Pitot probes and long cone supersonic static probes are
used for pressure measurements. The Pitot tube is a flat cut (1.3 mm outer diameter) tube with a
1 mm opening facing the flow. The static probe is a stainless-steel tube of 1.5mm outer diameter
with an 18mm long cone with its vertex facing the flow. The four symmetrically located (90 o
apart)
0.35 mm diameter orifices of the static probe are at 22mm from the vertex of the cone. The static
and total pressure probes are shown in fig. 3.4 and 3.5. A traversing mechanism is used to move
the probes in radial direction of the flow field. Wall static pressure measurements were made
using 16 channel pressure scanner unit and the opposite is proceed using data assessment system.

Fig no. 3.4 Static Pressure Probe.

 18

Fig. 3.5 Stagnation Pressure Probe.

Fig. 3.6 Wall static pressure probe

3.2.2 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor:

Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor: Piezoelectric crystals develop a potential difference (i.e.
Voltage is induced across the surfaces) whenever they are subjected to any mechanical pressure.
These sensors have the crystal mounted on a dielectric base so that there is no current leakage.

Attached to the crystal is a horizontal shaft which pressurizes the crystal and voltage is produced.
Piezo resistive materials are materials that change resistance to the flow of current when they are
compressed or strained. The surface is usually connected to Wheatstone bridge, a device for
detecting small differences in resistance. The Wheatstone bridge runs a small amount of current
passes through the pressure sensor is less. The Wheatstone bridge detects this change and reports
a change in pressure. The sensing material in a Piezo resistive pressure sensor is a diaphragm
formed on a silicon substrate, which bends with applied pressure. A deformation occurs in the
crystal lattice of the diaphragm because of that bending. This deformation causes a change in the
band structure of the Piezo resistors that are placed on the diaphragm, leading to a change in
resistivity of the material. This change can be an increase or a decrease according to the
Orientation of the resistors. Different pressure levels can be achieved according to the
application.
 19

3.3 DATA ACQUISITION:

A large quantity of data has to be measured within a very short duration of time. For
such measurements, a data acquisition and processing system for continuous and automatic
acquisition of data becomes essential. In some experiments, the acquired data need to be
processed in real-time and appropriate action has to be taken based on the processed result. Such
a comprehensive and stringent requirement demands a data acquisition system possessing the
necessary characteristics of speed, pressure, Velocity, Mach number and so on.
 20

3.3.1 DATA ACQUISITION PRINCIPLE:

• Generation of signals by transducers

• Signal conditioning
• Multiplexing
• Data conversion from analogue to digital from vice versa
• Data storage and display
• Data processing

Fig. 3.10 Data acquisition and data processing

The pressure probe of 1mm diameter long with the axial distance of combustor is
connected to the 16 channel transducer. The pressure transducer converts pressure into an
analogue electrical signal. And each pressure transducer is connected to the signal conditioning,
it modify the signal received from the sensor to suit the requirement. Where the weak signal are
filtered and amplified for the further processing. The output signal conditioning is feed into
 21

multiplexer. The individual analogue signals are fed to the multiplexer directly. Analogue signal
is converted into digital signal. The pressure probe of 1mm diameter long with the axial distance
of combustor is connected to the 16 channel pressure transducer. The pressure transducer
converts pressure into an analogue electrical signal. And each pressure transducer is connected
to the signal conditioning, it modify the signal received from the sensor to suit the requirement.
Where the weak signal are filtered and amplified for the further processing. The output signal
conditioning is feed into multiplexer. The individual analogue signals are fed to the multiplexer
directly. Analogue signal is converted into digital signal. The output from the multiplexer is
temporarily stored in a sample-and hold (S/H) device, followed by conversion to digital form in
an analogue-to-digital (A/D) convertor. Therefore, data have to be converted to digital form
before fed to a computer. The digital data, after conversion from analogue to digital, are stored
in Pc- based date acquisition units. The processing of digitized data in a computer was done
through the use of LAB VIEW V.4.0 program developed for the purpose. The data were

displayed as well as stored as excel in all cases

 22

Chapter 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The emphasis of the study was to investigate the performance of the cavities of different
configurations in supersonic flow using a blowdown type facility. Wall static pressure
measurements were made along the axil length of the combustor. Static and stagnation pressures
were measured at the various radial points of the combustor exit to determine the uniformity of
mixing and stagnation pressure loss of the cavity actuated past supersonic flow of the cavity.

4.1 WALL STATIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION :

Static pressure distribution along the combustor wall in the axial flow direction for
rectangular cavity configurations were shown in fig. 4.1. In the plot, the axial distance z/L, z
denotes distance of the probe from combustor inlet and L denotes the total length of the
combustor,

Axial distance (z/L)

(a)
 23

2
Pj = 6.00bar

1.5

0.5

without slot 2mm 3mm 4mm

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Axial distance (z/L)

(b)

2
Pj = 6.50 bar

1.5

0.5

without slot 2mm 3mm 4mm

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Axial distance (z/L)

(c)
 24

2
Pj = 7.00 bar

1.5

0.5
without slot 2mm 3mm 4mm

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Axial distance (z/L)

(d)

Fig. 4.1 Wall static pressure distribution, (a) without injection, (b) 6 bar injection, (c) 6.5 bar
injection, (d) 7 bar injection.

In the case of no injection, fig. 4.1a, as the flow passes over the cavity, the static
pressure increases near the leading edge due to shear layer separation of the flow. The separated
shear layer reattaches at the aft wall of the cavity. A plunge in the static pressure distribution
profile was observed at the aft wall of the cavity i.e. within the slot regime (z/ L =0.64) , which
indicates an active vortex is generated within the slot region which enhances mixing of the
flow and a peak pressure is noted ahead of the cavity trailing edge, mainly due to the
recompression of shear layer. In the fig.4.1b to 4.1d, the fuel injection upstream of the cavity
creates a strong unstable shear layer in the cavity region indicates an increase in static pressure.
A drop in the static pressure profile is seen at z/L= 0.38 shows an increase in vortex of the flow
within the cavity towards the aft wall than no injection. Increase in the depth of the cavity slot
also ensured the same static pressure profile with pressure increment.
 25

4.2 MOMENTUM FLUX DISTRIBUTION:

The air enters into the supersonic combustor with different momentum and stagnation
pressures. The momentum flux distribution at the exit of the supersonic combustor in the radial
direction is the measure of bulk mixing. The momentum flux is calculated as

μ = p (1 + γ M2)

Where p is the measured value of static pressure and Mach number M is calculated
from the measured values of static and stagnation pressures, using Rayleigh-Pitot formula.
Momentum flux distribution is the qualitative measure of mixing performance in the cavities.
The measurements were made at the exit of the combustor from the center towards the wall in
the radial direction. fig. 4.2 & 4.3 shows the momentum flux distribution for various cavity
configurations at different radial locations of (x/W=0.5&0.75). The term y/H denotes the radial
distance from the axis (y) and normalized by the height (H) of the supersonic combustor.

6.0
NO INJECTION, x / W=0.5
5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0
no slot 2mm 3mm 4mm
0.0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Radial Distance (y/H)

(a)
 26

6.0
x/W=0.5, Pj = 6.0 bar
5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

no slot 2mm 3mm 4mm

1.0

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Radial Distance (y/H) (

b)

6.0
x/W=0.5, Pj = 6.50 bar
5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0
no slot 2mm 3mm 4mm

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
 27

Radial Distance (y/H) (

c)

6.0
x/W=0.5, Pj = 7.0 bar
5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0
no slot 2mm 3mm 4mm
1.0

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Radial Distance (y/H)

(d)

Fig. 4.2 Momentum flux distribution at x/W=0.5 (a) no injection, (b) 6 bar injection, (
c) 6.5 bar injection, (d) 7 bar injection.

For no injection case, the momentum flux has higher values at the center of the
combustor (x/W=0.5 refer fig.4.2) and reduces near the wall (x/W=0.75 refer fig.4.3), which
is mainly due to higher stagnation pressure at the center than at the wall. In case of transverse
injection, the air jet penetrate into the main stream which creates a bow shock wave and also
forms the large recirculation zone near the injector region. As a result, the jet mixes with the
main stream subsonically downstream of the injector which enhances mixing (fig 4.2) . A
uniform momentum flux distribution is observed from y/H= 0.20 towards the wall indicates
that the air jet penetration into the core flow provides an even mixing profile towards the center
of the combustor. Increase in transverse injection pressures, (fig 4.2a, 4.2b, 4.3c) increases the
jet penetration into the core flow enhances the uniform mixing with higher momentum flux
 28

values. The addition of cavity slot in the aft wall cavity provides a further space for mixing
within the cavity region and also resulting less obstruction of the core flow downstream of the
injector with enhancement in mixing. The transverse injection induces a strong shear layer
separation at the leading edge of the cavity and reattaches at the fore wall creates an instable

Radial Distance(y/H)

(a)

6.0

x/W=0.75, Pj= 6.0 bar

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0
no slot 2mm 3mm 4mm
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Radial Distance (y/H)
 29

(b)
6.0

5.0 x/W=0.75, Pj= 6.50 bar

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0 no slot 2mm 3mm 4mm

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Radial Distance (y/H)

(c)

6.0
x/W=0.75, Pj= 7.0 bar
5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

no slot 2mm 3mm 4mm

1.0

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Radial Distance (y/H)

(d)
 30

Fig. 4.3 Momentum flux distribution at x/W=0.75 (a) Without injection, (b) 6 bar
injection, (c) 6.5 bar injection, (d) 7 bar injection.
flow at the downstream of the cavity provides a peak value at y/H= 0.42. Similar momentum
flux profile is observed for the injection pressure of 6.5 bar (fig 4.2c). Further increase in
injection pressure 7.0(fig 4.2d) provides a uniform mixing profile for cavity and no cavity
configuration. Increase the depth of cavity slot configuration in the aft wall results uniform
momentum flux distribution with increase in value which is mainly due to additional space for
jet mixing in the cavity region.

4.3 STAGNATION PRESSURE LOSS :

11
Stagnation Pressure loss
10

6
no injection 6bar 6.5 bar 7 bar
5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Cavity slot depth mm

Fig. 4.4 Stagnation Pressure Loss for various injection pressures and increase in slot depth

Stagnation pressure loss across the combustor is defined as the difference in stag-nation
pressures at the inlet and axial distance considered, normalized by the inlet stagnation pressure
measured at the exit sections of the combustor along the radial direction. Stagnation pressure
loss with increase in injection pressures for various cavities was shown in fig. 4.4. In the
upstream injection, the air jet produces higher stagnation pressure loss for cavity
configurations. This is due to obstruction of the transverse jet with the main stream which
produces bow shock towards downstream direction of flow which increases stagnation
 31

pressure loss. As the air jet interrupts with the main stream, it creates a strong bow shock. Also,
it creates a boundary layer separation in the upstream of the injection location which provides
a region for fluid mixing immediately after the upstream of the jet exit. This is due to strong
bow shock formation by the normal jet penetration into the high velocity main stream.
Transverse injection of air jet into the upstream of the cavity provides a large recirculation area
within the cavity region resulting in enhancement in mixing and reduces the obstruction of the
core flow, thereby reduces the stagnation pressure loss of the flow across the combustor. The
increase in injection pressure increases stagnation pressure loss for increase in depth of the slot
in the aft wall angle cavity which is observed from the plot. Moreover accumulation of fluid,
increasing depth of slot in the cavity aft wall increases stagnation pressure loss due to increased
cavity drag.
 32

Chapter 5

CONCLUSION

The effect of slots in a two dimensional aft wall angled cavities with upstream
transverse air injection in a Mach 1.5 flow field was experimentally investigated in a blowdown
type flow facility. Cavities were incorporated in a rectangular cross sectional test section for
this study. Cavities of constant length, width, aft wall angle and varying slot depths were
investigated. Air was injected to simulate gaseous fuel with varying injection pressures. The
major conclusions from the study were as follows.

• The wall static pressure profile reveals that upstream injection generates a strong
unstable shear layer at the leading edge of the cavity. As a result, the shear layer shifts
the vortex in the cavity towards downstream region, which indicates that more
entrainment of fluid into the cavity and slot from the mainstream which enhances the
mixing of the flow.

• Increase in injection pressure increases the static pressure in the cavity region due to
stronger recompression at the aft wall of the cavity. Moreover the reattachment of the
shear layer occurs over the slot region which creates a strong compressive regime
upstream of the slot i.e. in the cavity region and less towards downstream of the cavity.

• A more uniform momentum flux profile is observed for all the cavities with upstream
transverse injection. Increase in injection pressure enhances the momentum flux value
with a uniform distribution. The interaction of air jet with the main stream takes place
largely in the cavity region enhances mixing.

• Stagnation pressure loss increases with increase in transverse fuel injection pressure
due to stronger shock wave emanates from the slot mounted at the aft wall of the cavity.
REFERENCES

1. A.Abdelhafez and A.K.Gupta, (2011) “Effect of Swirl on Mixing in under Expanded

Supersonic Flow”, Journal of propulsion and power, Vol.27, No.1, pp.117-131.
 33

2. Adela Ben Yakar and Ronald K.Hanson, (2001) “Cavity flame holders for ignition and flame
stabilization in Scramjet: An Overview”, Journal of Propulsion and power, Vol. 17, No.4,
pp: 869 – 877.

3. Bo Sun, Feng Feng, Xiao-song Wu, Xiao-chen Luo, (2015) “Experimental investigations of
cavity-actuated supersonic oscillating jet ” Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, Vol.
68, pp:155–162 .

4. C.C. Rasmussen, J.F. Driscoll, K.-Y. Hsub, (2005) “Stability Limits and Flame holding
Mechanism of Cavity-Stabilized Flames with Direct Cavity Injection”, Vol. 30, pp. 2825–
2834.

5. C.Ozalp, A.Pinarbasi, B.Sahin, (2009) “Experimental measurement of flow past cavities of

different shapes”. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, Vol.34, pp: 505 – 515.

6. Charwat, A.F., Roos, J.N., Dewey, F.C., Jr. And Hitz, J.A, (1992) “An Investigation of
Separated Flows-Part I: The Pressure Field”, Journal of Aerospace Science, Vol. 28, pp: 457-
470.

7. D.H.Lee and H.J.sung, (1994) “Experimental Study of Turbulent Axisymmetric Cavity

Flow”, Experiments in Fluids”, Vol.17, pp. 272-281.

8. Daniel J.Micka and James.F.Driscoll. (2008) “Combustion characteristics of a Dual Mode

Scramjet Combustor with Cavity Flame Holder”, Proceedings of Combustion Institute,
Vol.32, pp.2397-2403.

9. Eunju jeong, Sean O’ Byrne, In-seuck Jeung and AFP Houwing, (2008) “Investigation of
supersonic combustion with Angled injection in a Cavity- based combustor”, Journal of
Propulsion and power, Vol. 24, No.6, pp. 1258 – 1268.

10. Fei Li, Xi-Long Yu, Ying-gang Tong, Yan Shen, Jian Chen, Li-hong Chen and Xinyu Chang,
(2013) “Plasma assisted ignition for a kerosene fuelled scramjet at Mach 1.8 ”, Aerospace
Science and Technology, Vol.26, pp:72-78.

11. Frank W. Barnes and Corin Segal, (2015) “Cavity-based flame holding for
chemicallyreacting supersonic flows” “Progress in Aerospace Sciences”,Vol.76, pp: 24-41,
12. HongboWang, ZhenguoWang, MingboSun and NingQin, (2012) “Combustion
 34

characteristics in a supersonic combustor with hydrogen injection upstream of cavity flame

holder”, Vol. 34, pp. 2073–2082.

13. HyungseokSeo, HuiJeong, Jaewoo Lee and YunghwanByun, (2009) “A Study of the Mixing
Characteristics for Cavity Sizes in Scramjet Engine Combustor”, Journal of the Korean
Physical Society, Vol. 55, No. 5, pp. 2180 -2186.

14. J.C. Lin, D. Rockwell, (2001) “Organized oscillations of initially turbulent flow past a
cavity”, AIAA Journal, Vol. 39, No.6, pp.1139–1151.
15. James E. Barth, Vincent Wheatley, and Michael K. Smart, (2015) “Effects of Hydrogen Fuel
Injection in a Mach 12 Scramjet Inlet ” AIAA Journal of propulsion and power, Vol.

53, No. 10, pp:2907-2919.

16. K. Yu, K.J. Wilson, and K.C. Schadow, (1999)”Effect of Flame holding Cavities on
Supersonic Combustion Performance,” AIAA paper, AIAA-99-2638.

17. Ken H.Yu, Ken.J.Wilson and WauscSchadow, (2001) “Effect of Flame holding cavities on
supersonic combustion performance”, Journal of Propulsion and power, Vol. 17, No.6, pp.
1287 – 1295.

18. M. C. Mohamed Ali and Job Kurian, (2008) “Technical Notes - Performance of Aft-Ramp
cavities for flame Stabilization in Supersonic Flow”, Journal of Propulsion and power, Vol.
24, No.3, pp:635 – 637.

19. M.R.Gruber, R.A.Baurle and T.Mathur and K.Y.Hsu, (2001) “Fundamental studies of cavity
based flame holder concepts for supersonic combustor”, Journal of Propulsion and

power, Vol. 17, No.1, pp:146 – 153 ,

20. Mathur, T., and Billing, F, (2001) “Supersonic Combustion Experiments with cavity Based
Fuel Injector”, Journal of Propulsion and power, Vol. 17, No.6, pp. 1305 – 1312.

21. Ming- Bo sun, Zhen- Guo Wang, Jian – Han Liang and HuiGeng, (2008) “ Flame
Characteristics in Supersonic Combustor with Hydrogen Injection upstream of cavity flame
holders”, Journal of Propulsion and power, Vol. 24, No.4,.pp:688-696.

22. N.Zhuang, F.S.Aivi, M.B.Alkislar and C.Shih, (2008) “Supersonic Cavity flows and their
 35

control”, AIAA Journal, Vol. 44, No 9, pp: 1878-1880.

23. Rajarshi Das and Heuy-Dong Kim (2014) “Experimental Study of Supersonic Entrainment
Using a Cavity” Journal of propulsion and power, Vol. 30, No. 5, pp:1143-1151.
24. S.Jeyakumar and K.Jayaraman, (2016) “Effect of finite width cavity in axisymmetric
supersonic flow field” Journal of Aerospace Engineering, DOI:
10.1177/0954410016674036,
25. Shengli XU and Liseng FEI, (2015) “Observation of Kerosene Injected from a Cavity into a
Supersonic Airstream ” “APISAT2014”, 2014 Asia-Pacific International Symposium on
Aerospace Technology, Procedia Engineering, Vol. 99 pp:948 – 953.

26. Shinji Nakaya, Yuta Hikichi, Yoshiki Nakazawa, Kazuki Sakaki, Minho Choi, Mitsuhiro
Tsue, Michikata Kono, Sadatake Tomioka, (2015) “Ignition and supersonic combustion
behaviour of liquid ethanol in a scramjet model combustor with cavity flame holder ”
Proceedings in the Combustion Institute, Vol. 35, pp: 2091-2099.

27. T.K.Ganesh Anavaradham, R.I.Sujith, O.J. Shreenivasan, S.R.Chakravarthy an

S.pannerselvam, (2008) “Effect of liquid injection on Acoustic field from Supersonic flow

past cavities”, Journal of Propulsion and power, Vol. 24, No.4, pp: 681-687.
28. Takahiro Ukai , Hossein Zare-Behtash, Erinc Erdem, Kin Hing Lo, Konstantinos Kontis,
Shigeru Obayashi, (2013) “Effectiveness of jet location on mixing characteristics inside a

cavity in supersonic flow” Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, Vol.52, pp: 59–67.
29. Taro Handa, Aoi Nakano, Kazuya Tanigawa, Jun Fujita, (2014) ”Supersonic mixing
enhanced by cavity-induced three-dimensional oscillatory flow” Exp Fluids, Vol.55, pp: 110.

30. Xi-Peng Li, Wei-Dong Liu, Yu Pan, and Shi-Jie Liu, (2016) “Investigation on Ignition
Enhancement Mechanism in a Scramjet Combustor with Dual Cavity” Journal of Propulsion
and power, Vol.32, pp: 439-447.

31. Youngki Lee, Minsung Kang, heuydongkim and Toshiaki setoguchi, (2008) “Passive control
Techniques to Alleviate supersonic cavity flow oscillation”, Journal of Propulsion

and power, Vol. 24, No.4, pp. 697 – 703.

32. Zun Cai, XiaoLiu, ChengGong, MingboSun, ZhenguoWang and Xue-SongBai (2016)
 36

“Large eddy simulation of the fuel transport and mixing process in the scramjet combustor
with a rear wall expansion cavity” Acta Astronautica, Vol.26, pp: 375–381.