Chapter 8 Surveying of Water Pumping Schemes

CHAPTER 8
Surveying of Water Pumping Schemes

Objective of the Chapter: The objective of this chapter is to familiarize the trainees
with principles and practices of technical surveying of water pumping schemes.

Duration: Theory class: 490 minutes

Practical class: 180 minutes

Physical Facilities required for conducting the class: Class room with white board
and multi-media projection facility.

Materials required for conducting the class: surveying instruments (Abney level,
levelling instrument).

Lesson Plan

Sub- Lesson details Teaching Facilities Duration Remarks

chapter Methodology required
8.1 Source evaluation Lecture Class room 30 mins.
8.2, 8.3 Pipeline system Lecture Class room 30 mins
and 8.4 topography survey and
…..
8.5 Measuring the head Lecture, practical Class room, 180 mins
exercise and open area (lecture)
numerical 180 mins
calculations (practical)
8.6 Design Period, Population Lecture Class room 30 mins
and Water Demand
8.7 and Open System Vs. Closed Lecture Class room 60 mins
8.8 Systems of Supply, Intake
Works
8.9 Pipeline Design Lecture Class room 60 mins

The survey of water pumping site should fulfil four major requirements.

1. Source Evaluation
2. Length of pipeline system and relative elevation
3. Determination of material, transportation and labour availability and rates
4. Evaluation of village motivation and cooperation

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8.1 Source Evaluation

Evaluating the source for the water system should be the first step in the survey
process. The quantity and quality of the water must be determined along with source
development potential and investigating water rights disputes and conflicts.

Springs and streams are the two most common types of sources. The quantity of
spring flow is most conveniently measured by calibrating a wide-mounted collection
vessel and timing its filling. Stream flows are usually too large to be measured by
previous method so a velocity area flow measurement should be made. The flow in
cubic meters per second is equal to the water velocity in meter per second multiplied
by the cross sectional area of the stream perpendicular to the velocity direction
measured in square meter units.

Measure a stream flow in the following way. Find a straight portion of the stream and
measure the cross-sectional area of flowing water. A straight portion is one that it is
free of bends and obstructions over a distance of at least 6 to 10 times the average
water depth. The average velocity is usually at mid-stream at a depth of 0.6 times the
full depth at the section.

Alternatively, a weir can be used to measure small stream. A V-notch, 60° weir is
recommended for the normal range of small flows encountered in village stream
sources. The weir should be placed perpendicular to the stream (both horizontal and
vertically) and a straight unobstructed flow distance of at least ten times the weir crest
width should precede the weir.

The “safe yield” of the source is typically the minimum flow which occurs in the dry
season. The safe yield is that amount of water which can always be withdrawn
without fear of over drawing form the source. Unless the survey is done in April or
May (driest season), minimum flow will have to be determined by asking as many
villagers as possible about minimum flow conditions. Maximum flows may also be
determined by questioning or more preferably, measuring monsoon flows directly. As
the minimum flow, safe yield is important for pipeline and reservoir design, and the
maximum flow important for estimating for structural protection and overflow
requirements, accurate figures for flow extremes should be carefully established.

The quality of source water must also be evaluated. Due to transportation problems
and high costs, physical and chemical water testing is not presently feasible. However
biological contaminants can be tested for with a portable battery powered filed testing
unit. Most of the time biological testing will not be done at the time of the initial
survey. Therefore the water quality assessment is based largely on the villagers’
advice. They know through experience if the water in the source they have chosen is
drinkable and of acceptable quality.

If a water source with turbidity, taste and/or odour problems is encountered, then
these problems might be readily amenable to a simple treatment scheme.

At the time of source evaluation it should be noted of how the source can best be
developed. How can the tank be protected from monsoon floods and contaminations?

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How can water be efficiently collected? And how stable and constant is the water
source? Field notes concerning the topography, area description, geology and answers
to above questions will be useful in the subsequent design of the intake works.
The final aspect of source evaluation is investigation of any water rights disputes or
potential conflicts which may arises after developing the source.

8.2 Pipeline System Topography Survey

The determination of pipeline lengths and relative elevation is the most time
consuming part of the survey and the most important. Many surveys are short enough
so that an Abney hand level and tape survey is sufficiently accurate. Long surveys and
surveys over rough terrain are most accurately done with a transit stadia and/or tape
method.

The first step of the survey is to walk the proposed route and familiarize yourself with
the terrain, tap and branch locations and place names. While choosing best pipe routes
remember that the side of the path or trail is best as within the path rapid erosion can
occur if the backfill is not properly stabilized. Pipes laid through field must be deep
enough to preclude being up.

While surveying, in addition to the basic numerical information, the following notes
should be recorded along the route.

 Soil condition-type, stability, erosion conditions

 Vegetation
 Special pipe protection requirements
 Special structure location feasibility (i.e. is this a good place for a tank, air
release or washout valve placement?)
 Extra pipe length requirements
 Potential construction problems in the area.

Evaluations should be established on permanent structures along the survey route.

Such permanent elevation marks are called benchmark. A corner of a step, a
prominent point of an immovable stone and a well marked high point of a tree root are
good benchmark.

8.3 Determination of Rates of Material, Labour and Transport Availability

Securing accurate data as to the availability and rates for material, labor and
transportation is important for the viability of the project cost estimate.

8.4 Village Cooperation and Motivation Evaluation

The ability of the villagers to work together and carry out a construction project is
something that is difficult to judge in advance and better estimates of this motivation
factor will come with experience. Nevertheless it is necessary to get some idea of
motivation, cooperative ability and potential social and political conflicts while doing
survey. Talking to people, examining past construction efforts, inspecting the

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conditions of roads, buildings and public areas and consulting with the local
government officials will provide helpful clues to the possible success or failure of the
construction effort.

8.5 Measuring the Head

Once suitable locations have been selected for all the civil structures, the available
head and the distance between these structures should be measured.

Using a Clinometer (Abney Level)

The clinometer (also called an Abney level) is a smaller version of a line level and
used to measure vertical angles. It is used to measure the angle of the slope and this is
used to calculate the gross head. The accuracy available from this rather small and
cheap instrument is better than 5 percent for measuring the head. The other
equipment needed is a measuring tape (30m), two strong sticks of equal length (~
1.5m long) and marking pins or pegs.

Procedure
1. Place one stick/ranging rod at the starting point of the survey, and second stick
at the first intermediate point less than 30m away.
2. Measure the straight sloping distance L, between to tops of the sticks and record
(Table 8.5.1).
3. Place the Abney level on top of the first stick and sight the top of the second,
turn the sprit level until the bubble is at the centre of the split eyepiece and
record the measure angle 1.
4. Move the first stick to the next location along the route of pipelines preferably
less than 30m.
5. Repeat operation 2 and 3 from the second stick aiming at the new position of the
first stick, record the slope distance L2 and angle 2.
6. Move the second stick to the next position along the pipeline and repeat the
operations 2 – 5 until the base of the fore bay is reached (fig.8.5.1).

Fig.8.5.1 Measuring the Head with an Abney Level

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Table 8.5.1 Record Sheet for Abney Level Measurement

Distance between Angle  between H = L 

Positions Remarks
positions (m) positions sin
1&2 L1 = 1 = H1 =
2&3 L2 = 2 = H2 =
3&4 L3 = 3 = H2 =
Total height (m) = H1 + H2 + H3 + ...................................

Using a Water Filled Tube

This is one of the simplest and cheapest methods for measuring small heads
(fig.8.5.2). The equipment needed is a 20m long, transparent plastic tube with a
diameter of about 10-20mm, two graded rods, a measuring tape and the some marking
pins/pegs. Usually two people are needed to take the measurements. This method can
be quite accurate if the surveyors are experienced. However, it should be repeated
three or more times to ensure that no mistakes have been made.

Fig. 8.5.1 Measuring the head using a Water-filled tube

Procedure

1. Starting from the site of fore bay, fill the plastic tube with sediment free water.
You should hold one end of the pipe while your assistant holds the other end
both about shoulder height. Remove all bubbles by stroking various parts of the
uncoiled tube.

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2. Ask your assistant to walk slowly down of the hill along the path of the
proposed route; he should keep raising his end of the pipe while you slowly
lower yours to ensure that water does not spill from either end of the pipe. The
assistant should stop when your end of the pipe nearly reaches the ground.
3. Measure the heights of the water in the pipe above ground level using the graded
rods (h1 and h2) and the horizontal distance L 1. Mark both positions (1 and 2)
with pegs and record all the readings on the record sheet.
4. Direct your assistant to stay in the same position and lower his end of the pipe
while you move to a new position below him (position 3) along the pipeline
route, raising your end of the pipe until the water level reaches about head
height at your end and nearly touches the ground at your assistant’s end.
5. Read and record the new readings at position 2 and 3 and measure the distance
between the points along the slope. Record the readings (Table 8.5.2).
6. Repeat the process until one of you reaches the base marks.

Table 8.5.2 Record Sheet for Water Tube Measurements

1st height 2nd height Difference Distance

Positions Remarks
above ground above ground H (m) L (m)
1–2
2–3
3–4
Total Height = Distance =

Using Levelling Instrument

Levelling is a method of surveying used for determination of the difference of

elevations or levels of various points on the surface of the earth. The elevation of a
point is its vertical distance above or below a reference level called datum. The most
commonly used datum is the mean sea level (MSL). The levelling is thus deals with
distances in a vertical plane.

Instruments Required
1. Levelling Instrument (Level)
2. Tripod
3. Staff
4. Tape

Temporary Adjustments of a Level

Temporary adjustments are the adjustments which are done at every setting of the
instrument. When the setup is changed the temporary adjustment are disturbed. As the
temporary adjustments are done at each station, these are also called the station
adjustment.

The following temporary adjustments are done in the level.

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 Setting up: First the tripod is set up so that its top is at a convenient height. For
fixing the level on the level on the tripod, hold the level in the right and fix it on
the tripod turning the trivet stage with the left hand. The tripod legs are moved
radially or circumferentially so that the levelling head is approximately horizontal.
Some instruments are provided with small circular bubble tube on the tribranch to
check the approximate levelling of the instrument. When the bubble is in the
centre, the instrument is approximately levelled (fig. 8.5.3).
 Levelling up: The purpose of levelling is to make the vertical axis of the
instrument truly vertical. The following procedure is used for the levelling up the
level provided with three levelling screws or foot screws.

Fig. 8.5.3 Levelling Up

a) Turn the telescope so that the level tube is parallel to the line of joining
any two levelling screws, say No. 1 and No. 2.
b) Turn the screw No. 1 with the right thumb and the screw No. 2 with the
left thumb. Both the thumbs should move either towards each other or
move away from each other. Thus if one screw is turned clockwise, the
other is turned counter clockwise so that one will raise the lower end and
the other will lower the higher end. The process should be continued till
the bubble comes to the centre of the level tube. It may be noted that the
bubble moves in the same direction as the left thumb.
c) Turn the telescope through 90° so that the level tube is over the third screw
or on the line perpendicular to the line joining screws No. 1 and 2. Bring
the bubble to the centre by turning the screw 3.
d) Again bring the level tube parallel to the line joining the screws No. 1 and
2. While bringing the level tube in this direction, it is essential to keep the
movement of the tube in the same quadrant of the circle. Bring the bubble
in the centre of run by means of screw No. 1 and 2 as before.
e) Again turn the telescope through 90° and bring the bubble in the centre of
run by means of the screw No. 3. Repeat step (d) and (e) till the bubble
remains central in both the positions.
f) Now turn the telescope through 180° so that it is again parallel to the line
joining the screws No. 1 and 2 but the eyepiece and the objective ends of
the telescope are reversed. The bubble will remain in the centre if the
instrument is in permanent adjustment.
Now the bubble would remain centre in whatever direction the telescope is
pointed. The bubble is said to traverse.

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The following precaution shall be taken when levelling the instrument.

a) As far as possible, the levelling screws should be at the centres of their run
and the tribrach should be approximately levelled before starting the
levelling process.
b) The screw should be turned uniformly. If one screw is turned more rapidly
than the other, the screw may bend.
c) Screws should not become over tight. If they are over tight they may
deform the levelling head bearing. If screws bind during levelling, an
adjustment screw should be loosened to make it free.
d) It is safe to leave all screws rather loose or barely in bearing until the
instrument has been levelled.

 Focusing: If the image formed by the objective is not in the plane of cross hairs,
an error called parallax occurs. If there is parallax the image of the object moves
with reference to the cross hairs when the eye is moved from one side to the other.

Terms Used in Levelling

 Station: The station is the point where the staff is held for taking observation from
a levelling instrument.

 Height of the instrument (H.I.): It is the elevation of the line of sight (or a
horizontal plane containing the line of sight) with respect to the datum.

 Back Sight (B.S.): It is the reading taken on a staff held at a point of known
elevation or at the point whose elevation has already been determined. The back
sight is usually the first reading taken after setting up the instrument. The back
sight is taken on a bench mark (B.M.) for the first setting of the instrument and on
a turning point (T.P.) for the subsequent settings because the level of turning point
can be determined before shifting of the instrument.

The back sight is used to determine the height of the instrument (H.I.)
Height of the instrument = Known Elevation + Back Sight

The reader should carefully note that the back sight need not always be on the
staff held in the back ward direction that is the direction opposite to the direction
of the progress of levelling.

 Fore Sight (F.S.): It is reading taken on the staff either held at the last point whose
elevation is required or held at the turning point just before shifting the
instrument. The fore sight is used to determine the elevation of the staff station.
Elevation = Height of instrument – Fore sight

The fore sight is also known as the minus sight. It is usually the last reading
before shifting the instrument.

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 Turning Point (T.P.): For levelling over a long distance, the instrument has to be
set up a number of times. A turning point is the point selected on the route before
shifting the instrument.

 Intermediate Sight (I.S.): It is the reading taken on a staff held at a point whose
elevation is required, but which is not a turning point or the last point. The
intermediate sights are taken at the intermediate stations.

The reader should clearly note the difference between an intermediate sight and
fore sight. Both the readings are taken to determine the elevation of a point. But
the fore sight is taken on a point which is the turning or the last point, whereas the
intermediate sight is taken at any other point.

Level Field Book

A level field book is used for booking and reducing the levels of various points. There
are two methods for reducing the levels.

1. Height of Instrument Method

2. Rise and Fall Method

 Height of Instrument Method

The fig.8.5.4 and table 8.5.3 shows a page of the level book for height of instrument
method. There are seven columns. The first column indicates the station at which the
staff is placed. The second column is for the back sight (B.S.). In the second line, the
entries regarding the intermediate sight (I.S.). As the instrument is shifted after taking
the reading on the staff at B, the reading is a fore sight (F.S.). The fore sight is entered
in the column (4) of the third line. The reading on the staff held at B after shifting the
instrument to L2 is entered as the B.S. for the station B. The new height of the
instrument (H.I.) is written in the column (5). It may be noted that the turning point B
both fore sight (F.S.) and back sight (B.S.) are entered where as other stations only
one reading is entered. In the fourth line, the entries regarding the intermediate station
F are made. In the fifth line, the entries regarding the station C are made. The staff
reading is entered as for sight (F.S.). After making the entries in column (1) to (4) the
height of the instrument and the reduced levels are computed and entered in columns
(5) and (6) respectively.

1.310 2.100 2.245

1.420 1.620 2.150

A
E
L1
B
F
L2
C
Fig. 8.5.4 Height
Measurement

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Table 8.5.3 Height of Instrument Method

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
A 1.310 101.310 100.000 R.L.
E 2.100 99.210
B 1.420 2.245 100.485 99.065 T.P.
F 1.620 98.865
C 2.150 98.335
Sum 2.730 4.395

In the above figure let us consider the case when the elevation of starting point A is
known and it is required to determine the elevation of the end point C. The instrument
is set up at a convenient point L 1 and a back sight (=1.310) taken on the staff held at
A. The height of the instrument is determined as H.I. = 100.000 + 1.310 = 101.310.
The staff reading at point E (=2.100) is taken which is intermediate sight and the
reduced level at point E = 101.310 – 2.100 = 99.210. The staff man then moves to
another point B whose distance is L1 from point A. The foresight is taken on the staff
held at B. The level of the point B is then obtained, reduced level of point (R.L.) of B
= 101.310 – 2.245 = 99.065. The point B is the turning point. The instrument is
shifted to the position L2. A back sight (B.S.) is taken on the staff held at B and
reading is 1.420. The height of instrument (H.I.) = 99.065 + 1.420 = 100.485. The
staff is now moved to the station F (intermediate sight) and the staff reading 1.620 is
obtained. The reduced level (R.L.) at point F = 100.485 – 1.620 = 98.865. Then the
fore sight (F.S.) at point C is taken and staff reading 2.150 is obtained and the reduced
level (R.L.) of point C = 100.485 – 2.150 = 98.335.

Arithmetic Check: The arithmetic calculation made in the computations of the height
of instrument (H.I.) and the reduced levels (R.L.) can be checked by applying the
following simple arithmetic check.

B.S. - F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

2.730 – 4.395 = 98.335 – 100.000

- 1.665 = -1.665 (O.K)

It may be noted that if B.S. is greater than F.S., the last point is higher than the first
point, and if it is smaller, the last point is lower.

 Rise and Fall Method

The following table 8.5.4 shows a page of the level book for the rise and fall method.
There are eight columns.

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Table 8.5.4 Rise and Fall Method

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
A 1.310 100.000 B.M.
E 2.100 0.790 99.210
B 1.420 2.245 0.145 99.065 T.P.
F 1.620 0.200 98.865
C 2.150 0.530 98.335
Sum 2.730 4.395 0 1.665

The entries in the first columns are same as in height of instrument method. The
entries in columns (5) and (6) are made after competing the rise and fall. The
calculations are based on the principle that two consecutive readings from the same
instrument position give the difference of levels which may be a rise from the
preceding station or a fall. Thus the rise or fall of each point is determined with
respect to the preceding station.

In table as the staff reading at E is greater than at A, there is a fall.

Fall = 2.100 = 1.310 = 0.790

Therefore R.L. of E = 100.00 – 0.790 = 99.210

Likewise, there is a fall of 2.245 – 2.100 = 0.145 from E to B.

From B to F, there is fall of 1.620 – 1.420 = 0.200

From F to C there is fall of 2.150 – 1.620 = 0.530

The R.L. of various stations are computed by adding the rise to the R.L. of preceding
station or by subtracting the fall from the R.L. of the proceeding station.

Arithmetic Check: To computations are checked by applying the following arithmetic

check.

B.S. - F.S. = Rise - Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

From the table

2.730 – 4.395 = 0 – 1.665 = 98.335 – 100.00

– 1.665 = -1.665 = -1.665 (OK)

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8.6 Design Period, Population and Water Demand

Design Period
Community water supply systems should be designed and constructed for a 15 to 25
years useful life span. The choice of either 15, 20 or 25 years design period should be
based on the amount of potential change that the designer foresees for the area.
Population Forecast
Selection of design period leading directly to an estimate of the design population
should be served.
Water Demands
The total water demand for the village at the end of the design period is made up of
the per capita demand and special demand. A per capita water usage includes
allowances for personal washing, drinking, cooking and livestock and domesticated
animals’ water needs. The per capita water demand will be found by using the
projected population for the design period.

The special water demands include projected requirements for schools, health centres,
public institutions, government facilities etc. Determination of the projected water
needs of these special users and best be made by extrapolating past trends for each
individual special use.

The village’s total daily water requirement will be the sum of the per capita demand,
multiplied by the design year population, and the special water demands anticipated
for the design year. Reservoir design, hydraulic design and public tap stand placement
will be based on this value for total daily water use and on water uses in different
sections of the village.

8.7 Open System Vs. Closed Systems of Supply

An open system is defined as a water supply system in which there are no manually
operated faucets on the taps and water flows continuously.

A closed system has self closing or manually operated faucets on taps. Closed systems
usually include a reservoir, and if topography or elevation changes warrant one or
more break pressure tanks. An open system may include break pressure tanks but
never a reservoir.

The open system has an immediate economic advantage over a closed system in that
reservoir tank construction is avoided and open taps are less expensive then taps with
shut off valves. The water in an open system is always moving, hence such a system
should not freeze, and the short detention time of the water lessens the chance for the
growth and accumulation of contaminating micro organism. In order to design an
open system there must be a sufficient flow of source water.

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A closed system with a reservoir tank has some inherent advantage. First the stored
supply of water is useful in the event of a fire in the village. Second, the reservoir can
be used for water treatment processes like sedimentation and disinfection.

8.8 Intake Works

Most intake tanks include the following features:
- Screened inflow piping
- Service pipe(s) (i.e. outflow pipe(s))
- Overflow piping
- Ventilation of tank
- Screens to protect service pipe(s)
- Shut-off regulating valve(s) on service pipe(s)
- Sedimentation compartment
- Locking access way, locking valve box
- Fencing around source

A schematic diagram of spring intake system is shown in figure 8.8.1 below.

Fig. 8.8.1 Spring Intake System

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The numbered items in the above figure are:

1. Perf. Int. Flanged 2. GI flanged and accessories

3. GI. Elbow 4. GI Socket
5. GI Plug 6. GI Elbow
7. GI Flange 8. Gate Valve
9. HDP flange and accessories 10. HDP Tee Equal
11. HDP reducer 12. Screen in Wooden Frame

Function of Intake Structure Components

The purpose of the sedimentation section in the above mentioned tank and in any
intake tank is to allow the water to stand relatively still for a while so that heavy
particles such as silt, sand and stones will drop to the tank bottom. When taking water
from a stream source these compartments will tend to fill with sediment quickly,
especially during the rainy season when the water will be carrying a heavier sediment
load. Therefore the sediment compartment should always be easily accessible to
facilitate cleaning.

A short wall should separate the sediment compartment from the tank section
containing the screens and outflow pipe. The outflow pipe should be placed 15cm
above the floor, as some sediment will be carried into this section. Sediment should be
cleaned form this section whenever it approaches within 5cm of the outlet pipe.

Every intake tank has to be drained for cleaning, so a washout pipe, placed at floor
level, should be installed. Pitch the floor at a minimum slope of 1:40 toward the pipe
to facilitate drainage. Both the overflow pipe and washout pipe should be extended to
a suitable location (for instant back into the stream) so that the overflows and drainage
do not corrode the area near the tank. A well-lubricated cap or plug on the end of the
washout pipe will be sufficient if a gate valve is not available. Washout pipes should
be 90mm in diameter because of the sediment and debris, which must typically pass
through them.

Because the intake tank receives the initial flow of source water, two screens (coarse
and fine) need to be installed to protect the rest of the down stream system. The coarse
screen catches pebbles, sticks etc. carried in heavy rains and protects the fine screen
which stops the passage of smaller materials that would tend to settle in pipes and
clog valves. Brass or non-corroding screen should be used for the fine screen. A good
substitute for a coarse screen is a rack built from wood.

An access way in the intake tank roof should be installed so that depth of sediment
and the conditions of the screens can be inspected, and so that sediment and screening
can be removed. Intake tanks should be as small and shallow as possible. The
essential features of a typical intake structure are shown in figure 8.8.2 below.

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Fig. 8.8.2 Features of a typical intake structure

It is very important to locate the intake tank at a site that is geologically stable and
that is projected from the ravages of monsoon flooding. A stream source is likely to be
severely flooded in rainy periods, so the highest limit of flooding must be established
(by observing and/or consultation with villagers on record high flood stages). Do not
build the intake tank in this ‘flood plain’, instead seek a sheltered location away from
the area and divert water to the tank in open channel.

It is always best to avoid streams as water sources because of the potential dangers of
flooding and water contamination. Springs are the best sources and when available
they should be tapped in lieu of a stream source. However springs are not completely
free of problems. They too have increased monsoon flows, which must be
accommodated, they can move over a period of time and they can become blocked by
sedimentation.

The intake structure for a spring source should overflow all flows in excess of the safe
yield, i.e., minimum flow expected in an average year. This will insure two things:
first monsoon flows will pass around the structure without harming it and second the
pipeline will always carry the design flow. The tank overflow system must be of
sufficient hydraulic and structural capacity to safety pass large flows.

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Intake Tank Maintenance

The intake tank will require routine maintenance: screen cleaning, sediment and
debris removal, yearly pipe painting and three times yearly valve lubrication. Screen
should be checked weekly during the rainy season, as most debris will enter at this
time. Failure to clean the screen swill result in clogging and mitigated water flow at
least and screen destruction and pipe blockage with consequent total flow stoppage at
the worst.

8.9 Pipeline Design

This includes four major topics:

a) Procedure for constructing a hydraulic gradient

b) Pipe system design
c) Design for branching pipes
d) Standards for construction of pipelines and installation of valves

Procedure for Constructing the Hydraulic Gradient

The hydraulic grade line (HGL) is representation of the height (above a given datum)
to which water flowing in a conduit would rise was not constricted by a closed
conduct (Fig. 8.9.1). If small open-ended tubes are inserted in a pipeline, the height of
the water’s rise in these tubes defines the HGL as shown in figure. Notice that the
height to which water will rise in these small tubes defines the head loss due to
friction of the flowing water through pipes and valves.

Fig. 8.9.1 Physical Interpretation of the Hydraulic Grade Line

The figure 8.9.2 shown below and the following rules for HGL determination are
offered as guides to help in constructing on HGL for any particular pipeline system.

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Fig. 8.9.2 Hydraulic Grade Line in A Complex Pipeline System

1. In a gravity flow water system the HGL always falls in the direction of the
flowing water.
2. The HGL is coincident with the water surface in an open tank, a pipe not
flowing full and an open channel. It is at the centreline of a jet of water
discharging freely into air.
3. In a pipe of constant size and friction factor, flowing full with a constant rate of
flow the HGL falls at a slope equal to the headloss per unit length for the flow
condition.
4. The HGL will change slope under the following conditions:
a) Change in flow
b) Change in pipe size
c) Change in friction factor
5. In a pipeline in which water is not flowing (static condition) the HGL is a
horizontal line form the nearest upstream free water surface.

In designing a pipeline it is very important that the HGL never falls below the grade
of the pipe when such a condition does occur it means that the water in the pipe must
rise higher than it would if subjected to atmospheric pressure.

Pipe System Design

The procedure for designing a pipe system can be very mechanical because in simple,
gravity systems design simply involves matching required residual heads matching
required residual heads and friction losses to existing topographic conditions.

Pipelines are designed from reach to reach. A reach extends between two tanks, a tank
and a branch, or a branch and a tap etc. The energy to move the water derives from

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gravity and is represented by static head, the elevation change between the start and
the end of the reach.

As water flows through a pipe, energy is lost in frictional resistance. Energy is also
lost as water passes through valves, fittings and tanks. These energy losses are termed
minor losses.

Velocity and Pressure Considerations

There are velocity and pressure constraints on pipeline design. The velocity constraint
can add complications in design because head loss and pressure may be suitable when
water velocity is too high or too low. Ideally the velocity of the water in the pipe
should be within the range of 0.7 to 3.0 meters per second. The minimum valve
precludes sedimentation of material in the pipe. The maximum velocity limit reduces
abrasion and wears on the pipe wall due to high friction. If the water velocity is
considerably in violation of these limits then a new pipe size with maximum working
pressure that must not be exceeded is designed. Whether water flows continually in an
open system or if there are shut off taps in a closed system, the maximum pressure
criteria may be violated at the lower portion of the ‘U’ if elevation changes are of
large magnitude. This situation differs from an open system pipe of constant down-
sloping grade because the weight of the water in the rising pipe section creates
pressure at the bottom of the ‘U’ (fig.8.9.3). High pressures in such a pipe system can
be relieved by break tanks, by placing the pipe along a higher route or by substituting
pipe with a higher working pressure.

Fig. 8.9.3 The Common U-Shaped Pipe Profile

Design for Branching Pipe

A not too uncommon situation in rural water supply system is the case of two sources
feeding into on main supply time (fig.8.9.4). When the sources are at significantly
different elevations care must be exercised in the hydraulic design to avoid the
undesirable flow of water from the higher source back up the pipe and out of the
lower source.

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Fig. 8.9.4 Design of branching pipes

An easy way to preclude this problem is to place a break pressure tank at the pipe
junction which will accept inflows from both sources. However, it is possible that
there might not be sufficient working head for the rest of the system if this is done.
Alternatively a break tank can be placed at the same elevation as the lower tank in the
pipeline from the higher tank. This scheme may not be feasible if a suitable break tank
site is not available.

The useful life of HDP pipe or nay pipe will be greatly extended by careful and proper
placement within the ground. The design for placing pipe will prevent erosion over
the trench, preclude structural damage to the pipe by the weight of animal and human
traffic protect the pipe from chemical weathering by sun and rain and will serve to
defer vandalism. The pipe route should be marked in the following places:
- at branches
- at changes in direction
- at changes in size
- at submerged valve boxes
- at every 25-40 meters on straight runs

Valves

There are four situations in which valves are need in rural water system pipelines.
First, gate valves or corporation cocks are installed downstream of tanks in order to
close-off the line or the next tank downstream for cleaning, repair, and maintenance.

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Second, a valve is placed at a branch or in a line to regulate flow by crating artificial

head loss. Third, an air release valve is placed at high points to allow entrained air to
escape. Forth, a washout valve points in the line. The washout valve is for draining
the line and for removing sediment, which might collect at the low point.

Reservoir Tanks

The reservoir tanks includes the followings topics:

- Tanks Site Considerations

- Sizing the Tank
- Standard Designs and Estimates
- Specifications for Reservoir Tank Construction

A preliminary step of the design is selecting a tank site. Choose the site judiciously to
possibly obviate an extra break pressure tank, to be easily accessible, to take
advantage of the best soil and most stable terrain, and to economize on pipe system
construction.

A reservoir tank serves to store water during minimal water use time periods so that a
greater supply is available for maximal water use periods. When a source will not be
sufficient in fulfilling peak period water demand, then a reservoir is designed on the
basis of a daily water use schedule.

Once the capacity of the tank has been determined it must be dimensioned and
designed. The design should minimize cement usage and to maximize on the use of
locally available materials. They all share some common features notes below:
- Tanks are square (length equals width)
- Gabled roofs of slate and timber construction
- Stone masonry floor and walls (cement mortar)
- Sand, gravel, and stone foundation
- GI piping in tank and at tank vicinity
- Exterior wall stepping and mid-wall buttressing

Public Taps

The public taps are the most frequently used and most visible features of the rural
water system.

The tap must have the following criteria:

- It must deliver water at the design rate.

- It must be built to accommodate the various uses of vessel filling, bathing, and
laundering.
- It must be structurally sound, durable and long lasting
- It must be a clean, sanitary unit with efficient drainage and efficient use of
wastewater.

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Review Questions

1. The back staff reading on a bench mark of reduced level 5000.000m is 2.685m. If
foresight reading on a point is 1.345m the reduced level (R.L) of the point is:

a) 502.685 m
b) 501.345 m
c) 501.340 m
d) 504.030 m

2. An abney level is used for:

a) Measuring angle of slope.

b) Correcting line of collimation.
c) Setting out right angle.
d) Defining natural features.

3. The distance and vertical angle between two points measured along a slope
were 2000 m 300. The vertical distance is:

a) 1500 m
b) 1000 m
c) 1800 m
d) 1200 m

4. The first reading from a level station is:

a) Fare sight
b) Intermediate sight
c) Back sight
d) Any sight

5. The bench mark is:

a) Surface point
b) The very first station
c) The last station
d) Point of know elevation

6. The following slope distance and angle of slope were measured by means of a
30 m steel tape and Abney level: 30 m on a 10 0 0' slope, 28 m on 150 0' slope 29 m
on a 200 0' slope and 30 m on a 150 0' slope. Find the total vertical distance.

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7. The slope distance and angle of slope were measured by means of a 30 m tape
and Abney level.

Station Slope distance Angle of slope

A 60 m 100 0'
B 65 m 150 0'
C 90 m 200 0'
D 60 m 150 0'

Find the difference in elevation A and D.

8. The distance and vertical angle between two points A and B measured along a
slope was 1980 m and angle of slope is 80 0'. Determine the difference of level of
A and B.

9. The following heights and slope distances were measured by means of water tube
(pipe level) and 30 m steel tape.

Position Ist height above G.L. 2nd height above G.L Distance
A-B 0.20 m 1.90 m 30 m
B-C 0.20 m 1.80 m 30 m
C-D 0.20 m 1.95 m 25 m
D-E 0.20 m 2.10 m 20 m
E-F 0.20 m 2.05 m 25 m

Determine the total height difference between A position and F position.

10. The following consecutive readings were taken with a level instrument: 0.894,
1.643, 2.896, 3.016, 0.954, 0.692, 0.582, 0.251, 1.532, 0.996, 2.135 the
instrument was shifted after the 4th and the 8th readings. The first reading was
taken on the staff. Rule out the page of a level field book and enter the above
readings. Calculate the R.L. of the points and apply usual check.

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