FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPUTER SCIENCES

What is computer?
The word “COMPUTER” comes from the word “COMPUTE” which
means to calculate. So a computer is normally considered to be
calculating device that can perform operations at great speed. In fact,
the original objective for inventing the computer was to create a fast
calculating is non-mathematical nature.
Definition of computer
1- “Computer is an electronic device which can take input process on it
then give output at screen”
2- “A computer is a device capable of performing computations and
making logical decisions at speeds millions, and even billions, of times
faster than human being can”
3- “Computer is an electronic device which take raw facts process on it
and give result of these raw facts after processing”

Computer

Hardware Software

Characteristics of Computers
There are different characteristics of computer
1. Speed
2. Accuracy
3. Diligence
4. Versatility
5. Power of Remembering
6. No Intelligence
7. No Feeling
Let’s see the detail of these characteristics.
1- Speed
A computer is a very fact device. It can perform in a
few seconds the amount of work that a human being
can do in a compute year—if he worked day and night
and did nothing else. To put it in a different manner, a
computer does in one minute what would take a man
his entire life.
2- Accuracy
The accuracy of a computer is consistently high and
the degree of an accuracy of a particular computer
depends upon its design. But for a particular
computer, each and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy.
Errors can occur in a computer, but these are mainly
due to human rather than technological weaknesses.
3- Diligence
Unlike the human being, a computer is free from
tiredness lack of concentration, etc. and hence can
work for hours together without creating any error and
without complaining.
4-Versatility
Versatility is one most wonderful thing about the
computer. One moment, it preparing the results of
particular examination, the next moment it is busy
preparing electricity bills, and in between it may be
helping an office secretary to find an important letters
in seconds.
5- Power of Remembering
As a human gain new knowledge. The brain sects
what feels to be important and worth retaining in the
memory, and sends unimportant, this not the case. A
computer can storage and recall any amount of
information because of its secondary storage
capability. Even piece of information can be retained
 as log desired by the user and can be recalled as and
when required even after several years.
6- No Intelligence
A computer is not a magical device. It can only
perform takes that a human being can. The difference
is that it performs these takes with unthinkable speed
and accuracy. It possess no intelligence of its own it
has no intelligence, at least till today; it has to be told
what to do in which order.
7- No Feeling
Computers are without any emotions. They have no
feeling because they are machines.

Types of computer
There are three types of computer

1. Digital Computer
2. Analog Computer
3. Hybrid Computer

1. Digital Computer

Computer, which consists of only electrical circuits, PCBs

(Printed Circuit Boards), ICs (Integrated Circuit) are called
Digital Computers. These computers are very fast in
working and consume very little energy; Examples of such
computers are Calculators and video games these
computers are mainly of the following tow types.

1. General Purpose Computers

2. Special Purposes Computers
1. General Purpose Computers
All those computers which can perform a variety of
different functions, for example, our today’s PCs are
general purpose computers digital computer which can
perform almost any task from word processing database
monument spread sheets and all sort or imaginable task.
2. Special Purposes Computers
These computers are which are designed to do only one
particular task. These computers cannot do any thing except
what they are made for, example the digital electrical
watches can be used for time keeping.
2. Analog Computers

The computers, which consist of mechanical rather then

electrical parts, are call analog computers for example
analog watches speed meters of cars and motorcycle etc.
3. Hybrid Computers

These are special purpose computers that are a mixture of

both Analog and Digital Computers; at certain these
computers are much better than Analog and Hybrid
Computer.

Classification of Computers:
These are classified into following types.

1. Mainframe Computer
2. Mini Frame Computer
3. Micro Computer
4. Super Computer
5. Laptop Computer
1.Mainframe Computers
Very large and expensive computer are called
mainframe computers. These are capable of
processing data at very high speed usually measured
in MIPS (Million Instructions per Second) and have
access to billions of Characters of data. The price of
these large systems can very from several hundred
thousand to many millions of dollars. Their principle
use of these systems is processing vast amount of data
quickly, so some customers are big Organization,
Bands, and Airlines.
2.Mini Frame Computer
These computers are same as mainframes, but smaller
in size having less cost less speed and less capacity
than mainframes. These computer introduced by DEC
(Digital Electronics Corporation) in mid 1960. These
have less number of users comparatively small
Organizations and Companies install it.
3.Micro Computers
Microcomputers also known as Personal Computer
(PC) or single user computer or desktop computer.
These are most common type of computes, also easily
affordable for a user. IBM (International Business
Machine) made the first microcomputer in 1980.
These are having a limited processing speed and
storage capacity. Around 90% people are working
with microcomputer.
4.Super Computers
The fastest and most powerful and most expensive
computers used for very special purpose are called
super computer. These can process billions of
instruction per second or in Pico second (10-12)
5.Lap top computers
 Lap top computers also called notebook computers
are wonderfully portable and function, and popular
with travelers who need a computer that can go with
them. These computers can first in briefcase and they
do not have to plug in. most lap tops accept diskettes,
so it easy to move data from one computer to another.

What is Hardware and Software?

1. Hardware
All the physical items like printers, monitors,
keyboards, mouse, disks, chips; circuit’s est.’s called
hardware.
“The physical and permanent components of a
computer are called Hardware.”
2. Software
Computer software refers to the instructions to
operate the hardware. We can say” collection of
programs is called software” like word processing,
spreadsheets, database, graphical programs,
multimedia programs.

Parts of Computer
 Peripheral Devices
 Input Devices
 Output Devices
 Storage Devices

Let see the detail of these devices:

1. Peripheral Devices

The peripheral devices or accessories, which are used

as hardware components for different operations of
data i.e.

  Input data to computer for processing.
 Output data to see the results.
 Storage of data for various manipulations.
 Transferring data by using communication devices.

2. For Input

 Key board
 Mouse
 Scanner
 CD.Rom
 Floppy Drive
 Micro phone

3. For Output

 Monitor
 Printers
 Speakers

4. For Storage

 Disk
 Tapes
Let’s see the detail of these devices

1. Input Devices
1. Keyboard
The most common input device keyboard. We have
two types of keyboard, conventional keyboard (old
keyboard) having 83/84 keys and the enhanced
keyboard having 101/104/108/113/125 keys. The
slandered keyboards today are the 101 keys
keyboards.
2. Group of Keys

 Alphabets (a….z) or (A….Z)

 Numeric Digits (0….9)
 Function Keys (F1….F12)
 Symbols (+, -, * …)
 Special Keys (Enter, Backspace, Spacebar, Tab, Esc, Print
screen, Pause/Break)
 Toggle Keys (Caps Lock, Scroll Bar, Num Lock)
 Shift Keys or Combination Keys (Shift, Ctrl, Alt)
 Direction Keys (Arrow Keys, Page Up, Page Down, Home,
End)
 Editing Keys (Delete, Insert)
 Extended Keys (Alt+Numad)
3. Mouse
Mouse is a computer input device. It has a ball in it’s under
side, is rolled on a flat surface. Mounting the mouse allows
us; reposition the pointer or cursor, an indicator or the
screen.
4. Micro phone
Micro phone is used to voice input. Voice input is also
known as speech recognition, the process of presenting
input data to the computer through the spoken word.
5. Scanner
For graphic input, this device can be used to compute
photos, art and text for transfer into digital from and then
used by computer.

There are two types of scanner.

 Handy Scanners
 Flat Scanners

(i)
Handy Scanners
 Handy Scanner was used in the past. The result of this
scanner was not good and also black and white. Its price
was also low and not used common.
(ii) Flat Bed Scanners
The flat bed scanner is used in these days. These are most
expensive than handy scanners but its result is good and
these are color scanners.
6. CD. Rom
This also an input device because you install any program
in you computer then you attach the CD. Rom to your
computer ten you start your computer and insert a disk into
the CD. Rom and begin to installation.
7. Floppy Drive
This device is also an input device when you want install
any program from a floppy then you can use this device
same as CD. Rom you can insert the floppy into the floppy
drive and begin to install your program through the floppy
drive.

2. Output Devices
1. Monitors
Monitor is very popular device for output device. A monitor
is a TV like device that displays data or information. The
monitors are available in many different shapes, sizes and
color.
Monitors
The different names of monitors
Screens
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
VDU (Video Display Unite)
Display
Screen
LCD (liquid Crystal Display)
Sizes
14” inch Screen
15” Inch Screen
 17” Inch Screen
21” Inch Screen
But “14 Inch Screen” is standard
Result
 Black and White
 Amber
 Green
 Colored
2. Printers
The device that produces printer paper output it is tangible
and permanent. We can make black and white colored
copies with the help of printer.
Dot Matrix Printers

Dot Matrix Printers construct activation a matrix of pins

that produces the shape of character. A typical matrix is 5*7

i. Five dots wide

ii. Seven dot High
These are also called 9-pin printers.
There are two types of printers

1. Impact printer
2. Non-Impact printer

1. Impact Printers

A character shaped print hammer, striking a ribbon against

the paper, produces the result. Or by a print hammer hitting
paper and ribbon against a character. Impact printers are
two kinds

a) Character Printer
b)Line Printer

1. Character Printer
 These are just like typewriter. These print character by
character across page within defined margin.

2. Line Printers

These assembled all characters on a line at one time and

print them simultaneously.

1. Non-Impact Printers

These printers are faster and quieter. They have two types.

a. Ink Jet Printers

b. Laser Printers

1. Ink Jet Printers

These spray in from jet nozzles and ten times faster then
impact printers. These can print several different colors of
ink.

2. Laser Printers

They use a light beam to transfer images to paper. Laser

beam writes an image onto the surface of a rotating metal
drum. Then ink toner writes an image on to paper.
Memory
The power of remembering data or instruction of a
computer is called memory.

Primary Memory (Temporary)

(i) Rom
(ii) Ram
1. Rom
Its data cannot easily be replaced with new data. It contains
program and data that once recorded at factory when there
 are manufactured so, user can’t change them the data in
Rom is called Firmware.
2. Ram
Ram is the temporary storage of computer that holds
instructions and data for use. These are Read-Write chips.
The data can be accessed in an easy and speedy manner.
When power shut off the data is lost.
There are two types of Rams.

1. SIMM
2. DIMM

1. SIMM
Single Inline Memory Modules
2.DIMM
Double Inline Memory Modules
Hard Disk
Hard Disk usually has more capacity than diskettes and also
offers faster access to the data they hold. These are also
called fixed disk. These disks contained sealed platters in a
metal box for heavy storage.
First hard disk had the capacity of 10MB. These days the
maximum storage capacity is 80GB. The unit in which the
hard disk is inserts called HDD (Hard Disk Drive) or Hard
Drive.
Processor
Processor or CPU (Central Processing Unite) consists of
electronic circuits that interpret and execute program
instructions, as well as communicate with the input, output
and storage device.

CPU Parts

This unite manages the different operations about

Control Unit data and program instructions.
Registers are temporary storage area for instructions
Registers or data. They are not part of memory but offer the
 advantage of speed.
Accumulator Which collects the result of computations
Address Each storage location in memory is called address.
Memory is also known as primary memory, main
Memory storage, internal storage or main memory.
Each central processing unit has an internal clock,
Clock which produced pluses on a fixed rate to synchronize
all computers operations.
A specific group of instructions called the
Instru.Set instructions set
8 bits are called 1 bite equal to a char. A letter or digit
Byte
A collection of thousands of very small circuits on a
Semiconductor silicon chips
One important type of semi conductor is called
CMOS CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor). It uses little electricity and
especially useful for low power consumption.

Computer Processing Speed

Usually the computer’s speed is measured in 3 ways.

Clock speed It represents one million ticks per second. If clock

(Mega Hertz) works faster the speed will be faster.
MIPS One million instructions per second are executed; it
is more accurate measurement than clock speed.
Mega flop One million floating point operations per second.

Units of Time

Millisecond 10-3 Thousandth

Microsecond 10-6 Millionth
nanosecond 10-9 Billionth
Pico Second 10-12 Trillionth
 CPU Families
There are basically three computer CPU families, which are
also called Microprocessor generations.
a) First Generation of Microprocessor:
1st generation of microprocessor is called XT, which stands
for eXtended Technology.
It has tow sub types:

8086 XT Computers
8088 XT Computers
8086 has 8-10 MHz speed
8088 has 12-15 MHz speed

b) Second Generation of microprocessor

Second generation of microprocessor is called AT. Stands
for Advanced Technology. It has the following sub types:

(i) 80286 20MHz Speed

(ii) 80386-SX 25MHz Speed
8086-DX 40MHz Speed
(iii) 80486-SX 33MHz Speed
80486-DX 40MHx Speed
80486-DX2 66MHz Speed
80486-DX4 80MHz Speed

c) Third Generation of Microprocessor:

Third Generation of microprocessor is called Pentium.
Pentium following subtypes:

(i) Pentium (P1) 100MHz—233MHz

(ii) Pentium (P2) 266MHz—450MHz
(iii) Pentium (P3) 500MHz—1000MHz
(iv) Pentium (P4) 1100MHz—onward

ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit):

It is a very important, Portion of Central Processing
Unit (CPU). Actually, all data processing is done by
ALU. Data processing may be of two types:
Numerical Data Processing
Logical Data Processing
The Arithmetic section of ALU performs all
numerical data processing including basic
mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
It takes numeric values from memory and processes it
according to given operation.
Where as, logical decision-making is done by Logic
section of ALU. We situations. This decision power
works under ALU.
Logical instructions and commands are executed
ALU. Decision making speed varies from computer to
computer.
 Data Processing

Data Processing
“Number, character, images, or other method of recording, in a
form, which can be assessed by human, or (especially) input a
computer, nearly always represent in binary”
Data on its own has no meaning, only when interpreted by some
kind of data processing system does it take on meaning and
become information.
People or computers can find patterns in data to perceive
information and information can be used to enhance knowledge.

Computer Processing
“The manipulation of symbols to represent different things in a
computer is called computer processing”

Data Processing
The use of computer and information technology “IT” is well
recognized the IT has become must for the survival of the
business houses with the growing information technology
network and gaining increasing popularity.
Computer is defined in the Oxford dictionary as “An automatic
electronic apparatus for making calculations or controlling
operations that are expressible in numerical or logical terms”
The basic function performed by computer is the execution of a
program. A program is a sequence of instructions which
operation a data to perform certain tasks.
The input verification, organization, storage, retrieval,
transformation, and commercial applications such as stock
control or payroll

Data Vs Information
“Collection of raw facts is called Data” the word data is imported
from statistics to computer science.
Technically, raw facts and figures, such as orders and payment,
which are processed into information, such as balance due and
quantity on hand
 Data can be processed into different forms of information, but it
takes time to sort and sum transactions. Up-to-date information
can provide instant answers.
Information
“Collection of raw facts in meaning full form is called
information” information actually relevant knowledge produced
as the output of data processing activities.

Information Management
The planning, budgeting, control and exploitation of the
information resource in an organization the term encompasses
both the information itself and the related aspects such as
personal, finance, marketing organization and technologies and
system. Information Managers are responsible for the
coordination and integration of a wide range of information
handling activities within the organization.

Information Technology
Both hardware and software, and often including networking and
telecommunications, usually in the context of a business or other
enterprise often the name of the part of an enterprise that deals
with all things electronic
The term “computer science” is usually reserved for the more
theoretical, academic aspects of computing, while the vaguer
terms “information system” (IS) or “information service” may
include more of the human activities and non-computerized
business processes like knowledge management. Others say that
IT includes computer science.

Data Types
 Numeric Data
 Non-Numeric Data
 Characters
 Strings
 Symbols
 Alpha Numeric
 In modern digital computers data is represented in binary form by
using two symbols 0 and 1, which are called binary digits or bits.
But the data which we deal with consists of numeric data and
characters such as decimal digits 0 to 9, alphabets A to Z,
arithmetic operations (e.g.+,-,etc), relations operations (e.g. =,
>.etc), and many other special characters (e.g. ;,@{,].etc).

Life Cycle of Data Processing

 A computer consist of basic components:
 CPU
 Memory
 Input/Output components
If data is to be, exchanged among these components, we need to
have a interconnection structure must support the transfer of
An instruction or unit of data from memory to CPU
A unit of data from CPU to memory
Reading of data from Input/output device i.e. transfer from
Input/Output device to memory
Memory to Input/Output device

(1)

Data to input The CPU Processed

Processed Data
The System Bus The
The CPU The Other
Ram Unit

(2)
 Monitor
Output Printer

Memory

Modern Busses FPM-RAM

Sound EDO-RAM
Video CPU SD-RAM
TV Cache (L1and L2)
Controllers

Key Board Diskette

Mouse Hard Disk
Input Drives
Scanner Optical drives
(CD-Rom)
Digital camera

Data Representation
All information is represented by presence or absence of digital
electrical signals. The information is represented in computer in
the form of binary digits popularly called bit. Binary digits come
from binary number system

Analog Data.
The signals, which we send each other to communicate, are data
our daily data have many form: sound, letters, numbers, and
other characters, photo, graphic, film. All these data are in their
nature Analog.

Digital Data
The PC is an electric unite. Therefore, it can only deal with data,
which are associate with electricity. That is accomplished using
electric switches, which are either off or on. You can compare
 Switch regular household switches. If the switch is off, the PC
reads numeral 0. If it is read as numeral one
Bits
The PC is filled with these switches (in the form of transistors).
There are literally millions of those in the electronic components.
Each represents either a 0 or a 1. so we can process data with
millions of 0s and 1s. each 0 or 1 is called a bit. Bit is an
abbreviation of the expression BInary digiT.

Number System
A number system of base r is a system, which have r distinct
symbols for r digits. A suing of these symbolic digits represents a
number

There are following four number system

 Decimal number system
 Binary number system
 Octal number system
 Hexadecimal number system

(1) What is Decimal number system?

Decimal number system (also called Human Number System)
has ten digits represent by 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9. Any decimal
number can be represented as a string of these digits and since
there are ten decimal digits, therefore, the base or radix of this
system is 10.
(2) What is Binary number system?
In the binary number we have two digits 0 and 1 and they can
also be represented, as a string of these two-digit line base of
binary number system is 2.

(3) What is octal number system?

In octal system have eight digits represented as 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
For finding equivalent decimal number of an octal number one
have to find the quantity of the octal number which is again
calculated as:
(4) What is Hexadecimal number system?
The hexadecimal system has 16 digits, which are represented as
0,1,2,34,5,6,7,8,9,A, B, C, D, E, and F
Summary of number system
System Base
Decimal 10
Binary 2
Octal 8
Hexadecimal 16

System Elements
Decimal 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Binary 0,1
Octal 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Hexadecimal 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F

Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal

0000 0 0 0
0001 1 1 1
0010 2 2 2
0011 3 3 3
0100 4 4 4
0101 5 5 5
0110 6 6 6
0111 7 7 7
1000 10 10 10
1001 11 11 11
1010 12 12 12
1011 13 13 13
1100 14 14 14
1101 15 15 15
1110 16 16 16
1111 17 17 17

Character Sets:
 There are three character sets are used commonly
1. ASCII (American Standard Codes for Information Interchange)
Character set.
2. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Code Decimal Interchange Code)
Character set.
3. UNICODE (Universal Code) Character Set Used for languages

Nul Null FF From feed CAN Cancel

SOH Start of heading CR Carriage return EM End of Medium
STX Start of text SO Shift Out SUB Substitute
ETX End of text SI Shift in ESC Escape
EOT End of termination DLE Data link escape FS File separator
ENQ Enquire DC1 Device control 1 GS Group separator
ACK Acknowledge DC2 Device control 2 RS Record separator
BEL Bell DC3 Device control 3 US Unite separator
BS Backspace DC4 Device control 4 SP Space
HT Horizontal tab NAK Negative DEL Delete
Acknowledge
LF Line Feed SYN Synchronous idle
VT Vertical tab ETB End of
transmission
block

Data Processing Activities

There are three data processing activities
Collecting Data for Input
Manipulating Data
Managing Data for Output
1. Collecting Data for Input
Data must be gathered and captured before processing that is called
source Data can be collected by using any input device.
 Text, Numeric or symbolic data from Keyboard
 Graphical images from scanner or any other optical source
Device
 Sound data from Microphone etc
Also, any data can be gained from Disk storage unites or from a
network resource (like Internet or any other connected computer)
2. Manipulation
 Some processing always does data manipulation, whereas Central
Processing Unite (CPU) performs all processing according to the
given method by any computer processional. It include following
Classifying
Calculating
Sorting
Summarizing
1. Classifying
Organizing similar items of data into group is called
classification of data
2. Calculation
Mathematical operations on data are called calculation of data
3. Sorting
Arrangement of data in sequence is called sorting of data
4. Summarizing
Reduction and elimination unusable data in called summarizing
Managing Data for Output
After collection a manipulation of data it must be prepared for a
presentable manners for output. The following actions may be
considered as Data management

 Storing
 Retrieving
 Communication
1. Storing
To keep the data as permanent for long term usage is called
storing. Different types of disks are used for it.
2. Retrieving
Any type of data that is stored already can be recalled for later
usage, this operation is called retrieving of data.
3. Communication
Data can be transferred from one location to another location is
called data communication. The source computer or person who
sends the data is called SENDER and the target computer or
person who receives the data is called RECIEVER. A link or
medium is must be available between both ends for proper data
communication.