CLASSICA DYNAMIC OF PARTICLES AND SYSTEMS FIFTH EDITION Stephen T. Thornton Professor of Physics, University of Virginia Jerry B. Marion Late Professor of Physics, University of MarylandTHOMSON BROOKS/COLE Acquisitions Editor: Chris Hall Assistant Editor: Alyssa White Editorial Assistant: Seth Dobrin ‘Technology Project Manager: Sam Subity Marketing Manager: Kelley McAllister Marketing Assistant: Sandra Perin Project Manager, Editorial Production: Karen Haga Print/Media Buyer: Kris Waller COPYRIGHT © 2004 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is « trademark used herein under license. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be repro- duced or used in any form or by any means— graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, information net- works, or information storage and retrieval sys- tems—without the written permission of the publisher, Printed in the United States of America 1234567070605 0403 For more information about our products, contact us at: ‘Thomson Learning Academic Resource Center 1-900423-0563 For permission to use material from this text, ‘contact us by: Phone: 1-800-730-2214 Fax: 1-800-790-2215, Webs hup:/ /wowthomsonrights.com Library of Congress Control Number: 2003105243 ISBN 0.534-40896.6 Permissions Editor: Joohee Lee Production Service and Compositor: Nesbitt Graphics, Inc Copy Editor: Julie M. DeSilva Illustrator: Rolin Graphics, Inc, Cover Designer: Ross Carron ‘Text Printer: Maple-Vail Book Mig. Group Cover Printer: Lehigh Press Brooks/Cole—Thomson Learning 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002 USA Asia Thomson Learning 5 Shenton Way #01-01 UIC Building Singapore 068808 Australia/New Zealand Thomson Learning 102 Dodds Street Southbank, Victoria 3006 Australia Canada Nelson 1120 Birchmount Road ‘Toronto, Ontario MIK 5G4 Canada Europe/Middle East/Africa Thomson Learning High Holborn House 50/51 Bedford Row London WCIR 4LR United Kingdom Latin America Thomson Learning Seneca, 58 Colonia Polanco 11560 Mexico D.F, Mexico Spain/Portugal Paraninfo Calle/Magallanes, 25 28015 Madrid, SpainContents Matrices, Vectors, and Vector Calculus 1 1 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1.10 in 1.12 113 114 1.15 1.16 117 Introduction 1 Concept of a Scalar 2 Coordinate Transformations 3 Properties of Rotation Matrices 6 Matrix Operations 9 Further Definitions 12 Geometrical Significance of Transformation Matrices 14 Definitions of a Scalar and a Vector in Terms of Transformation Properties 20 Elementary Scalar and Vector Operations 20 Scalar Product of Two Vectors 21 Unit Vectors 23 Vector Product of Two Vectors 25 Differentiation of a Vector with Respect to a Scalar 29 Examples of Derivatives—Velocity and Acceleration 30 Angular Velocity 34 Gradient Operator 37 Integration of Vectors 40 Problems 48 Newtonian Mechanics—Single Particle 48 21 22 23 24 Introduction 48 Newton's Laws 49 Frames of Reference 53 ‘The Equation of Motion for a Particle 55CONTENTS 2.5 Conservation Theorems 76 26 Energy 82 2.7 Limitations of Newtonian Mechanics 88 Problems 90 Oscillations 99 3.1 Introduction 99 32 Simple Harmonic Oscillator 100 33 Harmonic Oscillations in Two Dimensions 104 34 — Phase Diagrams 106 3.5 Damped Oscillations 108 3.6 Sinusoidal Driving Forces 117 3.7 Physical Systems 123 3.8 Principle of Superposition—Fourier Series 126 3.9 The Response of Linear Oscillators to Impulsive Forcing Functions (Optional) 129 Problems 188 Nonlinear Oscillations and Chaos 144 41 Introduction 144 42 Nonlinear Oscillations 146 4.3 Phase Diagrams for Nonlinear Systems 150 44 Plane Pendulum 155 4.5 Jumps, Hysteresis, and Phase Lags 160 4.6 ChaosinaPendulum 163 4.7 Mapping 169 4.8 Chaos Identification 174 Problems 178 Gravitation 182 5.1 Introduction 182 5.2 Gravitational Potential 184 5.3 Lines of Force and Equipotential Surfaces 194 5.4 When Is the Potential Concept Useful? 195 55 Ocean Tides 198 Problems 204 Some Methods in the Calculus of Variations 207 6.1 Introduction 207 6.2 Statement of the Problem 207 6.3 Euler’sEquation 210CONTENTS 64 65 6.6 6.7 The “Second Form” of the Euler Equation 216 Functions with Several Dependent Variables 218 Euler Equations When Auxiliary Conditions Are Imposed 219 The 8 Notation 224 Problems 226 7 Hamilton's Principle—Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Dynamics 238 7 72 73 74 75 76 27 78 79 7.10 71 7.12 713 Introduction 228 Hamilton’s Principle 229 Generalized Coordinates 238 Lagrange’s Equations of Motion in Generalized Coordinates 287 Lagrange’s Equations with Undetermined Multipliers 248 Equivalence of Lagrange’s and Newton's Equations 254 Essence of Lagrangian Dynamics 257 A Theorem Concerning the Kinetic Energy 258 Conservation Theorems Revisited 260 Canonical Equations of Motion—Hamiltonian Dynamics 265 Some Comments Regarding Dynamical Variables and Variational Calculations in Physics 272 Phase Space and Liouville’s Theorem (Optional) 274 Virial Theorem (Optional) 277 Problems 280 8 — Gentral-Force Motion 287 81 8.2 8.3 84 85 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 9.1 9.2 9.3 Introduction 287 Reduced Mass 287 Conservation Theorems—First Integrals of the Motion 289 Equations of Motion 291 Orbits in a Central Field 295 Centrifugal Energy and the Effective Potential 296 Planetary Motion—Kepler’s Problem 300 Orbital Dynamics 305 Apsidal Angles and Precession (Optional) 312 Stability of Circular Orbits (Optional) 316 Problems 323 Dynamics of a System of Particles 328 Introduction 328 Center of Mass 329 Linear Momentum of the System 331.10 11 12 94 95 9.6 9.7 98 9.9 9.10 9.11 CONTENTS Angular Momentum of the System $86 Energy of the System 339 Elastic Collisions of Two Particles 345 Kinematics of Elastic Collisions 352 Inelastic Collisions 358 Scattering Cross Sections 363 Rutherford Scattering Formula 369 Rocket Motion 371 Problems 378 Motion in a Nonintertial Reference Frame 387 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Introduction 387 Rotating Coordinate Systems 388 Centrifugal and Coriolis Forces 391 Motion Relative to the Earth 395 Problems 408 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 411 Wd 11.2 13 a 5 11.6 17 18 ng 11.10 Wan 11.12 Introduction 411 Simple Planar Motion 412 Inertia Tensor 415 Angular Momentum 419 Principal Axes of Inertia 424 ‘Moments of Inertia for Different Body Coordinate Systems 428, Further Properties of the Inertia Tensor 433 Eulerian Angles 440 Euler’s Equations fora Rigid Body 444 Force-Free Motion of a Symmetric Top 448 Motion of a Symmetric Top with One Point Fixed 454 Stability of Rigid-Body Rotations 460 Problems 463 Coupled Oscillations 468 12.1 12.2 12.3 124 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 Introduction 468 ‘Two Coupled Harmonic Oscillators 469 Weak Coupling 473 General Problem of Coupled Oscillations 475 Orthogonality of the Eigenvectors (Optional) 481 Normal Coordinates 483 Molecular Vibrations 490 Three Linearly Coupled Plane Pendula—an Example of Degeneracy 495CONTENTS 13 14 12.9 The Loaded String 498 Problems 507 Continuous Systems; Waves 512 13.1 18.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 Introduction 512 Continuous String as a Limiting Case of the Loaded String 513 Energy ofa Vibrating Suing 516 Wave Equation 520 Forced and Damped Motion 522 General Solutions of the Wave Equation 524 Separation of the Wave Equation 527 Phase Velocity, Dispersion, and Attenuation 533 Group Velocity and Wave Packets 538 Problems 542 Special Theory of Relativity 546 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 149 14.10 14.11 Appendices A Introduction 546 Galilean Invariance 547 Lorentz Transformation 548 Experimental Verification of the Special Theory 555 Relativistic Doppler Effect. 558 ‘Twin Paradox 561 Relativistic Momentum 562 Energy 566 Spacetime and Four-Vectors 569 Lagrangian Function in Special Relativity 578 Relativistic Kinematics 579 Problems 583 Taylor’s Theorem 589 Problems 593 Elliptic Integrals 594 Bl B2 BS Elliptic Integrals of the First Kind 594 Elliptic Integrals of the Second Kind 595 Elliptic Integrals of the Third Kind 595 Problems 598