See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/248254196

Seismic stratigraphy of the Upper Pliocene and Quaternary deposits in

the South Caspian Basin

Article  in  Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering · December 2000

DOI: 10.1016/S0920-4105(00)00079-6

CITATIONS READS

29 215

1 author:

Nazim Abdullayev

15 PUBLICATIONS   110 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

MsC Geophysics View project

The Pliocene of the South Caspian Basin View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Nazim Abdullayev on 06 October 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 Ž2000. 207–226
www.elsevier.nlrlocaterjpetscieng

Seismic stratigraphy of the Upper Pliocene and Quaternary

deposits in the South Caspian Basin
N.R. Abdullayev )
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO USA
Received 30 October 1999; accepted 30 March 2000

Abstract

More than 10,000 km of seismic data were used for seismic stratigraphic analysis and differentiation of major
depositional environments of Upper Pliocene and Quaternary strata in the central deepwater and eastern parts of the South
Caspian Basin ŽSCB.. The study shows that the conventional sequence stratigraphy concept works well in the South Caspian
Basin. Clinoform complexes within Paleo-Amudarya shelf margin are bounded by regionally, seismically expressed
sequence boundaries and flooding surfaces that can be traced to the deep basin. Sequence analysis and seismic facies
interpretation showed that deposition of prograding clinoforms and deep-water turbidite systems were controlled by the
relative lake-level change. Depositional interpretation of sediment infill indicates that in the South Caspian Basin, as in other
closed basins with high terrigineous input, basinal deposition is from turbidity currents and slumps generated from large
shelf-edge deltas. There are two distinct stratigraphic complexes interpreted from seismic data: lower, interpreted as
homogeneous infill of mud-rich turbidites and deepwater lacustrine deposits ŽUpper Pliocene, i.e. Akchagyl and Aspheron.,
and upper, consisting of prograding clinoform packages and coeval deepwater fan systems and slumps ŽQuaternary.. The
source of the central basin turbidite infill was primarily the eastern APaleo-AmudaryaB shelf. Growing diapir folds
structurally controlled deposition of large-scale fan systems in the central basin. The distribution of these fan systems is tied
to location of the coeval thick shelf-margin complexes. q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: South Caspian Basin; sequence; seismic facies; deepwater; clinoform

1. Introduction The South Caspian is known as an oil producing

The South Caspian Basin ŽSCB. is a Tertiary
intermontane basin, located in south central Eurasia
within offshore territories of Azerbaijan, Turk-
menistan and Iran ŽFig. 1..
)
BP Amoco Exploration, Chertsey Road, Sunbury upon
Thames, Middlesex TW16 7LN, UK. Tel.: q44-1932-760-246.
E-mail address: abdullnr@bp.com ŽN.R. Abdullayev..
region since the late 19th century. The principal
reservoir rocks of the so-called Productive Series
occur within Lower-to-Middle Pliocene strata
ŽNarimanov, 1990.. Most of the exploration has been
concentrated in the shallower, marginal part of the
basin. The deepwater part has not been studied in
detail, as high-quality regional seismic data became
available for interpretation only recently.
This paper is based on thesis research carried out
in Colorado School of Mines. The purpose of this

0920-4105r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 0 - 4 1 0 5 Ž 0 0 . 0 0 0 7 9 - 6
208 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226

within a sequence stratigraphic framework and to

relate deepwater and shelf-margin deposition in SCB
during Late Pliocene and Quaternary. The con-
structed geological model for shelf-margin and deep-
water basin development in Upper Pliocener
Quaternary can be a useful analog for development
of future models for exploration of the Productive
Series strata in the central basin.

2. Dataset

Fig. 1. Location of the South Caspian Basin.
paper is to evaluate and interpret stratigraphic fea-
tures of the Upper Pliocene and Quaternary strata in
the SCB from new regional seismic data. The study
focuses on the recent depositional history and it tries
to explain the nature of the basin sedimentation
The dataset for this study consists of a regional
2D speculative seismic survey shot by ACaspian
GeophysicalB JV in territorial waters of Azerbaijan
and in part of Turkmenistan offshore sector ŽFig. 2.
during 1995 and 1996. Overall, 120 seismic lines
Ž; 10,000 km. from a dataset were interpreted.
This dataset, in comparison with older data, al-
lows for significantly more stratigraphic resolution

Fig. 2. Physiographic map of the South Caspian Basin provinces: 1 — Absheron–Pribalkhan zone of uplifts, 2 — Paleo-Amudarya shelf; 3
— Cis-Elburs foredeep, 4 — Lower Kura–Enzeli depression, to the west are Talysh mountains, 5 — Kura delta, 6 — Central depression, 7
— Western Apsheron–Gobustan depression. Bathymetric contours are in meters. Black line is the hydrological divide between South and
Middle Caspian Žmodified from Kosarev and Yablonskaya, 1994..
 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226 209

as a result of improved acquisition and processing
techniques Žsee McNeill et al., 1996..
Seismic interpretation has been made by using
GeoQuest software in Amoco Caspian in Houston,
and Landmark mapping software in Colorado School
Mines. As the dataset is proprietary, coordinates,
precise location of the lines, and structure maps
could not be shown.
The study area excludes the structurally compli-
cated zone near the Lower Kura depression in the
east and the North-Apsheron depression. The inter-
pretation was mainly concentrated in the central

Fig. 3. Stratigraphy tables for the South Caspian Basin. Ža. Comparative Neogene chronostratigraphy of the Black Sea and the South
Caspian Basin. Regional sequence stratigraphy Žtransgressionrregression cycles. is shown. Chronostratigraphically, study interval includes
Late Pliocene AAkchagulianB and Pleistocene. Akchagulian suite is tied to episodes of major basin transgressions Žmodified from Jones and
Simmons, 1997.. Žb. Stratigraphic table of the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene in the South Caspian Basin. Formation names are those that
are used in the Eastern Azerbaijan.
210 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226
deepwater area and eastern-Turkmenistan offshore
areas.
3. Regional geology
The South Caspian Basin is located between the
Greater Caucasian and Kopet-Dag fold-belts. It is
bounded by Talesh–Elbours mountains in the south-
west and Apsheron–Pribalkhan sill in the north ŽFig.
2.. The basin is believed to have been formed as the
result of Cretaceous back-arc spreading ŽZonenshain
and Le Pichon, 1985; Otto, 1997.. There is more
than 20 km of sediment accumulated in the basin
over its thinned or underplated continental crust
ŽMangino and Priestly, 1998.. Most of the deposition
occurred since the Late Miocene, when collision of
continental blocks, consequent regional uplift and
subsidence led to accumulation of up to the 10 km of
deltaic and lacustrine deposits of AProductive SeriesB.
Paleo-Volga, Paleo-Kura and Paleo-Amudarya rivers
were the main sources of reservoir-prone sediments
ŽReynolds et al., 1998.. Tectonic processes and sedi-
ment loading triggered mud diapirism and volcanism
and further increased subsidence during Late Pliocene
and Quaternary ŽLebedev, 1987; Kulakova and Lebe-
dev, 1996; Smale et al., 1997.. Structures within the
offshore areas of the deep basin are relatively young.
They were mainly created during Akchagulian and
Apsheronian time.
On the basin margins Upper Pliocene and Quater-
nary sediments are located over significant onlap
unconformity above the Productive Series. Akchagu-
lian beds above the unconformity are dated at 2.4–2.6
Ma and there is a sedimentation hiatus on the basin
margins as reported in Smale et al. Ž1997.. Fig. 3
shows the stratigraphic subdivision of the Pliocene
and Quaternary deposits established in the Eastern
Azerbaijan.
Several regional seismic stratigraphic studies con-
centrated mainly on analysis of Productive Series
deposits have been conducted within the SCB
ŽMamedov, 1991, 1992.. Mamedov Ž1991. recog-
nizes 10 Aseismic stratigraphic complexesB within
the basin section and, specifically, 3 seismic com-
plexes within the Upper PliocenerQuaternary strata.
Lebedev Ž1987. interpreted regional seismic profil-
ing data from 1970’s and proposed the existence of
sublacustrine mass transport processes in the shallow
section. Basin-scale seismic stratigraphic studies are
reported also in Murphy and Kulieva Ž1995..
In Bozkurt et al. Ž1997. the Paleo-Amudarya
Pleistocene shelf is interpreted using a seismic strati-
graphic framework. They subdivided the Pleistocene
sediments of the Turkmenistan offshore sector into
12 sequences.
4. Sequence stratigraphy
The study employed common sequence strati-
graphic techniques described in Vail Ž1987. and Vail
et al. Ž1977.. Ten seismic sequences have been iden-
tified within the interval. They are bounded by high-
amplitude doublet-reflection horizons. Some of these
high-amplitude events show remarkable continuity
across the basin.
Sequence boundaries were identified on the Pleis-
tocene Paleo-Amudarya shelf margin on the basis of
a basinward shift in coastal onlap and erosional
truncations and traced to the central deepwater area.
High-amplitude doublet reflectors in the distal deep-
water areas are traced parallel to the sequence
boundaries. These reflections usually are interpreted
to be condensed sections and are correlative con-
formities to the sequence boundaries ŽWeimer, 1989..
In the deepwater areas, the sequence boundary is, in
part, condensed section comprising basinward equiv-
alents of transgressiverhighstand system tracts ŽFeng
and Buffler, 1994..
The regional character of this study and dataset
allows for the interpretation of only the dominant
depositional environments and a generalization of
seismic facies relationships. I distinguish 11 seismic
facies in the deepwater central basin and shelfrslope
areas that are analogous to the seismic facies identi-
fied in the passive margins Žfor similar regional
seismic stratigraphic studies, see Weimer, 1989; Feng
and Buffler, 1994..
Key seismic facies that were identified in the
study are listed below.
Low-amplitude parallel continuous facies ŽFig.
4a . These facies show parallel to subparallel reflec-
.
tions and are dominant over all basin within lower
 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226 211

Fig. 4. Seismic facies examples observed in shelf-slope and deepwater areas of the passive margins and identified in the SCB: Ža. Parallel
low-amplituderdouble wavelet, Žb. divergent low-amplitude, Žc. continuous high amplitude, Žd. chaotic, Že. variable amplitude and
continuity Ža–e, from Feng and Buffler, 1994., Žf. progradational facies of sigmoidal and oblique types Žfrom Mitchum et al., 1977b..
Discussion is in the text.
212 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226

sequences and within central part in upper se-
quences. These facies are interpreted as basinal
mud-rich turbidites.
Double wavelet Žas in Feng and Buffler, 1994..
Regionally continuous high-amplitude reflections that
are commonly interpreted as condensed sections ŽFig.
4a.. These facies show drape over structures or
depositional features.
Low-amplitude divergent. The reflection config-
uration of these facies is mounded ŽFig. 4b.. These
facies are associated with fan complexes and inter-
preted as unchannelized depositional lobes.

Fig. 5. Paleo-Amudarya fan area. Sections on Ža. and Žb. are parallel, but 40 km apart. Northern line a shows development of lobes and
erosional channels in sequences 6 and 7. Southern Žb. line shows increase in slumping in sequence 8 and channel levee system ŽCLS. in
sequences 8 and 9. Channels in sequence 9 exhibit offset stacked patterns.
 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226 213

High-amplitude parallel facies. These facies are
represented by variably continuous high-amplitude
reflections ŽFig. 4c.. They have parallel or mounded
reflection configurations and are interpreted as depo-
sitional lobes of lithology contrasting with bounding
sediments Žpossibly sand-rich..
Chaotic facies. These facies are represented by
discontinuous, disorganized, hummocky reflections
or are reflection-free ŽFig. 4d.. They are interpreted
as slump and debris flow facies.
Low- to high-amplitude variable continuity fa-
cies. These facies are of moderate to high-amplitude
and variable continuity ŽFig. 4e. that occur in stacked
mounds or as gull-wing patterns. They are inter-
preted as channel-levee-overbank systems ŽFigs. 5a,
b and 6..
Progradational clonic facies. These facies are
usually highrmoderate amplitude and show distinct
topsetrbottomset relationship ŽFig. 4f.. They are
associated with shelf-margin and slope deposition
ŽFig. 7 as an example in SCB..
Other types of facies are interpreted as transi-
tional.
5. Interpretation
5.1. Two stratigaphic complexes
Interpretation of basin infill allows for subdivision
of the central part into two main stratigraphic com-
plexes: the lower one, informally called Upper
Pliocene or Akcagyl and Apsheron Žsequences 1–4.
and Quaternary Žsequences 5–10., corresponding to
stages 1 and 2 in the depositional model chapter
Žalso see about seismic complexes 8–10 in Mame-
dov, 1992..
The lower complex is interpreted as the interbed-
ding of continuous strata of different lithologies,
most likely of mud-rich turbidites forming onlap fill
intervals and hemipelagicrpelagic drape deposits.

Fig. 6. Fragment of the seismic line in the Turkmenistan shelf, showing location of the channel systems. Both these proximal channel
systems and those of Amudarya fan show clear Agull-wingB pattern, like on the picture in upper right corner Žfrom Emery and Myers, 1997.,
indicative of mud-rich turbidite systems.
214 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226

Fig. 7. Seismic line from the Turkmenistan shelf margin, showing in more detail interpretation from Fig. 10. Clinoform complex develops
oblique configuration with the dip angle of 3.58 within sequences 8–10.

The upper complex is noted for the formation of a
progradational clinoform complex in the east and
more differentiated deepwater facies-unchannelized
fan lobes, channel systems and slumps. The shelf
margin prograded more than 150 km during deposi-
tion of this complex. Previous work suggests that
progradation was driven by fluctuations of lake level
ŽBozkurt et al., 1997..
Two sequences, 1 and 10 described here, are good
examples of the differences between the two com-
plexes.
5.2. Sequence 1
There are only two types of seismic facies within
sequence 1 ŽFig. 8.. Most of sequence 1 is repre-
sented by onlap fill of low-amplitude continuous
seismic facies in the broad central area, the thickest
section being in central depression to the south of
Abikh zone Ž) 900 m isochore in Fig. 9..
This homogeneous infill is interpreted as de-
posited in relatively deepwater conditions at the same
time as, or after, significant northward regional com-
pression. The main sedimentary processes were
low-energy turbidity flows and hemipelagicrpelagic
deposition. The usual seismic expression of these
mud-rich sheet turbidites is low-amplitude continu-
ous facies ŽMitchum et al., 1977a; Pickering et al.,
1989; Feng and Buffler, 1994.. This suggests low-
energy depositional processes. Fully pelagic sedi-
ments are rarely the case; even in abyssal plains the
bulk of sediments consists of turbidites. ŽPickering et
al., 1989.. The upper part of sequence 1 is repre-
sented by high-amplitude events. These high-ampli-
tude events, because of their continuity, can be re-
garded as condensed sections occurring at times of
 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226 215

Fig. 8. Seismic facies and depositional systems map of sequence 1. Depositional infill is uniform in character and interpreted as onlap-fill
mud-rich turbidites Ždiagonal dotted pattern. and hemipelagics Žvertical solid lines..

significant flooding of the basin as was discussed
above.
Sequence 1 exhibits significant onlap on Ap-
sheron–Pribalkhan ridge and the eastern flank of the
Abikh structural trend Žmajor early uplift., whereas it
appears there was smaller-scale uplift on the Vesirov
and Avesta ridges ŽFig. 9. and other northwestern
structures, resulting in less onlap. Folds, forming
during that time seem to be broad anticlinal struc-
tures without active mud diapirism and mud volcan-
ism. This may not pertain to the lower Kura basin
where folding and intensive mud diapirism started
earlier than in the center. Uplift of the central struc-
tures is likely to be related to mud diapirism pulses
above older structural trends caused by regional
compression and loading of sediments ŽSmale et al.,
1997..
5.3. Sequence 10
The last sequence interpreted ŽFigs. 10 and 11.
consist of two subsequences 10a and 10b, identified
on the basis of the downward shift in the coastal
onlap at the shelf-margin depocenter ŽFig. 12.. Their
sequence boundaries merge basinward. Subse-
quences of the shelf margin represent large scale
progradation of high-angle oblique clinoforms ŽFig.
7., in the area where the thickest part of the clino-
form complex is concentrated. High-amplitude facies
occur as overlying infill drape over the structures
and paleo-relief. The slope facies is represented by
high-amplitude downlapping reflections.
The central part of the basin to the east of the
Abikh–Vesirov depression exhibits the same high-
amplitude continuous parallel facies with drape over
structures and over the AAmudarya fanB ŽFig. 5a..
Turbidite infill is present in depressions, and is
bounded by the drape facies. Channel systems are
much smaller in scale than for previous sequences
and are concentrated near the margin ŽFig. 11..
There are two main locations of channel systems: the
Abikh depression or the AAmudaryaB fan and the
southeastern Paleo-Amudarya slope.
There appears to be decreasing sedimentary input
to the central basin and concentration of sediment
accumulation on the shelf margin, which may be
related to highstand position of relative lake level
during deposition of last sequence.
High-angle oblique clinoforms and growth fault-
ing occurs at the slope atop of the flexure zone of the
 216
N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226
Fig. 9. Isopach map of sequence 1. Major depression infill Žup to 1.2 km. is in south central part is bounded by Abikh fold zone in the north and growth faults over Productive
beds in the west.
 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226
Fig. 10. Isopach map of the sequence 10. There is a development of high-angle clinoforms that reach up to 1100 m in thickness.

217
218 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226
Fig. 11. Seismic facies and depositional system map of sequence 10. Shelf edge progaded to recent position. Thick clinoform complex has
been formed. Basinal deposition is dominated by drape facies Žvertical solid lines. and turbidite infill. Slides and slumps are mapped as
black and white dotted area.
Productive Series shelf edge near Fersman structure
ŽFig. 12..
The sequence is characterized by fold growth and
extensive mud volcanism evident in structure zones
of the central basin. This is characteristic of all of
Quaternary intervals.
6. Discussion of depositional facies
Depositional systems are implied from seismic
facies and their distribution is mapped for each
sequence. Their interpretation is according to com-
monly accepted interpretation of seismic facies.
6.1. Basin center
6.1.1. Basin onlap fill
The deepwater basin-slope and basin-floor deposi-
tional system. It is characterized by low-amplitude
parallel seismic facies interpreted as mud-rich tur-
bidites, deposited by low-energy turbidity currents.
This interpretation is similar to the environmental
interpretation of the low-amplitude parallel facies
ŽFig. 4a. provided by Sangree and Widmier Ž1977.
and Feng and Buffler Ž1994. for central basin in the
Gulf of Mexico. Turbiditic infill can explain relative
uniformity of seismic response, sequence thickening
in the central basin and onlap on the structures.
6.1.2. Depositional lobes
The deepwater system is interpreted as unchannel-
ized depositional lobes. They have a parallel or
mounded reflection configuration and may be di-
vided into two types by difference in seismic facies
and location.
v
Divergent low-amplitude that is interpreted as
lower fan unchannelized mud-rich turbiditic lobes.
They are part of Paleo-Amudarya fan depositional
system and occur in the upper complex ŽFig. 5a,
b..
v
High-amplitude events of parallel or mounded re-
flection configuration within sequences 3–5 in the
toes of the clinoform wedges in northwestern area.
They may be interpreted as sand-rich Abasin floor
fansB.
 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226 219

Fig. 12. Drawing of the composite seismic cross-section of NW–SE direction in the Turkmenistan shelf. AShelf-to-basinB relationship not
complicated by faulting allows for AtextbookB distinction of sequence boundaries and system tracts. Dotted patterns are slides and slumps.
Lower complex includes interval from Sb1 to Sb5 and upper from Sb6 to sea bottom.

6.1.3. Channel-leÕee system
A significant part of basinal deposits, especially
in the area of AAmudarya fanB and southeastern part
of Paleo-Amudarya slope ŽFigs. 5, 6 and 13., is
present in the sequences 6–9 Ži.e. Pleistocene..
Channels are represented by high-amplitude, laterally
discontinuous reflections concentrated in the crest of
the stacked mounds ŽFig. 5a, b.. Levee-overbank
deposits are characterized by low- to high-ampli-
tude reflection events downlapping away from the
channel. Development of channel systems with
significant levees and overbanks is characteristic of
relatively mud-rich submarine fans, such as the Mis-
sissippi fan, Rhone fan, etc. ŽPickering et al., 1989;
Weimer, 1989; Emery and Myers, 1997.. The
AAmudaryaB fan, created by axial drainage between
the Abikh structures and the tectonic terrace where
the shelf grows, has developed from lobes and small
scale shingling channel systems Žsequence 6. to
aggradational leveed channels. No large-scale ero-
sional channels were recorded downfan and midfan.
The development of channel systems in sequences
6–8 is correlated to the canyon incision in the north-
eastern part.
Channel-levee system systems on the southeastern
slope ŽFig. 6. may be referred to as slope fans as
they develop on the middle–upper slope. These fea-
tures, present on the southeastern Paleo-Amudarya
slope, generally have the same seismic response, as
do the channel-levee systems of Paleo-Amudarya
fan. They are located landward, behind major growth
faults on the top of the Productive Series and, there-
fore, must have been deposited in shallower water
further upslope. Their levees and overbanks are more
developed than those in the AAmudarya fanB Ž; 10
km in width..
6.1.4. Sediment slides
Evidence for tectonically induced slumping and
sliding of the Absheron slope within Quaternary
220 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226
Fig. 13. Part of the isopach map of the sequence 9 — sequence
with the thickest fan interval. Main channel axes for this interval
is shown by solid lines. Arrow indicates direction of migration of
stacked channel levee systems.
strata is long known ŽLebedev, 1987.. Large-scale
sediment slides are recognized from the slope and
sublacustrine fan environment and comprise more
than 50% of the Quaternary deepwater deposits to
the north of the Abikh and Vesirov ridges.
Two types of this mass transport complexes are
recognized and mapped on the basis of their seismic
response.
v
ASlidesB are slide facies with relatively undis-
turbed high-amplitude bedding translated Žslide. and
rotated Žslump. downward along concave upward
shear planes. Slope instability, rapid dewatering of
sediments or combination of both may cause some of
the slide features. Slides occur in northwestern area
of the survey.
v
ASlumpsB are generally chaotic internally
mounded or with hummocky tops. They are concen-
trated on the lower slope downward from slide facies
or those areas of depression, which are close to the
sedimentary source area. There are three types of
interpreted slumpsrdebris flow deposits: Ž1. basinal
or lower-slope slumps, associated with channel-levee
sequences, mostly fully chaotic or with no reflections
internally ŽFig. 1.; Ž2. those related to slumping of
the shelf-margin complex Žsee also slumped Aslope-
apronB margin in Fig. 14b.; Ž3. local slumping from
the top of structures, which sometimes may represent
deposits from eruptions of mud volcanoes. They
usually have high-amplitude response.
Lower-slope slump facies are transitional from
slides and mapped as such, where the latter became
so internally contorted, that no reflection continuity
exists.
6.2. Shelf margin
6.2.1. Prograding clinoforms
Pleistocene clinoform bodies are particularly well
identified in the Turkmenistan offshore area and
have been interpreted before ŽLebedev, 1987; Mame-
dov, 1992; Bozkurt et al., 1997.. These thick clino-
forms are the result of activity of shelf-margin deltas
ŽFig. 7.. The clinoform complex of Pleistocene Pa-
leo-Amudararya deltas progrades westward within
sequences 5–10 over 150 km.
A clinoform is defined in Mitchum et al. Ž1977b.
as a Asloping depositional surface associated with
progradation into deepwaterB. Main types of clino-
form patterns include oblique and sigmoidal clino-
form bodies ŽFig. 4f., both of which were observed
in the basin. Sigmoidal progradation configuration
consists of S-shaped reflections with horizontal
topsets and thicker foresets. Sigmoidal clinoform
bodies Žsigmoidal offlap. prevalence of subsidence
and rise of the sea level over the sedimentary input
ŽVail, 1987..
Steeper dipping strata, with toplap against se-
quence boundary, indicate oblique progradation con-
figuration. Oblique clinoforms develop during eu-
static stillstand andror periods of increased sediment
supply or low subsidence ŽVail, 1987.. These condi-
tions may have formed during deposition of se-
quences 8 and 9 because in response to the focus of
delta deposition in one area ŽFig. 11..
 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226 221

Fig. 14. Seismic expressions of erosional surfaces Ža. on the northwestern margin, represented by erosional incision in deltaic sediments and
Žb. on the Turkmenistan shelf, represented by canyon-scale incisions in the Aslope-apronB margin. These canyons are feeding elements for
Amudarya fan.

6.2.2. Slumped slope-apron margin
The slope-apron margin is characterized by differ-
ent mass flow processes that result in the predomi-
nance of chaotic seismic facies in the form of a thick
chaotic wedge. The margin is characterized as
slope-apron because chaotic facies are distributed
over all the northeastern area to the north of
Amudarya clinoform complex, i.e. deformation in-
volves the whole northeastern shelfrslope, marginal
to Apsheron–Pribalkhan fold zone.
6.2.3. Canyons and erosional incisions
Erosional features are found in the northwestern
margin in sequences 3–5 ŽFig. 14a.. Canyon-scale
Ž; 10 km in width, ; 40 km in length. erosional
features are mapped in the northeastern slumped
slope-apron, where they incise into the slumped sedi-
ments Žone example is in Fig. 14b.. Prograding
sediments of the next sequences rapidly buried these
canyons.
7. Depositional model
Two stages of development of the central basin
during Upper Pliocene and Quaternary are proposed
from interpreted seismic data:
v
Stage 1, corresponding to stratigraphic complex 1
that includes sequences 1–5. Stage 1 can be infor-
mally called Late Pliocene, as it is interpreted to
have been deposited in Akchagulian and Apshero-
nian ŽSmale et al., 1997..
v
Stage 2, informally called AQuaternaryB, corre-
sponding to stratigraphic complex 2 that includes
sequences 5–10.
222 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226
The depositional history during these stages is
described below.
7.1. Stage 1
According to accepted sequence stratigraphy con-
cepts, the shape of the basin is influenced by the
interplay of the subsidence, eustasy and sediment
input ŽVail, 1987., Thus, the onlap-fill system typi-
cally occurs in the basins that experience extensive
regional andror mud or salt tectonism. During this
stage of development, subsidence is much greater
than rates of sedimentation. Seismic reflections onlap
the margins of the basin, showing the prevalence of
subsidence over sediment input ŽAuplapB of Brown
and Fisher, 1977.. These are the characteristics of
the lower sequences 1 and 2 or AUpper PlioceneB
complex, which infill the depression created by
basin-scale subsidence with its thickest part in the
south ŽFig. 9.. Time constraints on the formation of
the complex are uncertain since it pinches out com-
pletely on the margins and major structures. How-
ever, the differences in seismic character between
onlap-fill interval and underlying Productive Series
and margin-to-margin correlation of Atop Produc-
tiveB surface suggest that this interval corresponds to
a sedimentation hiatus from 3.4 to 2.6 Ma on the
margins implied in Smale et al. Ž1997..
There are no modern analogs to Upper Pliocene
of SCB among lacustrine systems, because of its
rapid subsidence, mud tectonism, area proportional-
ity, and enormous clastic sediment input from all
margins. Thus, interpretation of the basin infill is
based on a comparison with similar seismic charac-
teristics of the rapidly subsiding basins of high ter-
rigineous input, such as Gulf of Mexico ŽFeng and
Buffler, 1994., though its structural style is different.
Black Sea deepwater sediment infill also may be
used as an analog because of its closed conditions,
but it is important to know that rates of sedimenta-
tion and structural deformation there are nowhere
near those of SCB.
According to seismic characteristics, I interpret
the onlap fill in the basin as mud-rich turbidites
deposited by low-energy turbidity currents and
hemipelagicrpelagic deposits far away from the sed-
iment source. Variation within any interval of onlap
turbidite and high-amplitude hemipelagic drape fa-
cies indicate differences in relative lake level. Signif-
icant onlap on the structures shows the growth of
diapiric folds.
Dominance of mud-rich turbidites during this stage
is explained by higher subsidence rates and the
resultant low-efficiency of Apsheron and Kura deltaic
systems that did not develop significant fans and did
not transport coarser sediments to the basin floor.
The appearance of the deltaic wedges
ŽApsheron–Kobustan depression. is the evidence for
increasing sediment input overriding subsidence. The
basin during that time Žsequences 3–5. is relatively
shallow Žclinoform height is - 400 m., compared to
the modern basin. It is infilled with the same mud-rich
sheet turbidites or lobes, mostly indistinguishable on
a seismic scale and deeper hemipelagicrpelagic fa-
cies identical to the Black See Pleistocene shale
ŽPickering et al., 1989..
7.2. Stage 2
This stage represents a basin shape that is similar
to the conventional model of Vail Ž1987. Ži.e. shelf-
break margin., since elements of offlap in the basin
and slope sequence are preserved along the margins.
Thus, it is possible to develop the model for both
shelf to basin evolution in the eastern and central
parts of the basin and for the typical sequence devel-
opment.
First, the deltaic shelf-margin progradation is ini-
tiated by several subsequent lowstands. These signif-
icant episodes in sequences 6 and 5 are considered to
be have been related to sharp changes in the relative
lake level at the Apsheron–Baku boundary. Basinal
deposits change from those with similar seismic
characteristics to stage 1 to those with divergent
reflections. They are interpreted as depositional lobes
and small-scale channels, surrounded by slump fa-
cies, with some minor scale erosional unleveed chan-
nels upfan. Lobe deposits are shown to be thickening
on the downward side of the growth faults activated
on the area of the central flexure or the southern
fault zone ŽFig. 15a..
As the shelf continues to prograde through the
series of aggradational offlap wedges driven by a
combination of tectonic and climatic forces, it de-
posits lowstand sediments into deepwater. The Abikh
depression Žthe area between Abikh ridge and Turk-
 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226 223

Fig. 15. Depositional model for Pleistocene Amudarya fan and shelf-margin development: Ža. when the shelf break is distant and structures
were represented by diapirs in the passive stage of development, amalgamated depositional lobes formed; Žb. when shelf margin prograded
to the flexure and folds rose along the ridge zone, channel systems with axial drainage formed; Žc. rapid progradation of the deltaic shelf
over the fan occurred.

men flexure. becomes the site of sublacustrine fan
deposition. The northeastern slope is characterized
by the zone of slumping and by canyon incision.
Erosional channels develop upfan and on the slumped
slope-apron. Dimensions of the channel systems in-
crease as the fan grows. The direction of the turbidite
flows is constrained by vertical movement of the
Abikh folds and the eastern flexure, creating axial
drainage. Thus, CLS develops cycle drainage oblique
to the main deltaic progradatonal loci ŽFig. 15b..
This possibly happens as canyons develop early in
this period as a response to the erosion from local
sources, mass-wasting processes and resedimentation
by currents from Middle Caspian mentioned in Lebe-
dev Ž1987.. This northeastern area had undergone
greater subsidence than shelf-margin depocenter and
was rapidly infilled by slumped sediments from all
sides. Erosional processes in this area must have
been very extensive ŽFig. 14b.. The canyons may
have captured drainage from Paleo-Amudarya during
lowstands.
When the margin progrades further, it develops
high-angle oblique clinoforms ŽFig. 15c., whereas
CLS coeval to high-amplitude continuous sequence
becomes more aggradational Žstacked. and later de-
velops offset channel patterns.
The Paleo-Amudarya river system was the main
source of sedimentation in the central basin sedimen-
tation during depostition of sequences 5–10. This is
shown by the thickness trends and position of shelf-
margin depocenters within these sequences.
8. Discussion on the causes of cyclical deposition
Sedimentation patterns in large closed lakes, such
as the Caspian, are functions of interplay between
climatic factors, tectonism and sediment input.
Climatic factors are recognized as the driving
force in the formation of depositional episodes in the
SCB by many authors ŽZubakov and Borzenkova,
1990; Jones and Simmons, 1997.. Low latitude or
arid lakes Žas is the case with the Caspian Sea. are
extremely sensitive to climatic changes and Caspian
lake level has wildly fluctuated even in historic
times.
Zubakov and Borzenkova Ž1990. provide an ex-
ample of dated marine terraces off the Caspian coast,
that show a rate of tectonic uplift of 0.4–0.9
mmryear, whereas closed arid lakes with high terri-
geneous input depositional rates are mostly in the
order of 1 mmryear. For the Productive Series, for
example, the rate of deposition is ) 3 mmryear, as
mentioned in Mamedov Ž1992.. Quaternary Aperi-
odsB in the Caspian–Baku Khvalyn, Khazar are well
tied to transgressive and regression episodes caused
by climatic variations. Wet and cold periods corre-
spond to glaciations and increasing water runoff,
224 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226
whereas dry and hot periods correspond to inter-
glacial periods, increased evaporation and, therefore,
lowering lake level ŽZubakov and Borzenkova, 1990..
Thus, an inverse relationship with the eustatic fluctu-
ations of sea level is observed.
The modern Amudarya River starts at the foot of
glaciers in the mountains of the Pamirs and drains a
significant area of Central Asia into the Aral Sea,
and the same conditions could have existed when the
river was flowing into the Caspian Sea.
In addition, in low latitude and arid lakes, the
climate influences the sediment input directly by
reducing and increasing it, correspondingly, during,
dry and wet weather ŽScholz et al., 1998..
Tectonism may play a significant role in the
regional sequence boundary formation, by control-
ling depositional drainage of the basin and sediment
input. The scale of this influence depends on the
scale of tectonic movements. For example, the shelf
margin of Kura delta, located in the Kura–Enzeli
depression, is greatly influenced by mud tectonism,
and individual minibasins are on the scale of 5–10
km in width. The location of mud diapiric ridges in
the central part of the basin is likely controlled by
the position of deep-seated basement faults. For ex-
ample, Abikh and Vesirov ridges are thought to be
underlain by basement fault zones ŽLebedev, 1987;
Bagirzade et al., 1987.. Growth faulting and
AflexureB in Turkmenistan near the Fersman and
Veber structures is associated with growth faulting
and shelf edge collapse within Productive Series
interval. Mapping of the shelf edge for Middle-Plio-
cene Productive Series in the Turkmenistan offshore
shows shelf to basin relations similar to the modern
system ŽMamedov, 1991.. Broad buried anticlines,
where Pleistocene beds show trends of thinning, can
be related to the main South Turkmenistan fold zone.
At present, it is difficult to identify the causes of
the sequence formation, as deepwater and slope fa-
cies are not well constrained by dating. All main
factors may be operational, however, the thickness of
wedges and the frequency and continuity of bound-
ing unconformities in the shelf-margin zone must be
noted Ž12 sequences in approximately ; 1.2 Ma..
This may be related to frequent climatic variations.
Autocyclic processes also influence depositional
patterns. For example, switching of the main Paleo-
Amudarya delta from Caspian to Aral sea happened
in the Late Pleistocene which constrains the last
prograding deltaic wedge to this period ŽYunov and
Martirosyan, 1991.. Holocene sediments on the sea
floor and from shallow coring show significant car-
bonate production — oolitic sands, shells on the
shelf and organic oozes deepwater ŽLebedev, 1987.,
reflecting the drainage switch of the Amudarya River
system.
Seismic stratigraphic study shows high-amplitude
and frequent lake level shifts in the Late Pliocene
and Quaternary show a relationship between deepwa-
ter sediments in the central SCB and the prograda-
tion of the Paleo-Amudarya shelf margin. Since lake
level varied extremely rapidly as the result of cli-
matic conditions, tectonics, and the variably but
typically high sediment input, passive-margin scale
shelf-margin and deepwater depositional systems de-
veloped within a relatively short period of time.
Further studies of this kind should provide more
insight on the timing and control on the sequence
boundaries and influence, which of synsedimentary
tectonics, climate change and sediment supply ex-
hibit the major control on the depositional patterns in
the basin.
9. Conclusions
From this study, the following conclusions are
drawn.
Ž1. During the Late Pliocene and Quaternary, the
South Caspian Basin sedimentation occurred under
conditions of a closed deep lacustrine basin with
high terrigineous input. Deposition was controlled by
synsedimentary tectonics and lake level.
Ž2. Mapping and analysis of seismic sequences
shows a linkage between shelf and deepwater deposi-
tion and a relationship to progradation of the
Amudarya shelf margin and the relative lake-level
change. These lake level changes are believed to
have been governed by a combination of tectonic
and climatic forces.
Ž3. Seismic facies analysis in deepwater areas
shows the existence of two stratigraphic complexes:
the first ŽALate PlioceneB: sequences 1–4. with on-
lap-fill mud-rich turbidite systems and the second
ŽQuaternary: sequence 5–10., with fan-lobes, chan-
nel-levee systems and slumps. Slumps and slides in
 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226
central and northwestern parts of the SCP dominate
the Quaternary northern slope and deepwater deposi-
tion.
Ž4. Deepwater fans occur in the central part of the
basin fed by the eastern Amudarya shelf. The
AAmudarya fanB, formed in the Quaternary and de-
veloped an axial northeastern–southwestern drainage
as the deposition was controlled by growing diapir
folds possibly along basement faults. Canyons cut
within slumped slope-apron margin directly feed this
fan system.
Ž5. The modern eastern shelf edge deposition is
controlled by the location of basements faults. Other
evidence suggests that this system also limits shelf
clinoforms during deposition of the Productive Se-
ries, thus implying similar location of the shelf-
margin depocenters during that time.
Ž6. Application of the seismic stratigraphic meth-
ods in this study proved to be very useful in analyz-
ing the SCB sedimentary fill. Depositional patterns
and the scale of progradational complexes and deep-
water fans in the Upper PliocenerQuaternary section
are different from other lacustrine systems, and can
be compared with those on passive margins.
Acknowledgements
This paper summarizes an MS thesis published in
Colorado School of Mines, 1999. Research was
funded by then Amoco Caspian. The author thanks
his thesis advisor Dr. Tom Davis for guidance, BP
Amoco colleagues, especially G. Riley, R. Djevan-
shir, Neil Piggot for comments and suggestions and
reviewing.
References
Bagirzade, F.M., Kerimov, K.M., Salayev, S.G., 1987. Glubinnoe
stroenie I neftegazonosnost’ Yujno–Kaspiyskoi Megadepres-
sii. Baku, Elm, 302 pp. Žin Russian..
Bozkurt, G., Nummedal, D., Eichen, D., 1997. Sequence stratigra-
phy of the Pleistocene Amu–Darya Delta on the Turkmen
sector of the Caspian Sea. SEG Ann. Meet. Expanded Abstr..
p. 613.
Brown, L.F. Jr., Fisher, W.L., 1977. Seismic stratigraphic inter-
pretation of depositional systems: examples from Brazilian rift
225
and pull-apart basins. In: Payton, C.E. ŽEd.., Seismic Stratigra-
phy — Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration. AAPG
Mem. vol. 26, pp. 213–248.
Emery, D., Myers, K.J., 1997. Sequence Stratigraphy. Blackwell
Science, London, 298 pp.
Feng, J., Buffler, R.T., 1994. Turbidite systems and their temporal
distribution, deep of Gulf of Mexico. SEPM Foundation 15
Annual Research Conference Abstracts, Submarine Fan and
Turbidite Systems. pp. 115–125.
Jones, R.W., Simmons, M.D., 1997. A review of the stratigraphy
of Eastern Paratethys ŽOligocene–Holocene., with particular
emphasis on the Black Sea. Regional and Petroleum Geology
of the Black Sea and Surrounding Region. AAPG Mem. vol.
68, pp. 39–51.
Kosarev, A.N., Yablonskaya, E.A., 1994. The Caspian Sea. SPB
Academic Publishing, The Hague, Netherlands, 259 pp.
Kulakova, L.S., Lebedev, L.I., 1996. Some features of mud
volcanism of the South Caspian. Pet. Geol. 30, 346–349.
Lebedev, L.I. ŽEd.., 1987. Kaspiyskoe More: Geologiya I
Neftegazonosnost’, Moscow, Nedra, 302 pp. Žin Russian..
Mamedov, P.Z., 1991. Paleo-deltaic complexes in the North of the
South Caspian depression. Pet. Geol. 25, 344–347.
Mamedov, P.Z., 1992. Seismostratigraphicheskie issledovaniya v
Kaspiyskom more: post-doctoral thesis, AzGNA, Baku, Azer-
baijan, 302 pp. Žin Russian..
Mangino, S., Priestly, K., 1998. Crustal structure of the Southern
Caspian region. Geophys. J. Int. 133 Ž3., 630–648.
McNeill, K.P., Jones, E., Aliev, F., Russel, T., Asher, L., 1996.
Modern seismic in Azerbaijan’s Caspian Sea. Oil and Gas
Petroleum Systems in Rapidly Subsiding Basins. AAPGr
ASPG Res. Symp. Abstr. pp. 1–2.
Mitchum, R.M. Jr., Vail, P.R., Thompson, S., 1977a. Seismic
stratigraphy and global changes in sea level: Part 1. Deposi-
tional sequence as a basic unit for stratigraphic analysis. In:
Payton, C.E. ŽEd.., Seismic Stratigraphy — Application to
Hydrocarbon Exploration. AAPG Mem. vol. 26, pp. 53–62.
Mitchum, R.M. Jr., Vail, P.R., Sangree, J.R., 1977b. Seismic
stratigraphy and global changes in sea level: Part 6. Strati-
graphic interpretation of seismic reflection patterns in deposi-
tional sequence. In: Payton, C.E. ŽEd.., Seismic Stratigraphy
— Application to Hydrocarbon Exploration. AAPG Mem. vol.
26, pp. 117–142.
Murphy, J., Kulieva, R., 1995. Regional correlations in the South
Caspian Sea: implications for stratigraphic nomenclature.
AAPG Bull. 79 Ž8., 1237–1238.
Narimanov, A.A., 1990. Late Pleistocene stage of geological
development in the western shelf of South Caspian Sea. Pet.
Geol. 25, 344–346.
Otto, S.C., 1997. Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of deformation and
petroleum systems in the sedimentary basins of Central Asia:
implications of collision on the Eurasian margin. Pet. Geosci.
3, 327–341.
Pickering, K.T., Hiscott, R.N., Hein, F.J., 1989. Deep Marine
Environments: Clastic Sedimentation and Tectonics. Unwin
Hyman, London, 416 pp.
Reynolds, A.D., Simmoms, M.D., Bowman, B.J., Henton, J.,
Brayshaw, A.C., Ali-Zade, A.A., Guliyev, I.S., Suleymanova,
226 N.R. AbdullayeÕr Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 28 (2000) 207–226
S.F., Ataeva, E.Z., Mamedova, D.N., Koshkarly, R.O., 1998.
Implications of outcrop geology for reservoirs in the Neogene
Productive Series: Apsheron peninsula, Azerbaijan. AAPG
Bull. 82, 25–47.
Sangree, J.R., Widmier, J.M., 1977. Seismic stratigraphy and
global changes in sea level: Part 9. Seismic interpretation of
clastic depositional facies. In: Payton, C.E. ŽEd.., Seismic
Stratigraphy — Application to Hydrocarbon Exploration.
AAPG Mem. vol. 26, pp. 165–184.
Scholz, C.A., Moore, T.C., Hutchinson, D.R., Golmshtok, A.Ja.,
Klitgord, K.D., Kurotchkin, A.G., 1998. Comparative se-
quence stratigraphy of low latitude versus high latitude lacus-
trine rift basins: seismic data examples from East African and
Baikal rifts. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 140,
401–420.
Smale, J.L., Baylin, T., Shikhaliyev, Y., 1997. Faulting and
associated mud diapirism in the South Caspian Basin: implica-
tion for hydrocarbon trap development. SEG Annu. Meet.
Expanded. pp. 589–591.
View publication stats
Vail, P.R., 1987. Seismic stratigraphy interpretation using se-
quence stratigraphy: Part 1. Sequence stratigraphy interpreta-
tion procedure. In: Bally, A.W. ŽEd.., Atlas of Seismic Stratig-
raphy, Vol. 1. AAPG Stud. Geol. vol. 27, pp. 1–10.
Vail, P.R., Mithcum, R.M. Jr., Todd, R.O., Widmier, J.M.,
Thompson, S. III, Sangree, J.B., Bubb, J.N., Hatlelid, W.O.,
1977. Seismic Stratigraphy — Application to Dydrocarbon
Exploration. AAPG Mem. vol. 26, pp. 51–212.
Weimer, P.R., 1989. Sequence stratigraphy, facies geometries and
depositional history of the Mississippi fan, Gulf of Mexico.
AAPG Bull. 74, 182–272.
Yunov, A.Y., Martirosyan, B., 1991. Structure of the outer zone
of the Turkmenistan shelf of the south Caspian based on
seismic data. Pet. Geol. 27, 389–393.
Zonenshain, L.P., Le Pichon, X., 1985. Deep basins of the Black
Sea and Caspian Sea as remnants of Mesozoic back-arc basins.
Tectonophysics 123, 181–211.
Zubakov, V.A., Borzenkova, I.I., 1990. Global Paleoclimate of the
Late Cenozoic. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 300 pp.