Reviewer (Kaya mo ‘yan. Ikaw pa.

:)) Hypothesis of the Study

Elements of a Thesis 1. Clear-cut statement of hypothesis/assumptions.

 Preliminaries  Formulate the hypothesis
 The Body of the Thesis  Null hypothesis (H0)
 References  Research/Alternative hypothesis
Preliminaries (H1)
 Title Page
 Approval Sheet Definition of Terms
 Acknowledgement
 Abstract 1. Use of operational definitions of key variables.
 Table of Contents
 List of Tables
 List of Figures Scope and Delimitations
 List of Appendices
Chapter 1 1. Sufficient delimitation of the problem area in
The Problem and its Background terms of content, time, place, and subjects of
the investigation.
Introduction
Chapter 2
1. Careful presentation of the importance and Review of related Literature and Studies
validity of the problem. 1. Systematic presentation of literature and
2. Systematic and orderly presentation of studies related to the problem.
background information with educational 2. Adequacy of presentation with reference to
trends related to the problem, unsolved issues, problem, research design, significant findings.
and social concerns.
Chapter 3
Significance of the Study
Methodology of the Study
1. Clear presentation of the significance of the
study, its role in current contemporary/ Method and Techniques
development. 1. Concise description of the research method and
2. Orderly identification of probable users of the justification for its choice.
research, specific ways on how the findings 2. Sufficient description or field procedures
could be used. followed in the collection of data (when,
where, and how data are to be obtained).
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Population and Sample of the Study
1. Use of appropriate sampling design and sample
1. Clear presentation of the theory which explains size.
why the study exists. Instruments of the Study
2. Appropriate development of conceptual frame 1. Appropriate choice and description of the
with reference to the problems of the study. instruments.
2. Detailed procedures on how the instrument was
Statement of the Problem constructed.
3. Adequate information pertaining to validity of
1. Clear identification of the problem statement. the instrument.
2. Succinct, unambiguous statement of specific Data Processing and Statistical Treatment
problems related to the major problem. 1. Appropriateness of statistical treatment and
data processing.

Chapter 4
Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
 The researcher is required to: (1) briefly
introduce the topic, (2) present the data, (3)
analyze and interpret the results.
 Presentation of the results should follow the
order and sequence of the problems raised in
Chapter 1.
 The researcher is required to scholarly analyze
 The summary would also include the research
design, the population and sample, and the
statistical techniques used.
 The summary of findings or results of the study
is presented in the order of the problems raised
in Chapter 1
 The conclusions are based on the findings of
the study.
 The recommendations are based on the derived
conclusions.

and interpret the results by providing scientific

& unbiased insights concerning the results of
the study.
 It is also suggested to integrate the contents of
Chapter 2 in the analysis & interpretation of the
results.

Chapter 5

Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendation

 The purpose of Chapter 5 is to summarize the
entire research project. It would include
discussions on what the research is all about,
the problems and the hypotheses, and a brief
version of the significance of the study.
Writing the Theoretical Framework
(The SEC Approach)
Rule 1: State the theory
Suggested sentence stems
 The theoretical basis of this paper is
 This study is theoretically anchored on
 This paper is premised on
Rule 2: Explain the theory
Rule 3: Contextualize the theory
• QUALITY ANALYSIS which as the term
implies, is not based on precise measurement
and quantitative claims. Social analysis is
frequently qualitative because the
understanding of the phenomenon under study
may not require quantification or because the
phenomenon itself does not lend itself to
precise measurement.
• QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS which is
employed on data that have been assigned
some numerical value. Quantitative analysis
can range from the examination of simple
frequencies/frequency distributions, to the
description of events or phenomena using
descriptive statistics, and to the investigation of
correlation and casual hypotheses using various
statistical tests.
Types of Research
Descriptive Research
• Is defined as a purposive process of gathering,
analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data
about prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs,
process, trends, and cause-effect relationships
and then making adequate and accurate
interpretation about such data with statistical
methods.
Descriptive Research Designs
• Case studies
• Surveys
• Assessment or Evaluation Studies
• Comparative Studies
• Correlational Studies
• Tracer Studies
• Trends and Projection Studies
• Documentary Analysis
Case Studies
• Is a type of detailed and in-depth research
involving few respondents, ranging from one to
a small size of less than 10, over a considerable
period of time
• Ex. A case study of profitability of Puregold
stores
Survey Research
• A survey research is used to gather relatively
limited data from relatively large number of
cases
• Purpose: to gather information about the
prevailing conditions or about the variables
under study
• Ex. Consumers’ buying behavior
Assessment or Evaluation Studies
• Refers to the study on the efficiency or
effectiveness of policies, instruments, or the
variables that may be considered
• Compliance of Food
Establishments on DOH and
DENR requirements
Comparative Studies
• Comparing the result in the differences in
certain characteristics according to variable
considered
• Effectiveness of social marketing (non-
print) versus print advertisement
Correlational Research
• Explores the relationship between two or more
variables. (independent and dependent)
• One variable is X. The other variable is Y
• Utilization of varied marketing
strategies and its effect on company’s
profitability
Tracer Studies
• When one wants to follow up the development
of certain conditions or particular sets of
people
• Employability and productivity of
BSME graduates from SY 2012-2015
Trends and Projection Studies
• Used for projects that are forward looking
• Feasibility study
• Feasibility Study for the Opening of
JCO Donut in Malolos
Documentary Analysis
• It involves the gathering of information by
analyzing written records and documents to
solve a problem
• Uses secondary data
• The Relationship of IQ and
Academic Performance of BSU
BSME Students
Experimental Research Designs
 • Future-oriented (what will be?) O3 = control pretest
• The most prestigious and sophisticated method O2 = experimental posttest
• Cause and effect O4 = control posttest
• It is never hypothesis free X = treatment
• Control group vs. experimental group Design No.5 The Solomon Four-Group Design
Concepts of Experimentation R O1 X O2
An independent variable is manipulated; R O3 O4
(manipulation) R X O5
All other variables except the treatment R O6
variable are held constant (control) Design No.6 The Posttest-Only Control Group
Assigning subjects for the control group and Design
experimental group (randomization) >>> R X O1
homogeneity R O2
The effect of the manipulation of the Where R = random assignment
independent variable on the dependent variable X = treatment
is observed or measured. O1 = experimental posttest
Designs O2 = control pretest
 Design 1 - The One Spot Case Study
 Design 2 - The One Group Pretest Post Quasi Experimental Designs
Test Design Design No.7 The Time Series Experiment
 Design 3 - The Static Group Design No.8 Counterbalanced Designs
Comparison The foregoing design uses only posttests since
True-Experimental Designs the problem cannot make use of pretests. It makes use
 Design 4 – The True Control Group of three classifications: groups, time, and treatments.
Pretest Posttest Design Population and Sample of the Study
 Design 5 – Solomon Four Group 1. Use of appropriate sampling design and sample
Design size.
 Design 6 – The Posttest Only Control Population vs. Sample
Group Design • Population
Quasi-Experimental Designs • Is composed of the entire group of
 Design 7 – The Time Series Design people or objects to which the
 Design 8 – The Counterbalanced researcher wishes to generalize the
Design findings of the study
Pre-Experimental Designs • Sample
Design No.1 The One-Shot Case Study • Subset of the population to represent
Where X = treatment the population
O = posttest • Slovin’s formula
Example: when one wants to know the effectiveness of Probability
promotional activity  Simple random
Design No.2 The One-Group Pretest-Posttest  Assign a number to each member of the
Design population
O1 X O2  Select the sample through a
Where O1 = pretest table of random numbers
X = treatment  Stratified
O2 = posttest  Divide the population into
Design No.3 The Static-Group Comparison subgroups or strata
X O1  A simple random sample is
taken from each of these
O2 subgroups
Where X = treatment  Cluster
O1 = experimental posttest  Groups rather than people are
O2 = control posttest selected
 Random selection from
Design No.3 The True Control Group Pretest cluster
Posttest Design  Systematic
R O1 X O2  Obtain listing of population
R O3 O4  Determine sample size then select every kth
Where R = random assignment element
O1 = experimental pretest Non-probability Sampling
  Convenience (accidental or incidental) • It is concerned with the scope or range of items
 Involves choosing used to measure the variable
readily available people • Methods
or objects for study • Comparing the content of the
 Snowball (network ) instrument with the available literature
 Involves the assistance of on the topic
subjects to help obtain other • Panel of experts
potential subjects • Developing a test blueprint designed
 Quota around the objectives for the content
 Establishment of a desired quota Criterion Validity
or proportion for some variable • Is concerned with the extent to which an
of interest (gender) instrument corresponds to or is correlated with
 Purposive (judgmental) some criterion measure of the variable of
 Subjects are chosen that the researcher interest.
believes are typical, or representative of • It assesses the ability of an instrument to
the accessible population determine subject’s responses at the present
Instruments of the Study time or predict subjects’ responses in the future
1. Appropriate choice and description of the • Does the instrument under
instruments. consideration correlate with another
2. Detailed procedures on how the instrument was instrument that measures the same
constructed. behavior or responses?
3. Adequate information pertaining to validity of • Concurrent vs. predictive
the instrument. Construct Validity
Data Collection Instruments • It is the degree to which an instrument
• Should be clearly identified and described measures the construct it is supposed to
• Scoring procedures and the range of possible measure
scores on the instrument should also be • Construct is a concept or abstraction
included created or “constructed” by the
• It must be valid and reliable researcher
• Pilot study results should be included for any • The most difficult to measure
newly developed or revised instrument • Known-group procedure
Standardized versus research-construct • Factor analysis
Tools in Generating Data • Has been considered the most
• Observation powerful method of construct
• Questionnaire validation
• Interview Reliability
• Tests • Concerns with consistency and stability
• The degree of reliability is usually determined
between two sets of scores or between the
Types of Validity ratings of two judges
• The validity of instrument concerns its ability • -1.00 to +1.00
to gather the data that is intended to gather
• The greater the validity of an instrument, the r-value Verbal Description
more confidence you can have that the
instrument will obtain data that will answer the 0.00-0.29 Little or weak positive (negative)
research questions or test the research correlation
hypothesis.
• Face, content, criterion, 0.30-0.49 Low positive (negative)
construct correlation
Face Validity 0.50-0.69 Moderate positive (negative)
• An instrument is said to be valid when an correlation
examination shows that it is measuring what it
is supposed to measure 0.70-0.89 High positive (negative)
• It can be examined through the use of experts correlation
in the content area or through the use of people 0.90-1.00 Very High or strong positive
who have characteristics similar to those of the (negative) correlation
potential subjects.
• Subjective----rarely used alone
Content Validity
Types of Reliability
• Test-retest (stability) reliability
• When a test is given to the same
samples on two different occasions and
these two tests show a high degree of
correlation
• Stability over time (Ex. Thermometer)
• Interrater (equivalence) reliability
• Comparisons of raters or observers’
rating using the same instrument (2 or
more raters)
• Intrarater reliability
• This is a type of reliability assessment
in which the same assessment is
completed by the same rater on two or
more occasions.
Types of Reliability
 Split-half reliability
 The most popular test of reliability
1. Single administration of
test
2. Test is split into halves
and scored separately
3. Correlation is computed
 Test Item analysis
 Kuder and Richardson (Kr)
Data Processing and Statistical Treatment
Appropriateness of statistical treatment and data
processing.
Statistical Test Purpose Assumption
A. Measures of • Typical Value or a • Appropriate for interval and
CentralTendency representative value of a ratio variable
1. Mean mass of quantitative data. • For ordinal data
2. Median • For nominal and interval
3. Mode data

B. Measures of Dispersion • Degree of spread or • Describing the extreme

1. Range
2. Quartile Deviation
3. Standard Deviation
variability of a given set of scores
data. • Analyzing the semi-
interquartile range of scores
or item values.
• Deviation of values from the
mean.
• For higher statistical
inferences like those
involving coefficients of
correlation and standard
scores.

Statistical Test Purpose Assumption

C. Measures of • Percent of cases below a

Location particular rank position
1. Percentiles • Analyzing the value of the
2. Quartiles variable based on quarter
3.Deciles position.
• Analyzing the value of the
variable, the percentage
being taken in units of 10.

D. Other Descriptive Measures • Standardizing for size,

1. Percent looking for a subgroup in
2. Proportion relation to the whole.
• Comparing the relative size
of a subgroup as against
another subgroup.

Statistical Test Purpose Assumption

The categories must be mutually

3. Skewness exclusive and exhaustive.
4. Kurtosis • Describing symmetry or
asymmetry; normally or
abnormality.
• Describing peakedness or
the nature of the distribution
hump and tails.

E. Measures of Correlation • Descriptive whether or not • Measure of Linear

1. Pearson ( r ) variables are correlated;
describe the nature and
extent of relationship
between and among
variables.
correlation of two variables
which are either ration or
interval.

Statistical Test Purpose Assumption

2. Spearman (rho) • Correlation between two

3. Phi Coefficient (ro) ordinal variables.
4. Point-Biserial • Correlation between two real
5. Multiple Correlation nominal dichotomous
6. Partial Correlation variables.
• Correlation between a real
dichotomous variable and an
interval variable.
• Correlation between a
real dichotomous variable and an
interval variable.
• Correlation of two variables
partialling out the influence
of a third
variable.

Statistical Test Purpose Assumption

7. Multiple Regression • Describing the correlation

among variables –
identifying cause and effect
relationship.

F. Inferential Statistics • Testing a hypothesis about

1. Student’s t the mean of a normally
(One-Sample Chi-Sample Test) distributed population, using
2. t-test of Correlated Means a one-sample group.
(Wilcoxon Test) • Significance of differences
3. t-test of Independent Means between two
(Mann Whitney U test)
• Significance of differences
between two independent
groups.

Statistical Test Purpose Assumption

F. Inferential Statistics Finding significance of differences • Significance of differences

4. F- test One -way or variations among three or more
(Kruskal Wallis Test) Using k samples independent groups; data in
5. F-test Two-way Using k samples plus interaction the strength of interval
(Friedman test) effect measurement.
6. Analysis of • Function of 2-way F plus the
Covariance interactive effect.
• An extension of ANOVA
allowing for the correlation
between initial and final
scores. Co-variance analysis
effects adjustment in the
final score or terminal score
which allow for differences
in some terminal variables.