MATERIALS IN INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

Home assignment n°4

Subject: Steel alloy

Group n°4
Thibault COUTURE
Amirhosein MASOUMI
Ghadir RAZAZ
Ruslan Sevastopolev

Group n°4 MTAD10 FALL 2010/2011

SUMMARY

I/ WELDOX 1300 and WELDOX 700

II/ Influence of alloying elements

IV/ WELDOX APPLICATIONS

V/ UDDEHOLM and production methods

VI/ SVERKER 21

VII/ Alloy composition

VIII/ OUTOKUMPU

IX/ Stainless steel is good for you

X/ SHAEFFLER DIAGRAM

XI/ Chemical composition of Stainless steels:

XII/ EN 1.4318, AISI 301LN

XIII/ Corrosion on stainless steels

XIV/ Pitting resistance

Group n°4 MTAD10 FALL 2010/2011

I/ WELDOX 1300 and WELDOX 700

WELDOX 1300 is the structural steel which has the best strength ever : 1300 MPa. The ratio
strength/weight is equivalent to Al alloy.

Application: Arrows of cranes

Chemical composition in % max:

C Si Mn P S B Nb Cr V Cu Ti Al Mo Ni N
0.25 0.50 1.40 0.020 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.80 0.08 0.10 0.02 0.020 0.70 2.0 0.010

WELDOX 700 is a structural high strength steel : 700 MPa. The main advantages of this alloy is
homogenous properties, easily weldable.

Application: Load carrying structures having high demands on low weight

Chemical composition in % max:

C Si Mn P S B Nb Cr V Cu Ti Al Mo Ni N
0.20 0.60 1.60 0.020 0.010 0.005 0.04 0.70 0.09 0.30 0.04 0.015 0.0 2.0 0.010

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II/ Influence of alloying elements
A unique combination of alloying elements optimizes the mechanical properties of WELDOX
structural steel plate and HARDOX wear plate. This combination governs the preheat and interpass
temperature of the steel during welding, and can be used to calculate the carbon equivalent value.
The carbon equivalent value is usually expressed as CEV or CET in accordance with the equations
below.
The alloying elements are specified in the inspection certificate of the plate and are stated in percent
by weight in these formulas. A higher carbon equivalent usually requires a higher preheat and
interpass temperature. Typical values of carbon equivalents are given in our product data sheets.

Mn (Mo +Cr+V ) (¿+Cu) (Mn+ Mo ) (Cr +Cu) ¿

CEV= C+ + + (%) CET= C+ + + 40
6 5 15 10 20
(%)
The same yield strength level is
possible on different CE levels
depending on the delivery
condition. Low carbon equivalent
(CE) is most important for good
weld - ability.

N Normalizing rolled
QT Quenched and tempered
TM Thermomechanically
rolled
ACC Accelerated cooled

Due to the low-alloyed chemical composition and the low carbon equivalent (CE) TMCP-steels are
perfectly weld able. Especially the low carbon content results in excellent resistance against cold
cracks after welding.

As you can see in the equation of CEV & CET , CEV is bigger than CET, therefor we use CEV for
designing part because we need more safety in structural design as you can see in tables. Normally
we need to be on the safe zone which is more realistic if we choose the bigger ratio. You should
notice that we always use CEV for structural steels & design & in this article we have structural steel
too.

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IV/ WELDOX APPLICATIONS

WELDOX 1300 is a general structural steel with minimum yield strength of 1300 MPa. It is stronger
than ordinary steel. As a result, one need less material to achieve equivalent strengths in products.
Consequently, products will be lighter.

The main application is load carrying applications.

The examples are:

 different types of cranes, deck cranes and mobile cranes, extra long booms for excavators,
where Weldox application resulted in increased lifting capacity and unchanged crane weight
 trailers, where lower weight was achieved by Weldox application
 sailboat keels with improved weight distribution, static strength and fatigue properties
 concrete pumps.

Strength of WELDOX increases with increasing carbon content, Figure 1.

1400

1200
Yield strength, MPa

1000

800

600

400
0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26

C content, wt%

Figure 1. Yield strength vs. carbon content in different WELDOX steels.

Group n°4 MTAD10 FALL 2010/2011

 V/ UDDEHOLM and production methods

UDDEHOLM is a Swedish company founded in 1668. Nowadays, this

international firm employ 4000 people around the world which work
on the production of tool
steel.

The production can be

sum up in four main
processes:

 The conventional
process

The conventional process consists of several steps:

 Electric arc furnace:

Recycled steel, ferroalloys and slag formers are loaded into an EAF-furnace and melted by
electric energy transferred by arcs between three graphite electrodes and the steel scrap.
 Ladle Furnace:
Dissolved elements as H, N and O are removed by purging inert gas into the melt and
exposing it to a low partial pressure. The strong mixing between high-basicity slag and the
steel bath results in favorable conditions for the removal of sulphur and slag inclusions.
 Up-hill casting:
Casting into ingot moulds requires a close control of the melt temperature to avoid
segregation and inclusion clustering
 Hot working and heat treatment:
Improves resistance against common failure mechanisms and increases overall performance

 Electro Slag Remelting (ESR)

Process for high purity materials

In Electro Slag Remelting (ESR), the ingot is built up in a water-cooled mould by melting a
consumable electrode immersed in a superheated process slag. An electrical current flowing through
the liquid slag, which provides the electrical resistance, generates the heat.

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  Powder metallurgy

Process for PM tool steel and high-speed steel

High Alloy Steels will gain improved properties by increasing the

solidification rate. This gives a fine microstructure and small, well-
distributed carbides in the matrix.
During Powder Metallurgy (PM), the melt stream is atomised by
nitrogen gas into small droplets with an average size of 50-100 µm. The
powder is filled into capsules directly in order to avoid contamination.
With hot isostatic pressing (HIP), the powder is consolidated to 100%
density.
By using a special refining sequence, the cleanliness of the molten steel
is improved prior to atomisation. This results in improved mechanical
properties and an extremely low non-metallic inclusion level (SuperClean™).
The HIP'ed PM capsules are hot forged and rolled to smaller bar sizes followed by heat treatment
and machining.

PM steels are used in very demanding applications within cold work, plastic and cutting tools.

 Granshot

Uddeholm Granshot granulated melting stock is produced according to a patented water granulation
method in which liquid metal is split up to form droplets. The droplets are rapidly cooled in a water
bath. After dewatering, the granules are completely dried in a heating unit and then subjected to
oxide cleaning. This gives the product its consistent high quality in accordance with the agreed
customer specifications.

The material is supplied to foundries, mainly investment casters and stainless steel manufacturers
worldwide.

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VI/ SVERKER 21
The steel grade was developed around 1930 and is still going strong. Ledeburitic 12 % Cr-steels are
still the most commonly used tool steel for cold work tooling all over the world. Uddeholm Sverker
21 is a tool steel with very good abrasive wear resistance but with rather limited cracking resistance.
Being the bulk grade for cold work applications there are many advantages such as well established
know-how concerning all types of treatments and tool processing. The risk with the popularity is,
however, that the grade by routine is used in applications where the properties profile not is entirely
appropriate. In such cases normally there are better alternatives like Uddeholm Sleipner, Uddeholm
Caldie or Uddeholm Vanadis 4 Extra.

APPLICATIONS
The properties profile of Uddeholm Sverker 21 combine to give a steel suitable for the manufacture
of medium run tooling for applications where abrasive wear is dominant and the risk of chipping or
cracking is not so high, e.g. for blanking and forming of thinner, harder work materials.

General
Uddeholm Sverker 21 is a high-carbon, high chromium tool steel alloyed with molybdenum and
vanadium characterized by:
• High wear resistance
• High compressive strength
• Good through-hardening properties
• High stability in hardening
• Good resistance to tempering-back

American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

Chemical Composition

Hardness Compressive yield strength,

HRC Rc0,2
MPa ksi
62 2200 319
60 2150 312
55 1900 276
50 1650 239
Grade Standard C Si Mn Cr Mo V PS≤
D2 ASTM 1.40-1.60 0.10-0.60 0.20-0.60 11.0-13.0 0.70-1.20 0.50-1.10 0.030
1.2379 DIN 1.45-1.60 0.10-0.60 0.20-0.60 11.0-13.0 0.70-1.00 0.70-1.00 0.030
Cr12Mo1V1 GB 1.40-1.60 ≤0.60 11.0-13.0 0.70-1.20 0.50-1.10 0.030
SKD11 JIS 1.40-1.60 ≤0.40 ≤0.60 11.0-13.0 0.80-1.20 0.20-0.50 0.03

VII/ Alloy composition

Group n°4 MTAD10 FALL 2010/2011

As we know Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and
2.1% by weight. With adding different elements in steel alloy we can improve the properties like
strength and wear resistance. We should mention that alloys with high rating of Brinell(HB) has
better wear resistance.

We give some examples below for increasing strength and hardness:

Increasing carbon content make steel with more strength and hardness In addition, Nickel and
Manganese are Austenite forming elements which both increase strength in steel What's more by
adding Chromium or molybdenum to low alloy steel the hardenability and strength will go up. After
that the presence of phosphorus in stainless steel raises the strength. And vanadium is another
element that increases hardness.

Ni Mn Cr Mo P V

Strength ↗ ↗ ↗ ↗ ↗
Wear
resistanc ↗ ↗ ↗
e

To respond to second part of question, the structure which can cover both high strength and wear
resistance would be Martensite structure, as we know Martensite formed by rapid cooling
(quenching) of austenite which traps carbon atoms that do not have time to diffuse out of the crystal
structure.

In the martensite you can see bcc structure with needle appearance and the rate of hardness in
martensite significantly depends on carbon content.

Martensite structure

VIII/ OUTOKUMPU

Group n°4 MTAD10 FALL 2010/2011

Stainless Steel Reinforcement Bars is used for concrete reinforcement.

Corrosion of steel reinforcement is the main cause of premature failure of concrete structures in the
world today. The most straightforward, risk- and maintenance-free solution is to use Stainless Steel
Reinforcement. Although it initially results in a higher cost than the normally used carbon steel, the
long-term cost is often lower due reduced maintenance costs. Until
recently, the only grades available are the austenitic grades 304 and
316L, the highly alloyed 2205 duplex or Outokumpu's lean duplex
designation LDX2101.

IX/ Stainless steel is good for you

In this topic, OUTOKUMPU make advertising about use of stainless steel. They speak directly to the
customer of aluminum film for food application.

Here you can find a summary about this web page:

Advantages:

 resist different corrosion environments

 working conditions ensuring that factories are safe
 structures last longer and our food is hygienic
 used for in systems to clean up the exhaust gases from cars and power stations.
 recyclable: when scrapped, it can be re-melted to make something new.

Effect of Chromium :
 The minimum chromium content of the standardised  
stainless steels is 10.5%.
 Chromium makes the steel 'stainless'  this means
improved corrosion resistance, as can be seen in
the chart.
 The better corrosion resistance is due to a chromium
oxide film that is formed on the steel surface.

Besides chromium, typical alloying elements are

molybdenum, nickel and nitrogen. Nickel is mostly alloyed to
improve the formability and ductility of stainless steel.
Alloying these elements brings out different crystal
structures to enable different properties in machining,
forming, welding etc.

The four major types of stainless steel are:

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  Austenitic
 Ferritic
 Austenitic-Ferritic (Duplex)
 Martensitic

Austenitic is the most widely used type of stainless steel. It has a nickel content of at least of 7%,
which makes the steel structure fully austenitic and gives it ductility, a large scale of service
temperature, non-magnetic properties and good weldability. The range of applications of austenitic
stainless steel includes housewares, containers, industrial piping and vessels, architectural facades
and constructional structures.

Ferritic stainless steel has properties similar to mild steel but with the better corrosion resistance.
The most common of these steels are 12% and 17% chromium containing steels, with 12% used
mostly in structural applications and 17% in housewares, boilers, washing machines and indoor
architecture.

Austenitic-Ferritic (Duplex) stainless steel has a ferritic and austenitic lattice structure -

hence common name: duplex stainless steel. This steel has some nickel content for a partially
austenitic lattice structure. The duplex structure delivers both strength and ductility. Duplex steels
are mostly used in petrochemical, paper, pulp and shipbuilding industries.

Martensitic stainless steel contains mostly 11 to 13% chromium and is both strong and hard with
moderate corrosion resistance. This steel is mostly used in turbine blades and in knives

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X/ SHAEFFLER DIAGRAM

SCHAEFFLER DIAGRAM: CALCULATION OF STRUCTURE FOR STAINLESS STEELS

The Schaeffler diagram does evaluate the presence of austenite, ferrite, bainite and martensite
depending on the chemical composition and the “proper cooling” (or heat treatment) after pouring.

The limits, for the chemical composition are:

C S Mn Mo Nb N Cr
0,2 % 1% 4% 3% 1,5 % 0,05 0 - 18 %
0,07 18 - 25 %
0,10 > 25 %

These percentages are those of the element as present in the matrix, not
in carbides or any other component as nitrides…

This diagram is interesting because, by quantifying the amount of types of structures (ferrite,
martensiet, austenite), it does give an indication that the material will comply with the standard. This
is possible at a time that the metal is still in the melting furnace because it does use the chemical
composition that is taken before pouring. In this way corrections of the chemical composition are still
possible. It is very useful for austenitic stainless steels because the amount of ferrite must be
restricted (material becomes magnetic) and for martensitic stainless steels because the amount of
delta-ferrite must be controlled. Another factor, which must be avoided, is the presence of carbides.
The carbides do decrease the ductility but also the corrosion resistance (carbides remove chromium
from the matrix). The carbides also lead to some magnetic behavior of austenitic stainless steels. It
mostly concerns and the chemical composition and the cooling after pouring and if applicable, heat
treatment. A stainless steel needs a minimum of 12 % of chromium in the matrix. Due to this
condition, the part of the graph below a chromium-equivalent of 12 % is not applicable.

The latest version of Cr eq and Ni eq are:

Creq = % Cr + 1,0 (% Mo) + 0,5 (% Nb + % Ta) + 1,5 (% Si) + 2 (% Ti) + (% W + % V + % Al)

Ni eq = % Ni + 30 (% C) + 0,5 (% Mn ) + 30 (% N) + 0,5 (%Co)

The carbides take carbon and chromium out of the matrix. In the special types of austenitic stainless
steel, the carbon is equal or lower than 0,03 % and for these types nearly never carbides are formed.
So we can estimate that this amount of carbon, at least, remains in the matrix.

Ferrite is important in avoiding hot cracking in during cooling from welding of austenitic stainless
steels. 'Constitution diagrams' are used to predict ferrite levels from the composition by comparing
the effects of austenite and ferrite stabilising elements. The Schaeffler and Delong diagrams are the
original methods of predicting the phase balances in austenitic stainless steel welds.

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The figure shows that chromium is a ferrite stabilizer and nickel is an austenite stabilizer.

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XI/ Chemical composition of Stainless steels:

Steel stainless 316:

Carbon, C  <= 0.080 %

Chromium, Cr  16 - 18 %
Iron, Fe  61.8 - 72.0 %
Manganese, Mn  <= 2.00 %
Molybdenum, Mo  2.00 - 3.00 %
Nickel, Ni  10.0 - 14.0 %
Phosphorous, P  <= 0.0450 %
Silicon, Si  <= 1.00 %
Sulfur, S  <= 0.0300 %
Stainless steel 304 :

Carbon, C  <= 0.080 %

Chromium, Cr  18.0 - 20.0 %
Iron, Fe  66.345 - 74.0 %
Manganese, Mn  <= 2.0 %
Nickel, Ni  8.0 - 10.5 %
Phosphorous, P  <= 0.045 %
Silicon, Si  <= 1.0 %
Sulfur, S  <= 0.030 %
Stainless steel 439:

Carbon, C  0.0700 %
Chromium, Cr  18.0 %
Iron, Fe  78.33 %
Manganese, Mn  1.00 %
Nickel, Ni  0.500 %
Silicon, Si  1.00 %
Titanium, Ti  1.10 %
Stainless steel 403:

Carbon, C  <= 0.15 %

Chromium, Cr  12.3 %
Iron, Fe  86.0 %
Manganese, Mn  <= 1.0 %
Phosphorous, P  <= 0.040 %
Silicon, Si  <= 0.50 %
Sulfur, S  <= 0.030 %

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S32950:

Carbon, C  0.0300 %
Chromium, Cr  27.5 %
Iron, Fe  63.52 %
Manganese, Mn  2.00 %
Molybdenum, Mo  2.00 %
Nickel, Ni  4.35 %
Silicon, Si  0.600 %

To investigate the place of alloy steel in Schaeffler diagram we should follow the formula below to

Count the equivalent chromium and Nickel:

Creq = % Cr + 1,0 (% Mo) + 0,5 (% Nb + % Ta) + 1,5 (% Si) + 2 (% Ti) + (% W + % V + % Al)

Ni eq = % Ni + 30 (% C) + 0,5 (% Mn ) + 30 (% N) + 0,5 (%Co)

Alloys 316 304 439 403 S32950

Creq 21 20.5 21.7 13.05 30.4
Nieq 15.4 11.4 3.1 5 6.34

Colours: 316

304

439

403

S32950

As we can see in the schaeffler

diagram the stainless steel 316 was placed in Austenit area,stain less steel 304 in Austenit & Ferrite
area,stainless steel 439 in Ferrite area ,stainless steel 403 in Martensite &ferrite area and S32950 in

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XII/ EN 1.4318, AISI 301LN

EN 1.4318, AISI 301LN is a low carbon, high nitrogen austenitic stainless grade.

It is generally used for structural parts where high strength and toughness are needed beside a
corrosion resistance. When hardened by cold working, the strength and corrosion resistance of this
steel grade steel is utilized in structural applications, like in transportation vehicles.

The combination between ductility and toughness is excellent even at low temperatures.

The strength of the steels is controlled by the degree of work hardening. When the material is cold
worked, it undergoes substantial strain hardening leading to significant strength enhancement. The
strain-hardened austenite is also partially transformed to martensite. The larger the degree of
deformation, the higher strength gets the steel.

Tensile strength levels in cold worked condition (2H) according to EN 10088-2:2005.

C means cold rolled, the following numbers mean the tensile strength.

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 XIII/ Corrosion on stainless steels:

Generally, the corrosion resistance of a stainless steel is

dependent on a thin invisible film on the steel surface, the
passive film. The passive film consists mainly of a chromium
oxide that forms in reaction with oxygen in the air. Some
alloys elements, for example molybdenum and nitrogen,
improve the corrosion resistance in corrosive environments.
The passive film can be broken down completely or partly with
corrosion as a result

Some important Corrosion on stainless steel:

 Uniform Corrosion:
Uniform corrosion generally occurs on stainless steel in acid environments or hot alkaline
solutions. The corrosion rate then develops at a rate determined by a combination of the
alloy compositions and the corrosive environment like( hydrochloric or hydrofluoric).
Actually, Uniform corrosion occurs when the passive layer on a stainless steel surface partly
or completely breaks down Uniform corrosion rate is also affected if the acid contains
oxidizing or reducing chemicals. Reducing impurities, for example hydrogen sulphide, may
increase the corrosion rate. Higher alloyed stainless steel grades are more resistant to
uniform corrosion than the lower alloyed stainless steel grades.

 Galvanic corrosion:
This corrosion happens When two dissimilar metals are connected electrically and immersed
in a conductive liquid, an electrolyte, their corrosion performance might differ significally
when compared with the metals, uncoupled. As a rule, the less noble material, the anode, is,
more severely attacked, while the more noble metal, the cathode, is essentially protected
from corrosion. This phenomenon is called galvanic corrosion. For example Two different
stainless steel grades in the passive state, coupled in an electrolyte, are quite close in the
galvanic series. And the amount of Galvanic corrosion dependent on temperature and the
composition of conductive solution.

Pitting Corrosion:

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 Pitting is a
form of
localized
corrosion and
is known by
attacks at
small
separated
spots on the
steel surface.
Pitting occurs mainly in the presence of
neutral or acidic solutions containing chlorides
or other halides. Chloride ions facilitate a local breakdown of the passive layer, especially if there are
defects in the metal surface. When the metal corrodes in the pit, dissolved metal ions generate an
environment with low pH and chloride ions migrate into the pit to balance the positive charge of the
metal ions. Thus the environment inside a growing pit gradually becomes more aggressive and
repassivation becomes less likely. As a result, pitting attacks often entered at high rate, thereby
causing corrosion failure in a short time higher chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen content in the
steel increase the resistance to pitting.

Crevice corrosion:

Crevice corrosion is a form of localized corrosion and occurs. in neutral or acidic chloride solutions
The corrosion attack starts more easily in a narrow crevice than on an unshielded surface, Crevices,
that found at flange joints or at threaded connections, are critical sites to corrosion. Small amounts
of dissolved metal ions inside the crevice cause a decrease of the solution pH and the presence of
chlorides facilitates the break-down of the passive layer. Thus the environment inside the crevice
gradually becomes more aggressive and repassivation becomes less likely. As a result, crevice
corrosion attacks often develop at a high rate, thereby causing corrosion failure in a short time. A
higher chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen content in the steel increases the resistance to crevice
corrosion.

Intergranular corrosion:

This type of corrosion may occur if the area around the grain boundaries has less corrosion resistant
than the matrix in the medium in question. The classical case is when chromium carbide is
precipitated at the grain boundaries. The closer matrix will be empty of chromium and This narrow
region around the grain boundary may have less corrosion resistant than the rest of the material.
In modern stainless steels with lower carbon content, Intergranular corrosion is very seldom any
problem in practical applications.

Stress corrosion Cracking:

It is the cracking made from the combined influence of tensile stress (or residual stresses)and a
corrosive environment and the failure of material will accelerated by the combination of mechanical

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 stress and corrosion environment. The most common type of
SCC is trans-granular stress-corrosion cracking, SCC, that may
develop in concentrated chloride-containing environments
and The elevated temperature is vital for occurring the SCC.
After that, alkaline solution at high temperature increases the
possibility in SCC especially in low alloys steel.

Corrosion Fatigue:

It is well known that a material subjected to a cyclic load far below

the ultimate tensile stress can fail, a process called fatigue.

If the metal at the same time exposed to a corrosive environment

and loading, the failure can take place at even lower loads and
shorter time.

Atmospheric Corrosion:

Atmospheric corrosion occurs on a steel surface in a thin wet film created by the humidity in the air
in combination with impurities. Corrosive conditions for stainless steel can be the chloride
depositions from a humid atmosphere on the steel surface .stainless steel is often chosen for
decoration in buildings due to its aesthetic and you can see the atmospheric corrosion on building's
surfaces easily. Atmospheric environments are most commonly divided into four categories: rural,
urban, industrial and marine according to kind of environment. We should choose different types of
stainless steels for example Molybdenum-alloyed grades of type 316 or comparable grades are
normally specified for a marine atmosphere.

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XIV/ Pitting resistance

Pitting resistanceas we know is a kind of corrosion in stainless steel alloys. Pitting resistance
equivalent number(PRE) Is a theorical way to comparing the pitting resistance in different types of
stainless steel grades.

The latest version to account the (PRE) is:

PRE = %Cr + 3.3 x( %Mo + 0.5 %W)+16 x %N

According to formula, stainless steel grades with high percentage in chromium

And particularly in molybdenum and nitrogen have more resistance in pitting corrosion.

The percentage of chromium and molybedenum in alloys to calculate:

Stainless steel 316 304 439 403 S32950

Chromium 16-18% 18-20% 18% 12.3% 27.5%
molybdenum 2% 2% 1% <=1% 2%

We ranked the alloys in pitting resistance:

Stainless steel S32950 316 304 439 403

PRE 34.1 27.9 26.6 21.3 15.6

As we can see from the result in the table S32950 has the best resistance corrosion that waslocated
in ferrite area as we saw in Schaeffler diagram and the stainless steel 403 has the lowest which is in
martensite and ferrite area.

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