Ecology and Environment

Credit- 01 3rd Semester

‫ ٭‬Question No - 01 ‫٭‬
Ecosystem Concept and Components?
An ecosystem, a term very often used in biology, is a community of plants and animals
interacting with each other in a given area, and also with their non-living environments. The
non-living environments include weather, earth, sun, soil, climate and atmosphere. The
ecosystem relates to the way that all these different organisms live in close proximity to each
other and how they interact with each other. For instance, in an ecosystem where there are
both rabbits and foxes, these two creatures are in a relationship where the fox eats the rabbit
in order to survive.
Ecosystems can be huge, with many hundreds of different animals and plants all living in a
delicate balance, or they could be relatively small. In particularly harsh places in the world,
particularly the North and South Poles, the ecosystems are relatively simple because there
are only a few types of creatures that can withstand the freezing temperatures and harsh
living conditions. Some creatures can be found in multiple different ecosystems all over the
world in different relationships with other or similar creatures. Its a bit unfortunate but
ecosystems have been destroyed and vanished by man-made activities
like deforestation, urbanization and natural activities like floods, storms, fires or volcanic
eruptions.
The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the ecologist Arthur Tansley to encompass the
interactions among biotic and abiotic components of the environment at a given site. The
living and non-living components of an ecosystem are known as biotic and abiotic
components, respectively.
Ecosystem was defined in its presently accepted form by Eugene Odum as, “an unit that
includes all the organisms, i.e., the community in a given area interacting with the physical
environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic
diversity and material cycles, i.e., exchange of materials between living and non-living,
within the system”.
Components of Ecosystem

Each ecosystem has two main components:

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 1. Biotic Components:
The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi)
that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.
On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be classified into
three main groups:
(A) Producers:
The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar energy and change it
into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds namely water and
carbon dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis. As the green plants manufacture
their own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self, trophos = feeder)
The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the producers for their own
growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use.
(B) Consumers:
The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food. Therefore, they
depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros = other,
trophos = feeder)
The consumers are of four types, namely:
(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:
These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores.
Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:
The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores. Examples are
cats, foxes, snakes etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:
These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. Example are Wolves.
(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:
These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up
by any other animal. Examples are lions and tigers.
(C) Decomposers or Reducers:
Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic materials of
producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and release to the environment the
simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-products of their metabolisms.
These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of
materials between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The
decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder)

2. Abiotic Components:
The non living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the
abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the structure, distribution, behaviour
and inter-relationship of organisms.
Abiotic components are mainly of two types:
(a) Climatic Factors:
Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.
(b) Edaphic Factors: 02
Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.?
The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:
Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of weathered
rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living organisms.
Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for organisms. The
vegetation found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this component of an ecosystem
through nutrient cycling.
The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation, transpiration and
precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and transpire
water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis
provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism, and the organic food for other forms of
life.
Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even exceeding
90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water content drops below 10%,
and most are killed if it is less than 30-50%.
Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants. It is
also necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic
chemical reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil.
The original source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.
Or
1) Inorganic substances:- These are simpler materials which are build up to form
complex compounds that makes up the body of living organisms e.g C, N, CO2, H2O
etc.
2) Organic substances: - These are compounds of carbon that forms a link between living
and non-lving parts of an ecosystem. they are formed from inorganic compounds and
passed into the body of living organisms through feeding.
3) Climatic factors:- These includes physical factors such as temprature, light, relative
humidity, rainfall etc., they determined abundance of organisms in their habitats and
also determined which orgasnism to survive, in which habitat and inn what codition.

‫ ٭‬Question No - 02 ‫٭‬

Ecosystem forms (Types) and Functions?

We can classify ecosystems as follows:

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(A) Natural Ecosystems:-
These ecosystems are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major
interference by man.A classification based on their habitat can further be made on
Terrestrial Ecosystem and Aquatic Ecosystem.
(1) Terrestrial ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems can be found anywhere apart from heavily saturated places. They are
broadly classed into
a) The Forest Ecosystems
They are the ecosystems in which an abundance of flora, or plants, is seen so they have
a big number of organisms which live in relatively small space. Therefore, in forest
ecosystems the density of living organisms is quite high. A small change in this
ecosystem could affect the whole balance, effectively bringing down the whole
ecosystem. You could see a fantastic diversity in the fauna of the ecosystems, too. They
are further divided into:
 Tropical evergreen forest: These are tropical forests that receive a mean rainfall of 80
for every 400 inches annually. The forests are characterized by dense vegetation which
comprises tall trees at different heights. Each level is shelter to different types of
animals.
 Tropical deciduous forest: There, shrubs and dense bushes rule along with a broad
selection of trees. The type of forest is found in quite a few parts of the world while a
large variety of fauna and flora are found there.
 Temperate evergreen forest: Those have quite a few number of trees as mosses and
ferns make up for them. Trees have developed spiked leaves in order to minimize
transpiration.
 Temperate deciduous forest: The forest is located in the moist temperate places that
have sufficient rainfall. Summers and winters are clearly defined and the trees shed the
leaves during the winter months.
 Taiga: Situated just before the arctic regions, the taiga is defined by evergreen
conifers. As the temperature is below zero for almost half a year, the remainder of the
months, it buzzes with migratory birds and insects.
b) The Desert Ecosystem
Desert ecosystems are located in regions that receive an annual rainfall less than 25.
They occupy about 17 percent of all the land on our planet. Due to the extremely high
temperature, low water availability and intense sunlight, fauna and flora are scarce
and poorly developed. The vegetation is mainly shrubs, bushes, few grasses and rare
trees. The stems and leaves of the plants are modified in order to conserve water as
much as possible. The best known desert ones are the succulents such as the spiny
leaved cacti. The animal organisms include insects, birds, camels, reptiles all of which
are adapted to the desert (xeric) conditions.
c) The Grassland Ecosystem
Grasslands are located in both the tropical and temperate regions of the world though
the ecosystems vary slightly. The area mainly comprises grasses with a little number of
trees and shrubs. The main vegetation includes grasses, plants and legumes that
belong to the composite family. A lot of grazing animals, insectivores and herbivores
inhabit the grasslands. The two main kinds of grasslands ecosystems are:
 Savanna: The tropical grasslands are dry seasonally and have few individual trees.
They support a large number of predators and grazers.
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  Prairies: It is temperate grassland, completely devoid of large shrubs and trees.
Prairies could be categorized as mixed grass, tall grass and short grass prairies.
d) The Mountain Ecosystem
Mountain land provides a scattered and diverse array of habitats where a large
number of animals and plants can be found. At the higher altitudes, the harsh
environmental conditions normally prevail, and only the treeless alp ine vegetation
can survive. The animals that live there have thick fur coats for prevention from cold
and hibernation in the winter months. Lower slopes are commonly covered with
coniferous forests.
(2) Aquatic Ecosystems
The aquatic ecosystem is the ecosystem found in a body of water. It encompasses
aquatic flora, fauna and water properties, as well. There are two main types of aquatic
ecosystem - Marine and Freshwater.
(a) The Marine Ecosystem
Marine ecosystems are the biggest ecosystems, which cover around 71% of Earth's
surface and contain 97% of out planet's water. Water in Marine ecosystems features in
high amounts minerals and salts dissolved in them. The different divisions of the
marine ecosystem are:
 Oceanic: A relatively shallow part of oceans which lies on the continental shelf.
 Profundal: deep or Bottom water.
 Benthic Bottom substrates.
 Inter-tidal: The place between low and high tides.
 Estuaries
 Coral reefs
 Salt marshes
 Hydrothermal vents where chemosynthetic bacteria make up the food base.
Many kinds of organisms live in marine ecosystems: the brown algae, corals, cephalopods,
echinoderms, dinoflagellates and sharks.
(b) The Freshwater Ecosystem
Contrary to the Marine ecosystems, the freshwater ecosystem covers only 0.8% of Earth's
surface and contains 0.009% of the total water. Three basic kinds of freshwater ecosystems
exist:
 Lentic: Slow-moving or till water like pools, lakes or ponds.
 Lotic: Fast-moving water such as streams and rivers.
 Wetlands: Places in which the soil is inundated or saturated for some lenghty period of
time.
The ecosystems are habitats to reptiles, amphibians and around 41% of the world’s fish
species. The faster moving turbulent waters typically contain a greater concentrations of
dissolved oxygen, supporting greater biodiversity than slow moving waters in pools.
(B) Artificial Ecosystem:-
They are also called man-made or man-engineered ecosystems. They are maintained
artificially by man where, by addition of energy and planned manipulation, natural balance
is disturbed regularly, e.g. croplands such as sugarcane, maize, wheat, rice-fields; orchards,
gardens, villages, cities, dams, aquarium and manned spaceship. Functions of an ecosystem
involves: The function of an ecosystem is a broad &vast. The function of an ecosystem can be
best studied by understanding the history of ecological studies. The function of an ecosystem
can be studied under the three heads:
1. Trophic Level Interaction 2. Ecological Succession 3. Biogeochemistry 05
 Functions of Ecosystem
Functions are simply the activities undertaken by Ecosystems to ensure their persistence.
The key functional aspects of ecosystem are:
A. Energy flow: - Ecosystem being self sustained and self regulating system needs energy to
function. The basic source of energy to ecosystem is sun. Plants capture only a fraction of
the total solar energy called PAR {Photo synthetically active radiation}. Plants utilize
this energy to prepare their food by the process of photosynthesis.
This energy stored at tropic level 1st becomes the source of energy either directly or
indirectly to other organisms at different tropic levels. The energy flows through different
tropic levels across the food chain by the process of being eating and being eaten away. A
substantial amount of energy at each tropic level is lost because of respiration. The dead
decaying matter at each tropic level is consumed by detrivors thus providing a path way
for detritus food chain to come into existence. Each unit of energy consumed at tropic
level 1st is ultimately lost into the space. This whole system of energy flow works in
accordance with the laws of thermodynamics. Energy flow is largely unidirectional.
There are three major pathways of energy flow in ecosystem:- Transfer of chemical
energy from each tropic level to the next higher order tropic level and direct transfer of
energy from TL-1 or TL-2 toTL-4. Transfer of chemical energy from dead organic matter
to decomposers at each tropic level. Loss of energy in the form of heat at each tropic level.

B. Productivity: - Productivity is the rate of biomass production at any tropic level per unit
area per unit time. OR Productivity is the amount of organic matter produced at any
tropic level per unit area per unit time.
Productivity has two aspects:
1. Primary productivity: - The rate at which sunlight is captured by producers for the
synthesis of energy rich organic compounds through the process of photosynthesis. It
has two aspects:
GPP: The rate of total energy capture or rate of total organic matter produced.
NPP: The balance energy or biomass remaining after meeting the cost of respiration.
2. Secondary productivity: - The rate at which food energy is assimilated at any tropic
level of consumers. Secondary productivity reflects only the utilization of food for the
production consumer biomass. Secondary productivity depends upon the loss during
energy transfer plus the consumption in respiration.
C. Decomposition:- Decomposition is the breakdown of complex organic matter by
decomposers to inorganic raw materials like CO2 , H2O and nutrients. Decomposition is
brought mainly by Bacteria and Fungi. It is also known as putrefication. Rate of
decomposition mainly depends upon two factors:
i. Climatic conditions of area.
ii. Chemical nature of detritus.
Processes involved in Decomposition
1. Fragmentation: - breakdown of detritus into smaller particles due to the action of
detritus feeding invertebrates.
 Leaching: removal of soluble substances like sugars etc from fragmented detritus by
water percolating through the soil. 06
2. Catabolism: - enzymatic conversion of decomposing detritus to simpler compounds and
inorganic substances.
 All the above three processes operate simultaneously on the detritus.
3. Humification: - Accumulation of dark colored amorphous substances called humus,
which is slightly resistant to microbial action and undergoes slow decomposition.
4. Mineralization:- Release of inorganic substances like CO2, H2O and available nutrients
like CALCIUM, MAGNECIUM, POTASSIUM Ions etc in the soil.
D. Nutrient cycling: - Circulation of nutrients in biospheric ecosystem is accomplished in a
series of cyclic path ways, collectively called bio-geochemical cycle. Nutrient cycling
involves storage and transfer of nutrients through various components of ecosystem.
Unlike energy flow which is unidirectional, nutrients are continuously exchanged
between organisms and their physical environment.
Nutrient cycling involves:
1) Uptake of nutrients or inorganic elements by plants through their roots in solution
from the soils.
2) Transfer and storage of these nutrients through the bodies of living organisms at
different tropic levels across the food chain, where these inorganic elements become
organic .
3) Release of these organic elements from plants and animals back to the soil by variety
of ways.
‫ ٭‬Question No - 03 ‫٭‬

Tropical Levels, Ecological Niche, Ecological pyramid?

(Tropical Levels)
In a food chain, the energy transfer levels are known as trophic levels. In other words, the
trophic level is the position occupied by an organism in a food chain. The levels are broadly
grouped into three including producers, consumers, and decomposers. A food chain is a
sequence of organisms that feed on each other. Although the design of a food chain can vary
by ecosystem, all food chains are made up of the same basic trophic levels. Trophic levels are
the levels within the food chain where an organism obtains its energy.
Producers (Autotrophs):- Producers are the plants and algae that manufacture their own
food from the sun’s energy and nutrients from the soil. Consumers (heterotrophs) cannot
produce their own food and have to feed on others to obtain energy. Decomposers and
detritivores break down dead plants and animals to release the energy back into the
ecological system.
The categorization begins from the lowest to the highest energy transfer levels as
elaborated below.
Consumers: - Consumers are organisms that get their energy from eating other organisms.
These are also also known as heterotrophs; Heterotrophs cannot produce their own food.
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 1) Primary consumers:- Primary consumers constitute the second trophic level, and they
are the organisms (Like cow that eats grass) that consume green plants. Herbivores are
the predominantly animals in this category. Examples include sheep, rabbits, cows,
giraffe, zebras, gazelle, caterpillars, and some insects.
2) Secondary consumers:- Secondary consumers make up the third trophic level, and they
are the animals (Like snake that eat rabbits) that eat up the primary consumers.
Majority of the animals in this category are carnivores. Examples include cats, tigers,
dogs, wolf, lions, leopards, snakes, and foxes.
3) Tertiary consumers:- Tertiary consumers occupy the fourth trophic level of the food
chain. The tertiary consumers are the animals that eat Secondary Consumers and are
are eaten by Quaternary Consumers. They mainly include carnivores that feed on other
carnivores, especially the secondary consumers. Examples are eagles and snakes.
4) Quaternary Consumers:- Quaternary Consumers are at the fifth trophic level. They
majorly prey on animals below them for food including secondary and tertiary
consumers. Examples include white sharks, hawks, the golden eagles, and even humans.
5) Apex Predators:- The apex predators are at the highest trophic level. Apex predators top
the food chain because they have no predators or natural enemies. They feed on other
animals at will. Examples of apex predators include crocodiles, sharks, whales, owls,
snakes, wildcats, and eagles.
Decomposers and Detrivores: - Decomposers and Detrivores make up the last part of food
chains. Dead organisms are often eaten up, and the nutrients are recycled so that they can be
used again by primary producers to manufacture food. The organisms responsible for this
are termed as decomposers or detrivores. Examples of detritivores include crabs, vultures,
and worms while decomposers include fungi and bacteria. These organisms start the cycle
once again by returnign the nutrients back in to the soil for use by autotrophs.

(Ecological Niche)
The ecological niche describes the role an organism plays in its environment. It consists of
the species habitat. The organism’s activity, the period of time it is active. The resources it
obtains from the environment Eg, a pukeko lives in marsh areas. It feeds of small insects
and grasses. An ecological niche is the part of the environment into which a species fits,
and to which it is adapted. A shorthand definition of niche in biology is how an organism
makes a living in a place.
If you closely look at a typical habitat in the environment, you will see many organisms
living and working together, fulfilling their ecological niches. For example, imagine you
are walking through the forest where there are leaves scattered on the ground and an old
rotting log sitting on the forest floor. If you look closely, you could probably find
earthworms just under the soil feeding on decaying organic matter. There could also be 08
centipedes eating small beetles and other organisms as well as a colony of ants that work
and feed on dead insects. You may even find a couple of millipedes strolling around
feeding on decaying leaves.
However, the term has been used in different ways. It is not only a place but a way of life.
For example, grazers, insectivores, scavengers and predators can all live their different
lifestyles in the same forest. A niche can be occupied by different species in different places
even though they 'earn their living' in roughly the same way. Thus the 'bird of prey eating
small mammals' niche would in grasslands include the kestrel, but in an Oakwood it would
be filled by the Tawny owl.
The idea of a niche in natural history is ancient: many writers noticed that animals and
plants live in places where they are well adapted to live. The word niche was first used in
biology by naturalist Roswell Johnson, but in 1917 Joseph Grinnell was the first to use it
in a research program. Later, he described the niches of a variety of species. Grinnell was
the first to offer the "exclusion principle" in which only one species could occupy a
particular niche at any one time.
Scientists who study the interactions between animals and their environment are called
ecologists, and their branch of science is called ecology. A niche is a term which describes
a position or opportunity into which some organism fits well. Thus, an ecological niche is a
place in nature that is filled by an animal or plant because it is well suited to do so.
Organisms can be identified as either
1) Generalists
Organisms with a broad niche
Eat lots of types of food
Live in many types of environments
Eg. house mice
2) Specialists
Organisms with a narrow niche
Eat a narrow range of food items
Live in few, specific types of habitats
Eg. panda bear
(Ecological Pyramid)
The concept of ecological pyramid was developed by Charles Elton; these pyramids are
also known as Eltonian pyramids. The pyramids are a graphical representation which
depicts the number of organisms, biomass and productivity at each trophic level. All
ecological pyramids begin at the bottom with the produces and proceed through different
trophic levels. Ecological pyramids begin with the producers at the bottom like plants and
they proceed to various trophic levels like herbivores consume plants, carnivores prey on
herbivores and so on. The highest level is at the top of the food chain. Ecological pyramid
is also known as trophic pyramid or energy pyramid; it is graphically represented to show
the biomass or productivity of the biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem.

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 There are 3 types of Ecological Pyramids as described as follows:
1. Pyramid of Energy
The pyramid of energy or the energy pyramid describes the overall nature of the ecosystem.
During the flow of energy from organism to other, there is considerable loss of energy in the
form of heat. The primary producers like the autotrophs there is more amount of energy
available. The least energy is available in the tertiary consumers. Thus, shorter food chain
has more amount of energy available even at the highest trophic level.
 The energy pyramid always upright and vertical.
 This pyramid shows the flow of energy at different trophic levels.
 It depicts the energy is minimum as the highest trophic level and is maximum at the
lowest trophic level.
 At each trophic level, there is successive loss of energy in the form of heat and
respiration, etc.

2. Pyramid of Numbers
The pyramid of numbers depicts the relationship in terms of the number of producers,
herbivores and the carnivores at their successive trophic levels. There is a decrease in the
number of individuals from the lower to the higher trophic levels. The number pyramid
varies from ecosystem to ecosystem.
There are three of pyramid of numbers:
I. Upright Pyramid of Number
This type of pyramid number is found in the aquatic and grassland ecosystem, in these
ecosystems there are numerous small autotrophs which support lesser herbivores which
in turn support smaller number of carnivores and hence this pyramid is upright.

II. Partly Upright pyramid of Number

It is seen in the forest ecosystem where the number of producers are lesser in number and
support a greater number of herbivores and which in turn support a fewer number of
carnivores.

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III. Inverted Pyramid of Number
This type of ecological pyramid is seen in parasitic food chain where one primary producer
supports numerous parasites which support more hyperparasites.

3. Pyramid of Biomass
The pyramid of biomass is more fundamental, they represent the quantitative relationships of
the standing crops. Biomass is the amount of living or organic matter present in an
organism. Biomass pyramids show how much biomass is present in the organisms at each
trophic level. In this pyramid there is a gradual decrease in the biomass from the producers
to the higher trophic levels. The biomass here the net organisms collected from each feeding
level and are then dried and weighed. This dry weight is the biomass and it represents the
amount of energy available in the form of organic matter of the organisms. In this pyramid
the net dry weight is plotted to that of the producers, herbivores, carnivores, etc.
There are two types of pyramid of biomass, they are:
I. Upright Pyramid of Biomass
This occurs when the larger net biomass of producers support a smaller weight of
consumers. Example: Forest ecosystem.

II. Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

This happens when the smaller weight of producers support consumers of larger
weight. Example: Aquatic ecosystem.

‫ ٭‬Question No - 04 ‫٭‬

Energy flow models (U- Shaped & Y- Shaped energy flow model)?

Energy is the basic medium and mechanism that generates , maintains , and sustains the
bio systems of earth. The existence of living world depends upon the flow of energy and

11
circulation of nutrients. The basic source of energy for earth is sun. This radiant energy
by the process of photosynthesis is bio-synthesized into chemical or heat energy.
Energy flow is the key function in the ecosystem of the ecosystem. Energy flow is the flow
of energy through an ecosystem; flow from external environment through a series of
organisms and back to physical environment.
Energy flow is based on the laws of thermodynamics:
1. Law of conservation of energy; Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but
transformed from one form o another.
2. Law of entropy; No process involving an energy transformation will spontaneously
occur unless there is a degradation of energy from concentrated to dispersed form.
In an ecosystem order is maintained by continually pumping out disorder (entropy)
through respiration.
An Energy flow model is a simplified representation of energy flow through an ecosystem ,
recognizing the various aspects of input and output rates of energy.
There are two basic aspects of energy flow models:
Energy flow is unidirectional and irreversible.
Progressive decrease in energy utilization at each trophic level.
Energy flow models are of three types:
1. U-Shaped energy flow model.
2. Y-Shaped energy flow model.
3. Universal energy flow model.
 U SHAPED MODEL OF ENERGY FLOW:
U shaped or single channel energy flow was proposed by Lindeman in 1942. It conforms
to the basic aspects of energy flow i.e unidirectional energy flow , and progressive
decrease of available energy at each trophic level. Generally only 10% is the ecological
efficiency of any ecosystem.

U-Shaped Model Of Energy Flow (Qualitative Diagram)

R₁ R₂ rep heat loss through respiration at various levels. 12
Ʌ₁ Ʌ₂ rep energy available at various trophic levels.
λ₁ λ₂ rep energy input to various levels.
λ₁′ λ₂′ rep total energy loss at various level
The figure depicts the standing crop of energy at any level by “Ʌ” using a subscript to
identify various trophic levels. R₁,R₂,R₃ depict the respiration at different levels. The
energy available at any trophic level is represented by “λ”.
Assuming a total of 3,000 kcal of energy, only 30 kcal form the gross primary production.
Releasing 10 kcal in the form of heat the net primary production becomes 20 kcal. 16 kcal
of the NPP is released unutilized and only 4 kcal are passed on to the second trophic
level. The herbivore and carnivore levels similarly get 10% of their preceding levels. Thus
the model balances the inflows and outflows of energy and shows ageneral decrease of
energy at successive trophic levels.

U shaped model of energy flow (Quantitative)

 Y-SHAPED MODEL OF ENERGY FLOW.

This model was proposed by H.T Odum in 1958. This model resembles the capital letter
“Y” having two arms which represent the grazing and detritus food chain. The Y shaped
model of energy flow practically separates the two food chains and simultaneously inter
links them at predator-prey levels since these organisms are generalists preying upon
members of both the live and detritus food chains(i.e phagotrophs and saprotrophs)

Why Is Y Shaped Model Of Energy Flow More Realistic?

E.P Odum regards Y shaped model of energy flow as more realistic because:
It conforms to the basic stratified structure of ecosystems. The direct consumption of
living plants and the consumption of dead matter are usually separated in both time and
space. The macro consumers (phagotrophic animals and the micro consumers
(saprotrophic bacteria and fungi0 differ greatly in size , metabolic relations and
techniques of studying them. 13
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Flow of energy in an ecosystem lakes place through the food chain and it is this energy
which keeps the ecosystem going. The flow of energy through various trophic levels in an
ecosystem can be explained with the help of various energy flow models.
1. Single Channel Energy Flow Model:
The flow of energy takes place in an unidirectional manner through a single channel of green
plants or producers to herbvivores and carnivores. From the energy flow model shown in
Figure 1, two things are clear :
(i) There is unidirectional flow of energy. The energy captured by autotrophs does not revert
back to solar input but passes to herbivores; and that which passes to herbivores does not go
back to the autotrophs but passes to consumers. Due to one way flow of energy, the system
would collapse if the primary sources of energy (i.e., sun) were cut off.
(ii) At each trophic level, there occurs progressive decrease in energy. This is accounted
largely by the energy lost as heal in metabolic reactions (respiration) coupled with unutilized

energy.
Figure 2 depicts a simplified energy flow model of three trophic levels. One can clearly note
that the energy flow is greatly decreased at each successive trophic level starling from
producers (autotrophs) to herbivores and then to carnivores. In the Figure, boxes represent
the trophic levels and pipes represent the energy flow in and out of each level. Working of
both the laws of thermodynamics is clearly seen as energy inflows balance outflows at each
trophic level (as per first law of thermodynamics) and energy transfer is accompanied by
dissipation of energy into unavailable heat i.e., respiration as per the second law of
thermodynamics. Thus, of the total 3,000 kcal of light falling upon green plants, 1,500 kcal
(50%) is absorbed level (first trophic level). 1% (15 kcal) is converted at autotroph level
(first trophic level). Thus, net production is mearly 15 kcal. Secondary productivity (shown as
P2 and P3 in Figure 2) tends to be about 10% at successive consumer levels i.e., at herbivore
level and carnivore level. As has earlier been mentioned, there is successive decrease in
energy flow at successive trophic levels. Therefore, shorter the food chain, greater would be
the available food energy.
2. Y-Shaped or Double Channel Energy Flow Model:
Figure, 3 describes Y-shaped energy flow models as pioneered by H.T. Odum in 1956. This
model shows a common boundary, light and heat flows as well as the import, export and
storage of organic matter. Decomposers is placed in a separate box as a means of partially
separating the grazing and detritus food chains. In terms of energy levels, decomposers are,
in fact, a mixed group. The significant part in Y-shaped model is that the two food chains are
not isolated from each other.
14
Y-shaped energy flow is more realisitc and practical than the single-channel energy
flow model because of following points :
(i) It conforms to the basic stratified structure of ecosystems.
(ii) It separates the two chains i.e., grazing food chain and detritus food chain in both time
and space.
(iii) Microconsumers (e.g.. bacteria, fungi) and the macroconsumers (animals) differ greatly
in size-metabolism relations in two models.

‫ ٭‬Question No - 05 ‫٭‬

Food Chain & Food Web?

Energy is never created nor destroyed, but it can be passed from one organism to another. A
food chain shows how this energy flow occurs. This lesson will define what a food chain
represents, go through specific examples of food chains, and compare and contrast a food
chain with a food web.
In ecology, a food chain is a series of organisms that eat one another so that energy and
nutrients flow from one to the next or a series of organisms each dependent on the next as a
source of food.
A food chain is a pathway that represents the exchange of energy from one organism to
another. In other words, it is the chronological order of who eats whom in a biological
community. Food chains go hand-in-hand with food webs, though there are differences
between the two. While a food chain is a single pathway of energy transfer, a food web shows
all of the different relationships or possible energy transfers between a selected group of
species.
How Food Chains Work
Every biological community can have multiple and diverse food chains, but every food chain
starts with a primary source of energy. The most obvious source of energy is the sun. Other
food chains may start with a boiling-hot deep sea vent as a source of energy.
The next organism to benefit off of this initial source is called the primary producer. These
are organisms that can create their own food from the main energy source. Some examples
15
include plants and algae. For example, plants are a primary producer because they can
harness and use the energy from the sun through a process called photosynthesis.
After the plant goes through the work of photosynthesis, another organism may come along
and eat the plant, taking its energy to use as its own. As human beings, we are not primary
producers because we cannot create our own energy to survive, and must consume energy
from other sources, like plants. By eating plants, we are part of the next sequence in the food
chain, called the primary consumer, or organisms that consume primary producers.
With each transition of energy, the food chain moves up levels. These levels are
called trophic levels. Here is a list of the order of trophic levels.

Examples of which trophic level some species may be on.

Trophic Levels:
 Primary Producers: The one that gathers energy from an energy spot such as the sun;
an example may be grass.
 Primary Consumer: The one that gets its energy directly from the primary producer,
such as a grasshopper who eats the grass
 Secondary Consumer: The one that gets its energy directly from the primary
consumer, such as the rat who eats the grasshopper
 Tertiary Consumer: The one that gets its energy directly from the secondary
consumer, such as the snake who eats the rat
 Quaternary Consumer: I think you are catching on now. This is the one that gets its
energy directly from the tertiary consumer, such as the hawk that eats the snake.
A food chain from this example would like this
Sun > Grass > Grasshopper > Rat > Snake > Hawk

Types of Food Chains in Ecosystem

In nature, basically two types of food chains are recognized – grazing food chain and
detritus food chain.
1. Grazing food chain:
This type of food chain starts from the living green plants goes to grazing herbivores, and on
to carnivores. Ecosystems with such type of food chain are directly dependent on an influx of
solar radiation. This type of chain thus depends on autotrophic energy capture and the
movement of this captured energy to herbivores. Most of the ecosystems in nature follow this
type of food chain. The phytoplanktons→zooplanktons →Fish sequence or the grasses
→rabbit →Fox sequences are the examples, of grazing food chain. 16
 Grazing food chains are of two types:
a) Terrestrial grazing food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain. It
can be represented as follows.
For Example Producer (Green plants) - Primary Consumers (herbivores) green plants-
Secondary Consumer (small carnivorous) frog - Tertiary Consumer (large carnivorous)
snake -Quaternary Consumer (top consumers) hawk

b) Aquatic Food chain: Food chain in aquatic ecosystem is slightly different from
terrestrial food chain. It can also be divided in two subtypes. Fresh water food chain
and marine water food chain. Fresh water food chain can be represented as follows.
For example Producer (green plants) - Primary Consumer (aquatic herbivore insects) -
Secondary Consumer (crayfish) - Territory Consumer (fish) - Top Consumer (crocodile).

2. Detritus food chain:

This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter into microorganisms and then to
organisms feeding on detritus (detrivores) and their predators. Such ecosystems are thus less
dependent on direct solar energy. These depend chiefly on the influx of organic matter
produced in another system. For example, such type of food chain operates in the
decomposing accumulated litter in a temperate forest.
Significance of food chain:
1. The studies of food chain help understand the feeding relationship and the interaction
between organisms in any ecosystem.
2. They also help us to appreciate the energy flow mechanism and matter circulation in
ecosystem and understand the movement of toxic substances in the ecosystem.
3. The study of food chain helps us to understand the problems of bio-magnifications. 17
 (Food Web)
A food web describes the flow of energy and nutrients through an ecosystem, while a food
chain is a linear path through a food web. Food web is a network of food chains where
different types of organisms are interconnected at different trophic levels so that there are a
number of options are eating and being eaten at each trophic level.
A network of food chains or feeding relationships by which energy and nutrients are passed
on from one species of living organisms to another.In an ecosystem the food chains do not
remain isolated but are interconnected with one another form in a king of web called food
web. A food web is the interlocking pattern of food chains with all sorts of circuits and
connections. In a food web each species is dependent upon other and the number of link
species must be sufficient for their continued existence. Food web operators efficiently and an
ecological nutritional balance is maintained in an ecosystem.
The food web is a illustration of various methods of feeding that links the ecosystem. The
food web also defines the energy flow through species of a community as a result of their
feeding relationships. All the food chains are interconnected and overlapping within an
ecosystem and they make up a food web.

Tropical Forest Food Web Grassland Food Web Tundra Food Web

Boreal Forest Food Web Desert Food Web Aquatic Food Web
Organisms can be organized into trophic levels: primary producer, primary consumer,
secondary consumer, and tertiary or higher-order consumer. Energy decreases in each
successive trophic level, preventing more than four or five levels in a food chain. There are
different types of food webs including grazing food webs based on photosynthetic plants
(such as algae) or detrital food webs based on decomposers (such as fungi). Each organism
within a food web can be classified by trophic level according to their position within the
web. Depending on an organism's location in a food web, it may be grouped into more than
one of these categories. Energy and nutrients move up trophic levels in the following order:
(1) Primary producers (2) Primary consumers (3) Secondary consumers (4) Tertiary and
other high-level consumers
18
 ‫٭‬ Question No - 06 ‫٭‬
Ecological Adaptations?

Organisms are affected by their environment in many ways. An organism needs food, water,
air, shelter, suitable temperature and protection from predators in order to survive. The non
living environment includes such thing as temperature, light, humidity, air, water and soil
which are all important factors for the survival of any organism. The survival of an organism
also depends on the characteristics of the organism itself. Each organism has characteristics
both behavieral and physical which enable it to survive in its oven particular habitat. These
characteristics are called as adaptations.
An adaptation can be defined as characteristics of an organism that makes it suitable to its
environment or it is particular way of life. It is a structural, physilogical or behavioural
characteristics that enables the organisms to survive and reproduce. Anything that helps an
organism to survive and successfully reproduce in an ecosystem is regarded as an
adaptation. Whether it is a behavieral, physiological or structural adaptation, the adaptation
has evolved over a period of time and increases the chances of survival of the organism.
Adaptations in Plants: These are the changes that help a plant survive it is environment.
How plants survive under water, in the deserts, in cold conditions and where the soil lacks
nutrients.
Adaptation of Aquatic Plants: Seaweed which is an aquatic plant. It is adopted for
underwater life. It has it is own air bubble in each leave that provides the necessary space for
the exchange of oxygen from the water to the plant. Also helps keep Seaweed upright.
There are many plants adapted for the desert e,g cacti next we have Venus fly trap. This plant
is adopted for life in soil with very little nutrients.
Dry condition
1. Long roots 2. Small needle like leaves
3. High Volume low surface area 4. They can store water for example cacti
Old condition
1. Centifreezing proteins 2. Decideous nature
3. Anti freezing proteins
Water logged condition
1. Hydrophytes (very wet places) 2. Xerophytes (very little water)
3. Mesophytes (average conditions)
Adaptations in Animals: An adaptation is something about an animal that makes it possible
for it to live in a particular place and in a particular way. It may be physical adaptation like
the size or shape of the animals body or the way in which it’s Body Works or it may be the
way the animal behaves. Each adaptation has been produced by evolution.
Adaptation Adopted by animals
Prey
1. Warning signals 2. Cryptic coloration
3. Mimery (One sps resembles with others) 4. Migration
Prediator
1. Warning signals 2. Hibernation
3. Echolocation 4. Cryptic appearance (Camouflage)
5. Case herelning 6. Thermal imaging

Javed Ahmed 9622822905 / 7006824108 19

 Javid Ahmad Mattoo (9622822905 / 7006824108)
Credit- 02 ‫ ٭‬Question No - 01 ‫٭‬

Major Biomes of World – Forests, Deserts, Grassland & Monsoon?

Biome is a large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major
habitat, e.g. forest or tundra. A biome is a community of plants and animals that have
common characteristics for the environment they exist in. They can be found over a range of
continents. Biomes are distinct biological communities that have formed in response to a
shared physical climate. "Biome" is a broader term than "habitat"; any biome can comprise
a variety of habitats. While a biome can cover large areas, a microbiome is a mix of
organisms that coexist in a defined space on a much smaller scale. For example, the human
micro biome is the collection of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms that are
present on a human body.
Some of the major biomes of the world are as follows:
Desert Biome, Grassland Biome, Forest Biome & Monsoon Biome

1) Forest Biome
The forest biome occupies about one third of the Earth's surface and there are three
different types of forests found around the world: tropical forests, temperate forests and
boreal forests.
Tropical Forests
Tropical forests are found near the equator, have super hot temperatures all year long and
get up to 80 inches (2000 mm) of rain a year. Tropical rainforests are home to jaguars,
toucans, gorillas and even tarantulas. Soem people even say that Kidzworld founder Allen
Achilles lived in a biome in a previous life. Here you can also find an antelope called
the royal antelope that is only as big as a rabbit.
Temperate Forests
Temperate forests are found in the Eastern United States, Canada, Europe, China and
Japan. Temperate forests, which are also known as deciduous forests, have four
distinct seasons, which means all the tree leaves fall off in the winter months. Tons of
animals live in temperate forests like beavers, black and brown bears, deer, foxes,
raccoons, skunks, rabbits and various bird species.
Boreal Forests
Boreal forests often get less rain than the other forests and are home to evergreen trees,
which stay green all year long. This is because they have needles, which don't need as
much water as regular tree leaves. Boreal forests are only in the Northern Hemisphere and
can be found in every Canadian province.

2) Desert Biome
Deserts cover about one fifth of our planet, and are caused by extremely low rainfall over
an area. Theses biomes are nonetheless home too many plants and animals which have
through the course of their evolution adapted to this dry environment.
20
Arid and Semi-Arid Desert;-
Arid deserts generally occur at low latitudes, and can be found in North-America, South-
America, Africa, and Southern Asia.
Seasons in the arid desert are generally dry and hot, with few occurrences of rain during
the winter. The heat peaks to extremes during the daytime because there are no clouds to
shield the earth from the sun's rays.
When it does rain, it is not uncommon for the rain to evaporate before hitting the ground.
The soil is usually either sand or coarse, and rocky. Vegetation consists mainly of shrubs
and small trees of which the leaves have evolved to retain water. Most desert life forms
have followed this train of evolution, with animals species being mostly active at night.
Semi-arid deserts are found in North-America, Europe, Russia, and Northern Asia.
Seasons are generally more defined than in the Arid desert, with low rainfalls during the
winter. Even if the rainfall is kept at a bare minimum, several species of animals and plants
thrive in this climate, the animals, while nocturnal, can still be found during the day, mostly
in the shade of the various trees and plants.
Coastal and Cold Deserts:-
Coastal deserts are found in areas that are moderately warm to cool, such as the Neotropic
and Nearctic realm. The winters are usually cool and short, while the summers are long
and warm. The soil is mostly sandy with a high alkaline content, it is also very porous, so
rain seeps quite rapidly into the ground. Most of the flora in the coastal desert features
thick foliage, with good water retention, and their roots are close to the surface of the
ground in order to get enough water before it drains into the soil.
Animals of the coastal desert include rough skinned amphibians, birds of prey, scavenger
mammal’s reptiles and insects; most have adapted quite well to the climate, and again, they
are largely nocturnal during the warmer months.
Perhaps the strangest of all desert biomes is the cold desert, as our perception of the desert
is usually associated with the heat of the sun. But even if there is a moderately high amount
of snow and rainfall during the wintertime, the soil is too heavy and alkaline. Alluvial fans
pull some of the salt through the porous soil, so plant life can survive, but then again, as
with its arid counterparts, the cold desert offers less than ideal conditions for sustaining
delicate plants and animals.
Most of the animals in the cold desert are burrowers, even the carnivores and reptiles
which even though cold-blooded, have made their homes in the cold desert.
Deer and other larger herbivores are only found during the winter, as the supply of grass is
more abundant during that period.

3) Grassland Biome:
In a grassland biome, the vegetation is dominated by grasses, which may grow to about 2 m
in the moist areas and 0.2 m in arid regions of the grassland biome. It is not an exclusively
tropical biome but extends into much of the temperate zone as well. The more or less
synonymous terms “prairie” (in North America), “pampas” (South America), “steppes” (in
Central Asia) “puszta” (Hungary) and many other regional terms underscore the wide
distribution of this biome. 21
 The common feature of all grasslands is intermittent, erratic rainfall, amounting to about 4
to 16 cm annually. The irregularly of rain, porosity and drainage of the soil, or both factors
together prevent a continuous or ample supply of water to plant roots. Grasses of various
kinds are particularly adapted to irregularly alternating periods of precipitation and
dryness. The environmental conditions vary greatly in different grasslands. There are also
non-grass herbaceous species, which are called forbs.
Grassland biome probably supports more species of animals than any other terrestrial
habitat. In all grasslands, the primary consumers are the large grazing mammals like the
bisons, pronghoms (Antilocapra Americana ) and zebra (Equus zebra). African glass-lands
support large herds of zebras and several species of grazing antelopes.
The grassland ungulates are cursorial. Hares and rodent are also common primary
consumers in the grasslands. Many rodents, like the prairie dogs and other ground
squirrels or the pocket gophers, are burrowing or fossorial animals. Australian grasslands
have herbivores very different in appearance and relationships but ecologically similar.
These are large grazing cursorial kangaroos and small, burrowing, rodent-like pouched
“mice”. Predators are adapted to the herbivore prey: wild dogs, lions, and the like preying
on the ungulates; weasels, snakes, and others on the smaller herbivores. Herbivorous
insects such as locusts and grasshoppers are also numerous. Grasslands also support some
herbivorous predacious birds.

4) Monsoon Biome
Monsoon forest, also called dry forest or tropical deciduous forest, open woodland in
tropical areas that have a long dry season followed by a season of heavy rainfall. The trees in
a monsoon forest usually shed their leaves during the dry season and come into leaf at the
start of the rainy season. Many lianas (woody vines) and herbaceous epiphytes (air plants,
such as orchids are present. Monsoon forests are especially well developed in Southeast
Asia and are typified by tall teak trees and thickets of bamboo.
Monsoon forest of the Tropical latitudes differs from the tropical rainforest in that it is
deciduous. Most two trees of these forests shed leaves in the dry season. Shedding Of leaves
is response to the stress caused due to water security during the cool or dry season. Height of
trees is lower than in the rainforest. Tropical monsoon forests are also called tropical
seasonal forests and they are adapted to seasonal precipitation. Nearly 80% of the total
precipitation is received in two or three months, and the rest of the year that is only about
20% or less of the total precipitation. The summer is wet and the winters are dry. The
satisfaction of the vegetation is relatively simple, and only a single layer of trees of lesser
height is found below the main canopy.

‫ ٭‬Question No - 02 ‫٭‬

Carbon Cycle and Nitrogen Cycle?

Definition: Nitrogen cycle is the cyclic movement of nitrogen between atmosphere,

organisms and soil. or
22
Nitrogen cycle is a continuous series of natural processes by which nitrogen passes
successively from air to soil to organisms and back to air or soil involving principally
nitrogen fixation, nitrification, decay, and denitrification.
Nitrogen cycle is a gaseous cycle as atmosphere is the major reservoir of nitrogen with
nearly 79%.
Why nitrogen is important?
Nitrogen is an essential element required for the synthesis of bio-molecules like proteins,
DNA, vitamins, chlorophyll, alkaloids etc. It is a critical limiting element for plant growth
and reproduction. Atmospheric N2 is extremely stable, unreactive and inert with triple
covalent bond between nitrogen atoms. Therefore, plants and animals cannot use
atmospheric N2. So it should be converted to some other usable forms such as nitrates (NO 3-).
This conversion process is primarily carried out by microorganisms. N2
The Major steps involved in nitrogen cycle

1. Nitrogen fixation
2. Nitrification
3. Nitrate assimilation
4. Ammonification
5. Denitrification and Anammox
Step 1: Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric N2 to ammonia (NH 3) which can be
readily utilized by the plants for synthesis of bio-molecules.
3 Major Methods of Nitrogen fixation
a) Biological Nitrogen fixation (BNF): carried out by prokaryotes called as nitrogen fixers
or diazotrophs. It accounts nearly 70% of natural nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen fixers include some bacteria likeRhizobium, blue green algae like Anabaena and
lichens like Collema.
Nitrogen fixers are either symbiotic or free living.
Symbiotic N2 fixers include the bacteriaRhizobium and Bradyrhizobium found in the root
nodules of leguminous plants (pea, beans etc).
Other examples: The water fern Azolla’s symbiosis with a cyanobacterium Anabaena
azollae. Anabaena colonizes cavities formed at the base of Azolla fronds. The cyanobacteria
fix significant amounts of nitrogen in specialized cells called heterocysts.
Examples of free living Nitrogen fixers include species in the genera Azotobacter, Bacillus,
Clostridium, and Klebsiella.
23
 N2 + 8 H+ + 8 e−+ 16 ATP → 2 NH3 + H2 +16 ADP +16 Pi
N2 fixation is a high energy requiring process and N2 fixers uses 16 moles of ATP to fix each
molecule of Nitrogen (N2)
b) Non-biological N2 fixation by lightning, volcanic eruptions etc.
c) Industrial nitrogen fixation (fertilizers) by the Haber-Bosch process
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 in the presence of catalyst like Ni at 5000C and 300 atm pressure.
Today, nearly 80% of the nitrogen found in human tissues originated from the Haber-Bosch
process.
2. Nitrification
It is the process that converts ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-) by
nirtrifying bacteria.
Step 1: Oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2-) or NH3 NO2-
Microbes involved: bacteria in the genera Nitrosomonas, Nitrosospira, and Nitrosococcus
(Nitrite bacteria)
Step 2: Oxidation of nitrite (NO2-) to nitrate (NO3-) or NO2- NO3-
Microbes involved: bacteria in the genera Nitrobacter (Nitrate oxidizing bacteria)
3. Nitrate assimilation
Now soil nitrates (NO3-) formed by nitrification can be taken up by the plants for the synthesis
of amino acids, DNA, pigments etc. This is known as nitrate assimilation.
From plants (producers) nitrogen as bio-molecules like amino acids enters food chain and
moves to animals (consumers) and decomposers.
4. Ammonification
It is the conversion of organic nitrogen (amino acids, DNA etc) in plant and animal tissues to
ammonia (NH3). After the death of plants and animals, various fungi, actinomycetes and
some bacteria (ammonifying bacteria) then decompose the tissue and convert organic
nitrogen (e.g. amino acids, DNA) back into the ecosystem as ammonia. This ammonia is
available for uptake by plants and other microorganisms for growth.
5. Denitrification
It is the conversion of soil nitrate (NO3-) to N2. It is the process that removes fixed nitrogen
(i.e., nitrate) from the ecosystem and returns it to the atmosphere in inert form (N2).
NO3- NO2- NO N2
Microbes involved: Denitrifying bacteria include species in the genera Bacillus, Paracoccus,
and Pseudomonas.
Anammox (anaerobic ammonia oxidation)
It is the conversion of ammonia (NH3) to N2using nitrite as the electron acceptor under
anoxic condition.
NH4+ + NO2- N2 + 2H2O
Microbes involved: prokaryotes belonging to the Planctomycetes phylum of
Bacteria, Brocadia anammoxidans
In some areas of the ocean, the anammox process is considered to be responsible for a
significant loss of nitrogen
Soil nitrogen is replenished by excretion of animals (as ammonia, urea and uric acid),
ammonification and nitrification.
24
 Carbon Cycle
Carbon is an element which has six protons, six neutrons. Carbon is an basis of life of
earth and is found in all earth systems. Carbon is the major chemical constituent of most
organic matter, from fossil fuels to the complex molecules (DNA and RNA) that control
genetic reproduction in organisms. Yet by weight, carbon is not one of the most abundant
elements within the Earth's crust. In fact, the lithosphere is only 0.032% carbon by weight.
In comparison, oxygen and silicon respectively make up 45.2% and 29.4% of the Earth's
surface rocks.
Carbon is stored on our planet in the following major sinks
(1) As organic molecules in living and dead organisms found in the biosphere.
(2) As the gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
(3) As organic matter in soils.
(4) In the lithosphere as fossil fuels and sedimentary rock deposits such as limestone,
dolomite and chalk.
(5) (5) In the oceans as dissolved atmospheric carbon dioxide and as calcium carbonate
shells in marine organisms.
Carbon Cycle: The same carbon atoms are used repeatedly on earth. They cycle between
the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Geosphere and Biosphere.
Processes that transfer Carbon
Between Earth Systems
 Photosynthesis
 Respiration
 Consumption
 Decomposition
 Combustion (Burning)
 Weathering (rocks break down and release carbon)
 Dissolve/Vaporize (Between ocean and atmosphere)

25

Plants Consume and Release Carbon Dioxide:

Plants pull carbon from the atmosphere or hydrosphere and use it to make food by the
process of photosynthesis. Plants release carbon by respiration.
Animals consume and release carbon:
When organisms eat (consume) plants or other organisms, they take in the carbon and
some of it becomes part of their own bodies. When they breath (respiration) they release
carbon.
 Plants and Animal Die:
When plants and animals die, most of their bodies are decomposed and carbon atoms are
returned to the atmosphere. Some are not decomposed fully and end up in geosphere
deposits underground (soil, oil, coal, etc.) or at the bottom of ocean.
Natural combustion:
Forest and grass fires are a natural, required part of the carbon cycle that release carbon
into the atmosphere and geosphere. Fire returns carbon to the soil and “cleans out”
unhealthy plants, allowing new plants to grow.
Carbon Slowly Returns to Atmosphere:
Carbon in rocks and underground deposits is released very slowly into the atmosphere.
This process takes many years and is usually caused by weathering.
Carbon in Oceans:
Oceans store large amounts of carbon. Largest exchange of carbon in carbon cycle is the
dissolving and vaporization of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and ocean surface.
Many animals pull carbon from water to use in shells, etc. When these animals die, the
carbon substances are deposited at the bottom of the ocean.
Balanced Carbon Cycle:-

Unbalanced Cycle - Human Impact:-

 Under balanced conditions, fossil fuels release carbon stores very slowly into atmosphere.
 When humans burn fossil fuels, it releases a tremendous amount of carbon into the
atmosphere over a very short time span.
 Increased carbon dioxide in atmosphere increases global warming
 Fewer plants mean less CO2 removed from atmosphere
What is your carbon footprint?
A carbon footprint is the amount of carbon emitted into the atmosphere by your personal,
day-to-day activities. Examples: Type of car you drive, how far you drive your car, how
much electricity you use (electricity primarily comes from burning coal), where the food
you buy is grown and airplane flights. Why do we care? Because of Global Warming
Things you can do to reduce your carbon footprint
 Promote plant life, especially trees
 Buy a fuel efficient vehicle
 Purchase locally grown food
 Reduce electricity use
 Reduce how far/much you drive
 Take less airplane trips
 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
26
 ‫٭‬ Question No - 03 ‫٭‬

Biodiversity loss and its Conservation?

Biodiversity (biological diversity) it refers “for variety of diversity within the biological
world”. Biodiversity is virtually synonymous with "life on earth". This term was coined in
1985 and during the 1990 s has become very widely used in the popular media and in
government and scientific circulars. Biodiversity is thus “the totality of genes species and
Ecosystem in the region". The term biodiversity is made of tow wards bio and diversity; bio
means leaving and Diversity means variety. So the variety or variability of organisms and
Ecosystem is referred as biodiversity. The variety of various living organisms present on
earth is called as biodiversity. In simplest way we can say variety among living organisms is
called as the biodiversity. The bacteria fungi microorganisms insects and human being all
are the basic part of the biodiversity. It can occur in a small particular area or in a large
area for small aquarium or in a large portion or in desert ecosystem, Terrestrial ecosystem,
grassland ecosystem and forest ecosystem. Different varieties are present of the Earth these
varieties of organisms are called biodiversity.
Biodiversity can be divided into three types or three levels genetic biodiversity, species
biodiversity and Ecosystem biodiversity.
1. Genetic Biodiversity: - the particular change will be occurred in the particular same
species due to variation of the genus such kind of biodiversity is called genetic biodiversity.
For example: Human species we have not same colour, hair and nose etc. Different varieties
of rose- rose has a Red Colour, Yellow Colour and White Colour.
Variations of genes observable with the species, basic source of diversity. It refers to the
variation of genes within the species. This constitutes distant population of some species or
genetic variation within population or verieties within a species.
2. Species biodiversity:- varieties of species within region. Meaning of species is kind. All the
organisms of same kind which are able to breed in nature and produce live and fertile
offspring’s are known as species. So species biodiversity refers to the varieties of species
within a region. Such Biodiversity could be measured on the basis of number of species in a
region. Taxonomists estimate that there may be somewhere between 3 million to 50 million
different species alive today.
It can be divided by some sub types
(a) Species Richness: - number of particular organisms individual in that area which is rich
(which number is highest). The highest number of individual in a particular individual area
time.
(b) Species evenness: - means there are the similar number of individual in a particular area
in a particular time.
(c) Global biodiversity (Also called Gamma biodiversity):- in which there are huge variety of
different plants and animals and different kind of other living organisms.
3. Ecosystem Biodiversity: - the term Ecosystem coined first by A.G Tansley 1935. A
particular biodiversity is present in a particular ecosystem. For example in aquatic
27
ecosystem aquatic plants, animals are in the there they cannot survive in a desert ecosystem.
In an ecosystem, there may exist different landforms, each of which support different and
specific visitation. Ecosystem diversity is difficult to measure because the boundaries of the
communities, which constitute the various sub ecosystems, are elusive. Ecosystem diversity
could be best understood if one studies the communities in various ecological niches with the
given ecosystem; each community is associated with definite spacious complexes.
Why is Biodiversity Important?
Biodiversity has a number of functions on the Earth. These are as follows:
 Maintaining balance of the ecosystem: Recycling and storage of nutrients,
combating pollution, and stabilizing climate, protecting water resources, forming and
protecting soil and maintaining ecobalance.
 Provision of biological resources: Provision of medicines and pharmaceuticals, food
for the human population and animals, ornamental plants, wood products, breeding
stock and diversity of species, ecosystems and genes.
 Social benefits: Recreation and tourism, cultural value and education and research.
The role of biodiversity in the following areas will help make clear the importance of
Biodiversity in human life:
 Biodiversity and food: 80% of human food supply comes from 20 kinds of plants. But
humans use 40,000 species for food, clothing and shelter. Biodiversity provides for
variety of foods for the planet.
 Biodiversity and human health: The shortage of drinking water is expected to create a
major global crisis. Biodiversity also plays an important role in drug discovery and
medicinal resources. Medicines from nature account for usage by 80% of the world’s
population.
 Biodiversity and industry: Biological sources provide many industrial materials.
These include fiber, oil, dyes, rubber, water, timber, paper and food.
 Biodiversity and culture: Biodiversity enhances recreational activities like bird
watching, fishing, trekking etc. It inspires musicians and artists.
Reason for Loss of Biodiversity
The earth’s biodiversity is in grave danger. In the present era, human beings are the most
dangerous cause of destruction of the earth’s biodiversity. In 2006, the terms threatened,
endangered or rare were used to describe the status of many species. The “evil quartet”
identified by Jared Diamond is overkill, habitat destruction, secondary extinctions and
introduced species. Factors identified by Edward Wilson are described by the acronym-
HIPPO standing for habitat destruction, climate change, invasive species, pollution, human
overpopulation and over-harvesting.
Habitat destruction is a major cause for biodiversity loss. Habitat loss is caused
by deforestation, overpopulation, pollution and global warming. Species which are physically
large and those living in forests or oceans are more affected by habitat reduction.
Some expert’s estimate that around 30% of all species on earth will be extinct by 2050.
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), globally about one
third of all known species are threatened with extinction. Even it is estimated that 25% of all
mammals will be extinct within 20 years.
Even if a small element of an ecosystem breaks down, the whole system’s balance is
threatened. Fresh water ecosystems are nowadays the most threatened ecosystems. Invasive
28
species refer to those that would normally remain constrained from an ecosystem because of
the presence of natural barriers. Since these barriers are no longer existing, invasive species
invade the ecosystem, destroying native species. Human activities have been the major cause
for encouraging invasive species.
Species can also be threatened by genetic pollution- uncontrolled hybridization and gene
swamping. For instance, abundant species can interbreed with rare species thus causing
swamping of the gene pool. Over exploitation is caused by activities such as over fishing,
over hunting, excessive logging and illegal trade of wildlife. Over 25% of global fisheries are
being overfished at unsustainable levels.
Global warming is also becoming a major cause for loss of biodiversity. For example if the
present rate of global warming continues, coral reefs which are biodiversity hotspots will
disappear in 20-40 years. 10% of all species might become extinct by 2015, if global
warming continues.
Thus we can see that biodiversity which is crucial for the well being of life on earth, is
coming under the threat of many factors related to human activities. There is an urgent need
to take action to protect the magnificent biodiversity of our planet. We must create economic
policies in order to maintain the Earth’s biodiversity and take appropriate measures to
protect habitats and species.
‫ ٭‬Question No - 04 ‫٭‬

Preservation & Conservation of Ecosystem through resource management?

Preservation:-
Merriam-Webster defines preservation as ‘to keep safe from injury, harm or destruction.’ The
term preservation was derived from Latin prae– + servare. Prae- is the archaic variant of the
prefix pre– which means before, earlier or prior to. Servare is the present infinitive of servō,
which means ‘watch over, maintain, protect, keep, guard, save, or store.’ Therefore, the two
Latin words taken together and to encompass all the descriptions of preservation means:
To watch over, to maintain, to protect, to keep, to guard, to save, and to store.
Based on these definitions, in the environmental context, preservation calls for a ‘no touch’
policy, to keep whatever existing natural resources there are, to its present condition. The
emphasis is on maintaining the integrity of the natural resource. Strict protection implied for
a defined period anticipates the value it can give to present, as well as, future generations.

Consequence of overhunting.
As a matter of government policy, for example, it may set aside and declare a forest as a
protected area. One of the features of a protected area is the core zone. The core zone is that
specific area with defined boundaries where no use is allowed at all. This area then gets
preserved and able to carry out its ecological functions. Thus, it can serve as a natural water
reservoir, habitat for wildlife, erosion prevention, flood control, carbon storage, oxygen
production, buffer against storms, maintenance of soil fertility, among others.
A game preserve is another example. People are prohibited from hunting game in that region
to allow a species with a depleted population to recover. Hence, it is a ‘no take’ zone in view
of making it available in the future. 29
To synthesize everything, preservation, therefore, can be defined as a natural resource
management approach advocating non-utilization of a natural resource. This approach views
a sustainable flow of benefits that can be enjoyed at present or protecting a resource for
future use.
Conservation:-
Using Merriam-Webster’s definition, conservation means ‘to keep (something) from being
damaged or destroyed.’ This word sounds similar to preservation. But another definition
says, ‘to use (something) carefully to prevent loss or waste.’ The latter appears to be a better
definition that distinguishes conservation from preservation.
In other words, conservation does not only aim to keep natural resources from being
damaged or exploited but to use them optimally. There is the incorporation of the ‘wise use’
policy in this natural resource management approach. Benefits accrues while resources stay
the same. Resources are used sparingly or wisely so that they are still available in the future.
Conservation emphasizes the use of the natural resource.
The resources subject to conservation may be renewable or non-renewable. For example, you
can say ‘conserve water’ or ‘conserve oil or fuel’ but you do not say ‘preserve water’ or
‘preserve oil or fuel.’ Water is a renewable resource whereas oil or fuel is non-renewable or
exhausted with use. The use of the latter resource relates to pollution.
Another good definition of Merriam-Webster is that conservation is ‘planned management of
a natural resource to prevent exploitation, destruction, or neglect.’ This definition adequately
captures the role of man as a resource manager. This definition suggests that conservation is
a broader concept compared to preservation. A planned management can incorporate
preservation, protection, wise use, maintenance and reduction of the ill effects or
negative externalities associated with its use.
Conservation, therefore, can be succinctly defined as a natural resource management
approach that seeks to attain sustainable or prolonged use of natural resources with minimal
environmental impact.
The two approaches described reflects philosophies in natural resource management. While
there may be a difference in terms of the approach, the result is to achieve a sustained
enjoyment of benefits.
UN Environment and its partners support the design and establishment of monitoring systems
for ecosystem health and functioning, for example, the Biodiversity Indicators
Partnership (BIP), a global initiative to develop and promote indicators for the consistent
monitoring and assessment of biodiversity. UN Environment supports species conservation: It
hosts the Great Apes Survival Partnership, a United Nations initiative committed to ensuring
the long-term survival of chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos, and orangutans and their habitats
in Africa and Asia; as well as species conservation programmes for dugong and sharks.
Conserving our biodiversity is extremely important, not only in terms of its intrinsic values
but because many of our economic activities are based on healthy and functioning natural
systems. An essential part of ecosystem conservation is the establishment of a comprehensive
and well managed reserve system
There are a range of management programs underway in South Australia to conserve and
restore ecosystems both on and off reserves. These programs involve the:
 removal of threats, such as environmental weeds or grazing by domestic stock and
feral animals
 eradication of introduced predators such as foxes and cats
 re-introduction of threatened species and the restoration of habitat through
revegetation programs.
Management programs are crucial if we are to retain healthy and functioning ecosystems in
the longer term.
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 ‫٭‬ Question No - 05 ‫٭‬

Ecological Footprint & Concept of Green Economy?

(Ecological Footprint)
Ecology : (German biologist , Ernst Haeckel coined the term `oecology` or `oekology` in
1869 . derived from two Greek Words, `oikos` meaning house or dwelling as habitat and
`logos` meaning the study of ) to understand the relationships between organisms and
environment. Ecology , in a simple term ,is a science which studies ,interrelationships
between abiotic and biotic components of the biospheric ecosystem on the one hand and
biotic components on the other hand.
The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth,s ecosystem. It is a
standardized measure of demand for natural capital that may be contrasted with the
planet`s ecological capacity to regenerate. It represents the amount of biologically
productive land and sea area necessary to supply the resources a human population
consumes, and to assimilate associated waste .
An ecological footprint is the area required to provide the goods and services consumed
by individuals, communities or organizations. It can also be derived for products or for
particular activities. Using an 'area equivalence' expressed as 'global hectares', the
ecological footprint expresses how much of nature's renewable bioproductive capacity (or
'interest') we are currently appropriating. If more of nature's interest is consumed than is
available (i.e. nature's 'capital' is being reduced), then it is possible to assume that the
rate of consumption is not sustainable (Chambers et al., 2000).
Every person, region, organisation or service has an impact on the earth. We all rely on
the products and services of nature, to supply us with raw materials and to assimilate our
wastes. The impact we have on our environment is related to the 'quantity' of nature that
we use to sustain our consumption patterns.
Measurement of Ecological Footprint
The ecological footprint is measured in terms of carbon land(gray), cropland (yellow),
grazing land (green ),forest (dark green), built-up land(orange) and fishing grounds
(blue). Water use is not measured, but is quantified and graphed later in the report. The
carbon component takes up more than half (55%) of the resources tracked. More than a
quarter of the countries have indices in which carbon represents more than half of their
total ecological footprint. For the purposes of calculating an ecological footprint,
bioproductive land and sea is categorised into four basic types.

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The Ecological Footprint measures the amount of biologically productive land and water
area an individual, a city, a country, a region, or all of humanity uses to produce the
resources it consumes and to absorb the waste it generates with today’s technology and
resource management practices. Ecological footprint is expressed in "global hectares"
(gha) or "global acres" (ga), which are standardized units.

Footprint helps in
1) Assess the value of country`s
ecological assets.
2) Monitor and manage their assets.
3) Identify the risks associated with
ecological deficits.
4) Set policy that is informed by
ecological reality and makes
safeguarding resources a top priority.
5) Measure progress towards their
goals.

Conclusion : The Ecological Footprint is a resource accounting tool that helps countries
understand their ecological balance sheet and gives them the data necessary to manage
their resources and secure their future .
Footprint for Nations
In today`s world, where humanity is already exceeding planetary limits, ecological assets
are becoming more critical. Each country has its own ecological risk profile. Many
countries are running ecological deficits, with footprints larger than their own biological
capacity. Other countries depend heavily on resources from elsewhere, which are under
increasing pressure. In some areas of the world, the implications of ecological deficits can
be devastating, leading to resource loss’ ecosystem collapse, debt, poverty, famine and
war. It is almost certainly the case that countries and regions with surplus ecological
reserve –not the ones relying on continued ecological deficit spending –will emerge as the
robust and sustainable economies and societies of the future.

Countries with the biggest ecological footprint per person

1. Qatar 6. Belgium
2. Kuwait 7. Australia
3. United Arab Emirates 8. Canada
4. Denmark 9. Netherlands
5. United States 10. Ireland 32
Countries with the smallest ecological footprint per person
1. Occupied Palestinean Territory 6. Bangladesh
2. Timor Leste 7. Rwanda
3. Afghanistan 8. Pakistan
4. Haiti 9. Democratic Republic of Congo
5. Eritrea 10. Nepal
Inference: The Middle East /Central Asia and European Union had countries whose per
capita footprints increased the most. North Americans maintained the highest regional
footprint. People in high-income countries have much greater ecological footprints than
both middle –and low-income countries. If everyone in the world used the same amount of
resources as citizens of the United States, the world wildlife Network points out that “ a
total of four earths would be required to regenerate humanity`s demand on nature.”The
World Wildlife Fund says that in 2008 the world`s total biocapacity was 12 billion gha.
Humanity used 18.2 billion gha in resources, meaning it would take a year and a half for
people to regenerate the amount of resources used in a year.
Water footprint: The water footprint of a product is the volume of freshwater
appropriated to produce the product ‘taking into account the volumes of water consumed
and polluted in the different steps of the supply chain. It helps us to promote the transition
towards sustainable, fair and efficient use of fresh water resources worldwide. It is an
indicator of water use that looks at both direct and indirect water use of a consumer or
producer. The global water footprint in the period 1996-2005 was 9087 Gm3/yr (74%
green, 11% blue, and 15% grey). Agricultural production contributes 92% to this total
footprint. Water scarcity affects over 2.7 billion people for at least one month each year.
Carbon Footprint: Historically defined by championne as “the total sets of greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions caused by an organization, event, product or person “
Critique: to calculate the total carbon footprint is impossible due to the large amount of
data required and the fact that carbon dioxide can be produced by natural occurrences
New definition : Wright ,Kemp ,and Williams defined it as “ A measure of the total
amount of CO2 and CH4 emissions of a defined population , system or activity
,considering all relevant sources ,sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal
boundary of the population ,system or activity of interest. Calculated as CO2 equivalent
using the relevant 100-year global warming potential (GWP100)
While not a direct measure of species populations, the ecological footprint provides an
indicator of the pressure on ecosystems and biodiversity by measuring the competing level
of ecological demand that humans place upon the biosphere. Global Ecological Footprint
data show that humanity is using resources and producing CO 2 emissions at a rate 44%
greater than what nature can regenerate and reabsorb. This gap known as ecological
overshoot, results in the depletion of the natural capital that all species (including our
own) depend on for their livelihood. Humanity`s Ecological Footprint has grown 80%
over the last four decades .the greater the gap between human demand and nature`s
regenerative capacity , the more pressure there will be on the resources other species
need to survive ,and the more perilously biodiversity will be under threat.

33
 (Green Economy)
A green economy is one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while
significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological green economy is an economy or
economic development model based on sustainable development and a knowledge of
cological economics. Its most disting feature from prior economic regimes is direct valuation
of natural capital and ecological services as having economics value (see The Economics of
Ecosystems and Biodiversity and Bank of Natural Capital) and a full cost accounting regime
in which costs externalized onto society via ecosystems are reliably traced back to, and
accounted for as liabilities of, the entity that does the harm or neglects an asset. Green
economics" is loosely defined as any theory of economics by which an economy is considered
to be component of the ecosystem in which it resides (after Lynn Margulis). A holistic
approach to the subject is typical, such that economic ideas are commingled with any number
of other subjects, depending on the particular theorist. Proponents of feminism,
postmodernism, the ecology movement, peace movement, Green politics, green anarchism
and anti-globalization movement have used the term to describe very different ideas, all
external to some equally ill-defined "mainstream" economics. The use of the term is further
ambiguated by the political distinction of Green parties which are formally organized and
claim the capital-G "Green" term as a unique and distinguishing mark. It is thus preferable
to refer to a loose school of "'green economists"' who generally advocate shifts towards a
green economy, biomimicry and a fuller accounting for biodiversity. Some economists view
green economics as a branch or subfield of more established schools. For instance, as
classical economics where the traditional land is generalized to natural capital and has some
attributes in common with labor and physical capital (since natural capital assets like rivers
directly substitute for man-made ones such as canals). Or, as Marxist economics with nature
represented as a form of lumpen proletariat, an exploited base of non-human workers
providing surplus value to the human economy. Or as a branch of neoclassical economics in
which the price of life for developing vs. developed nations is held steady at a ratio reflecting
a balance of power and that of non-human life is very low. An increasing consensus around
the ideas of natural capital and full cost accounting could blur distinctions between the
schools and redefine them all as variations of "green economics". As of 2010 the Bretton
Woods institutions (notably the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (via its "Green
Fund" initiative) responsible for global monetary policy have stated a clear intention to move
towards biodiversity valuation and a more official and universal biodiversity finance. Taking
these into account targeting not less but radically zero emission and waste is what is
promoted by the Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives.
Definition of a green economy:Karl Burkart defines a green economy as based on six main sectors:
Renewable energy (solar, wind, geothermal, marine including wave, biogas, and fuel cell)
Green buildings (green retrofits for energy and water efficiency, residential and
Commercial assessment; green products and materials, and LEED construction)
Clean transportation (alternative fuels, public transit, hybrid and electric vehicles,
carsharing and carpooling programs)
Water management (Water reclamation, greywater and rainwater systems, low-water
landscaping, water purification, stormwater management)
Waste management (recycling, municipal solid waste salvage, brownfield land
remediation, Superfund cleanup, sustainable packaging)
Land management (organic agriculture, habitat conservation and restoration; urban
forestry and parks, reforestation and afforestation and soil stabilization)

The three pillars of sustainability

34
 The three pillars of sustainability.
The Global Citizens Center, led by Kevin Danaher, defines green economy differently from
the use of pricing mechanisms for protecting nature, by using the terms of a "triple bottom
line," an economy concerned with being:
1. Environmentally sustainable, based on the belief that our biosphere is a closed system with
finite resources and a limited capacity for self-regulation and selfrenewal. We depend on the
earth’s natural resources, and therefore we must create an economic system that respects the
integrity of ecosystems and ensures the resilience of life supporting systems.
2. Socially just, based on the belief that culture and human dignity are precious resources
that, like our natural resources, require responsible stewardship to avoid their depletion. We
must create a vibrant economic system that ensures all people have access to a decent
standard of living and full opportunities for personal and social development.
3. Locally rooted, based on the belief that an authentic connection to place is the essential
pre-condition to sustainability and justice. The Green Economy is a global aggregate of
individual communities meeting the needs of its citizens through the responsible, local
production and exchange of goods and services.
The Global Green Economy Index, published annually by consultancy Dual Citizen Inc.,
measures and ranks the perception and performance of 27 national green economies. This
index looks at 4 primary dimensions defining a national green economy as follows:
1. Leadership and the extent to which national leaders are champions for green issues on the
local and international stage
2. Domestic policies and the success/ s of policy frameworks to successfully promote
renewable energy and green growth in home market
3. Cleantech Investment and the perceived opportunities and cleantech investment climate
in each country
4. Green tourism and the level of commitment to promoting sustainable tourism through
government
Other issues:Green economy includes green energy generation based on renewable energy to
substitute for fossil fuels and energy conservation for efficient energy use. Because the
market failure related to environmental and climate protection as a result of external costs,
high future commercial rates and associated high initial costs for research, development, and
marketing of green energy sources and green products prevents firms from being voluntarily
interested in reducing environment-unfriendly activities (Reinhardt, 1999; King and Lenox,
2002; Wagner, 203; Wagner, et al., 2005), the green economy may need government
subsidies as market incentives to motivate firms to invest and produce green products and
services. The German Renewable Energy Act, legislations of many other EU countries and
the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, all provide such market incentives.
Critique of the 'Green Economy':A number of organisations have critiqued aspects of the 'Green Economy',
articularly the mainstream conceptions of it based on using price mechanisms to protect nature, arguing that this will
extend corporate control into new areas from forestry to water. The research organisation, Etcgroup, argues that the
orporate emphasis on bio-economy "will spur even greater convergence of corporate power and unleash the most
massive resource grab in more than 500 years." Venezuelan professor Edgardo Lander says that the UNEP's report,
Towards a Green Economy, while well-intentioned "ignores the fact that the capacity of existing political systems to
establish regulations and restrictions to the free operation of the markets – even when a large majority of the
population call for them – is seriously limited by the political and financial power of the corporations." Ulrich
Hoffmann, in a paper for UNCTAD also says that the focus on Green Economy and "green growth" in particular,
"based on an evolutionary (and often reductionist) approach will not be sufficient to cope with the complexities of
climate change" and "may rather give much false hope and excuses to do nothing really fundamental that can bring
about a U-turn of global greenhouse gas emissions.

The three pillars of sustainability 35

 Javid Ahmad Mattoo (9622822905 / 7006824108)
Credit- 03
‫ ٭‬Question No - 01 ‫٭‬
Structure and Types of Environment?

Nowadays the word environment is often being used by almost all people around us, on television and in
newspapers. Everyone is speaking about the protection and pre-serration of environment. Global summits
are being held regularly to discuss environmental issues. During the last hundred years, the mutual
relationship among environment, social organization and culture has been discussed in sociology,
anthropology and geography. All this shows the increasing importance of environment. Besides, it is a fact
that life is tied with the environment.
The word environment has been derived from the French word “Environia” which means to
encircle to surrounded. The dictionary meaning of the word environment a surrounding.
External conditions influencing developed of growth of people animals and plants and their
living or working conditions. This involves three basic questions. What is surrounded? By
what is surrounded? And where surrounding? Overly the answer of the first question living
organism in general and man in particular. If man is taken to be surrounding, physical
attributes become answer to the second question which signifies the environment and where
is the space or habitat. According to C.C Path 1980 refers to sum total conditioners which
surrounded at a man at a given point in space and time.
The term environment has been derived from a French word “Environia” means to surround.
It refers to both abiotic (physical or non-living) and biotic (living) environment. The word
environment means surroundings, in which organisms live. Environment and the organisms
are two dynamic and complex component of nature. Environment regulates the life of the
organisms including human beings. Human beings interact with the environment more
vigorously than other living beings. Ordinarily environment refers to the material sand forces
that surround the living organism.
Environment is the sum total of conditions that surrounds us at a given point of time and
space. It is comprised of the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural elements
which are interlinked both individually and collectively. Environment is the sum total of
conditions in which an organism has to survive or maintain its life process. It influences the
growth and development of living forms. It consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere
and biosphere. Its chief components are soil, water, air, organisms and solar energy. It has
provided us all the resources for leading a comfortable life.
1. According to P. Gisbert “Environment is anything immediately surrounding an object and
exerting a direct influence on it.”
2. According to E. J. Ross “Environment is an external force which influences us.”
Mountain Environment, Plane Environment. Plateau Environment, River Environment, Lake Environment

Littoral Environment, Shallow Environment, Deep-sea Environment

Tropical Environment, Temperat Environment, Polar Environment

Environment
Plnts Terrestrial Environment
Animals Environment
Aquatic Environment

Landfunal

Aquatic
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 Types of Environment
There are mainly three types of environment-
1. The Physical environment (Abiotic)
 It is also known as a-biotic environment and natural environment.
 The meaning of ‘a-biotic’ or ‘physical’ is non living like land water air conditions
atmosphere which constitutes of soil. So we can say that physical or a-biotic
environment is the environment which includes non living or physical things which are
constitutes of soil and affect the living things.
 The physical or a-biotic environment also includes the climatic factors such as
sunbeams, rainwater, precipitation, moisture, pressure and wind speed.
The Importance of Physical Environment
 Just think, the most important thing to make house is residential space, and for
residential space, we need land area. The land area is included in physical environment.
So it is responsible for the residential for living beings.
 The a-biotic environment like soil, water and air are the necessary nutrients element
provider for the living beings.
 All of living beings are surrounded by atmosphere; it is the combination of different
types of gases. The living beings take oxygen and other gases from the atmosphere.
 The a-biotic environment also controls the climatic factors like weather.
 The physical environment also includes the soil which is responsible for the works and
food crops for the living beings. It also provides different types of minerals which are
very necessary for growth of life
 Water is one of the most necessary things for living beings. Physical environment also
deals with the water factor of the earth.
2. Biotic environment
 It is also known as biological environment and organic environment.
 In the opposite side of the physical environment, the biotic or biological environment is
responsible for the living beings.
 You have already understood that the meaning of ‘biological’ is living things. So, the
biological environment is the environment which involves the living part of the earth.
The importance of biotic environment
 In this type of environment includes the plants, trees, animals, mammals, underwater
living beings including human beings and microorganisms like bacteria and fungi.
 There is a concept which is necessary to understand. The living beings are highly
dependent to each other. For example humans are highly depend upon plants and trees
for food and oxygen, and plants and trees are also depend upon humans and animals
because of co2
3. Social or cultural environment (Built Environment)
 This type of environment involves the culture and life style of the human beings.
 The social or cultural environment means the environment which is created by the man
through his different social and cultural activities and thinking.
 The historical, cultural, political, moral, economic aspects of human life constitute to the
social or cultural environment
The Importance of Social or Cultural Environment
 Culture involves the religion of the human, relations with each other etc. In a society
there involve different types of people, they have different religion, different thinking,
which has culture of its own and posses people having their own life style.
 The social or culture environment affects the social culture of human beings and hence it
has the great importance.
37
  The development of a child is highly depends upon culture and society.

‫٭‬ Question No - 02 ‫٭‬

Components of Environment?

The environment is defined as the whole physical and biological system surrounding man and
other organisms along with various factors influencing them. The factors are soil, air, water,
light, temperature etc. These are called Abiotic factors. Besides the abiotic factors, the
environment is very much influenced by biotic factors which include all forms of life like
plants, animals, microorganisms etc. Man is thus an inseparable part of the environment.
Man and Environment have very close relationship with each other. The social life of man is
affected by environment. This is the reason for various types of social and cultural activities
around the world. The hilly people have different life styles than people in the plain area.
Similarly people around the world differ in their food, cloth, festivals etc. All these are
influenced by the factors around him.

(a) Biotic Components: - The biological constituent of environment is also called biotic
component of environment. This component consists of all living things like plants, animals
and small micro-organisms like bacteria. This component interacts with the abiotic
component of the environment. This interaction of two components forms various ecosystems
like pond ecosystem, marine ecosystem, desert ecosystem etc. The self sufficient large
ecosystem of the earth is called Biosphere. All ecosystems consist of three different types of
living organisms.
These three types are named as:
(a) Producers
(b) Consumers
(c) Decomposers. 38
(b) Abiotic Components: - The Physical Constituent of environment includes soil, water, air,
climate, temperature, light etc. These are also called abiotic constituents of the environment.
This part of the environment mainly determines the type of the habitat or living conditions of
the human population. This physical constituent of the environment is again divided into
three parts.
These are:
(i) Atmosphere (gas)
(ii) Hydrosphere (liquid)
(iii) Lithosphere (solid)
1. Atmosphere:
The following points highlight the vital role played by atmosphere in the survival of life in this planet:
a. The atmosphere is the protective blanket of gases which is surrounding the earth. It
protects the earth from the hostile environment of outer space.
b. It absorbs 1R radiations emitted by the sun and reemitted from the earth and thus controls
the temperature of the earth.
c. It allows transmission of significant amounts of radiation only in the regions of 300 –
2500 nm (near UV, Visible, and near IR) and 0.01 – 40 meters (radio waves), i.e. it filters
tissue damaging UV radiation below 300 nm.
d. It acts as a source for C02 for plant photosynthesis and 02 for respiration
e. It acts as a source for nitrogen for nitrogen fixing bacteria and ammonia producing
plants.
f. The atmosphere transports water from ocean to land.
2. Hydrosphere:
The hydrosphere is a collective term given to all different forms of water.
It includes all types of water resources such as oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, streams,
reservoirs, glaciers and ground waters. The distribution of earth’s water supply is shown in
figure-1.1.

As can be seen, only 1 % of the total water supply is available as fresh water in the form of
rivers, lakes, streams and ground water for human consumption and other uses. The extent of
the use of available fresh water for various purposes is shown in the following figure -1.2.

39
 The major problem with global water supply is its non-uniform distribution, since people in
areas with low precipitation often consume more than people in regions with more rainfall.
3. Lithosphere:
a. The earth is divided in to layers as shown in figure-1.3

b. The lithosphere consists of upper mantle and the crust.

The crust is the earth’s outer skin that is accessible to human. The crust consists of rocks and
soil of which the latter is the important part of lithosphere.
4. Biosphere:
The biosphere refers to the realm of living organisms and their interactions with the
environment (VIZ: atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere)
a. The biosphere is very large and complex and is divided into smaller units called
ecosystems.
b. Plants, animals and microorganisms which live in a definite zone along with physical
factors such as soil, water and air constitute an ecosystem.
c. Within each ecosystems there are dynamic inter relationships between living forms and
their physical environment. The natural cycles operate in a balanced manner providing a
continuous circulation of essential constituents necessary for life and this stabilizes and
sustains the life processes on earth.
d. These inter relationships manifest as natural cycles, (hydrologic cycle, oxygen cycle,
nitrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle and sulphur cycle).The shape of the Earth is very close to
that of an oblate spheroid, a sphere flattened along the axis from pole to pole.
Within the biosphere, there are several major regions containing specific types of
ecosystems. These major regions are called biomes. Biomes are then recognized by the types
of dominant ecosystem- tropical rainforests, temperate forests, prairies, deserts, and arctic
tundra. The ecosystems again are composed of population which is composed of individuals.
The global estimate of species of both prokaryotes and eukaryotic life forms are given in
Tables 1(A).1 and 1(A).2 These figures imply the fact that how diverse is our biological world
on earth is?

40
 ‫٭‬ Question No - 03 ‫٭‬

Man Induced Environmental & Ecological Changes?

Humans have had a profoundly adverse impact on the environment. Generally, people have
not conducted activities such as manufacturing, transport, large-scale fishing, agriculture
and waste disposal in moderation. This has led to degradation of land, air and water. While
the full range of long-term consequences of human intervention on the environment has yet to
be seen, some consequences are already taking effect, such as climate change.
Land Degradation:-
Humans' failure to use land sustainably has led to its degradation. People clear forests to use
the land either for agriculture or to settle on. Consequently, forest cover dwindles
significantly, leading to soil erosion and extinction of plant species. Land animals have also
declined in numbers, and some have even gone extinct due to human expansion that
encroaches on their natural habitat and limits their ability to spread geographically.
Air Pollution:-
The air has been the hardest hit element of the environment due to a variety of human
activities. The transport sector contributes heavily to air pollution because most forms of
transport -- including cars, planes and ocean vessels -- use one form of fossil fuel or the
other, which when burned releases carbon dioxide and other gases into the environment. The
manufacturing industry that grows exponentially with the expansion of the population is
another source of air pollution. Manufacturing plants emit carbons and sulfurs that do not
occur naturally in the environment, causing an imbalance in the quality and composition of
air. Some air pollutants deplete the ozone layer and expose the Earth to dangerous radiation
from the sun.
Water Contamination:-
Human intervention in the environment causes water contamination and jeopardizes the
supply and flow of clean, natural drinking water. Human activities such as waste disposal
from residential, commercial and industrial places, oil spills and agricultural use of artificial
fertilizers that contain hazardous chemical substances all contaminate water bodies.
Pollutants are either directly deposited into lakes, rivers, seas and streams or hazardous
substances are washed into them during the rainy seasons. The water element of the
environment has also suffered from exploitation such as when humans overfish or
aggressively hunt species such as sharks for their own purposes. The net effect of the
contamination has been the death and reduction in diversity of marine life and scarcity
of clean water. 41
Climate Change:-
Human activities in the environment can interfere with the planet's natural balance, making
the Earth’s climate less stable and predictable. Occurrences such as unprecedented flooding;
increased numbers of storms, hurricanes and typhoons; fiercer brush fires; and most notably
tsunamis, which are uncommon in the Earth’s recent history, are being witnessed all across
the world. Phenomena such as rising sea levels, unseasonably high temperatures and drought
hint toward an environment that cannot take much more negative human intervention.

Human Induced Changes In Ecosystem

Not all changes to an ecosystem are caused by natural forces. Ecosystems are also affected
by human disturbances, which are caused by people. Imagine a polluted stream with dead
fish floating in the water or a bulldozer clearing forested land and destroying natural
habitats to build a new shopping center.
Following are some of the human induced changes:
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
The human activity most widely viewed as changing the planet is the burning of fossil fuels.
In order to produce the energy that drives the world’s economy, countries rely on carbon-
rich fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. By burning these materials, humans have added nearly
400 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere between 1870 and 2013. Right now,
atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide are higher than at any point in human history. Carbon
dioxide is a heat-trapping gas and as a result of these atmospheric changes, average
temperatures on the planet are rising and global weather patterns are changing. Some of the
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is absorbed into oceans, increasing their acidity by 30
percent over the past 100 years. This change has far reaching effects on oceanic ecosystems
and the food chains that support underwater plant and animal life.
Industrial Agriculture
As the world’s population continues to grow, so does the amount of farmland needed to
provide sufficient food. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), over
40 percent of Earth’s surface is now comprised of agricultural lands and a large portion of
these lands were once covered by forests. Much of Europe, for example, was once covered
with dense temperate forests but over time population growth-driven deforestation has led to
more farm land.
According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, three billion tons of CO2 enters the
atmosphere every year from deforestation. That destruction amounts to 13 million hectares
destroyed annually, much of which occurring in the Amazon rain forest. Here, the regional
cycle of evaporation and condensation has been disrupted, raising the possibility of the
remaining forest becoming a savannah. Furthermore, because the rain forest is shrinking, its
carbon-dioxide absorbing capacities are being diminished, which in turn means more of the
heat-trapping gas is reaching the upper atmosphere, causing global temperatures to rise.
Fertilizers used in farming have had far-reaching effects. Their use has injected vast amounts
of nitrogen and phosphorous into regional ecosystems. Wired Science reports that 120
million tons of nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere each year and 20 million tons of
phosphorous is mined from the ground in order to produce fertilizer to be used for farming.
These practices add a tremendous amount of nitrogen and phosphorus to the biosphere than
would occur naturally. Runoff from farmland often carries large amounts of fertilizer into
rivers and streams that eventually drain into the sea. All of this fertilizer runoff creates
rapidly-expanding marine dead zones. 42
Draining Rivers
Life depends heavily on the supply of fresh water that exists in rivers, lakes and aquifers.
According to Wired Science, it’s estimated that one fourth of Earth’s river basins run dry
before ever reaching the ocean. This is the result of reduced rainfall caused by
deforestation and the construction of man-made dams that divert water flow in inefficient
ways. Less water flowing through river basins has also altered local weather patterns.
 ‫٭‬ Question No - 04 ‫٭‬

Degradation of Slopes, Simplification of Ecosystem, Eutrophication,

Introduction of Alien species?

A. Degradation of Slopes
Soil degradation is the decline in soil condition caused by its improper use or poor
management, usually for agricultural, industrial or urban purposes. It is a serious
environmental problem. Soils are a fundamental natural resource, and are the basis for all
terrestrial life. Avoiding soil degradation is crucial to our well-being. Soil degradation is the
physical, chemical and biological decline in soil quality. It can be the loss of organic matter,
decline in soil fertility, and structural condition, erosion, adverse changes in salinity, acidity
or alkalinity, and the effects of toxic chemicals, pollutants or excessive flooding.
Soil degradation has been defined as a process that leads to decline in the fertility or future
productive capacity of soil as a result of human activity (United Nations Environment
Programme, 1993). It occurs whenever the natural balances in the landscape are changed by
human activity through misuse or overuse of soil. Degraded soils which result in poor or no
production are also called problem soils.
Waste lands are those which for one or the other reason have poor life sustaining property.
Out of 100 per cent potentially active lands only 44 per cent are available for cultivation and
56 per cent of land are non-available for cultivation.
The wasteland can be made useful by increasing productivity of land by using some useful
methods as afforestation or by using bio-fertilizers. Soil degradation is a complex
phenomenon derived by interaction between natural and socio economic factors.
The degradation or deterioration of soil may be caused by the following factors:
1. Physical factors, e.g. loss of fertile top soil due to water or wind erosion.
2. Chemical factors e.g. depletion of nutrients or the toxicity due to acidity or alkalinity
(salinization) or water logging.
3. Biological factors which affect the micro-flora and reduce the microbial activity of the
soil. These factors reduce the yield.
Some other factors as deforestation, extensive cultivation on marginal land, improper
cultivation practices like mono-cropping, poor manuring, misuse of fertilizers or excess use
of fertilizers, excessive irrigation, over-grazing, fragility of soil, adverse weather and mining
may accelerate the process of soil degradation.
During last decade the nutrients deficiency has been considered as the main cause of poor
productivity and crop failure. A study of the current trends in agronomic practices has
suggested that the nutrients deficiency is further aggravated by continued use of high yielding
crop varieties, intensive cropping pattern and relatively poor fertilizers.
Among the major causes of degradation, water erosion is considered to be the most severe
one which covers almost 87% of the affected area. The main cause of water erosion is
removal of vegetation, over exploitation of vegetation, over grazing and improper
agricultural practices. The latest data revealed that erosion has rendered 200 million
hectares or 36% of the total area of the country barren (Table 27.1).
Soil degradation is a global phenomenon. Of the world’s total land area of 13.5 billion
hectares, only 3.03 billion hectares (22 per cent) is actually cultivable and about 2 billion
hectares is degraded. The annual loss of land is expected to go up to 10 million hectares by
2000 A.D.(Yadava 1996). In India alone, about 188 million hectares or almost 57% of total
land area is degraded (Sehgel and Abrol, 1994). 43
 44

Causes of Soil Degradation:

The main reasons for unproductiveness or degradation of soils are as follows:
1) Nutrient disorder:
Most of the Indian soils are deficient in nutrients and organic matter. Organic matter is
rapidly decomposed and leached or eroded by heavy rains. In addition to these causes,
intensive cultivation using high-yielding short-duration and fertilizer-responsive cultivars of
crops has further accelerated the loss of plant nutrients which is much greater than what is
supplemented through fertilizers.
According to an estimate of 1992, every year 20.2 million tonnes of NPK is removed by
growing crops. The data published by National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use
Planning (Sehgal and Abrol, 1994) show that about 3.7 million ha land suffers from nutrient
loss or depletion of organic matter.
The problem is more severe in the cultivated areas of the subtropical belt. Out of 20.2 million
tonnes NPK removed by the plants, only 2.66 million tonnes comes from fertilizers and 3
million tonnes from organic sources. If the loss of nutrients due to soil erosion is included,
the loss of nutrients from top soil is 43 million tonnes.
2) Water-logging:
Soils become water-logged when the water balance of an area is disturbed because of excess
recharge. Important sources of water are heavy rains, overland water flow towards basin,
seepage from canals and distribution system and tidal flooding. Natural basins without outlet
for water, low permeability of subsurface horizons, internal drainage, low intake rate of
surface soils and obstructions to natural flow of rain water etc. are conditions cause water
logging.
In highly productive areas, canal irrigation is responsible for a rapid rise in water table.
Expansion of canal irrigation is also directly concerned with widespread water-logging and
salinity problems in arid and semiarid areas. Disturbances in the hydrologic cycle due to
inefficient use of surface irrigation water, poor land development, seepage and poor
drainage have resulted in higher water tables.
Most of the canal areas in arid and semiarid regions are rich in soluble salts. In irrigation
these salts are dissolved in soil water and rise to the surface through capillary action. When
the water dries up, the salts are left on the upper surface as a crust or layer. According to
National Commission on Agriculture (1976), about 6 million ha area is under water-logged
condition. Data of World Bank Survey (1995) reveal that India loses 1.2 to 6 million tonnes
of food grains production every year due to water-logging of soil. The water-logging and
salinity cause a loss of Rs. 12 billion to 27 billion annually.
3) Salinity (Saline and alkali soils):
Salinity directly affects the productivity by making the soil unsuitable for crop growth.
Indirectly it lowers productivity through its adverse effects on the availability of nutrients.
The adverse effect of alkalinity on availability of nutrients is due to deflocculating effect of
sodium ions. An area of about 21.7 million hectares of soil is rendered unproductive due to
salinity and water-logging.
The saline degradation is due to natural causes and poor irrigation practices which disturb
the water cycle in areas. Most of the crops in India are affected due to salinity. Productivity
loss of some crops is given in Table 27.5.

45

4) Erosion:
Soil erosion is the major cause of soil degradation. In the soil erosion, uppermost fertile layer
of soil which contains essential nutrients is lost. Thus soil becomes deficient in essential
minerals and this results in productivity loss. Deforestation or destruction of forests
accompanied by reduced frequency of rainfall leads to soil erosion and causes damage to
agriculture property. Deforestation causes fast degradation when the soil is steep sloppy or
easily erodible. Destruction of natural vegetation cover is a major factor responsible for
erosion of soils by water and wind.
According to Global Assessment of Soil Degradation (GLASOD), deforestation is the main
cause of soil erosion by wind in about 98% of the area. Overgrazing, cutting of timber trees,
collection of fuel wood, shifting cultivation and encroachment of forest areas are some of the
important factors responsible for the loss of vegetation cover on the soil which ultimately
causes soil erosion. The latest data provided by Sehgal and Abrol (1994) show that the total
degraded land in India is 187.8 million ha, of which 162.4 million ha is degraded due to soil
erosion alone (Table 27.6).
Table 27.6 presents the area under different types of soil degradation in different years:

5) Biological degradation:
The factors which affect soil micro flora and fauna also reduce the biological or microbial
activity of soil adversely. These factors reduce the yield. It is well known that mono cropping
(growing the same crop on the same land year after year) often leads to increasing attack of
pests and diseases. The fatal nematodes threaten potato cultivation in the Nilgiris and, if not
controlled they may pose threat to potato cultivation in that area. Excess use of pesticide
reduces microbial activity and biomass.
Applications of some pesticide chemicals (e.g., amitrole, atrazine, bromacil, picloram, etc.)
inhibit nitrification. The nodulation and growth of some leguminous crops and nitrogen
fixation are inhibited by different pesticides. Disposal of oil shales, heavy metal
contamination of soil and spillage of crude oils adversely affect soil micro flora which
ultimately affect soil productivity and cause soil degradation.
6) Other Causes of Soil Degradation:
a) Extension of cultivation to marginal land:
Due to tremendous population increase the use of land is increasing day by day. Marginal
lands though sustainable for farming are less fertile and more prone to degradation.
Examples of marginal lands are steep sloppy lands, shallow or sandy soils and the lands in
dry and semi-dry areas.
b) Improper crop rotation:
Due to shortage of land, increase of population and economic pressure, the farmers have
adopted intensive cropping patterns of commercial crops in place of more balanced cereal-
legume rotations. During last two decades the area under food crops decreased and that
under non-food crops increased. Intensive cultivation leads to removal of large quantities of
nutrients from the soil which results to in loss of soil fertility.
c) Fertilizer misuse:
46
Soil fertility is reduced due to prolonged intensive cultivation. The farmers maintain
productivity of soil by applying chemical fertilizers but make less use of organic manures.
Although the yield can be maintained by using fertilizers that provide deficient minerals yet
their use often results in deficiencies of other nutrients.
d) Overgrazing:
In India pasture land area is decreasing day by day due to expansion of agricultural land.
Recent satellite data show that the area under pasture land is severely degraded. This poor
condition of pasture lands is due to excessive grazing. The unchecked and indiscriminate
grazing on forest land also leads to degradation of forest soils. Overgrazing directly leads to
disappearance of vegetation which is one of the important causes of wind and water erosion
in dry lands.
e) Mining:
Mining disturbs the physical, chemical and biological features of the soil. The impact of
mining on soil depends on the physical, chemical properties of the waste generated. The soil
profile is changed; the top soil is turned deep inside the dumps. The erodible material is
almost devoid of organic matter and lacks in mineral plant nutrients. According to an
estimate, about 0.8 million ha soil is degraded due to mining activity.
Impact of Soil Degradation:
The following are the impacts of soil degradation:
1. Degradation leads to reduction in crop yield in the affected lands and a possible decline in
cropping intensity.
2. In extreme cases, soil becomes unfit for cultivation.
3. Silting of drainage, canals, rivers and reservoirs results in increased floods and droughts.
4. In some cases farmers use more fertilizer inputs to compensate reduced soil productivity
while in other cases, they use excess fertilizers.
5. The rate of siltation in many water reservoirs are significantly high. According to Central
Water Commission (1991), nearly 11 per cent of the total capacity of water reservoirs has
been silted.
6. Soil degradation has several adverse impacts on the environment. It affects global climate
through alterations in water cycle and energy balances and disruptions of carbon, nitrogen
and sulphur cycles.

B. Simplification of Ecosystem 47

Ecosystem simplification is the ecological hallmark of humanity and the reason for our
evolutionary success.
Ecological integrity has been defined as “the ability to support and maintain a balanced,
integrated adaptive assemblage of organisms having species composition, diversity, and
functional organization comparable to that of natural habitat of the region” (Karr and
Dudley 1981). By definition, integrity is a comparative term and generally declines with
increasing anthropogenic alterations. Landscapes with their integrity intact should express
all the potential niche diversity associated with a given complexity. Ecological integrity
therefore depends on how well mechanisms controlling complexity–diversity relationships
are operating at appropriate spatial and temporal scales. For this article, we
address ecological integrity as the degree to which niche diversity expected for a given
complexity is actually observed under existing conditions. Integrity is expected to be maximal
in relatively pristine settings and reduced in those where particular human influences have
disrupted how existing complexity is expressed as niche diversity.
The human reduction of complexity and integrity results in ecological simplification. Here,
we define ecological simplification as the reduction in niche diversity due to the loss of
landscape complexity and ecological integrity, generally resulting from human activities.
Simplification can result from either of these processes alone or in combination (figure 1).
Simplification is caused by decreased complexity when structural changes to landscapes
result in loss of niche diversity (figure 1a). In these cases, reduced niche diversity alters local
interactions controlling biodiversity and ecosystem function. Simplification of this type
transforms highly complex landscapes into more homogenous, less complex entities,
reflecting exogenous control (i.e., human influences) over endogenous properties such as
complex behavior. Although this type of simplification is typically associated with loss of
heterogeneity (Tockner et al. 2010), it may occur along any of the three axes of complexity
(Cadenasso et al. 2006). For instance, habitat fragmentation results in reduced connectivity
and has negative consequences for biodiversity, population genetics, and ecological
interactions (e.g., Fahrig 2003). Simplification along the legacy axis is illustrated by
homogenization of historical flow regimes caused by impoundments and its influence on
biodiversity of fluvial ecosystems (e.g., Poff et al. 2007).

48

Figure 1.
Alternatively, human–environment interactions may not reduce the complexity of a landscape
but instead alter how it is translated into niche diversity (figure 1b). These types of human
influences undermine ecological integrity, causing a decline in niche diversity not directly
related to reduced landscape complexity. Chemical pollution is probably the most common
example of this type of simplification, because it reduces diversity, not through loss of
structural variance in the landscape but by causing stress and mortality to species that would
otherwise occupy available niches. For example, the loss of diversity through acidification is
well documented in freshwater environments without accompanying structural loss
(Vinebrooke et al. 2004). Similarly, metals and pesticides residing in sediments of aquatic
systems are notorious for causing diversity loss (Lake et al. 2000). Even elements essential
for growth can prove to impair biodiversity depending on form and concentration. For
instance, nitrogen (N) pollution generates high levels of ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate that
may impair survival, growth, and reproduction in aquatic species, reflecting the direct
toxicity of these inorganic compounds (Camargo and Alonso 2006). Pollution that increases
phosphorus (P) availability may also indirectly promote toxicity and the loss of biodiversity
by enhancing the abundance of toxic cyanobacterial species (Christoffersen 1996). In
addition to changes in the abiotic template, invasive species have the potential to alter
habitat suitability for an array of species, especially in aquatic ecosystems (Sala et al. 2000).
Even though our conceptual model presents complexity and niche diversity as linearly related
(figure 1), the relationship might well be nonlinear in specific cases (Wu and David 2002).
Nonlinear relationships raise concern over the potential to exceed ecological thresholds
(Groffman et al. 2006), such as the establishment of nonnative species. Invasive species can
be both a cause and consequence of simplification (Didham et al. 2005). On one hand, they
may alter complexity via ecosystem engineering and exclude native species (Crooks 2002) or
result in integrity loss via species displacement (Wilson 1992), causing ecological
homogenization (Olden et al. 2004). On the other hand, invasive species may access the
system as a result of simplification. Reductions in niche diversity due to the loss of landscape
complexity enhance the relative contribution of nonnative species to ecosystem form and
function (i.e., effect size; figure 2a). This is particularly true if human-derived structures
provide habitat appropriate for invasive species that then aggressively displace native
species. Under these conditions, habitat restoration may restore complexity but may not
stimulate the expected reduction of invasive effect size. Instead, the effect size may approach
an asymptotic decrease because of the competitive superiority of invasive species not
eliminated by the structural changes bestowed by restoration (figure 2a). Similarly,
simplification via loss of integrity is predicted to promote invasive effect size (figure 2b),
reflecting a reduced contribution from native species with specialized niche tolerance
compared with that of the more generalist invaders (Snyder et al. 2006). Broad niche
tolerance by invasive species is also expected to make effect size relatively immune to the
influences of restored integrity; tolerance by resident invasive species should allow them to
occupy crucial native niches even after appropriate physical and chemical conditions are
restored (figure 2b). Even though invasive species are argued to promote simplification and
influence the efficacy of restoration, there is a general lack of knowledge regarding the
environmental drivers dictating the establishment of many nonnative communities.

Figure 2.
Although the focus of most restoration plans has been the reconstruction of habitat
heterogeneity (Bernhardt et al. 2005), it is likely that this step is necessary but not sufficient
to reestablish natural complexity. In the case of running water ecosystems, Palmer and
colleagues (2010) demonstrated that very few restoration projects targeting increased habitat
heterogeneity, such as channel reconfiguration and in-stream habitat improvement, actually
resulted in biodiversity recovery. They emphasized the need for the targeted amelioration of
multiple stressors at a time. We contend that the relationships among complexity, integrity,
and niche diversity (figure 1) can be used to guide restoration approaches to multiple
stressors and that most simplified ecosystems will require multidimensional restoration of
this type.

C. Eutrophication 49

Eutrophication or more precisely hypertrophication, is the enrichment of a water body with

nutrients, usually with an excess amount of nutrients. This process induces growth of plants
and algae and due to the biomass load, may result in oxygen depletion of the water body. One
example is the "bloom" or great increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a response to
increased levels of nutrients. Eutrophication is almost always induced by the discharge of
phosphate-containing detergents, fertilizers, or sewage, into an aquatic system.
All living things need specific nutrients to survive. Usually, nature does a pretty good job of
providing just the right amount of nutrients, because too many or too few can cause
problems. This is especially true in aquatic ecosystems because they are so dynamic. When
too few nutrients are present, the water is Oligotrophic. It makes sense that when there is not
enough nutrition available for the variety of organisms living in an aquatic environment,
serious problems will arise.
However, problems can also arise when the aquatic system has an overabundance of
nutrients. When this happens we get Eutrophication. A Eutrophic stream, river or lake
occurs when too many nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphorous, are present, usually as a
result of runoff from the surrounding land. Algae, plankton and other microorganisms love
these types of nutrients, and when they are plentiful, these aquatic organisms can take over.
When a lake, river or other aquatic system becomes Eutrophic, it can have serious negative
effects on other organisms like fish, birds and even people. But first, let's look at what causes
Eutrophication.
Cultural Eutrophication
Cultural Eutrophication is the process that speeds up natural Eutrophication because of
human activity. Due to clearing of land and building of towns and cities, land runoff is
accelerated and more nutrients such as phosphates and nitrate are supplied to lakes and
rivers, and then to coastal estuaries and bays. Extra nutrients are also supplied by treatment
plants, golf courses, fertilizers, farms, as well as untreated sewage in many countries.
Lakes and rivers (Eutrophication in a canal)
When algae die, they decompose and the nutrients contained in that organic matter are
converted into inorganic form by microorganisms. This decomposition process consumes
oxygen, which reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen. The depleted oxygen levels in
turn may lead to fish kills and a range of other effects reducing biodiversity. Nutrients may
become concentrated in an anoxic zone and may only be made available again during
autumn turn-over or in conditions of turbulent flow.
Enhanced growth of aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton and algal blooms disrupts normal
functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of problems such as a lack of oxygen needed
for fish and shellfish to survive. The water becomes cloudy, typically coloured a shade of
green, yellow, brown, or red. Eutrophication also decreases the value of rivers, lakes and
aesthetic enjoyment. Health problems can occur where Eutrophic conditions interfere with
drinking water treatment.
Human activities can accelerate the rate at which nutrients enter ecosystems. Runoff
from agriculture and development, pollution from septic systems and sewers, sewage 50
sludge spreading, and other human-related activities increase the flow of both inorganic
nutrients and organic substances into ecosystems. Elevated levels of atmospheric compounds
of nitrogen can increase nitrogen availability. Phosphorus is often regarded as the main
culprit in cases of Eutrophication in lakes subjected to "point source" pollution from sewage
pipes. The concentration of algae and the trophic state of lakes correspond well to
phosphorus levels in water. Studies conducted in the Experimental Lakes Area in Ontario
have shown a relationship between the addition of phosphorus and the rate of
Eutrophication. Humankind has increased the rate of phosphorus cycling on Earth by four
times, mainly due to agricultural fertilizer production and application. Between 1950 and
1995, an estimated 600,000,000 Tonnes of phosphorus was applied to Earth's surface,
primarily on croplands. Policy changes to control point sources of phosphorus have resulted
in rapid control of Eutrophication.
Natural Eutrophication
Although Eutrophication is commonly caused by human activities, it can also be a natural
process, particularly in lakes. Eutrophy occurs in many lakes in temperate grasslands, for
instance. Paleolimnologists now recognise that climate change, geology, and other external
influences are critical in regulating the natural productivity of lakes. Some lakes also
demonstrate the reverse process (meiotrophication), becoming less nutrient rich with time.
The main difference between natural and anthropogenic Eutrophication is that the natural
process is very slow, occurring on geological time scales.
Ocean waters
Eutrophication is a common phenomenon in coastal waters. In contrast to freshwater
systems, nitrogen is more commonly the key limiting nutrient of marine waters;
thus, nitrogen levels have greater importance to understanding Eutrophication problems in
salt water. Estuaries tend to be naturally Eutrophic because land-derived nutrients are
concentrated where run-off enters a confined channel. Upwelling in coastal systems also
promotes increased productivity by conveying deep, nutrient-rich waters to the surface,
where the nutrients can be assimilated by algae.
The World Resources Institute has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones in the world,
concentrated in coastal areas in Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US,
and East Asia, particularly Japan.
In addition to runoff from land, atmospheric fixed nitrogen can enter the open ocean. A study
in 2008 found that this could account for around one third of the ocean's external (non-
recycled) nitrogen supply, and up to 3% of the annual new marine biological production. It
has been suggested that accumulating reactive nitrogen in the environment may prove as
serious as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Causes
Eutrophication is most often the result of human activity. Farms, golf courses, lawns and
other fields tend to be heavily fertilized by people. These fertilizers are the perfect type of
nutrients to feed hungry algae and plankton, and when it rains, these fertilizers run off into
lakes, streams, rivers and oceans. Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are also
a major source of polluting nutrients.
Eutrophication can also come from natural events. If a stream, river or lake floods, it may
wash away any excess nutrients off the land and into the water. However, Eutrophication is
less likely to occur in areas that are not surrounded by fertilized lands.
Effects
Eutrophication can have serious, long-term effects. The most notable effect of Eutrophication
is algal blooms. When a bloom occurs, the stream, river, lake or ocean becomes covered with
algae, which is usually bright green. In addition to looking pretty ugly, it also blocks light
from reaching the water. This prevents the aquatic plants from photosynthesizing, a process
which provides oxygen in the water to animals that need it, like fish and crabs.
Algae growth from Eutrophication
If an algal bloom is so bad that it causes wide-spread death in the water, the organisms that
die will all sink to the bottom and start to decompose. The microbes that break down these
dead organisms use oxygen to do their work. So, in addition to the lack of oxygen from
photosynthesis, there is also now a lack of oxygen from the decomposition of dead organisms.

D. Introduction of Alien species

The introduction of non-native species to an ecosystem is one of the major causes of decreased
biodiversity. Termed alien species, they are also known as exotic, introduced, non-indigenous,
or invasive species. As the names imply, these species do not belong to ecosystems in which
they are either intentionally or unintentionally placed. They tend to disrupt the ecosystem's
balance by multiplying rapidly. These species are often plants, fishes, mollusks, crustaceans,
algae, bacteria or viruses.
51
Many alien species are tranferred into marine ecosystems through the ballast water
transported during commercial shipping operations. Ship ballast water may transport up to
3,000 species around the world every day. Alien species are often introduced into freshwater
ecosystems such as estuaries, rivers, lakes and streams by humans discarding animals or
plants formerly held in captivity. In some cases, species used as bait can invade freshwater
ecosystems. Well-known invasive species include the Northern Snakehead fish, the Zebra
mussel, the Sea Lamprey and the Asiatic Clam, Corbicula fluminea.
Effects on Humans:
The introduction of an alien species is often responsible for an increase in predation and
competition, habitat reduction, a variety of diseases, extinction of native plants or animals and
genetic change in populations. Certain strains of cholera have been transported in ballast
water, ending up in oyster beds and infecting finfish destined for the dinner table.
Alien Species Aboard:
Alien species are often transported to non-native habitats in the ballast of ships. The
organisms are taken in when ships attempt to balance their load by letting water into their
holding tanks. When they reach their destination, the ballast water is released and with it any
organisms picked up earlier. Mollusks and other organisms whose habitat includes marine
substrate also attach to the surfaces of ocean-going vessels at the point of departure and then
fall into the water at the destination.
Unintentional Introductions:
Aquarium plants and animals, such as the invasive algae Caulerpa, as well as ornamental
plants like the purple loosestrife are released innocently into waterways by humans. They
quickly overgrow and eventually choke native plants and even interfere with the water flow of
lakes, rivers, estuaries, and streams. Unwanted exotic fish, such as the red
lionfish, Pteroisvolitans, have invaded the waters of the Southeastern United States. The
introduction of this non-native species may cause problems becaues of its poisonous spines
that divers or swimmers may be unaware of and it may also pose a risk to native species
through predation or competition.
Intentional Introductions:
Alien species like the cane toad have been introduced intentionally to reduce the number of a
native species in the area. Unfortunately, this plan can backfire when the animal multiples
quickly and takes over the habitat and beyond. In Hawaii, for example, the mongoose has
eliminated many species of birds but it was originally introduced to keep the rat population
down. The kudzu plant that blankets much of the southern United States was the result of a
program sponsored by the government to control erosion.
Development:
New seaways or cross-basin connections provide a way for alien species to cross over into
novel territories. The Great Lakes became significantly invaded by alien species following the
creation of the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1959.
Wetlands filled with foreign soil are invaded by seeds and roots of plants from other
ecosystems. 52
The Food Industry:
Seafood like shrimp, oysters, and Atlantic salmon is farmed in non-native areas like the Pacific
Northwest. When juveniles escape into waterways, the potential for spread of disease and
harm to the ecosystem is created.
Animals like the northern snakehead fish and Asian swamp eel were introduced as a potential
source of food, but they soon overwhelmed the ecosystem forcing local communities, scientists,
and policy makers to find ways to control them.
Diseases, such as whirling disease, which infects rainbow trout, can infect native species when
introduced by alien species, in this case the European brown trout imported from Europe.
Seafood is sometime packed in seaweed, which houses alien species that are subsequently
introduced to new ecosystems.
The Fishing Industry:
Recreational fisherman have introduced alien species to their favorite fishing hole so that
there are an abundance of fish available to catch.
Fish bait, such as crayfish, minnows, and earthworms are often thrown overboard, introducing
them to new ecosystems that cannot support them. Earthworms have depleted the topsoil in
some northern U.S. forests reducing the organic matter available for native species.
Waste:
Sewage and wastewater contain seeds and roots of invasive species that are discharged into
waterways and transported by water flow to the ocean.
Voracious Invaders:
Alien species are often able to survive better than native species, which results in increased
competition among native species. Alien plants take over the areas with abundant sunlight and
use up nutrients essential for other plants. They can also deplete oxygen in the water causing a
hypoxic environment that suffocates other marine life.
Research and Prevention:
Research known as vector ecology is currently taking place to determine exactly how alien
species are introduced. Scientific studies in the population ecology of alien species is helping
to understand why some species thrive in non-native environments and what impacts they're
having on native species. Research in biogeography provides important data about global
distribution patterns of alien species and databases with organized information make it
possible for scientists to compile and analyze the data to help shape future practices designed
to avoid introduction of alien species.

‫ ٭‬Question No - 05 ‫٭‬
53
Ozone Depletion?

To understand ozone layer, it would be helpful to know the different layers of the atmosphere.
The earth’s atmosphere is composed of many layers, each playing a significant role. The first
layer stretching approximately 10 kilometers upwards from the earth’s surface is known as
the troposphere. A lot of human activities such as gas balloons, mountain climbing, and small
aircraft flights take place within this region.
The stratosphere is the next layer above the troposphere stretching approximately 15 to 60
kilometers. The ozone layer sits in the lower region of the stratosphere from about 20-30
kilometers above the surface of the earth. The thickness of the ozone layer is about 3 to 5 mm,
but it pretty much fluctuates depending on the season and geography.
Ozone layer is a deep layer in earth’s atmosphere that contain ozone which is a naturally
occurring molecule containing three oxygen atoms. These ozone molecules form a gaseous
layer in the Earth’s upper atmosphere called stratosphere. This lower region of stratosphere
containing relatively higher concentration of ozone is called Ozonosphere. The Ozonosphere
is found 15-35 km (9 to 22 miles) above the surface of the earth.
The concentration of ozone in the ozone layer is usually under 10 parts per million while the
average concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is about 0.3 parts per million. The
thickness of the ozone layer differs as per season and geography. The highest concentrations
of ozone occur at altitudes from 26 to 28 km (16 to 17 miles) in the tropics and from 12 to 20
km (7 to 12 miles) towards the poles.
The ozone layer forms a thick layer in stratosphere, encircling the earth that has large
amount of ozone in it. The ozone layer protects life on earth from strong ultraviolet radiation
that comes from the sun. Ultraviolet rays are harmful rays that can drive up the risk of deadly
disorders like skin cancer, cataracts and damage the immune system. Ultraviolet rays are
also capable of destroying single cell organism, terrestrial plant life, and aquatic ecosystems.
The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri
Buisson. The ozone layer has the capability to absorb almost 97-99% of the harmful
ultraviolet radiations that sun emit and which can produce long term devastating effects on
humans beings as well as plants and animals.
Composition of the Ozone Layer
It comes as a surprise that the same UV rays form the bulk of ozone layer. Ozone is an
extraordinary kind of oxygen composed of 3 oxygen atoms instead of the normal 2 oxygen
atoms. Ozone layer normally develops when a few kinds of electrical discharge or radiation
splits the 2 atoms in an oxygen(O2) molecule, which then independently reunite with other
types of molecules to form ozone. The ozone layer has been shielding life on planet earth for
billions of years, but it’s now being worn out by human activities.
People began to value the importance of the ozone layer when scientists released a research
finding suggesting that certain human-made chemicals known as chlorofluorocarbons
managed to reach the stratosphere and depleted the ozone via a profound series of chemical
reactions. The results of this research study prompted the signing of a global treaty known as
the Montreal Protocol in 1973. This treaty helped in the reduction of the production of these
harmful human-made chemicals.
These targeted efforts have seen the ozone layer recovering over the past years. The thickness
of the ozone layer varies immensely on any day and location. Due to relentless vertical
atmospheric air circulation in both the stratosphere and troposphere, the amount of ozone
layer shielding humans from strong UV rays can be lesser or greater. In addition, those
residing in higher elevations are at risk of UV radiation than those at lower elevations.
The Stratospheric ozone plays a big role in protecting humans from the harshness of the sun.
However, there is also a kind of ozone developed just above the ground as a result of sun rays
coming into contact with pollution in the atmosphere, which is hazardous to human health. In
some individuals, it can lead to complications in breathing and often takes place during
summer when pollution is rampant in cities where the air is static.
Why Ozone Layer is Necessary?
An essential property of ozone molecule is its ability to block solar radiations of wavelengths
less than 290 nanometers from reaching Earth’s surface. In this process, it also absorbs
ultraviolet radiations that are dangerous for most living beings. UV radiation could injure or
kill life on Earth. Though the absorption of UV radiations warms the stratosphere but it is
important for life to flourish on planet Earth. Research scientists have anticipated disruption
of susceptible terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems due to depletion of ozone layer.
Ultraviolet radiation could destroy the organic matter. Plants and plankton cannot thrive,
both acts as food for land and sea animals, respectively. For humans, excessive exposure to
ultraviolet radiation leads to higher risks of cancer (especially skin cancer) and cataracts. It
is calculated that every 1 percent decrease in ozone layer results in a 2-5 percent increase in
the occurrence of skin cancer. Other ill-effects of the reduction of protective ozone layer
include – increase in the incidence of cataracts, sunburns and suppression of the immune
system.
54
 Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
Credible scientific studies have substantiated that the cause of ozone layer depletion is
human activity, specifically, human-made chemicals that contain chlorine or bromine. These
chemicals are widely known as ODS, an acronym for Ozone-Depleting Substances. The
scientists have observed reduction in stratospheric ozone since early 1970’s. It is found to be
more prominent in Polar Regions.
Ozone-Depleting Substances have been proven to be eco-friendly, very stable and non-toxic
in the atmosphere below. This is why they have gained popularity over the years. However,
their stability comes at a price; they are able to float and remain static high up in the
stratosphere. When up there, ODS are comfortably broken down by the strong UV light and
the resultant chemical is chlorine and bromine. Chlorine and bromine are known to deplete
the ozone layer at supersonic speeds. They do this by simply stripping off an atom from the
ozone molecule. One chlorine molecule has the capability to break down thousands of ozone
molecules.
Ozone-depleting substances have stayed and will continue to stay in the atmosphere for many
years. This, essentially, implies that a lot of the ozone-depleting substances human have
allowed to go into the atmosphere for the previous 90 years are still on their journey to the
atmosphere, which is why they will contribute to ozone depletion.
The chief ozone-depleting substances include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon
tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and methyl chloroform. Halons,
sometimes known as brominated fluorocarbons, also contribute mightily to ozone depletion.
However, their application is greatly restricted since they are utilized in specific fire
extinguishers. The downside to halons is they are so potent that they are able to deplete the
ozone layer 10 times more than ozone-depleting substances.
Scientists in this age are working around the clock to develop Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to
take the place of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) for
use in vehicle air conditioning. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons are powerful greenhouse gases,
but they are not able to deplete ozone. Chlorofluorocarbons, on the other hand, significantly
contribute to climate change, which means Hydrofluorocarbons continue to be the better
alternative until safer alternatives are available.
There are two regions in which the ozone layer has depleted.
 In the mid-latitude, for example, over Australia, ozone layer is thinned. This has led to an
increase in the UV radiation reaching the earth. It is estimated that about 5-9% thickness
of the ozone layer has decreased, increasing the risk of humans to over-exposure to UV
radiation owing to outdoor lifestyle.
 In atmospheric regions over Antarctica, ozone layer is significantly thinned, especially in
spring season. This has led to the formation of what is called ‘ozone hole’. Ozone holes
refer to the regions of severely reduced ozone layers. Usually ozone holes form over the
Poles during the onset of spring seasons. One of the largest such hole appears annually
over Antarctica between September and November.
Natural causes of depletion of ozone layer: Ozone layer has been found to be affected by
55
certain natural phenomena such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But this has been
found to cause not more than 1-2% depletion of the ozone layer and the effects are also
thought to be only temporary. It is also believed that the major volcanic eruptions (mainly El
Chichon in 1983 and and Mt. Pinatubo in 1991) has also contributed towards ozone
depletion.
Man-made causes of depletion of ozone layer: The main cause for the depletion of ozone is
determined as excessive release of chlorine and bromine from man-made compounds such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halons, CH3CCl3 (Methyl
chloroform), CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride), HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons),
hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl bromide are found to have direct impact on the
depletion of the ozone layer. These are categorized as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
The problem with the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) is that they are not washed back in
the form of rain on the earth and in-fact remain in the atmosphere for quite a long time. With
so much stability, they are transported into the stratosphere. The emission of ODS account
for roughly 90% of total depletion of ozone layer in stratosphere. These gases are carried to
the stratosphere layer of atmosphere where ultraviolet radiations from the sun break them to
release chlorine (from CFCs) and bromine (from methyl bromide and halons).
The chlorine and bromine free radicals react with ozone molecule and destroy their
molecular structure, thus depleting the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break more than
1, 00,000 molecules of ozone. Bromine atom is believed to be 40 times more destructive than
chlorine molecules.
Main Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
1) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
It’s billed as the most extensively utilized ozone-depleting substance because it attributes to
more than 80% of overall ozone depletion. It was utilized as a coolant in home appliances
like freezers, refrigerators and air conditioners in both buildings and cars that were
manufactured prior to 1995. This substance is usually contained in dry cleaning agents,
hospital sterilants, and industrial solvents. The substance is also utilized in foam products
like mattresses and cushions and home insulation.
2) Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Hydrofluorocarbons have over the years served in place of Chlorofluorocarbons. They are
not as harmful as CFCs to ozone layer.
3) Halons
It’s especially used in selected fire extinguishers in scenarios where the equipment or
material could be devastated by water or extinguisher chemicals.
4) Carbon Tetrachloride
Also used in selected fire extinguishers and solvents.
5) Methyl Chloroform
Commonly utilized in industries for cold cleaning, vapor degreasing, chemical processing,
adhesives and some aerosols.
Serious Effects of Ozone Depletion
1. Damage to human health
If the ozone layer is depleted, it means humans will be overly exposed to strong UV light.
Overexposure to strong UV light causes skin cancer, cataracts, sunburns, weakening of
immune system and quick aging.
2. Devastation to environment
Many crops species are vulnerable to strong UV light and overexposure may well lead to
minimal growth, photosynthesis and flowering. Some of the crop species vulnerable to UV
light include barley, wheat, corn, oats, rice, broccoli, tomatoes, cauliflower just to name a
few. Forests equally bear the brunt of ozone depletion.
3. Threat to marine life 56
Certain marine life, especially planktons, is greatly impacted by exposure to strong
ultraviolet rays. In the aquatic food chain, planktons appear high up. If planktons decrease in
number due to ozone layer destruction, the marine food chain would be disrupted in many
ways. Also, overexposure of sun rays could reduce the fortunes of fishers. On top of that,
certain species of marine life have been greatly affected by overexposure to ultraviolet
radiation at their early stage.
4. Effect on animals
In domesticated animals, too much Ultraviolet radiation could also lead to skin and eye
cancer.
5. Impacts certain materials
Materials like plastics, wood, fabrics, rubber are massively degraded by too much ultraviolet
radiation
(Solutions to Ozone Depletion)

1. Desist from using pesticides

Pesticides are great chemicals to rid your farm of pests and weeds, but they contribute
enormously to ozone layer depletion. The surefire solution to get rid of pests and weeds is to
apply natural methods. Just weed your farm manually and use alternative eco-
friendly chemicals to alleviate pests.
2. Discourage driving of private vehicles
The easiest technique to minimize ozone depletion is to limit the number of vehicles on the
road. These vehicles emit a lot of greenhouse gases that eventually form smog, a catalyst in
the depletion of ozone layer.
3. Utilize environmentally friendly cleaning products
Most household cleaning products are loaded with harsh chemicals that find way to the
atmosphere, eventually contributing to degradation of the ozone layer. Use natural
and environmentally friendly cleaning products to arrest this situation.
4. Prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide
The Montreal Protocol formed in 1989 helped a lot in the limitation of Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs). However, the protocol never covered nitrous oxide, which is a known harmful
chemical that can destroy the ozone layer. Nitrous oxide is still in use today. Governments
must take action now and outlaw nitrous oxide use to reduce the rate of ozone depletion.

Why is the hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica? Why does the ozone not diffuse into an
even layer around the Earth?
Ozone depletion is due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the stratosphere above the
Antarctica and to some degree the Arctic. Under the right conditions, CFCs can undergo a
reaction that releases chlorine ions, which break up ozone molecules. For a couple of
reasons, this is most dramatically observed above Antarctica:
1. Meteorologically, the atmosphere above Antarctica is largely isolated from the rest of the
world, a phenomenon called the 'polar vortex.' It’s essentially a persistent, giant cyclone
over the Antarctic continent. Therefore, the loss of ozone there isn't replaced quickly with
influx from the surrounding atmosphere.
2. The reaction that breaks CFCs up to release chlorine ions occurs under very, very cold
conditions and when high energy (ultraviolet) photons are present. During the winter in
the Antarctica, the stratosphere becomes cold enough for the reaction to occur and in the
early spring when the stratosphere starts to receive sunlight again, UV light causes the
reaction.
Another phenomenon of the Antarctica stratosphere, and sometimes the Arctic
stratosphere, is that it becomes cold enough for ice to crystallize out (approximately -80
degrees), creating polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs). Reactions on these ice crystals speed
up the chlorine ion production which
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 ‫٭‬ Question No - 06 ‫٭‬

Air and Water Pollution?

AIR POLLUTION
Pollution is now a common place term, that our ears are attuned to. We hear about the
various forms of pollution and read about it through the mass media. Air pollution is one
such form that refers to the contamination of the air, irrespective of indoors or outside. A
physical, biological or chemical alteration to the air in the atmosphere can be termed as
pollution. It occurs when any harmful gases, dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere and
makes it difficult for plants, animals and humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.
Air pollution can further be classified into two sections- Visible air pollution and invisible air
pollution. Another way of looking at Air pollution could be any substance that holds the
potential to hinder the atmosphere or the well being of the living beings surviving in it. The
sustainment of all things living is due to a combination of gases that collectively form the
atmosphere; the imbalance caused by the increase or decrease of the percentage of these
gases can be harmful for survival.
The Ozone layer considered crucial for the existence of the ecosystems on the planet is
depleting due to increased pollution. Global warming, a direct result of the increased
imbalance of gases in the atmosphere has come to be known as the biggest threat and
challenge that the contemporary world has to overcome in a bid for survival.

Types of Pollutants
In order to understand the causes of Air pollution, several divisions can be made. Primarily
air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources. The pollutants that
are a direct result of the process can be called primary pollutants. A classic example of a
primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide emitted from factories
Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and reactions of
primary pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primary pollutants is known
to be as secondary pollutant.
Causes of Air Pollution
1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like
coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles is one the major cause of air pollution.
Pollution emitting from vehicles including trucks, jeeps, cars, trains, airplanes cause
immense amount of pollution. We rely on them to fulfill our daily basic needs of 58
transportation. But, there overuse is killing our environment as dangerous gases are
polluting the environment. Carbon Monooxide caused by improper or incomplete combustion
and generally emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides,
that is produced from both natural and man made processes.
2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture related
activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides,
pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities has grown quite a lot. They emit harmful
chemicals into the air and can also cause water pollution.
3. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release large amount of
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air thereby
depleting the quality of air. Manufacturing industries can be found at every corner of the
earth and there is no area that has not been affected by it. Petroleum refineries also release
hydrocarbons and various other chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution.
4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted
using large equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the air
causing massive air pollution. This is one of the reason which is responsible for the
deteriorating health conditions of workers and nearby residents.
5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic chemicals
in the air and cause air pollution. Have you ever noticed that once you paint walls of your
house, it creates some sort of smell which makes it literally impossible for you to breathe.
Suspended particulate matter popular by its acronym SPM, is another cause of pollution.
Referring to the particles afloat in the air, SPM is usually caused by dust, combustion etc.

Effects of Air Pollution

1. Respiratory and heart problems: The effects of Air pollution are alarming. They are
known to create several respiratory and heart conditions along with Cancer, among other
threats to the body. Several millions are known to have died due to direct or indirect effects
of Air pollution. Children in areas exposed to air pollutants are said to commonly suffer from
pneumonia and asthma.
2. Global warming: Another direct effect is the immediate alterations that the world is
witnessing due to Global warming. With increased temperatures world wide, increase in sea
levels and melting of ice from colder regions and icebergs, displacement and loss of habitat
have already signaled an impending disaster if actions for preservation and normalization
aren’t undertaken soon.
3. Acid Rain: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into the
atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water droplets combines
with these air pollutants, becomes acidic and then falls on the ground in the form of acid
rain. Acid rain can cause great damage to human, animals and crops.
4. Eutrophication: Eutrophication is a condition where high amount of nitrogen present in
some pollutants gets developed on sea’s surface and turns itself into algae and and adversely
affect fish, plants and animal species. The green colored algae that is present on lakes and
ponds is due to presence of this chemical only.
5. Effect on Wildlife: Just like humans, animals also face some devastating affects of air
pollution. Toxic chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to move to new place
and change their habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of the water and can
also affect sea animals. 59
6. Depletion of Ozone layer: Ozone exists in earth’s stratosphere and is responsible for
protecting humans from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Earth’s ozone layer is depleting due
to the presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. As
ozone layer will go thin, it will emit harmful rays back on earth and can cause skin and eye
related problems. UV rays also have the capability to affect crops.
When you try to study the sources of Air pollution, you enlist a series of activities and
interactions that create these pollutants. There are two types of sources that we will take a
look at: Natural sources and Man-made sources.
Natural sources of pollution include dust carried by the wind from locations with very little
or no green cover, gases released from the body processes of living beings (Carbon dioxide
from humans during respiration, Methane from cattle during digestion, Oxygen from plants
during Photosynthesis). Smoke from the combustion of various inflammable objects, volcanic
eruptions etc along with the emission of polluted gases also make it to the list of Natural
sources of Pollution.
While looking at the man-made contributions towards air pollution, smoke again features as
a prominent component. The smoke emitted from various forms of combustion like in bio
mass, factories, vehicles, furnaces etc. Waste used to create landfills generate methane, that
is harmful in several ways. The reactions of certain gases and chemicals also form harmful
fumes that can be dangerous to the well being of living creatures.

Solutions for Air Pollution

1. Use public mode of transportation: Encourage people to use more and more public modes
of transportation to reduce pollution. Also, try to make use of car pooling. If you and your
colleagues come from the same locality and have same timings you can explore this option to
save energy and money.
2. Conserve energy: Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. Large amount of
fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. You can save the environment from degradation
by reducing the amount of fossil fuels to be burned.
3. Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: Do not throw away items that are
of no use to you. In-fact reuse them for some other purpose. For e.g. you can use old jars to
store cereals or pulses.
4. Emphasis on clean energy resources: Clean energy technologies
like solar, wind and geothermal are on high these days. Governments of various countries
have been providing grants to consumers who are interested in installing solar panels for
their home. This will go a long way to curb air pollution.
5. Use energy efficient devices: CFL lights consume less electricity as against their
counterparts. They live longer, consume less electricity, lower electricity bills and also help
you to reduce pollution by consuming less energy.
Several attempts are being made world wide on a personal, industrial and governmental
levels to curb the intensity at which Air Pollution is rising and regain a balance as far as the
proportions of the foundation gases are concerned. This is a direct attempt at slacking Global
warming. We are seeing a series of innovations and experiments aimed at alternate and
unconventional options to reduce pollutants. Air Pollution is one of the larger mirrors of
man’s follies, and a challenge we need to overcome to see a tomorrow.
WATER POLLUTION 60
Water they say is life, and indeed they were right. With about 70% of the earth’s cover being
water, it undeniably becomes one of our greatest resources. As young students, we learned
about the various ways to conserve water; coming to think of it, water is used in almost every
important human chores and processes. It is an important element in both domestic as well as
industrial purposes. However a closer inspection of our water resources today, give us a rude
shock.
Infested with waste ranging from floating plastic bags to chemical waste, our water bodies
have turned into a pool of poison. The contamination of water bodies in simplest words
means water pollution. Thereby the abuse of lakes, ponds, oceans, rivers, reservoirs etc is
water pollution. Pollution of water occurs when substances that will modify the water in
negative fashion are discharged in it. This discharge of pollutants can be direct as well as
indirect.
Water pollution is an appalling problem, powerful enough to lead the world on a path of
destruction. Water is an easy solvent, enabling most pollutants to dissolve in it easily and
contaminate it. The most basic effect of water pollution is directly suffered by the organisms
and vegetation that survive in water, including amphibians. On a human level, several people
die each day due to consumption of polluted and infected water.
As per the Economist report (dated 2008) each day over 1000 children die of diarrheal
sickness in India and the numbers have only increased alarming in the last five years. Water
is polluted by both natural as well as man-made activities. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
Tsunamis etc are known to alter water and contaminate it, also affecting ecosystems that
survive under water.
Sources of Water Pollution
There are various classifications of water pollution. The two chief sources of water pollution
can be seen as Point and Non Point.
Point refer to the pollutants that belong to a single source. An example of this would be
emissions from factories into the water.
Non Point on the other hand means pollutants emitted from multiple
sources. Contaminated water after rains that has traveled through several regions may also
be considered as a Non point source of pollution.
Causes of Water Pollution
Let us now study the causes of water pollution.
1. Industrial waste: Industries produce huge amount of waste which contains toxic chemicals
and pollutants which can cause air pollution and damage to us and our environment. They
contain pollutants such as lead, mercury, sulphur, asbestos, nitrates and many other harmful
chemicals. Many industries do not have proper waste management system and drain the
waste in the fresh water which goes into rivers, canals and later in to sea. The toxic
chemicals have the capability to change the color of water, increase the amount of minerals,
also known as Eutrophication, change the temperature of water and pose serious hazard to
water organisms.
2. Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by each household
is chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage water carries
harmful bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems. Pathogens are
known as a common water pollutant; The sewers of cities house several pathogens and
thereby diseases. Microorganisms in water are known to be causes of some very deadly
diseases and become the breeding grounds for other creatures that act like carriers. These
carriers inflict these diseases via various forms of contact onto an individual. A very common
example of this process would be Malaria.
3. Mining activities: Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and other
minerals from underground. These elements when extracted in the raw form contains harmful
chemicals and can increase the amount of toxic elements when mixed up with water which
may result in health problems. Mining activities emit several metal waste and sulphides from
the rocks and is harmful for the water.
4. Marine dumping: The garbage produce by each household in the form of paper,
aluminum, rubber, glass, plastic, food if collected and deposited into the sea in some
countries. These items take from 2 weeks to 200 years to decompose. When such items enter
the sea, they not only cause water pollution but also harm animals in the sea.
5. Accidental Oil leakage: Oil spill pose a huge concern as large amount of oil enters into
the sea and does not dissolve with water; there by opens problem for local marine
wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters. For e.g.: a ship carrying large quantity of oil may
spill oil if met with an accident and can cause varying damage to species in the ocean
depending on the quantity of oil spill, size of ocean, toxicity of pollutant. 61
6. Burning of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels like coal and oil when burnt produce substantial
amount of ash in the atmosphere. The particles which contain toxic chemicals when mixed
with water vapor result in acid rain. Also, carbon dioxide is released from burning of fssil
fuels which result in global warming.
7. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by
farmers to protect crops from insects and bacterias. They are useful for the plants growth.
However, when these chemicals are mixed up with water produce harmful for plants and
animals. Also, when it rains, the chemicals mixes up with rainwater and flow down into rivers
and canals which pose serious damages for aquatic animals.
8. Leakage from sewer lines: A small leakage from the sewer lines can contaminate the
underground water and make it unfit for the people to drink. Also, when not repaired on time,
the leaking water can come on to the surface and become a breeding ground for insects and
mosquitoes.
9. Global warming: An increase in earth’s temperature due to greenhouse effect results
in global warming. It increases the water temperature and result in death of aquatic animals
and marine species which later results in water pollution.
10. Radioactive waste: Nuclear energy is produced using nuclear fission or fusion. The
element that is used in production of nuclear energy is Uranium which is highly toxic
chemical. The nuclear waste that is produced by radioactive material needs to be disposed off
to prevent any nuclear accident. Nuclear waste can have serious environmental hazards if
not disposed off properly. Few major accidents have already taken place in Russia and
Japan.
11. Urban development: As population has grown, so has the demand for housing, food and
cloth. As more cities and towns are developed, they have resulted in increase use of fertilizers
to produce more food, soil erosion due to deforestation, increase in construction activities,
inadequate sewer collection and treatment, landfills as more garbage is produced, increase
in chemicals from industries to produce more materials.
12. Leakage from the landfills: Landfills are nothing but huge pile of garbage that produces
awful smell and can be seen across the city. When it rains, the landfills may leak and the
leaking landfills can pollute the underground water with large variety of contaminants.
13. Animal waste: The waste produce produce by animals is washed away into the rivers
when it rains. It gets mixed up with other harmful chemicals and causes various water borne
diseases like cholera, diarrhea, jaundice, dysentery and typhoid.
14. Underground storage leakage: Transportation of coal and other petroleum products
through underground pipes is well known. Accidentals leakage may happen anytime and may
cause damage to environment and result in soil erosion.

Water pollutants also include both organic and inorganic factors. Organic factors include
volatile organic compounds, fuels, waste from trees, plants etc. Inorganic factors include
ammonia, chemical waste from factories, discarded cosmetics etc. The water that travels via
fields is usually contaminated with all forms of waste inclusive of fertilizers that it swept
along the way. This infected water makes its way to our water bodies and sometimes to the
seas endangering the flora, fauna and humans that use it along its path.
The current scenario has led to a consciousness about water preservation and efforts are
being made on several levels to redeem our water resources. Industries and factory set-up’s
are restricted from contaminating the water bodies and are advised to treat their
contaminated waste through filtration methods. People are investing in rain water harvesting
projects to collect rainwater and preserve it in wells below ground level.
Water Pollution is common, and is an area of high alert. Water needs to be preserved and
respected today, for us to live a tomorrow.

‫جاوید احمد متو (الرم گنجی پورہ ) اننت ناگ‬ 62

Javed Ahmed Mattoo (9622822905/ 7006824108)

javaidahmad1001@gmail.com
 Short Answer Type Questions
1. Biosphere?
The biosphere, (from Greek bios = life, Sphaira, sphere) is the layer of the planet Earth
where life exists. The parts of the land, sea, and atmosphere in which organisms are able
to live. The biosphere is an irregularly shaped, relatively thin zone in which life is
concentrated on or near the Earth's surface and throughout its waters. All the Earth's
ecosystems considered as a single, self-sustaining unit.

2. Biome?
Biome is a large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major
habitat, e.g. forest or tundra. A large community of plants and animals that occupies a
distinct region. Terrestrial biomes, typically defined by their climate and dominant
vegetation, include grassland, tundra, desert, tropical rainforest, and deciduous and
coniferous forests.

3. Enhanced Greenhouse effect?

The enhanced greenhouse effect, sometimes referred to as climate change or global
warming, is the impact on the climate from the additional heat retained due to the
increased amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that humans have
released into the earths atmosphere since the industrial revolution.
The disruption to Earth’s climate equilibrium caused by the increased concentrations of
greenhouse gases has led to an increase in the global average surface temperatures. This
process is called the enhanced greenhouse effect.

4. Food Web?
Food web is a network of food chains or feeding relationships by which energy and
nutrients are passed on from one species of living organisms to another.
5. Pyramid of biomass
The Pyramid of Biomass is a graphical representation that depicts the extent of biomass
per unit area within different trophic levels in an ecological system. The bottom level of the
representation is usually occupied by the producers whereas the carnivals are shown in the
top levels.
63
6. Montreal Protocol?
The Montreal Protocol, finalized in 1987, is a global agreement to protect the
stratospheric ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-
depleting substances (ODS).
7. Ozone Toxicity?
Ozone is a colorless toxic gas formed from oxygen by an electrical discharge. ... It also has
a very strong smell, which is how it got its name; a German chemist took the name from
the Greek Ozon, meaning "to smell."

8. Fundamental Niche?
A niche includes more than what an organism eats or where it lives. Environmental
factors, such as climate, soil chemistry, and elevation, also play a role in defining a niche.
... A fundamental niche is the term for what an organism's niche would be in the
absence of competition from other species. A fundamental niche is the full range of
environmental conditions that a viable population of species can occupy and use, without
any other limiting factors present which could constrain the population.
 9. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)?
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) refers to the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) that
aerobic organisms need in order to break down organic material in water over time.
Likewise, BOD can also be used to describe the chemical procedure used for determining
the amount of dissolved oxygen that said aerobic biological organisms need in their water
supply.
10. Acidic Rain?
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic,meaning that
it has elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants,
aquatic animals and infrastructure.
Precipitation, as rain, snow, or sleet, containing relatively high concentrations of acid-
forming chemicals, as the pollutants from coal smoke, chemical manufacturing, and
smelting, that have been released into the atmosphere and combined with water vapour
harmful to the environment.
11. Green Economy?
The green economy is defined as an economy that aims at reducing environmental risks
and ecological scarcities, and that aims for sustainable development without degrading the
environment. The green economy is defined as an economy that aims at reducing
environmental risks and ecological scarcities, and that aims for sustainable development
without degrading the environment. It is closely related with ecological economics, but has
a more politically applied focus.

12. Bio geochemical cycle?

In Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or substance turnover is a pathway by which a
chemical substance moves through both the biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere) components of Earth.

13. Ecological efficiency?

Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one
trophic level to the next. It is determined by a combination of efficiencies relating to
organismic resource acquisition and assimilation in an ecosystem. Primary production
occurs in autotrophic organisms of an ecosystem.
Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one
trophic level to the next. It is determined by a combination of efficiencies relating to
organismic resource acquisition and assimilation in an ecosystem.
64
14. Define Ecological Adaptation?
Adaptations help Plants & Animals survive (live and grow) in different areas. An
adaptation is a characteristic of an organism that improves its chances of surviving and/or
reproducing. Organisms are generally well adapted to the Abiotic and Biotic conditions of
the environment in which they live. An organism’s adaptations are a result of the genes the
organism inherits from its parents. The proportion of well-adapted organisms in a
population can increase over the generations by the process of evolution by natural
selection.
Animals can live in many different places in the world because they have special adaptations
to the area they live in. An adaptation is a way an animal's body helps it survive, or live, in
its environment. Camels have learned to adapt (or change) so that they can survive

‫جاوید احمد متو (الرم گنجی پورہ ) اننت ناگ‬