doi:10.1111/sjtg.

12258

The Faxinal System: Forest fragmentation

and soil degradation on the communal
grazing land
Valdemir Antoneli,1 Edivaldo Lopes Thomaz2 and João Anésio Bednarz1
1
Department of Geography, Universidade Estadual do Centro-Oeste, Campus de Irati, Paraná, Brazil
2
Department of Geography, Universidade Estadual do Centro-Oeste, Guarapuava, Paraná, Brazil

Correspondence: Valdemir Antoneli (email: vaantoneli@gmail.com)

The Brazilian faxinal is a traditional agrosilvopastoral system, which combines extensive graz-
ing, subsistence cropping and low impact forest extraction, managed within a communal prop-
erty system. Today it is at serious risk of disappearing due to increasing grazing pressure and
logging activities that are leading to environmental problems such as forest fragmentation and
soil degradation. The objectives of the study were to: a) evaluate soil physical degradation
levels in different grazing areas within the faxinal system; and b) correlate soil degradation,
fodder quantity and livestock dynamics in different pasture areas according to the household’s
location. Landscape mapping, vegetation surveys, and livestock grazing dynamics were
assessed. In addition, soil physical parameters were evaluated for each land use
(e.g., resistance, bulk density, porosity, moisture, and water infiltration rates). Results showed
that livestock grazing and household locations are the main driving forces that lead to forest
fragmentation. The household location creates three interrelated gradients in the communal
grazing land: 1) soil physical degradation decreases from the pasture areas to araucaria forests;
2) fodder quantity decreases from pastures to araucaria forests; and 3) the livestock grazing
intensity decreases from pastures to araucaria forests. In addition, some management practices
to mitigate land degradation, including improvement of pastures, installation of removable
troughs for drinking water in the upland areas and restriction of livestock from the riparian
zone, have been proposed.

Keywords: subsistence agriculture, shallow soil, subtropical forest, land use change, soil quality

Accepted: 21 February 2018

Introduction
The agricultural landscape has been continuously shaped since the early Holocene.
Throughout human history, societies have left traces of their agricultural processes
on the worldwide landscape. In addition, studies have shown that the collapse of
many civilizations was related to accelerated soil degradation caused by agricultural
practices (Denevan, 2001; McNeill & Winiwarter, 2010; Montgomery, 2012). Thus,
history warns of the risk to sustainable agricultural systems worldwide
(Montgomery, 2007), including the risk to food security in regions covered by tropi-
cal soils (Stocking, 2003), if soil systems are not well managed. The contemporary
civilization’s fate depends on the soil as a source of resources, goods and services
(Keesstra et al., 2012).
The green revolution was marked by the increase in grain production in many
developing countries in the 1950s–1970s (Tauger, 2013; Woods, 2010). However, this
process of agricultural modernization was not homogenous worldwide, and many tra-
ditional agrosilvopastoral systems persist today. In Spain and Portugal, dehesas and mon-
tados represent the most widespread agroforestry systems in Europe, covering 3.1

Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 40 (2019) 34–49

© 2018 Department of Geography, National University of Singapore and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
Soil degradation 35

million ha (Ceballos et al., 2002; Moreno & Pulido, 2009). Another similar system
named usi civici (civic use) can be found in Sardinia, Italy (Vacca, 2012). In developing
countries, other collective grazing systems are practised, such as the traditional semi-
nomadic pastoralism in Ethiopia (Gebremedhin et al., 2004; Alemayehu et al., 2013)
and Mongolia (Stumpp et al., 2005).
Traditional agrosilvopastoral systems worldwide have faced several threats because
of intensive land use (Palacio et al., 2014), pasture impoverishment (Angassa, 2014),
soil degradation (Pulido et al., 2017a), and pressure from agriculture modernization
(Antoneli & Thomaz, 2012).
There is little research in the literature about the difficulties of the faxinal system in
Brazil, because researchers give priority to the social, economic and cultural aspects of
this traditional system (Chang, 1988; Marques, 2004; Vizeu et al., 2015). Other works
claim that the faxinal system is an example of adaptation of people to the natural envi-
ronment (Antoneli et al., 2013). Regardless, this land system is currently facing envi-
ronmental issues such as soil compaction, soil erosion and forest hydrology changes
(Antoneli & Thomaz, 2012, Thomaz & Antoneli, 2015). These issues contribute to the
abandonment of the faxinal system.
The faxinal system is characterized by the presence of mixed ombrophilous forests
with Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze (the Paraná pine) being the dominant tree
species. Animal species such as pigs and cattle graze freely within the limits of the col-
lective land. Some plants (e.g. black beans, corn, and cassava) are cultivated for human
consumption and on a small-scale commercially, in privately owned areas. In addition,
low impact forest extraction is still practised, particularly of Ilex paraguariensis (Yerba
mate, a native tea), Araucaria angustifolia (referred to as ‘araucaria’ hereafter), and
other native species (Chang, 1988; Paraná, 1997).
The territories occupied by faxinal farms are legally recognized as areas of special

regulated land use (Areas Especiais de Uso Regulamentado–ARESUR). These regula-
tions are designed for the social, cultural, and environmental protection of the faxinal
system (Paraná 1997).
One of the main reasons for land mismanagement in faxinal farms is the absence of
control over the number of animals that can be raised by the farmers. This condition
allows for excessive herd sizes on the communal land, leading to overgrazing
(Yamamoto et al., 2007). Overgrazing reduces the availability of fodder in the grazing
area (i.e., open pastures or grasslands). Consequently, animals must look for food in
nearby forested areas. In the forest, animals consume tree saplings, small shrubs, seeds,
and fruits dropped on the ground. Consequently, cattle grazing impedes forest regener-
ation and reduces the number of species (Hülber et al., 2017) Overgrazing is ascribed to
be one of the main driving forces of soil degradation in pasturelands (Rowntree et al.,
2004; Pulido et al., 2017b).
Studies regarding soil degradation in faxinal farms are still scarce. In order to
ensure sustainability of the faxinal system, it is necessary to better understand the
forest fragmentation processes and how soil degradation is taking place, and to find
recognition in the international study of agrosilvopastoral systems. In this context,
the objectives of the study were: a) to evaluate soil physical degradation levels in dif-
ferent grazing areas within the faxinal system; b) to correlate soil degradation, fodder
quantity and livestock dynamics in different pasture areas according to the house-
hold’s location.
36 Valdemir Antoneli, Edivaldo Lopes Thomaz and Joao Anesio Bednarz

Materials and methods

Study area
The study was carried out in the municipality of Prudentópolis (Paraná State, Brazil)
(Figure 1). It is located on the second Paraná plateau, which is formed by sedimentary
rocks (siltstone, mudstone and shale), and has an average elevation of 700 m. The
lithology associated with climatic factors results in shallow soils, with a predominance
of Haplic Cambisol, and hydromorphic soils in the riparian zones.
The climate is humid subtropical with average summer temperatures below 25
C,
and winter temperatures below 18
C with the occurrence of frost. Average annual
rainfall is 2053 mm (historical data from 1988 to 2014) distributed throughout the
year, with no dry season. The study area vegetation consists of Araucaria Moist Forest
type (Veloso et al., 1991) (Table 1).
In the southeastern region of Paraná State there are 28 faxinal farms, with the larg-
est number (14) located in the Prudentópolis Municipality (Marques 2004) (Figure 1).
Some faxinals showed advanced social and environmental degradation, and others still
preserve their original features such as the Faxinal Paraná Anta Gorda, where the
study was carried out (25
070 1400 S and 51
050 2400 W). This faxinal farm is 276.5 ha in
size, divided into four categories of land use (Table 1, Figure 2).

Experimental design
We conducted land use mapping to identify the monitoring areas. Four land uses cov-
ering the faxinal system (Figure 2) were identified: pastures, woodlands, secondary

Figure 1. Study area location.

Source: Prepared by author, Julio Manoel Franca, da Silva (2017) based on data analysed from
(IBGE 2005).
Soil degradation 37

Table 1. Land use characteristics.

Land use Predominant species Number Height (m) Diameter at Vegetation type
of breast and structure
trees height
(ha) (DBH)
(cm)

Araucaria Campomanesia 527 14.8  8.9 94.2  66.3 Dense forest, sub
Forests xanthocarpa (Mart.) layer vegetation
O. Berg, Casearia and herbaceous
sylvestris Sw, understory
vegetation
Secondary Campomanesia 455 8.1  4.7 56.9  28.6 Open Forest sub
forests xanthocarpa (Mart.) layer vegetation
O. Berg, Casearia and sparse
decandra Jacq herbaceous
understory
Woodlands Campomanesia 207 12.7  6.7 98.7  56.9 Woodland (Open
xanthocarpa (Mart.) forest) With
O. Berg, Casearia grassland
decandra Jacq, covering the
Cinnamodendron forest floor
dinisii Schwacke
Native Araucaria angustifolia, 1012 18.2  6.7 97.4  88.1 Dense forest, sub
Forests Campomanesia layer vegetation
(control xanthocarpa (Mart.) and dense
areas) O. Berg, herbaceous
understory
vegetation
Pastures Paspalum notatum nr nr nr Pasture Grassland

Source: Prepared by authors (2015). Note: The pasture areas are composed only of Paspalum notatum
Flüggé grass without shrubs or trees (Figure 3D).

forests and araucaria forests, with a fragment of native forests used as control areas.
The latter is located outside of the communal land and is not grazed. (Figure 2 and
Table 2). We selected these four monitoring areas because they are representative land
use types already existent in the communal grazing land because of faxinal system
management (Figure 2). In addition, livestock graze freely year round and over all the
areas, which are connected to each other. A transect 300 m in length and 200 m in
width was established (plot of 6.0 ha). This transect crosses all land use types, with the
houses in the center of the plot (Figure 3).
The parameters evaluated in the land use areas were: soil resistance, bulk density,
porosity, moisture, water infiltration rates, and fodder availability (Table 3). The mea-
surements were carried out on the same day to avoid significant variations in soil mois-
ture that could interfere with the measurement of soil resistance and water infiltration
into the soil. We emphasize that the objective of the measurement of the physical con-
ditions of the soil was to identify the variation between the types of land uses.

Soil sampling and analysis

To determine soil compaction we used a pocket penetrometer (H-4200 Humboldt) that
recorded resistance of up to 4.5 kgf/cm-2 (Selby, 1993). The readings recorded were
multiplied by the constant 0.098 (dimensionless) to convert them into Megapascals
(MPa) (Table 3). Eight measurements of soil resistance, with five replications in each
38 Valdemir Antoneli, Edivaldo Lopes Thomaz and Joao Anesio Bednarz

Figure 2. Transect crossing the land use in the faxinal system and control areas. (See transect A–B in
Figure 3).
Source: Prepared by authors based on data analysed from (ITCG 2015).

land use type, were carried out. A total of 40 (8 x 5) measurements were performed.
The sampling sites were randomly chosen in each area.
The soil bulk density was calculated using the volumetric ring method (metal cylin-
der) in 100 cm3, as described by EMBRAPA (1997). We dug 10 trenches 40 cm deep in
each land use type, and took samples at 10 cm intervals. Four soil samples were col-
lected in each trench, totaling 40 samples (4x10). Afterwards the samples were brought
to the laboratory and dried at 105
C for 24 hours. After that the samples were weighed
on an analytical balance scale.

Table 2. Soil properties, size and slope gradient of the different land uses.

Parameters Pastures Woodlands Secondary Araucaria Control

forests Forests Areas

Area (ha) 1.8 1.5 2.5 2.2 6.3

Slope (%) 12 11 16 14 10
Sand (%) 17 18 19 19 20
Silt (%) 30 29 27 29 29
Clay (%) 53 53 54 52 51
Organic Matter (g dm-3) 32.2 32.2 25.5 48.3 56.7
Cation Exchange Capacity 15.9 15.9 15.6 15.4 15.3
(cmolc dm-3)
Soil Type Cambisol Cambisol Cambisol Cambisol Cambisol

Source: Prepared by authors (2015).

Soil degradation 39

Figure 3. Communal grazing land with different pasture areas and households distributed throughout the
Faxinal. The transect A–B represents schematically the land use type in Figure 2; where the measurements
were carried out.
Source: Prepared by authors (2015).

Table 3. Variables measured and number of replications performed in each land use type.

Parameters Pastures Woodlands Secondary Araucaria Control Total of

forests forests Areas samples

Number of replications

Soil resistance 40 40 40 40 40 200

(MPa)1
Soil bulk density 40 40 40 40 40 200
(g cm-3)1
Total soil porosity 40 40 40 40 40 200
(%)1
Soil moisture (%)1 40 40 40 40 40 200
Soil water 40 40 40 40 40 200
infiltration
(mm h-1)
Total fodder 10 10 10 10 10 40
(kg m-2)
Fodder seasonality 10 10 10 10 10 40
(kg m-2)

Source: Prepared by authors (2015). Note: 1These parameters were analysed from the soil surface up to
40 cm in depth (0–10, 10–20, 20–30 and 30–40 cm).

The trenches were used to collect samples for soil porosity, using the same sampling
protocol. The methods proposed by EMBRAPA (1997) were applied for the determina-
tion of total soil porosity. Soil moisture was monitored at the same locations where soil
40 Valdemir Antoneli, Edivaldo Lopes Thomaz and Joao Anesio Bednarz

resistance and soil water infiltration were measured. The same measurement protocol,
explained above, was applied to soil moisture assessment. Volumetric water content
was determined using a time-domain reflectrometry (TDR) probe that allowed instant
reading. Measurements were carried out along a 40 cm trench at 10 cm depth intervals
(Table 3).
Infiltration samples were collected with a double ring infiltrometer 300 and
900 mm in diameter (Dunne & Leopold 1978). The water infiltration readings in the
infiltrometer were performed at 5 min intervals for 1 h. The total infiltration in each
area was expressed in millimeters per hour (mm/h-1) (Table 3). We carried out eight
measurements of soil water infiltration, with five replications in each land use type. A
total of 40 (8 x 5) measurements were performed. The sampling areas were randomly
chosen in each land use type.

Vegetation survey and livestock grazing dynamics

The amount of aboveground biomass collected in each land use type was measured
through the collection of 10 random sites. All the grass in a 1 m2 plot was collected,
with the collection taking place in October (i.e., spring). The samples were taken to the
laboratory and dried in an oven at 65
C for 6 hours. After that the samples passed
through a sieve with a 2 mm mesh to separate some fragments of roots and decompos-
ing material. This strategy allowed for the quantification of existent aboveground bio-
mass in different pasture areas.
For evaluation of the growing grass, 10 cages of 1 m2 were installed in each land
use type. These cages were isolated from animal grazing. The grass biomass inside these
cages was collected in the winter and in the summer to calculate the fodder available
in each land use type. We identified it as available fodder to differentiate from the total
biomass. The grass collected in the cages was taken to the laboratory to dry and weigh,
following the same biomass analysis protocol. This strategy allowed for quantification
of the fodder growing aboveground in different pasture areas, in two different climatic
seasons.
To identify the intensity of grazing in different pastures during the livestock breed-
ing season, we calculated the amount of livestock dung present. This is an indirect
method of estimation of grazing intensity and permanency of the animals in each graz-
ing area. We measured 10 plots of 10x10 meters in each land use type. We counted
the number of dung in each plot (Sampaio & Guarino, 2007). The plots were installed
at random within each land use area. In addition, throughout the 24 month monitor-
ing period, livestock behaviour was observed to support the use of this procedure.

Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA one-way) was used to compare soil water infiltration,
fodder quantity and livestock dynamics among land uses. Next, differences between
individual averages were tested using the post-hoc t-Test (least significant difference,
LSD) at P < 0.05. Simple regression analysis was used to assess the relationship
between two variables.

Results

Land use pattern in the communal grazing land

The communal grazing land (Figure 3) is made up of irregular coupled patches. House-
holds are distributed throughout the grazing area. In addition, there are unpaved roads
Soil degradation 41

and paths, which increase the landscape fragmentation. The pastureland is connected
by a river system; which supplies water to the herds.
The open pasture areas occupy the highest percentage of the total land use areas
(Figure 3D), followed by the secondary forests (Figure 3C), woodlands (Figure 3B),
and araucaria forests (Figure 3A). Households and roads occupy only 0.7 per cent
(~2.0 ha) of the area (Figure 3). Sixty-four families live in Faxinal Paraná Anta Gorda,
and the total population supported by grazing livestock was estimated to be approxi-
mately 200.
In the common grazing areas (276.5 ha), there are about 800 pigs, 250 goats,
80 horses, and 60 cattle. In addition, out of the 64 existing houses in the faxinal,
48 houses are located in pasture areas (75 per cent), thirteen houses are located in sec-
ondary forests, and only three are located in the woodlands. In the araucaria forests
there are no houses. Finally, we observed that fifty houses (78 per cent) were built
near the roads. Therefore, there is a close relationship between the location of house-
holds and the surrounding land uses. The farming households form an inner circle that
influences the pattern of land use, such as pastures, woodlands, secondary forests and
araucaria forests.

Soil properties
Soil resistance showed significant variation between types of use. Soil resistance
decreased gradually from the pastures to the araucaria forests (Figure 4a). In the types
of land use with grazing, soil resistance was lower in the first layer of soil (0–10 cm
deep), while the highest soil resistance was found between 20 and 30 cm deep.

Figure 4. Soil physical variables in different land uses: a) soil resistance; b) soil bulk density; c) soil total
porosity; and d) soil moisture.
Source: Prepared by authors (2015).
42 Valdemir Antoneli, Edivaldo Lopes Thomaz and Joao Anesio Bednarz

The soil resistance of pasture lands was greater in comparison to other land use
areas: 34.7 per cent higher than the woodlands, 52.3 per cent higher than the second-
ary forests, 93.7 per cent higher than the araucaria forests, and 210 per cent higher
than the control areas. The results of soil bulk density were similar to soil resistance,
and showed the same sequence (Figure 4b). The highest bulk soil density was regis-
tered in the pastures and the lowest in the araucaria forests. The average density in the
control areas was 28 per cent above the pastures, 19 per cent above that of the wood-
lands, 16.6 per cent above that of the secondary forests and 8.3 per cent above that of
the araucaria forests. Whilst pastures indicated lower soil porosity, conversely, the con-
trol areas had the most porous soil. The woodlands and secondary forests indicated
similar porosity.
Soil moisture was higher in forest areas compared with pasture areas. Soil moisture
in the pasture areas was 24 per cent, while the woodlands and secondary forests
showed similar values, 35 per cent and 37 per cent respectively (Figure 4d).
The water infiltration rate was higher at the beginning of measurement and
decreased gradually towards the end of measurement. There was variation in soil water
infiltration between land uses in this time interval. The control areas showed greater
infiltration in the first reading (5 min), followed by the araucaria forests, secondary for-
ests, and woodlands (Table 4). The pastures had the lowest infiltration in this interval,
3.9 mm h-1, which is 246 per cent less than the control areas, 156 per cent lower than
the araucaria forests, 97 per cent lower than the secondary forests, and 67 per cent
lower in relation to the woodlands.
The total soil water infiltration rates were different between land uses (Table 4).
However, the final soil water infiltration rates were similar (~1 mm h-1) for woodlands,
secondary forests and araucaria forests. This final infiltration rate was 66 per cent lower
in comparison to the control areas. Finally, the pastures showed a 50 per cent reduc-
tion in the final soil water infiltration rate in comparison to woodlands, secondary for-
ests and araucaria forests.

Table 4. Water infiltration into the soil in different land use.

Time (min) Pastures Woodlands Secondary Araucaria Control

forests forests areas
Soil water infiltration rates (mm h-1)

5 3.9 6.5 7.6 10.1 13.5

10 2.5 3.3 4.3 4.7 6.0
15 1.8 2.7 3.3 3.4 4.8
20 1.5 2.3 2.6 3.1 4.2
25 1.2 2.1 2.4 2.7 4.0
30 1.0 1.9 1.8 2.5 3.6
35 0.9 1.6 1.6 2.1 3.3
40 0.7 1.4 1.5 1.7 3.2
45 0.6 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.4
50 0.6 1.1 1.1 1.2 2.0
55 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.6
60 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.5
Total Soil water infiltration 15.9d 26.1c 29.5c 34.8b 50.0a
(mm h-1)

Source: Prepared by authors (2015). Note: Lowercase letters compare significant differences between land
uses at p < 0.05.
Soil degradation 43

Table 5. Gradient of fodder quantity and livestock activity according to land use.

Fodder quantity and Pastures Woodlands Secondary Araucaria Control

livestock activity forests forests Areas

Total fodder (t ha-1) 6.6  1.5a 2.1  0.5b 1.2  0.4c 0.4  0.2d 0.1  0.1e
Fodder quantity - Winter 2.7  0.7A 2.0  0.5A 1.1  0.2A 0.3  0.1A nr
(t ha-1)
Fodder quantity - Summer 4.7  0.7B 3.4  0.3B 2.5  0.4B 0.7  0.1B nr
(t ha-1)
livestock activity (dung 620  130a 320  83b 300  100b 120  83c ne
ha-1)

Source: Prepared by authors (2015). Note: L Lowercase letters compare significant differences between
land uses at p < 0.05. Uppercase letters compare significant differences between fodder quantity in win-
ter or summer season at p < 0.05; nr = not recorded and ne = none-existent.

Considering the effect of the whole set of soil physical variables on the different
uses of the land, it is possible to observe a clear distinction between them. The natural
araucaria forests (control areas) were separated from other land uses. Araucaria forests
showed slight similarity with forests and secondary forests.
Therefore, in comparison with the control areas, the communal pasture areas pre-
sented changes in the soil physical variables. In addition, the communal pasture areas
exhibit differences in the physical characteristics of the soil among its constitutive uses
of the land.

Pasture production and livestock grazing dynamics

The total fodder decreased abruptly from the open pasture areas to araucaria forests
(Table 5). Pasture lands were responsible for 63 per cent of the total fodder in the com-
munal grazing land. Woodlands and secondary forests also supplied important inputs
of fodder for the herds, amounting to 20 per cent and 12 per cent, respectively. Arau-
caria forests displayed the lowest percentage of fodder (~4 per cent) in comparison to
other pasture areas.
The subtropical region displayed a seasonality effect on the fodder quantity
(Table 5). During the winter (i.e., cold season) there is a two-fold reduction in fodder
quantity through all land use areas. However, the ratio of fodder quantity for the live-
stock in the winter-summer season was kept similar between land use areas, i.e. 43 per
cent (pastures); 31 per cent (woodlands); 20 per cent (secondary forests), and 6 per
cent (araucaria forests).
The fodder quantity displayed a gradient of shortage from pastures to araucaria for-
est areas (Table 5). This gradient of fodder shortage is positively correlated with live-
stock activity (r = 0.969, p < 0.05). The pastures displayed 46 per cent of the livestock
activity. Woodlands and secondary forests exhibited similar livestock dynamics,
amounting to 24 per cent and 22 per cent respectively, whereas the araucaria forests
registered lower livestock dynamics (9 per cent).

Discussion

Land use in the faxinal system fragments and reduces the inner forests, with the
household as a starting point. In addition, land use displays a clear gradient with
important changes in environmental processes, fodder quantity and soil degradation.
The environmental variables (e.g., infiltration rates, soil resistance and soil moisture)
44 Valdemir Antoneli, Edivaldo Lopes Thomaz and Joao Anesio Bednarz

change progressively from the araucaria forests to secondary forests, and woodlands to
pasture. Therefore, soil water infiltration and soil moisture decreases, whereas soil
resistance and soil bulk density increases. Farmers produce this spatial pattern,
i.e., fragmentation, in the faxinal through forest management practices mostly directed
at livestock growth. Forest management affects the fodder quantity for the livestock,
and forms a straight gradient of fodder scarcity from pastures (greater fodder) to arau-
caria forests (less fodder). This gradient is related to the number of trees determined for
each type of land use (Table 2). As the farmer cuts trees (forest management), the for-
est becomes less dense, increasing sunlight availability, which contributes to increased
availability of fodder.
Likewise, the livestock activity (dung/ha) correlates positively to fodder quantity. In
addition, fodder availability shows a strong seasonality (winter-summer), decreasing by
two times in the communal grazing land.

Forest fragmentation and its implications on soil degradation

Forest management practices, such as thinning, are important from the viewpoint of
fodder production for livestock. Following this land use pattern, we see a clear gradient
of important changes in environmental processes and soil physical degradation. In
addition, the soil physical degradation is positively correlated to livestock grazing inten-
sity and fodder availability.
Furthermore, there is an important correlation of roads and farmhouses to land use
distribution, fragmentation, and soil degradation (see Figure 1). Following roads and
houses, the pastures and woodlands are the most prevalent land uses. Secondary and
araucaria forests are the dominant land uses further away from the other land uses.
Additionally, pastures and woodlands display the worst soil physical conditions,
whereas secondary and araucaria forests exhibit superior soil conditions. However,
both (i.e., secondary and araucaria forests) have inferior soil physical conditions com-
pared to the ungrazed control areas.
The faxinal system produces a departure from the environmental characteristics of
the natural forests (as in the control areas). In addition, throughout the communal
grazing land there is an expansion of heterogeneity among land use types. Therefore
near houses, whereby the process of forest thinning is intense, araucaria forest areas
are converted into secondary forests, and secondary forests into woodlands. Finally,
woodlands are transformed into pastures. Farmers remove vegetation, which allows
light to reach the forest floor in order to increase the biomass, specifically grasses for
the livestock. For this reason, a clear gradient of fodder availability from pastures to
araucaria forests exists.
Inventory of the mixed ombrophilous forests in Southern of Brazil indicate that the
majority of araucaria forest fragments were highly impacted and impoverished, mostly
caused by logging and extensive cattle farming (Vibrans et al., 2011). In this study,
woodlands and secondary forest areas also had fewer trees per ha compared to the
araucaria forests. And, even the araucaria forests in the faxinal system exhibit a lower
trees per ha measurement (-52 per cent) as compared to natural forests (Table 1). In
the woodland areas, the herbaceous layer is absent. Forest thinning allows sunlight to
reach the forest floor, thus increasing evaporation, particularly in the woodlands and
pasture areas. Moreover, this could result in a reduced litter, as a result, decreasing the
turnover rate of organic matter in the topsoil.
Organic matter is a key factor for aggregate stability (Tisdall & Oades, 1982), soil
water infiltration, and soil erodibility resistance (Le Bissonnais, 1996; Amézketa, 1999).
Soil degradation 45

In contrast, grazing and trampling by livestock cause a decline in soil physical proper-
ties (Pulido et al., 2017b), and increases soil erodibility (Zhou et al., 2010). Further-
more, livestock (i.e., pigs, goats, horses, and cattle) dynamics in the faxinal system
exert pressure on environmental processes, as discussed below.

Implications of livestock grazing in the communal area

Soil resistance is 1.5 and 2.5 times greater in secondary forests and woodlands, respec-
tively, in comparison with the araucaria forests. Soil compaction (i.e., soil bulk density
and soil resistance) could have a major effect by decreasing soil water infiltration in
those areas. Soil water infiltration rates are 30 per cent lower in the woodlands and
approximately 50 per cent lower in the pasture areas, compared to the araucaria for-
ests. Grazing pressure is more intense in the pastures, woodlands and secondary forests
(i.e., near farmhouses), whereas the grazing intensities are much lower in the araucaria
forests (~9 per cent). Here we notice a close relationship between fodder availability,
livestock activity, and soil physical degradation gradient according to land use.
Cattle are responsible for increased soil compaction and decreased soil water infil-
tration (Trimble & Mendel, 1995), and they facilitate soil erosion (Evans, 1998). The
effects of cattle on soil properties, including soil water infiltration rates, tend to
decrease with increasing trampling intensity (Pietola et al., 2005). Therefore, higher
runoff coefficients are expected in the pasture and woodland areas. These two areas
account for 52 per cent of total land use in the study area.
In the faxinal system, cattle make paths that connect the upland and riparian zone
to access drinking water. These paths generate runoff, sediment transfer into streams,
and streambank erosion (Thomaz & Dias, 2009; Antoneli et al., 2013). Cattle have
unrestricted access to the riparian zone, causing streambank erosion and changes in
the streambed morphology. (Trimble, 1994). The riparian zone is a sensitive ecosystem,
and cattle, pigs, and goats play a major role in the degradation of the adjacent plant
community (Samuelson & Roodd, 2011), as well as decreasing water quality by defe-
cating in or near the aquatic system (Haan et al., 2010).
In addition, seasonal changes in climate and microclimate created by forest frag-
mentation could affect livestock movement to different locations in the grazing areas
for specific needs (e.g., shelter, drinking water, and specific food). In this study, climate
seasonality significantly reduced fodder availability, especially in the winter season.
Therefore, the livestock might walk further throughout the communal grazing areas to
obtain their food needs.
A previous study found that cattle spent approximately 2 per cent of their time in
the aquatic environment and approximately 7 per cent of their time in the riparian
zone (Bond et al. 2012). Increasing air temperature increases the likelihood of cattle
being in the riparian zone or aquatic habitats (Haan et al., 2010). Generally, cattle activ-
ity and distribution patterns vary according to the time of day and year (Haan et al.,
2010; Bond et al., 2012).
Livestock prefer areas with a certain level of openness (Krzic et al., 2005). Therefore,
the pastures and woodlands would be preferable locations for cattle grazing. Con-
versely, because of high tree density and a dense understory layer, the araucaria forests
tend to be avoided by cattle. This grazing pattern corroborates with the livestock activ-
ity that we measured (dung/ha). Consequently, in the communal area, the araucaria
forests support only 11 per cent of the total grazing activity. In addition, these areas
have lower livestock activity, because they count for only 5 per cent of the fodder
available in the whole communal grazing area.
46 Valdemir Antoneli, Edivaldo Lopes Thomaz and Joao Anesio Bednarz

A number of domestic species exist in the communal grazing area, including cattle,
goats, horses, and pigs. Therefore, we expected different grazing behavior among the
species. Cattle prefer herbaceous growth in all seasons, whereas goats eat a mixture of
plants, including herbaceous and woody species (Papachristou et al., 2005). Pigs eat
fruits, seeds, roots, and often dig the topsoil, resulting in substantial surface distur-
bance. Pig trampling can be severe enough to create small ponds. In addition, pigs pre-
fer to excavate lower density soil, which occurs close to fruit trees, which produce a lot
of litter, making the topsoil soft. Consequently, this multi-species grazing activity pro-
duces a complex pattern of soil degradation that potentially affects direct and indirect
environmental processes in each land use type, including pastures, woodlands, second-
ary forests, and the riparian zone.

Management implications in the faxinal system

In south-central Paraná State, farmers claim that the faxinal system is ageing
(i.e., over-aged stands), particularly, the communal grazing areas. This means that for-
est management practices, such as timber extraction, firewood harvesting, forest thin-
ning, and livestock grazing prevent the natural recovery of the forest. As such, old
trees only exist in the canopy and few seedlings and saplings occur on the forest floor.
The secondary forests exhibit ~17 per cent of the available fodder and 22 per cent
of the livestock activity in the communal grazing area. Therefore, this land use area,
with 35 per cent of the total grazing area, could be the most at-risk, because it is a tran-
sition of woodlands and araucaria forests. If grazing intensity and forest thinning
increase in this area, it will be transformed into a woodlands grazing area. However, if
grazing intensity and forest thinning decrease, the secondary forests could recover into
a more dense forest type.
The effects of livestock grazing on vegetation recovery depend on grazing rate,
duration, and distribution of animals over the grazing area (e.g., riparian zone, season
when grazing occurs, slope, and soil properties) (Krzic et al., 2005; Papachristou et al.,
2005; Pietola et al., 2005; Haan et al., 2010; Samuelson & Rood, 2011). In this study, a
clear gradient of soil physical degradation associated with livestock activity was
observed over the different land use areas.
Management in the communal grazing areas could mitigate the environmental
impacts. Farmers could control the number of livestock in the grazing areas
(Gebremedhin et al. 2004). Pastures account for 36 per cent (approximately 100 ha) of
the total communal grazing area, and consist primarily of Paspalum notatum Flüggé.
This species has high resistance to grazing and is an efficient land cover. However, its
predominance on the landscape may indicate excessive grazing (Trindade et al., 2007).
A degraded pasture has lower capacity to produce fodder and lower capacity to sustain
livestock, particularly, in the winter season. Therefore, improvement of the degraded
pasture could enhance fodder production and support more livestock per ha. Cattle,
horses, and goats may then avoid migrating inside the forest in search for fodder, par-
ticularly, in the secondary and araucaria forest areas.
Following the improvement of the degraded pasture, farmers could install remov-
able troughs for cattle drinking water in the upland areas. It is critical to manage soil
degradation near the drinking site (Pietola et al., 2005). A removable trough could be
periodically moved to new locations. Farms could restrict livestock access to the ripar-
ian zone by installing fences. This procedure would prevent stream erosion, improve
water quality (Monaghan et al., 2016), and accelerate recovery of the plant community
in the riparian zone.
Soil degradation 47

Several recommendations to develop the social, cultural, economic, and environ-

mental conditions that exist in the faxinal system in Paraná State were made a decade
ago (Marques, 2004). However, most of those recommendations are still waiting for
execution by policy makers, local authorities, and even stakeholders living in the fax-
inal system. We believe that simple practices could improve environmental quality in
the faxinal system, including, soil, water, and forest quality, as well as the livelihood of
the farmers.

Conclusions

Forest management practices in the faxinal system lead to inner forest fragmentation
caused by livestock grazing, and the household location is a key starting point for soil
physical degradation and fodder availably for the livestock. The household location cre-
ates three interrelated gradients in the communal grazing land: a) soil physical degra-
dation decreases from the pasture areas to araucaria forests; b) fodder quantity
decreases from the pastures to araucaria forests; c) the livestock grazing intensity
decreases from the pastures to araucaria forests.
The faxinal system is ageing (over-aged stands), particularly in the communal graz-
ing areas. Forest management practices, such as timber extraction, firewood harvesting,
forest thinning, and livestock grazing, prevent the natural recovery of the forest. There-
fore, further studies are needed to validate and improve land management in the fax-
inal system.

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