Cell : basic structural and functional unit of life
 Each cell is a highly organized unit
Cell Functions
1. Metabolize and release energy
• chemical reactions that occur within cells
• release of energy in the form of heat helps maintain
body temperature
2. Synthesize molecules
• cells differ from each other because they
synthesize different kinds of molecules
3. Provide a means of communication
• achieved by chemical and electrical signaling
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
• mitosis
• meiosis
Plasma Membrane
• Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity
– encloses cell
– supports the cell contents
– a selective barrier that regulates what goes into
and out of the cell
– plays a role in communication between cells
• a lipid bilayer balloon filled with fluid
• The nonpolar tails of both layers are sandwiched between
the polar heads
• Separates intracellular substances from extracellular
substances
• intracellular: inside cells
• extracellular (intercellular): between cells
Fluid Mosaic Model
• Lipid bilayer
– double layer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed
proteins
• Bilayer consists mainly of phospholipids and cholesterol
(20%)
– Phospholipids have hydrophobic (nonpolar tails)
and hydrophilic (polar heads) bipoles
– Cholesterol gives the membrane added strength
and flexibility
Functions of Membrane Proteins
• Protein molecules “float” among the phospholipid molecules
• Functions
– marker molecules
– attachment proteins (cadherins and integrins)
– transport proteins
– receptor proteins
– enzymes
• Proteins associated with a membrane carry out most
membrane functions
– Transport proteins passively or actively assist
specific ions or molecules across a membrane
– Enzymes speed chemical processes
– Adhesion proteins help cells stick together
– Recognition protein type of protein that identifies if
a cell belongs to one's own body or species
– Receptor proteins bind to a particular substance
outside the cell
Movement through the Plasma Membrane
• Ions and molecules move across plasma membranes by…
I. Diffusion
• The movement of a solute from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration within a
solvent
– at equilibrium, there is a uniform distribution of
molecules
– Terminology
– Solution: any mixture of liquids, gases, or solids in
which the substances are uniformly distributed with
no clear boundary between the substances
– A solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution
• Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through the plasma
membrane
• Most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do not diffuse
through the plasma membrane
• Some specific non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions pass
through membrane channels or other transport proteins
II. Osmosis
• The diffusion of a solvent (water) across a selectively
permeable membrane via diffusion.
– through a specific channel protein (aquaporin)
– or through the lipid bilayer
• Terminology
– Osmotic pressure: the force required to prevent
the movement of water across a selectively
permeable membrane
– Isosmotic solutions: have the same concentration
of solute particles as a reference solution
– Hyperosmotic solutions: have a greater
concentration of solute particles than a reference
solution
– Hyposmotic solutions: have a lesser concentration
of solute particles than a reference solution
Osmotic Concentration of Solutions
a) A hypotoinic solution with a low solute concentration results
in swelling of the RBC placed into the solution. Water enters
the cell by osmosis, and the RBC lyses (bursts).
b) An isotonic solution with a concentration of solutes equal to
that inside the cells results in a normal shaped RBC. Water
moves into and out of the cell at the same rate, but there is
no net water movement.
c) A hypertonic solution, with a high solute concentration,
causes shrinkage (crenation) of the RBC as water moves by
osmosis out of the cell and into the hypertonic solution.
III. Carrier Mediated Transport
• Process by which transport proteins mediate, or assist in, the
movement of ions and molecules across the plasma
membrane
• Characteristics
1. Specificity: selectiveness
2. Competition: similar molecules or ions compete for
a transport protein
3. Saturation: rate of transport cannot increase
because all transport proteins are in use
A. Facilitated Diffusion
 substances move from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration
 no energy input
 B. Active Transport
• substances move across the plasma membrane
• lower concentration to higher concentration
• requires energy
IV. Vesicular Transport
• Transport of large particles and macromolecules across
plasma membranes
– Endocytosis: the movement of materials into cells
by the formation of a vesicle
• Phagocytosis: the movement of solid
material into cells
• Pinocytosis: the uptake of small
droplets of liquids and the materials in
them
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
involves plasma membrane receptors
attaching to molecules that are then
taken into the cell
– Exocytosis: the secretion of materials from cells
by vesicle formation
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
1. Receptors in the plasma membrane bind to molecules to be
taken into the cell
2. The receptors and the bond molecules are taken into the cell
as a vesicle begins to form
3. The vesicle fuses and separates from the plasma membrane
Exocytosis
1. A secretory vesicle moves toward the plasma membrane
2. The membrane of the secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma
membrane
3. The secretory vesicle’s contents are released into the
extracellular fluid
Nucleus
• The nuclear envelope consists of two separate membranes with
nuclear pores
– Encloses jellylike nucleoplasm, which contains essential
solutes
• DNA and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus
– DNA is the hereditary material of the cell and controls
the activities of the cell 

– Dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be
synthesized 

– Between cell divisions DNA is organized as chromatin 

– During cell division chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes consisting of two chromatids connected
by a centromere 

Nucleoli and Ribosomes
 Nucleoli: dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus
– Consist of RNA and proteins

– Produces ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
– Site of ribosomal subunit assembly
 Ribosomes: sites of protein synthesis
– Free ribosomes are not attached to any organelles
• synthesize proteins used inside the cell 

– Attached ribosomes are part of a network of membranes
called the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) 

• produce proteins that are secreted from the cell 

Production of Ribosomes

Cytoplasm
 The material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
– Half cytosol
 Consists of a fluid part (the site of chemical reactions), the
cytoskeleton, and cytoplasmic inclusions
– The cytoskeleton supports the cell and enables cell
movements
 Microtubules – provide support, aid in cell
division, and are components of organelles
 Actin filaments – support the plasma membrane
and define the shape of the cell Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
 Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical • Series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extend from
support to teh cell the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm 

– Half organelles • Two varieties: rough ER and smooth ER 

 Cytoplasmic Inclusions are aggregates of chemicals either – Rough ER (RER) 

produced by the cell or taken in by the cell (lipids, glycogen,  Studded with ribosomes 

hemoglobin, melanin)
 Major site of protein synthesis
Cytoskeleton
Smooth ER (SER)
Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Does not have ribosomes attached
 Membranous • Major site of lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
– Mitochondria, peroxisomes, lysosomes, endoplasmic – Catalyzes the following reactions in various organs of the
reticulum, and Golgi apparatus body
• Nonmembranous
  Liver: lipidandcholesterol metabolism, breakdown
– Centrioles and ribosomes of glycogen and along with the kidneys, detoxifiy
drugs
 Testes: synthesis of steroid- based hormones
 Intestinalcells: absorption, synthesis, and transport
of fats
  Skeletal and cardiac muscle: storage and release
of calcium
Golgi Apparatus
• Series of closely packed membranous sacs that collect, package,
and distribute proteins and lipids produced by the ER
– Secretory vesicles: small, membrane-bound sacs that
transport material from the golgi apparatus to the
exterior of the cell
o kinetosome or basal body identical with a centriole
- Functions:

1. used to propel or to move cells
Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli
- Cilia move substances over the surface of cells
- Flagella are much longer than cilia and propel sperm cells
- Microvilli increase the surface area of cell and aid in
absorption and secretion

Lysosomes CELL CYCLE

- Spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes  Growth Phase/Interphase (Resting Phase)
– Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins 
 - longest
– Degrade nonfunctional organelles 
 - 90% of cell cycle
– Breakdown glycogen and release thyroid hormone 
  M Phase
– Breakdown non-useful tissue 
 - 2 processes
1. division of nucleus
– Breakdown bone to release Ca2+ 

2. division of cytoplasm
– Secretory lysosomes are found in white blood cells,
immune cells, and melanocytes 
 Cell Division
Action of Lysosomes 1. Mitosis produces
1. A vesicle forms around material outside the cell 
 new cells for growth and
2. The vesicle is pinched off from the plasma 
membrane and tissue repair
becomes a separate vesicle inside the cell 
 2. Meiosis produces
3. A lysosome is pinched off the Golgi apparatus 
 gametes (sex cells).
4. The lysosome fuses with the vesicle 
 – Sperm cells
5. The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material in in males
vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material – Oocytes (egg cells) in females
• Chromosomes
Peroxisomes – Somatic cells have a diploid number of chromosomes
 Membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases – Gametes have a haploid number
– Breakdown fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen – In humans, the diploid number is 46 (23 pairs) and the
peroxide haploid number is 23
– Detoxify harmful or toxic substances • Twenty-two pairs of autosomal
– Neutralize dangerous free radicals chromosomes
o Free radicals: highly reactive chemicals with • One pair of sex chromosomes
unpaired electrons (i.e., O2–) • Females XX
• Males XY
Mitochondria • DNA replicates during interphase, the time between cell division
• The major sites of the production of ATP (the major energy source Replication of DNA
1. The strands of the DNA molecule separate from each other
for cells) via aerobic cellular respiration 

2. Each old strand (dark purple) functions as a template on
• Have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane that is
which a new, complementary strand (light purple) is formed.
infolded to produce cristae 
 The base-pairing relationship between nucleotides
• Contain their own DNA, can produce some of their own proteins, determines the sequence of nucleotides in the newly formed
and can replicate independently of the cell strands
3. Two identical DNA molecules are produced
Centrioles and Spindle Fibers
• Centrioles: (Diplosomes)

Figure 12.4 Chromosome duplication and distribution
– cylindrical organelles located in the centrosome
during cell division
o Pinwheel array of nine triplets of microtubules Mitosis
functions
o Centrosome: a specialized zone of the sister chromatids
cell cycle 0.5 µm

cytoplasm
A eukaryotic cell has multiple
Stages chromosomes, one of which is
cytokinesis represented here. Before

• the site of microtubule formation duplication, each chromosome

has a single DNA molecule. Chromosome
duplication

o Microtubules called spindle fibers extend out Once duplicated, a chromosome

(including DNA
synthesis)

in all directions from the centrosome consists of two sister chromatids Centromere
connected at the centromere. Each

• Spindle fibers are involved in the

chromatid contains a copy of the
DNA molecule.

separation of chromosomes during cell Separation

Sister
chromatids

division Mechanical processes separate

the sister chromatids into two
of sister
chromatids

- Form the bases of cilia and flagella chromosomes and distribute

them to two daughter cells.

o axoneme (9 pairs around 2 central microtubules = Centrometers Sister chromatids

9+2
Sister Chromatids Cyclins
 copy of the chromosome produced by replication Proteins that help the cell & advance thru the cell cycle
1.Cyclin D: G1 to S
Centromere 2.Cyclin A: S to G2
 constricted region in a eukaryotic chromosome where sister 3. Cyclin B: G2 to M
chromatids are attached
GAP 0
Kinetochore  cell will leave the cycle and quit dividing
- plate-like trilaminar structure or disc-like protein complex that  may be temporary resting period or more permanent
develops on each side of the centromere  Example: a cell that has reached an end stage of
development and will no longer divide (e.g. neuron)

Differentiation MITOSIS
• Process by which cells develop specialized structures and  Division of the nucleus
functions  Also called karyokinesis
• All the cells in an individual’s body contain the same amount  Only occurs in eukaryotes
and type of DNA because they resulted from mitosis  Has four stages
• Differentiation results from the selective activation and  Doesn’t occur in some cells such as brain cells
inactivation of segments of DNA in each different cell type

Cellular Division
 All cells are derived from pre-existing cells
 New cells are produced for growth and to replace damaged
or old cells
 Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes (protists,
fungi, plants, & animals)

Keeping Cells Identical

The instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the DNA, so each Interphase
new cell must get a complete set of the DNA molecules Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA is found as
DNA REPLICATION thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA replication occurs
 DNA must be copied or replicated before cell division during interphase. Organelles, other than the nucleus, duplicate
 Each new cell will then have an identical copy of the DNA during interphase
Prophase
Cell Division in Prokaryotes In prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. The
 Prokaryotes such as bacteria divide into 2 identical cells by centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell, and the nucleolus
the process of binary fission and the nuclear envelope disappear. Microtubules form near the
 Single chromosome makes a copy of itself centrioles and project in all directions. Spindle fibers, project
 Cell wall forms between the chromosomes dividing the cell toward an invisible line called the equator and overlap with fibers
from opposite centrioles.
FIVE PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE Metaphase
 G1 - primary growth phase In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the cell in
 S – synthesis; DNA replicated association with the spindle fibers. Some spindle fibers are
 G2 - secondary growth phase attached to kinetochores in the centromere of each chromosome
 M - mitosis Anaphase
 C - cytokinesis In anaphase, the chromatids separate, and each chromatid is then
referred to as a chromosome. Thus, the chromosome number is
Interphase – G1 stage double, and there are two identical sets of chromosomes. The
 1st growth stage after cell division chromosomes, assisted by the spindle fibers, move toward the
 Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles centrioles at each end of the cell. Separation of the chromatids
 Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities signals the beginning of anaphase, and, by the time anaphase
Interphase – S stage has ended, the chromosomes have reached the poles
 Synthesis stage Telophase and Cytokinesis
 DNA is copied or replicated In telophase, migration of each set of chromosomes is complete.
Interphase – G2 stage The chromosomes unravel to become less distinct chromatin
 2nd Growth Stage threads. The nuclear envelope forms from the endoplasmic
 Occurs after DNA has been copied reticulum. The nucleoli form, and cytokinesis continues to form
 All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g. two cells
centrioles)
 Both organelles & proteins are synthesized
Mitosis
Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The COMPARISON OF ANAPHASE & TELOPHASE
chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell division
has produced two daughter cells, each with DNA that is identical
to the DNA of the parent cell

Cytokinesis
 Means division of the cytoplasm
 Division of cell into two, identical halves called daughter cells
 In plant cells, cell plate forms at the equator to divide cell
 In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to split cell

Daughter Cells of Mitosis

 Have the same number of chromosomes as each other and
as the parent cell from which they were formed
 Identical to each other, but smaller than parent cell
Early Prophase  Must grow in size to become mature cells (G1 of Interphase)
 Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form visible Identical Daughter Cells
chromosomes  Chromosome number the same, but cells smaller than parent
 Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or centrioles cell
(animal)
Late Prophase Uncontrolled Mitosis
 Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are broken down  If mitosis is not controlled, unlimited cell division occurs
 Chromosomes continue condensing & are clearly visible causing cancerous tumors; cancer cells
 Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach to the centromere of
each chromosome
 Spindle finishes forming between the poles of the cell
 Nucleus & Nucleolus have disintegrated
 The mitotic spindle form from the microtubules in plants and
centrioles in animal cells
 Polar fibers extend from one pole of the cell to the opposite
pole
 Kinetochore fibers extend from the pole to the centromere of
the chromosome to which they attach
 Asters are short fibers radiating from centrioles
Metaphase
 Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers, move to the
center of the cell
 Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator
Anaphase
 Occurs rapidly
 Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the
cell by kinetochore fibers
 Sister Chromatids being separated
 Centromeres divide into two
Telophase
 Sister chromatids at opposite poles
 Spindle disassembles
 Nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister chromatids
 Nucleolus reappears
 CYTOKINESIS occurs
 Chromosomes reappear as chromatin