EE2020 - M00b - W01 - WI17 (V03)

Module 00: Review of EE 2000
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Topic 1: Applications of Electrical Engineering
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Applications of Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering can be divided in two great application fields:
- Field 1: Electricity in Energy
Electric Power deals with the generation, distribution and consumption of energy in its electrical form.
- Field 2: Electricity in Information
This field is divided in three sub-fields:
• Computers Systems: They process information from word processing to mathematical computations.
• Communication Systems: They process visual or sound information among others.
• Control Systems: Use the electrical information for an automatic regulation of industrial processes or mechanisms.
Advances in computing technology allow us to transmit information for these systems using Digital Signal Processing (DSP).
Due to advances in digital electronics in recent years, aside Electrical Engineering, electricity is an important part of the Body of
Knowledge (BOK) of other engineering branches such as: Computer Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Aerospace
Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, and Industrial Engineering among others.
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Topic 2: Engineering Circuit Analysis
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Engineering Circuit Analysis
It is mostly involved with the way of solving problems. We will not revisit to physics formulations. As a first step, we will use
physics principles to formulate a problem solving solution. As a second step, we will use mathematical techniques to obtain a
proper solution that can be verifiable.
Most circuit analysis will be performed with the assumption that the circuits are ideal. This implies that:
a) There is an instantaneous transmission of electricity from one point to another in the circuit.
b) No component of the electrical circuit will retain any change nor any magnetic energy.
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Topic 3: SI Units
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SI Units
The SI Unit System is based on seven defined fundamental quantities, described in the table:
Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature degree Kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
There are other units derived from the fundamental units:
Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

frequency hertz (Hz) s-1
force newton (N) (kg m)/s2
energy or work joule (J) Nm
power watt (W) J/s
electric change coulomb (C) As
electric potential volt (V) J/C
electric resistance ohm (Ω) V/A
electric conductance siemens (S) A/V
electric capacitance farad (F) C/V
magnetic flux weber (Wb) Vs
inductance henry (H) Wb/A
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For practical purposes, instead of using scientific notation, engineering use prefixes based on powers of 10 applied to
fundamental and derived units:
Symbol Power Prefix

yocto y 10-24
zepto z 10-21
atto a 10-18
femto f 10-15
pico p 10-12
nano n 10-9
micro µ 10-6
milli m 10-3
centi c 10-2
deci d 10-1
deka da 101
hecto h 102
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
tera T 1012
peta P 1015
exa E 1018
zetta Z 1021
yotta Y 1024
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Topic 4: Some Ideas
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Some Ideas
1) A common mathematical representation of an electrical system is a circuit model.

2) Elements of a circuit are called the ideal circuit components.
3) This course is focused on the tools for doing circuit analysis
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Topic 5: Definition of Voltage and Current
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Definition of Voltage and Current
The definition of voltage is given by:
v = dw/dq,
where:
v = the voltage in volts,

w = the energy in joules,
q = the charge in coulombs.
The definition of current is given as:
i = dq/dt,
where:
i = the current in amperes,

q = the charge in coulombs,
t = the time in seconds.
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Topic 6: The Circuit Element
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The Circuit Element
It relates the following things:
1) The unknown circuit element pictured only as a box.

2) The voltage pictured as a polarity of the form ±.
3) The current pictured as an arrow →.
4) The element terminals 1 and 2.
The figure follows:
Figure: J. Riollano
The current flows from terminal 1 to terminal 2. The + sign of the voltage points at terminal 1.
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Topic 7: Power and Energy
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Power and Energy
Power is defined as the transfer of energy:
p = dw/dt,
where:
p = the power in watts,

w = the energy in joules,
t = the time in seconds.
In terms of voltage and current, electric power, or energy transfer, is defined as the product of current and voltage in every
circuit element, unknown in this case:
Figure: J. Riollano
p = + v · i.
Notice that the current enters the thru terminal 1, which also has a + sign. Then we add to the product a positive sign that
indicates that the energy transfer is to the unknown circuit element. Therefore the element is passive. If we do one of two
things:
1) Change the current direction, or flowing from terminal 2 to terminal 1,
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2) Change the voltage polarity, or the + signs points to terminal 1,
the product becomes:
p = - v · i.
This indicates that the energy transfer is from the unknown circuit element. Therefore the element is active.
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Topic 8: Independent Ideal Sources
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Independent Ideal Sources
The figure of the independent ideal voltage source connected to an electric circuit is given:
Figure: J. Riollano
It keeps a prescribed voltage across its terminals regardless the current flowing in those terminals. The voltage does not rely
on current or voltages elsewhere in the circuit. The figure of the independent ideal current source connected to an electric
circuit is given:
Figure: J. Riollano
It keeps a prescribed current across its terminals regardless the voltage across those terminals. The current does not rely on
current or voltages elsewhere in the circuit.
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Topic 9: Ohm’s Law
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Ohm’s Law
The electrical resistance, called R, is connected to an electric circuit, as given:
Figure: J. Riollano
The current enters thru the positive terminal of the voltage. Under this circumstances, the algebraic relationship between the
voltage and current passing thru its terminals is given by the equation:
v = R · i.
The sign of this relationship is positive. If either the voltage or the current reference value is changed, the equation becomes:
v = - R · i.
The electric power is given by the equations:
p = v · i = i2 · R = v2 / R.
Example 9a
A .5Ω resistor receives a 4A current. Then it is subject to a 2V potential and an 8W energy transfer in the passive sense.
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Topic 10: Kirchhoff’s Laws and Sign Convention
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Kirchhoff’s Laws and Sign Convention
A node is a special terminal where two or more circuit elements meet. Consider the diagram below:
Figure: J. Riollano
The Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) says that the algebraic sum all currents at any node in a circuit is zero. Assuming as
reference a negative sign for a current variable entering a node we have that:
- i1 + i2 - i3 = 0.
A loop is defined a closed path in a circuit through selected basic circuits elements which starts at an specific point and returns
to the same point without passing through an intermediate point or node more than once. Consider the diagram below:
Figure: J. Riollano
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The Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) says that the algebraic sum of all the voltage through a closed path equals zero. Assuming a
clockwise rotation starting at the lower left corner, with a sign associated to the voltage polarity sign we first touch in each
element we have that:
- v1 + v2 - v3 = 0.
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Topic 11: Short and Open Circuit
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Short and Open Circuit
A short circuit is a particular zone, as the one connected to an electric circuit, as given:
Figure: J. Riollano
Here the electric potential, or voltage is zero. Also the electric resistance is zero (0). Nothing can be said about the current. It
is determined by the electric circuit connected to the short circuit. Consider an open circuit also as a particular zone, as the one
connected to an electric circuit, as given:
Figure: J. Riollano
Here the electric current is zero. Also the electric resistance is infinity (∞). Nothing can be said about the voltage. It is
determined by the electric circuit connected to the open circuit.
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Topic 12: Limitations with Ideal Voltage Sources
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Limitations with Ideal Voltage Sources
Consider the following two figures:
Figure: J. Riollano
These figures represent proper operation of independent voltage sources. The circuit at the left has no current, and no power.
The circuit at the right is correct if the voltages E1 and E2 are strictly equal, in order to obey KVL. Current cannot be determined
in this circuit. Now consider the next two figures:
Figure: J. Riollano
These figures represent improper operation of independent voltage sources. The circuit at the left has no voltage at the right
side, which is a contradiction with KVL if E1 exists. The circuit at the right is incorrect if the voltages E1 and E2 are different for
the same reasons as before.
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Topic 13: Limitations with Ideal Current Sources
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Limitations with Ideal Current Sources
Consider the following two figures:
Figure: J. Riollano
These figures represent proper operation of independent current sources. The circuit at the left has no voltage, and no power.
The circuit at the right is correct if the currents I1 and I2 are strictly equal, in order to obey KCL. Voltage cannot be determined
in this circuit. Now consider the next two figures:
Figure: J. Riollano
These figures represent improper operation of independent current sources. The circuit at the left has no current at the right
side, which is a contradiction with KCL if I1 exists. The circuit at the right is incorrect if the currents I1 and I2 are different for the
same reasons as before.
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Topic 14: Dependent Voltage Sources
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Dependent Voltage Sources
There dependent voltage sources are energy sources that depend on the existence of an internal voltage or current
measurement. Otherwise they will act as a short circuit. A Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) diagram is shown
below:
Figure: J. Riollano
The measurement Vx is responsible for the existence of Vs. The parameter µ is called the voltage gain and has units V/V,
technically non dimensional. A Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS) diagram is shown below:
Figure: J. Riollano
The measurement Ix is responsible for the existence of Vs. The parameter r is called the transfer resistance and has units V/A.
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Topic 15: Dependent Current Sources
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Dependent Current Sources
There dependent current sources are energy sources that depend on the existence of an internal voltage or current
measurement. Otherwise they will act as an open circuit. A Voltage-Controlled Current Source (VCCS) diagram is shown
below:
Figure: J. Riollano
The measurement Vx is responsible for the existence of Is. The parameter g is called the transfer conductance and has units
A/V. A Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS) diagram is shown below:
Figure: J. Riollano
The measurement Ix is responsible for the existence of Is. The parameter β is called the current gain and has units A/A,
technically non dimensional.
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Example 15a
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the power in all elements. Verify the Energy Conservation Law. The solution process is next:
c) Solution
Step 1: Note that Vx = 4V.

Step 2: Apply KCL to the upper node, leaving:
KCL: .5Vx - 1 - Io = 2 - 1 - Io = 0. Therefore Io = 1A.
Step 3: Define V1A with the “+” sign in the upward side. Apply KVL in the clockwise sense starting from the lower central, then:
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KVL: 2Io - V1A + 4 = 2 - V1A + 4 = 0. Therefore V1A = 6V.
We show next a sketch of how these currents look:
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 4: We conclude by verifying the Energy Conservation Law. Let’s work with a table:
Element Voltage · Current Power (Status)

.5Vx VCCS + (4 · 2) + 8W (Passive)
1A Current Source - (6 · 1) - 6W (Active)
2Io CCVS + (2 · 1) + 2W (Passive)
4V Voltage Source - (4 · 1) - 4W (Active)
Total 0W
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Topic 16: Circuit Analysis with Independent Sources
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Circuit Analysis with Independent Sources
Before working the next circuit analysis examples, we will make some considerations:
Consideration 1: We will work now circuits with resistors and sources (voltage & current).
Consideration 2: All resistors relate the voltage and current variable using the Ohm's Law.
Consideration 3: All current variables are defined thru the resistors and are worked with KCL. This will include all current
sources.
Consideration 4: All voltage variables defined thru the resistors are worked with KVL. This will include all voltage sources.
Next is an example of a Type 1 Circuit Analysis Problem. It consists of balancing all voltage and current information in a circuit
using KVL, KCL, and Ohm’s law.
Example 16a
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
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Find all voltage and currents in the circuit.
c) Solution
Step 1: Find the current thru the 12Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law, which is 24/12 = 2A with the arrow downwards.
Step 2: Find the voltage thru the 8Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law, which is 2 · 8 = 16V with the + pointing to the left.
Step 3: Find the 5Ω resistor voltage using KVL, which is 24 + 16 = 40V with the + pointing up.
Step 4: Find the 5Ω current using Ohm’s Law, which is 40/5 = 8A, arrow downwards. Also confirmed using KCL at upper node.
Step 5: The power at the 5Ω resistor is 40 · 8 = +320W. The + sign indicates this is a passive element.
A summary of the information is given:
Figure: J. Riollano
Next is an example of a Type 2 Circuit Analysis Problem. It consists of fining an undefined component value thru balancing all
voltage and current information.
Example 16b
a) Given
For the circuit:
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Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the value of the resistor R.
c) Solution
Step 1: Find the current thru the 8Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law, which is 12/8 = 1.5A with the arrow downwards.
Step 2: Find the current thru the 24Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law, which is 12/24 = 0.5A with the arrow downwards.
Step 3: Find the current thru the R resistor using KCL, which is 1.5 + 0.5 = 2A, the arrow from right to left through the resistor.
Step 4: Find the voltage thru the R resistor using KVL, which is 20 - 12 = 8V with the + pointing to the left of resistor R.
Step 5: Find the resistor R value using Ohm’s Law, which is 8/2 = 4Ω.
A summary of the information is given:
Figure: J. Riollano
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Next is an example of a Type 3 Circuit Analysis Problem. It consists of solving a system of equations for unknown voltages and
currents.
Example 16c
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the value of the current Io and the voltage Vx.
c) Solution
Step 1: There is one voltage source which demands the formulation of a KVL equation.
Step 2: There is one current source which demands the formulation of a KCL equation.
Step 3: Define the voltage thru the 2Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law by the product (2 · Io), with the + sign pointing to the left of the
resistor. Starting with a clockwise movement from the lower left corner of the circuit, the KVL equation becomes:
- 24 + (2 · Io) + Vx = 0.
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Step 4: Define the current thru the 4Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law by the division (Vx / 4), with the arrow downwards. Assigning a
+ sign for those currents leaving the upper node, the KCL equation becomes:
- Io + (Vx / 4) - 3 = 0.
A figure to enforce the details of previous equations references are given in red:
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 5: Solving the previous two equations gives us:
Io = 2A, Vx = 20V.
Example 16d
a) Given
For the circuit
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Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
c) Solution
Step 3: Define the voltage thru the 4Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law by the product (4 · Io), with the + sign pointing upwards of the
resistor. Starting with a clockwise movement from the lower left corner of the circuit, the KVL equation becomes:
- Vx - 24 + (4 · Io) = 0.
Step 4: Define the current thru the 2Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law by the division (Vx / 2), with the arrow to the left. Assigning a +
sign for those currents leaving the upper node, the KCL equation becomes:
Io + 3 + (Vx / 2) = 0.
A figure to enforce the details of previous equations references are given in red:
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Figure: J. Riollano
Step 5: Solving the previous two equations gives us:
Io = 3A, Vx = -12V.
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Topic 17: Circuit Analysis with Dependent Sources
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Circuit Analysis with Dependent Sources
Steps applied in previous section will be used here. Dependent voltage & current sources circuits will be subject of the five-
step process, which include KVL, KCL, and Ohm’s laws. In the solution process we have to dispose the variable that controls
the source.
Example 17a
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
c) Solution
Step 1: There is one dependent voltage source 2Io which demands the formulation of a KVL equation.
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Step 3: Define the voltage thru the 5Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law by the product (5 · Io), with the + sign pointing to the right of
the resistor. Starting with a clockwise movement from the lower left corner of the circuit, the KVL equation becomes:
- 2Io - (5 · Io) + Vx = 0.
Step 4: Define the current thru the 3Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law by the division (Vx / 3), with the arrow downwards. Assigning a
+ sign for those currents leaving the upper node, the KCL equation becomes:
Io + (Vx / 3) - 2 = 0.
A figure to enforce the details of previous equations references is given in red:
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 5: Going strictly thru mathematics, the system of equations can be fixed to look like:
KVL: Vx - 7Io = 0,
KCL: Vx + 3Io = 6.
Solving the previous two equations gives us:
Io = 0.6A, Vx = 4.2V.
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Example 17b
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
c) Solution
Step 1: There is one dependent current source 1.25Vx which demands the formulation of a KCL equation.
Step 3: Define the voltage thru the 2Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law by the product (2 · Io), with the + sign pointing to the upper
side of the resistor. Starting with a clockwise movement from the lower center corner of the circuit, the KVL equation becomes:
- (2 · Io) - Vx + 20 = 0.
Step 4: Define the current thru the 4Ω resistor using Ohm’s Law by the division (Vx / 4), with the arrow to the left of the resistor.
The KCL equation becomes:
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- 1.25Vx + Io - (Vx / 4) = 0.
A figure to enforce the details of previous equations references is given in red:
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 5: Going strictly thru mathematics, the system of equations can be fixed to look like:
KVL: Vx + 2Io = 20,

KCL: -1.5Vx + Io = 0.
Solving the previous two equations gives us:
Io = 7.5A, Vx = 5.0V.
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Topic 18: Circuit Analysis with Independent Sources
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Resistors in Series and Parallel Connections
Consider the circuit composed of three series resistors:
Figure: J. Riollano
Applying KVL and solving for the current I, gives us:
- E + (I · R1) + (I · R2) + (I · R3) = 0, then
I = E / (R1 + R2 + R3) = E / (Req).
The resistors share the same current. For these reason it is said all are connected in series. Then, we can make what voltage
source E sees look simpler:
Figure: J. Riollano
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Therefore:
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 = ΣRs in series.
Illustrative Example 18a
Consider the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
The final circuit looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
Clearly Req = 20 + 5 + 4 = 29Ω. Notice that Req > 20Ω > 5Ω > 4Ω.
Now consider this case of a circuit composed of three parallel conductances:
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Figure: J. Riollano
Where,
G1 = 1 / R1, G2 = 1 / R2, G3 = 1 / R3.
All are called conductances, or resistance reciprocal values. Next apply KCL to the upper node and solving for the voltage V,
leaving:
- I + (V · G1) + (V · G2) + (V · G3) = 0, then
V = I / (G1 + G2 + G3) = I / (Geq).
The conductances share the same voltage. For these reason all are connected in parallel. Then, we can make what current
source I sees simpler:
Figure: J. Riollano
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Therefore:
Geq = G1 + G2 + G3 = ΣGs in parallel.
Notice that:
Req = 1 / Geq = 1 / (G1 + G2 + G3) = 1 / (ΣGs in parallel).
Now consider the case of using resistance values to find Req:
1 / Req = (1 / R1) + (1 / R2) + (1 / R3) = (R2R3 + R1R3 + R1R2) / (R1R2R3),
or,
Req = (R1R2R3) / (R2R3 + R1R3 + R1R2).
Cleanly using resistances in this case is more complicated. It is more practical to use the reciprocal value of the addition pof
parallel conductances. However for the case of 2 resistors you can easily show that:
Req = (R1R2) / (R1 + R2).
For more than 2 resistors, it is easier to work with conductances in parallel:
Geq = ΣGs in parallel.
As a final note in this topic we can say:
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1) Req in series > than each one of the series resistances.
2) Geq in parallel > than each one of the parallel conductance, but Req = (1 / Geq) < than each one of the parallel resistances.
Illustrative Example 18b
Figure: J. Riollano
Clearly Geq = .20 + .25 + .05 = .50S. Notice that Geq > .25S > .20S > .05S.
Figure: J. Riollano
Now consider the same circuit in terms of resistances:
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Figure: J. Riollano
Clearly Req = 1 / Geq = 2Ω. Notice that Req < 4Ω < 5Ω < 20Ω.
Figure: J. Riollano
Illustrative Example 18c
Consider again the previous circuit, but now evaluate first the equivalent resistance of the two rightmost (4Ω and 20Ω) resistors.
Because we have only two resistors, the equivalent resistance can be evaluated like:
Req1 = (4 · 20) / (4 + 20) = (10 / 3) = 3.33Ω.
The reduced circuit looks like:
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Figure: J. Riollano
Then, let’s use this value, with the leftmost 5Ω resistor value to get the equivalent resistance value:
Req = (3.33 · 5) / (3.33 + 5) = (16.67 / 8.33) = 2.00Ω.
Figure: J. Riollano
This strategy of solution may be good when you have few resistors in parallel, but is cumbersome if you have many. The best
option is to invert the value of the equivalent conductance.
Example 18d
a) Given
For the circuit:
57
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the equivalent resistance.
c) Solution
We do the following:
Step 1: Go to the extreme right of the circuit and add the 6Ω and the 10Ω resistors in series, leaving a value of 16Ω, and a
circuit which looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 2: Go to the extreme right of the remaining circuit and combine 16Ω and the 64Ω resistors in parallel, giving a value of:
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Req = (16 · 64) / (16 + 64) = (1024 / 80) = 12.8Ω.
The new circuit looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 3: Go to the extreme right of the new circuit and add the 7.2Ω and the 12.8Ω resistors in series, leaving a value of 20Ω,
and a circuit which looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 4: Go to the extreme right of the new circuit and combine 30Ω and the 20Ω resistors in parallel, giving a value of:
Req = (20 · 30) / (20+ 30) = (600 / 5) = 12Ω.
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Figure: J. Riollano
Notice that the circuit reduction goes from right to left. As a summary the process of obtaining the equivalent resistance can be
summarized with the proper notation in this way:
Clearly Req = [30 || (7.2 + [64 || (6 + 10)])] = 12Ω.
Notice that: R1 || R2 = (R1 · R2) / (R1 + R2).
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Topic 20: Voltage and Current Division
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Voltage and Current Division
Figure: J. Riollano
The current I = E / Req, but Vx = IR3 = (E / Req) · R3. Therefore, we will express a voltage division operator as,
Vx = E · (R3 / (R1 + R2 + R3)).
Here Vx is a fraction of the total circuit voltage E. As the numerator gets large, so the value of Vx. Consider now the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
Here G1 = (1 / R1), G2 = (1 / R2), G3 = (1 / G3). Notice that the voltage V = I / Geq, but Ix = VG3 = (I / Geq) · G3. Therefore, we will
express the current division operator as,
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Ix = I · (G3 / (G1 + G2 + G3)).
Ix is a fraction of the current I. As the numerator gets large, so the value of Ix. Consider the case of only two resistors:
Figure: J. Riollano
Ix = I · (G2 / (G1 + G2)).
It can be shown that if we let G1 = 1 / R1, G2 = 1 / R2 then,
Ix = I · (R1 / (R1 + R2)).
Example 19a
a) Given
For the circuit of Example 18d, now connected to a 5A current source:
63
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find all currents and voltages using current division, voltage division, and Ohm’s Law.
c) Solution
We will do it by a procedure:
Step 1: Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit and evaluate its voltage. We already computed before that Req = 12Ω.
Then VR = (5 · 12) = 60V, as can be seen:
eq
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 2: Find using the Ohm’s Law the currents of the 30Ω and 20Ω resistors, which are:
I30Ω = (60 / 30) = 2A, I20Ω = (60 / 20) = 3A.
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This can be seen as:
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 3: Break the 20Ω resistor in one of 7.2Ω and other of 12.8Ω. Therefore using the Ohm’s law we have that:
V7.2Ω = (3 · 7.2) = 21.6V, V12.8Ω = (3 · 12.8) = 38.4V.
This can be seen in the following circuit diagram:
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 4: Also use current division to find the currents of the 64Ω and 16Ω parallel resistors that form the 12.8Ω resistor, leaving:
I64Ω = 3 · (16 / 80) = .6A, I16Ω = 3 · (64 / 80) = 2.4A.
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Figure: J. Riollano
Step 5: We will now apply voltage division to find the voltage after breaking the 16Ω resistor in one of 6Ω and other of 10Ω.
This leaves to:
V6Ω = 38.4 · (6 / 16) = 14.4V, V10Ω = 38.4 · (10 / 16) = 24V.
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 6: We conclude the problem by verifying the Energy Conservation Law. Let’s work with a table:
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Element Voltage · Current Power (Status)
5A Current Source - (60.0 · 5.0) - 300.00W (Active)
30Ω Resistor + (60.0 · 2.0) + 120.00W (Passive)
7.2Ω Resistor + (21.6 · 3.0) + 064.80W (Passive)
Total 0W
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Topic 21: The Node-Voltage Method
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The Node-Voltage Method
The Node-Voltage Method provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables.
Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the number of equations
one must solve simultaneously. It generally applies KCL to find unknown voltages. The next examples will illustrate how to
apply the Node-Voltage Method to find all the needed information inside a circuit.
Example 21a
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the two node voltages of this circuit. Also find the values of the current Io and the voltage Vx. Let’s now define a
systematic solution process to find each node voltage. It will be given in four steps as we will explain.
c) Solution
Step 1: Define the Node-Voltages
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A node is a union of three or more wires (with the exception of voltage sources). There are three nodes in the circuit, all
marked in red, as we can see:
Figure: J. Riollano
The node at the bottom is the ground node, and will have 0V. The upper nodes are the “live” Node Voltages V1 and V2 and will
be measured with respect to the ground node. Each voltage will represent a variable. Because we have two voltage, we will
need two linear equations to solve for both voltages. We call this number N. In other words:
Number of Node Voltages Equations, or N = 2.
Step 2: Type of Circuit Equations (KCL or KVL)
In general node equations are KCL equations. This applies when there are current sources, or no energy source touching the
nodes. The exception will rise when there are voltage sources, but this case will not be treated now. Let’s count:
Number of Voltage Sources (Independent or Dependent), or V = 0.
The existence of voltage sources forces the development of a KVL equation, which is not usual for a node equation (it is called
a special case). For every voltage source in a circuit there is one KCL node equation less. Summarized:
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Number of KVL Equations, or V = 0.
Number of KCL Equations, or N - V = 2 - 0 = 2.
The number of KCL equations not necessarily coincide with the value of C, but is good to have it as a reference information.
The next part is the most important of the whole process. There will be two KCL equations.
Step 3: Direct Circuit Equations
- Node 1 (KCL)
We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Node 1. Voltage V1 will be dominant. It will fix all currents going outside all
resistors in contact with it. Each resistor will be marked with an arrow, so the current of each resistor in the KCL equation will
be given by an Ohm’s Law equation of the type:
I = (V / R), or I = G · V, where G is a conductance.
This will make KCL equation easier because the current to this element will have a “+” sign. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
The KCL equation starts with currents from left to right of the dominant node, marked with a red square. The equation
becomes:
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- I1 + [V1 / R1] + [(V1 - V2) / R2] = 0.
Notice that the arrow at R2 moves from Node 1 to Node 2. We define Io = (V1 - V2) / R2. We expect to solve it later.
- Node 2 (KCL)
resistors in contact with it. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
becomes:
[(V2 - V1) / R2] + [V2 / R3] + I2 = 0.
Before leaving this step, we fix the equations for the next step, let’s say that G1 = 1 / R1, G2 = 1 / R2, and G3 = 1 / R3. All
resistors are now conductances:
Node 1 (KCL): (G1 + G2) · V1 - G2 · V2 = I1,

Node 2 (KCL): - G2 · V1 + (G2 + G3) · V2 = - I2.
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Step 4: Solution
Consider for the values of R1 = 4Ω (G1 = .25S), R2 = R3 = 2Ω (G2 = G3 = .5S), I1 = 3A, and I2 = 4A. From now on the problem
turns out to be one of mathematics. The linear system of equations becomes:
Node 1 (KCL): 0.75 · V1 - 0.50 · V2 = 3,

Node 2 (KCL): - 0.50 · V1 + 1.00 · V2 = - 4.
It is important to avoid irrational numbers, fractions, and decimal numbers. This will make the numerical solution process
easier. Multiply the Node 1 equation by 4, and the Node 2 equation by 2, leaving:
Node 1 (KCL): 3 · V1 - 2 · V2 = 12,

Node 2 (KCL): - 1 · V1 + 2 · V2 = - 8.
We will express the system of equations in matrix form and apply for example, the Cramer’s method (not shown here):
 3 - 2  V1 12
   =   .
 - 1 2 V2 - 8
The solution is given by the values of V1 = 2V, and V2 = - 3V. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit is
contained in the node voltages. It is up to you to check that:
Io = (V1 - V2) · G2 = [2 - (- 3)] · .5 = 2.5A, and Vx = V2 = - 3V.
Example 21b
a) Given
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For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the two node voltages of this circuit. Also find the values of the current Io and the voltage Vx.
c) Solution
Information of Io and Vx will not be included. Find the two node “live” voltages and the ground node of this circuit. These
voltages will be called node voltages V1 and V2, and will be measured with respect to the ground node, as seen:
74
Figure: J. Riollano
Each voltage will represent a variable, therefore:
Number of Node Voltage Equations, or N = 2.
Let’s count:
Number of Voltage Sources, or V = 1.
Summarized:
Number of KVL Equations, or V = 1,

There will be one KCL equation, and one KVL equation.
- Node 1 (KVL)
We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Node 1. As an exception, we assign the node between the voltage source
and resistor (only two wires). The sketch looks like:
75
Figure: J. Riollano
The voltage source will define the node voltage V1 as:
V1 = 24.
This is already one of the solutions.
- Node 2 (KCL)
Figure: J. Riollano
76
becomes:
[(V2 - V1) / 2] + [V2 / 4] - 3 = 0.
Before leaving this step, we say that (1 / 2) = .5, and (1 / 4) = .25, and multiply the KCL equation by 4. Then fix the equations
for the next step:
Node 1 (KVL): 1 · V1 + 0 · V2 = 24,

Node 2 (KCL): - 2 · V1 + 3 · V2 = 12.
Step 4: Solution
Substitute the KVL equation into the KCL equation, therefore:
- (2 · 24) + 3 · V2 = 12.
The solution is given by the values of V1 = 24V, and V2 = 20V. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit is
Io = (V1 - V2) · .5 = 2A, and Vx = V2 = 20V.
Notice that the values of Io and Vx are the same as the ones obtained in Example 16c, but using basic circuit analysis
techniques.
Example 21c
a) Given
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For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
c) Solution
Information of Io and Vx will not be included. Find the two node “live” voltages and the ground node of this circuit. These
voltages will be called node voltages V1 and V2, and will be measured with respect to the ground node, as seen:
78
Figure: J. Riollano
Let’s count:
Summarized:

We see that the voltage source is between the two nodes. We cannot take a KCL in each individual node, but thru the external
node, called the Supernode 12. The KCL will avoid the voltage source between the Node 1 and Node 2, as can be seen in the
topographical sketch:
79
Figure: J. Riollano
- Supernode 12 (KCL)
We represent the circuit such like the voltage V1 will be dominant in contact with Node 1, and the voltage V2 will be dominant in
contact with the Node 2. Each resistor will be marked with an arrow, so the current of each resistor in the KCL equation will be
given by an Ohm’s Law equation. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
becomes:
[V1 / 2] + 3 + [V2 / 4] = 0.
- Node 12 Constraint (KVL)
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We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of voltage source. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
Taking a KVL in the clockwise sense we get an equation constraint between node voltages V1 and V2, like:
- V1 - 24 + V2 = 0.
Before leaving this step, we let (1 / 2) = .5, and (1 /4) = .25, and multiply the KCL equation by 4. Then fix the equations for the
next step:
Supernode 12 (KCL): 2 · V1 + 1 · V2 = - 12,

Node 12 Constraint (KVL): 1 · V1 - 1 · V2 = - 24.
Step 4: Solution
2 1  V1  - 12 
   =  .
1 - 1 V2 - 24
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The solution is given by the values of V1 = -12V, and V2 = 12V. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit is
Io = (V2 / 4) = (12 / 4) = 3A, and Vx = V1 = -12V.
Notice that the values of Io and Vx are the same as the ones obtained in Example 16d, but using basic circuit analysis
techniques.
Example 21d
a) Given
For the circuit with a voltage-controlled current source (VCCS):
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
c) Solution
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Information of Io and Vx will not be included, but only the dependent current source 1.25Vx. Find the two node “live” voltages
and the ground node of this circuit. These voltages will be called node voltages V1 and V2, and will be measured with respect to
the ground node, as seen:
Figure: J. Riollano
Let’s count:
Number of Voltage Sources (Independent), or V = 1.
Summarized:

83
- Node 1 (KCL)
Figure: J. Riollano
becomes:
- 1.25 Vx + [V1 / 2] + [(V1 - V2) / 4] = 0.
- Mesh 2 (KVL)
84
Figure: J. Riollano
V2 = 20.
This is already one of the solutions. Before leaving this step, we say that Vx = (V2 - V1), (1 / 2) = .5, and (1 / 4) = .25. The Node
1 KCL equation becomes:
- 1.25 · [V2 - V1] + [.5 · V1] + [.25 · (V1 - V2)] = 0.
Multiply the KCL equation by 2. Then fix the equations for the next step:
Node 1 (KCL): 4 · V1 - 3 · V2 = 0,
Node 2 (KVL): 0 · V1 + 1 · V2 = 20.
Step 4: Solution
Substitute the KVL equation into the KCL equation, therefore:
4 · V1 - 3 · 20 = 0.
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The solution is given by the values of V1 = 15V, and V2 = 20V. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit is
Io = (V1 / 2) = 7.5A, and Vx = (V2 - V1) = 5V.
Notice that the values of Io and Vx are the same as the ones obtained in Example 17b, but using basic circuit analysis
techniques.
Example 21e
a) Given
For the circuit with a current-controlled voltage source (CCVS):
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
c) Solution
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Information of Io and Vx will not be included, but only the dependent voltage source 2Io. Find the two node “live” voltages and
the ground node of this circuit. These voltages will be called node voltages V1 and V2, and will be measured with respect to the
ground node, as seen
Figure: J. Riollano
Let’s count:
Number of Voltage Sources (Dependent), or V = 1.
Summarized:

87
- Node 1 (KVL)
Figure: J. Riollano
V1 = 2Io.
- Node 2 (KCL)
88
Figure: J. Riollano
becomes:
[(V2 - V1) / 5] + [V2 / 3] - 2 = 0.
Before leaving this step, we say that (1 / 5) = .2, and multiply the entire equation by 3. The KCL equation becomes:
[.6 · (V2 - V1)] + [V2] - 6 = 0.
Let Io = .2 · (V2 - V1). The KVL equation becomes:
V1 = .4 · (V2 - V1).
Then fix the equations for the next step:
Node 1 (KVL): 1.4 · V1 - .4 · V2 = 0,

Node 2 (KCL): - .6 · V1 + 1.6 · V2 = 6.
Multiply both equations by 5, leaving:
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Node 1 (KVL): 7 · V1 - 2 · V2 = 0,
Node 2 (KCL): - 3 · V1 + 8 · V2 = 30.
Step 4: Solution
From now on the problem turns to be one of mathematics. After multiplying both equations by 5, the linear system of equations
becomes in matrix form like:
 7 - 2  V1  0 
   =  
 - 3 8 V2 30
The solution is given by the values of V1 = 1.2V, and V2 = 4.2V. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit is
Io = (V2 - V1) / 5 = .6A, and Vx = V2 = 4.2V.
Notice that the values of Io and Vx are the same as the ones obtained in Example 17a, but using basic circuit analysis
techniques. Some advanced cases will be discussed next.
90
Topic 22: The Node-Voltage Methods, Advanced Cases
91
The Node-Voltage Methods, Advanced Cases
The next two examples provide an excellent reference on how solve large circuit problems from different angles, like the use of
the supenode concept.
Example 22a
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the three node voltages of this circuit. Also find the values of the current Io and the voltage Vx.
c) Solution
Information of Vx and Io will not be included. Find the three node “live” voltages and the ground node of this circuit. These
voltages will be called node voltages V1, V2, and V3, will be measured with respect to the ground node, as seen:
92
Figure: J. Riollano
Let’s count:
Summarized:

There will be one KCL equation, and two KVL equations.
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- Node 1 (KVL)
We will represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Node 1. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
Here the voltage source will define the node voltage V1 as:
V1 = 10.
- Node 2 (KCL)
94
Figure: J. Riollano
becomes:
[(V2 - V1) / 1] + [V2 / 1] + [(V2 - V3) / 1] = 0.
- Node 3 (KVL)
We will represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Node 3. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
Here the current source will define the mesh current V3 as:
V3 = 11.
Before leaving this step. We fix the equations for the next step:
Node 1 (KVL): 1 · V1 + 0 · V2 + 0 · V3 = 10,

Node 2 (KCL): - 1 · V1 + 3 · V2 - 1 · V3 = 0,
Node 3 (KVL): 0 · V1 + 0 · V2 + 1 · V3 = 11.
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Step 4: Solution
Substitute the KVL equations into the KCL equation, therefore:
- (1 · 10) + 3 · V2 - (1 · 11) = 0.
The solution is given by the values of V1 = 10V, V2 = 7V, and V3 = 11V. All the information to solve any measurement in the
circuit is contained in the node voltages. It is up to you to check that:
Io = [(V1 - V2) / 1] = 3A, and Vx = V2 = 7V.
Example 22b
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
96
Find the three node voltages.
c) Solution
Find the three node “live” voltages and the ground node of this circuit. These voltages will be called node voltages V1, V2, and
V3, will be measured with respect to the ground node, as seen:
Figure: J. Riollano
Let’s count:
Number of Voltage Sources, or V = 1,

Number of Current Sources, or C = 2.
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Summarized:

There will be two KCL equations, and one KVL equation.
- Node 1 (KCL)
Figure: J. Riollano
becomes:
3 + [V1 / 4] + [(V1 - V2) / 4] = 0.
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Next we see that the voltage source is between the Nodes 2 and Node 3. We cannot take a KCL in each individual node, but
thru the external node, called the Supernode 23. The KCL will avoid the voltage source between the Node 2 and Node 3, as
can be seen in the topographical sketch:
Figure: J. Riollano
- Supernode 23 (KCL)
We represent the circuit such like the voltage V2 will be dominant in contact with Node 2, and the voltage V3 will be dominant in
contact with the Node 3. Each resistor will be marked with an arrow, so the current of each resistor in the KCL equation will be
given by an Ohm’s Law equation. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
becomes:
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[(V2 - V1) / 4] + [V2 / 8] + [V3 / 1.6] + 6 = 0.
- Node 23 Constraint (KVL)
We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of voltage source. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
Taking a KVL in the clockwise sense we get an equation constraint between node voltages V2 and V3, like:
- V2 + 18 + V3 = 0.
Before leaving this step, we let (1 / 4) = .25, (1 /8) = .125, and (1 / 1.6) = .625. Then multiply the Node 1 equation by 4 and the
Supernode 23 equation by 8, and leaving:
- 2 · V1 + 3 · V2 + 5 · V3 = - 48,
Fix the equations for the next step:
Node 1 (KCL): 2 · V1 - 1 · V2 + 0 · V3 = -12,
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Supernode 23 (KCL): - 2 · V1 + 6 · V2 + 5 · V3 = 48,
Node 23 Constraint (KVL): 0 · V1 + 1 · V2 - 1 · V3 = 18.
Step 4: Solution
From now on the problem turns to be one of mathematics. The linear system of equations becomes in matrix form like:
 2 -1 0  V1  - 12
    
- 2 6 5 V2 =  48 .
    
 0 1 - 1 V3  18
The solution is given by the values:
V1 = 3V, V2 = 18V, V3 = 0V. Notice that Node 3 is a short circuit
101
Topic 23: The Mesh-Current Method
102
The Mesh-Current Method
The Mesh-Current Method provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits, using mesh currents as the circuit variables.
Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables reduces the number of equations that must be solved
simultaneously. It generally applies KVL to find unknown currents. The next examples will illustrate how to apply the Mesh-
Current Method to find all the needed information inside a circuit.
Example 23a
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the two mesh currents of this circuit. Also find the values of the current Io and the voltage Vx. Let’s now define a
systematic solution process to find each mesh current. It will be given in four steps as we will explain.
c) Solution
Step 1: Define the Mesh-Currents
103
A loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once, like the path E1-R1-R3-E2. It is described by the topological
diagram:
Figure: J. Riollano
A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it. It is described with the red number in the topological diagram
above. Also, in the circuit we analyze, the two meshes are described by the following paths:
Mesh 1, with the path E1-R1-R2,

Mesh 2, with the path R2-R3-E2.
The mesh currents are defined for each mesh in the clockwise sense. They are described in the circuit diagram below:
Figure: J. Riollano
These mesh currents are called I1 and I2. Each current will represent a variable. Because we have two currents, we will need
two linear equations to solve for both currents. We call this number M. In other words:
Number of Mesh-Current Equations, or M = 2.
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Step 2: Type of Circuit Equations (KVL or KCL)
In general mesh equations are KVL equations. This applies when there are voltage sources, or no energy source along the
meshes. The exception will rise when there are current sources, but this case will not be treated now. Let’s count:
Number of Current Sources (Independent or Dependent), or C = 0,
The existence of current sources forces the development of a KCL equation, which is not usual for a mesh equation (it is called
a special case, or restriction). For every current source in a circuit there is one KVL mesh equation less. Summarized:
Number of KCL Equations, or C = 0,

Number of KVL Equations, or M - C = 2 - 0 = 2.
The conclusion is that there will be two KVL equations. The next part is the most important of the whole process.
- Mesh 1 (KVL)
We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Mesh 1. Current I1 will be dominant. It will fix a “+” sign in all resistors along
the mesh. Each resistor will be marked with a polarity, so the voltage of each resistor in the KVL equation will be given by an
Ohm’s Law equation of the type:
V=IR.
This will make KVL equation easier because the voltage associated to this element will have a “+” sign. The sketch looks like:
105
Figure: J. Riollano
The KVL equation starts with a clockwise movement from left-to-right starting at the left bottom side of the circuit, marked with a
red “X”. The equation becomes:
- E1 + [R1 · I1] + [R2 · (I1 - I2)] = 0.
Notice that the “+” sign at R2 is at the top. We define Vx = R2 · (I1 - I2). We expect to solve it later.
- Mesh 2 (KVL)
the mesh. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
106
The KVL equation starts with a clockwise movement from left-to-right starting at the left bottom side of the circuit, marked with a
red “X”. The equation becomes:
[R2 · (I2 - I1)] + [R3 · I2] + E2 = 0.
Before leaving this step, we fix the equations for the next step:
Mesh 1 (KVL): (R1 + R2) · I1 - R2 · I2 = E1

Mesh 2 (KVL): - R2 · I1 + (R2 + R3) · I2 = - E2
Step 4: Solution
Consider for the values of R1 = R2 = R3 = 1Ω, E1 = 10V, and E2 = 11V. From now on the problem turns out to be one of
mathematics. It is important to avoid irrational numbers, fractions, and decimal numbers. This will make the numerical solution
process easier. The linear system of equations becomes:
Mesh 1 (KVL): 2 · I1 - 1 · I2 = 10
Mesh 2 (KVL): - 1 · I1 + 2 · I2 = - 11
 2 - 1 I1  10
   =  
 - 1 2 I2  - 11
The solution is given by the values of I1 = 3A, and I2 = - 4A. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit is
contained in the mesh currents. It is up to you to check that:
Io = I1 = 3A, and Vx = (I1 - I2) · R2 = [3 - (- 4)] = 7V.

107
Notice that the values of Io and Vx are the same as the ones obtained in Example 22a, but by using the Node-Voltage Method.
One detail is that in Example 22a three node voltages were used, in contrast with two mesh currents here.
Example 23b
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the two mesh currents of this circuit. Also find the values of the current Io and the voltage Vx.
c) Solution
Define two clockwise currents that circulate thru each loop. These currents will be called mesh currents I1 and I2, as seen:
108
Figure: J. Riollano
Each current will represent a variable, therefore:
Number of Mesh Current Equations, or M = 2.
Let’s count:

Summarized:

There will be one KVL equation, and one KCL equation.
- Mesh 1 (KVL)
109
the mesh. The voltage of each resistor in the KVL equation will be given by an Ohm’s Law equation. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
The KVL equation will start with a clockwise movement from left-to-right starting at the left bottom side of the circuit, marked
with a red “X”. The equation becomes:
- 24 + [2 · I1] + [4 · (I1 - I2)] = 0.
- Mesh 2 (KCL)
We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Mesh 2. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
The current source will define the mesh current I2 as:
I2 = - 3.
110
This is already one of the solutions. Before leaving this step, we fix the equations for the next step:
Mesh 1 (KVL): 6 · I1 - 4 · I2 = 24,

Mesh 2 (KCL): 0 · I1 + 1 · I2 = - 3.
Step 4: Solution
Substitute the KCL equation into the KVL equation, therefore:
6 · I1 +12 = 24, or I1 = 2.
The solution is given by the values of I1 = 2A, and I2 = - 3A. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit is
Io = I1 = 2A, and Vx = (I1 - I2) · 4 = [2 - (- 3)] = 20V.
Notice that the values of Io and Vx are the same as the ones obtained in Example 21b, but by using the Node-Voltage Method.
Example 23c
a) Given
For the circuit:
111
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
c) Solution
Define two clockwise currents that circulate thru each loop. These currents will be called mesh currents I1 and I2, as seen:
Figure: J. Riollano
112
Let’s count:
Summarized:

We see that the current source is between the two meshes. We cannot take a KVL in each individual mesh, but thru the
external loop, called the Supermesh 12. The KVL will avoid the current source between the Mesh 1 and Mesh 2, as can be
seen in the topographical sketch:
Figure: J. Riollano
- Supermesh 12 (KVL)
113
We represent the circuit such like the current I1 will be dominant in along the Mesh 1, and the current I2 will be dominant along
the Mesh 2. Each one will fix a “+” sign in all resistors along the respective Mesh 1 and Mesh 2. The voltage of each resistor in
the KVL equation will be given by an Ohm’s Law equation. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
[2 · I1] - 24 + [4 · I2] = 0.
- Mesh12 Constraint (KCL)
We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of current source. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
114
Taking a KCL at the upper node in red we get an equation constraint between mesh currents I1 and I2, like:
- I1 + 3 + I2 = 0.
Supermesh 12 (KVL): 2 · I1 + 4 · I2 = 24,

Mesh12 Constraint (KCL): 1 · I1 - 1 · I2 = 3.
Step 4: Solution
2 4 I1 24
   =  
1 - 1 I2  3 
The solution is given by the values of I1 = 6A, and I2 = 3A. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit is
Io = I2 = 3A, and Vx = - I1 · 2 = - 12V.
Notice that the values of Io and Vx are the same as the ones obtained in Example 21c, but by using the Node-Voltage Method.
Example 23d
a) Given
For the circuit with a voltage-controlled current source (VCCS):

115
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
c) Solution
Define two clockwise currents that circulate thru each loop. Information of Io and Vx will not be included, but only the dependent
current source 1.25Vx. These currents will be called mesh currents I1 and I2, as seen:
Figure: J. Riollano
116
Let’s count:
Number of Current Sources (Dependent), or C = 1.
Summarized:

- Mesh 1 (KCL)
We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Mesh 1. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
The current source will define the mesh current I1 as:
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I1 = 1.25Vx.
- Mesh 2 (KVL)
Figure: J. Riollano
[2 · (I2 - I1)] + [4 · I2] + 20 = 0.
Before leaving this step, we fix the equations for the next step. It is very important to notice that any measurement in the circuit,
voltage or current, can be expressed in terms of the mesh currents. At this point define the variables:
Vx = - 4 · I2, Io = I1 - I2.
With this information, the Mesh 1 equation becomes:
I1 = 1.25Vx = 1.25 · (- 4 · I2) = - 5 · I2.
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The equations for the next step are:
Mesh 1 (KCL): 1 · I1 + 5 · I2 = 0,
Mesh 2 (KVL): - 2 · I1 + 6 · I2 = - 20.
Step 4: Solution
 1 5 I1  0 
   =  
- 2 6 I2 - 20
The solution is given by the values of I1 = 6.25A, and I2 = - 1.25A. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit is
Io = I1 - I2 = 7.5A, and Vx = - I2 · 4 = 5V.
Notice that the values of Io and Vx are the same as the ones obtained in Example 21d, but by using the Node-Voltage Method.
Example 23e
a) Given
For the circuit with a current-controlled voltage source (CCVS):
119
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
c) Solution
Define two clockwise currents that circulate thru each loop. Information of Io and Vx will not be included, but only the dependent
voltage source 2Io. These currents will be called mesh currents I1 and I2, as seen:
Figure: J. Riollano
120
Let’s count:
Number of Current Sources (Independent), or C = 1.
Summarized:

- Mesh 1 (KVL)
Figure: J. Riollano
121
- 2Io + 5 · I1 + [3 · (I1 - I2)] = 0.
- Mesh 2 (KCL)
We will represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Mesh 2. The sketch looks like:
Figure: J. Riollano
Here the current source will define the mesh current I2 as:
I2 = - 2.
Before leaving this step, we fix the equations for the next step. It is very important to notice that any measurement in the circuit,
voltage or current, can be expressed in terms of the mesh currents. At this point define the variables:
Vx = 3 · (I1 - I2), Io = - I1.
With this information, the Mesh 1 equation becomes:
- 2Io + [5 · I1] + [3 · (I1 - I2)] = [2 · I1] + [5 · I1] + [3 · (I1 - I2)] = 0.
122
The equations for the next step are:
Mesh 1 (KVL): 10 · I1 - 3 · I2 = 0,
Mesh 2 (KCL): 0 · I1 + 1 · I2 = - 2.
Step 4: Solution
Substitute the KCL equation into the KVL equation, therefore:
10 · I1 + 6 = 0, or I1 = - .6.
The solution is given by the values of I1 = - .6A, and I2 = - 2A. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit is
Io = - I1 = .6A, and Vx = (I1 - I2) · 3 = [- .6 - (- 2)] · 3 = 4.2V.
Notice that the values of Io and Vx are the same as the ones obtained in Example 21e, but by using the Node-Voltage Method.
Some advanced will be discussed next.
123
Topic 24: The Mesh-Current Method, Advanced Cases
124
The Mesh-Current Methods, Advanced Cases
The next two examples provide an excellent reference on how solve large circuit problems from different angles, like the use of
the supemesh concept.
Example 24a
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the three mesh currents of this circuit. Also find the value of the current Io and the voltage Vx.
c) Solution
Define three clockwise currents that circulate thru each loop. These currents will be called mesh currents I1, I2, and I3 as seen:
125
Figure: J. Riollano
Let’s count:
Summarized:

There will be one KVL equation, and two KCL equations.
- Mesh 1 (KCL)
126
Figure: J. Riollano
I1 = 3.
- Mesh 2 (KVL)
Figure: J. Riollano
[4 · (I2 - I1)] + [2 · I2] + [2 · (I2 - I3)] = 0.

127
- Mesh 3 (KCL)
Figure: J. Riollano
I3 = 4.
Mesh 1 (KCL): 1 · I1 + 0 · I2 + 0 · I3 = 3,
Mesh 2 (KVL): - 4 · I1 + 8 · I2 - 2 · I3 = 0,
Mesh 3 (KCL): 0 · I1 + 0 · I2 + 1 · I3 = 4.
Step 4: Solution
Substitute the KCL equations into the KVL equation, therefore:
- (4 · 3) + 8 · I2 - (2 · 4) = 0.
128
The solution is given by the values of I1 = 3A, I2 = 2.5A, and I3 = 4A. All the information to solve any measurement in the circuit
is contained in the mesh currents. It is up to you to check that:
Io = I2 = 2.5A, and Vx = (I2 - I3) 2 = (2.5 - 4) · 2 = - 3V.
Notice that the values of Io and Vx are the same as the ones obtained in Example 21a, but by using the Node-Voltage Method.
One detail is that in Example 21a two node voltages were used, in contrast with three mesh currents here.
Example 24b
a) Given
For the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
129
Find the three mesh currents of this circuit.
c) Solution
Define three clockwise currents that circulate thru each loop. These currents will be called mesh currents I1, I2, and I3 as seen:
Figure: J. Riollano
Let’s count:
Number of Current Sources, or C = 1,

130
Summarized:

We see that the current source is between the two meshes. We cannot take a KVL in each individual mesh, but thru the
external loop, called the Supermesh 12. The KVL will avoid the current source between the Mesh 1 and Mesh 2, as can be
seen in the topographical sketch:
Figure: J. Riollano
- Supermesh 12 (KVL)
We represent the circuit such like the current I1 will be dominant in along the Mesh 1, and the current I2 will be dominant along
the Mesh 2. Each one will fix a “+” sign in all resistors along the respective Mesh 1 and Mesh 2. The voltage of each resistor in
the KVL equation will be given by an Ohm’s Law equation. The sketch looks like:
131
Figure: J. Riollano
- 10 + [2 · I2] + [2 · (I2 - I3)] + [2 · (I1 - I3)] = 0.
- Mesh12 Constraint (KCL)
We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of current source. The sketch looks like:
132
Figure: J. Riollano
Taking a KCL at the upper left node in red we get an equation constraint between mesh currents I1 and I2, like:
- I1 + 2 + I2 = 0.
- Mesh 3 (KVL)
133
Figure: J. Riollano
[2 · (I3 - I1)] + [2 · (I3 - I2)] + [1 · I3] - 6 = 0.
Supermesh 12 (KVL): 2 · I1 + 4 · I2 - 4 · I3 = 10,

Mesh12 Constraint (KCL): 1 · I1 - 1 · I2 + 0 · I3 = 2,
Mesh 3 (KVL): - 2 · I1 - 2 · I2 + 5 · I3 = 6.
Step 4: Solution
134
2 4 - 4 I1 10
    
1 - 1 0  I2 =  2  .
    
- 2 - 2 5  I3  6 
The solution is given by the values:
I1 = 7A, I2 = 5A, I3 = 6A.
135
Topic 25: The Linearity Property
136
The Linearity Property
Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between its cause and its effect. Although the property
applies to many engineering systems, we shall limit its applicability to circuit resistors. The property is a combination of two
principles:
- Property 1: Additivity
The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied
separately.
- Property 2: Homogeneity or Scaling
The homogeneity property requires that if the input signal, or excitation is multiplied by a constant, and as a consequence the
output, or the response, is multiplied by the same constant.
Illustrative Example 25a
Consider a circuit with a linear resistor VR = IR (R = 1Ω). It is connected in parallel with two current sources also in parallel: I1 =
1A and I2 = 2A, as seen:
Figure: J. Riollano
137
Let I1 be multiplied by a constant k1 and I2 be multiplied by a constant k2. Let the voltage thru the resistor be VR. Consider the
effects of both sources on. Using Ohm’s Law:
VR = (k1 · I1 + k2 · I2) · R = (k1 · 1 + k2 · 2) · 1 = [(k1 + k2) · 3] V.
Consider the effect of I1 only, with I2 as an open circuit, like:
Figure: J. Riollano
VR1 = k1 · I1 · R = (k1 · 1) · 1 = [k1 · 1] V.
Consider the effect of I2 only, with I1 as an open circuit, like:
Figure: J. Riollano
VR2 = k2 · I2 · R = (k2 · 2) · 1 = [k2 · 2] V.
Clearly VR1 + VR2 = VR, which obey both the principle of additivity and homogeneity.
Illustrative Example 25b
138
Consider a circuit with a nonlinear resistor:
VR = IR3.
It is connected in parallel with two current sources also in parallel: I1 = 1A and I2 = 2A, as seen:
Figure: J. Riollano
Let I1 be multiplied by a constant k1 and I2 be multiplied by a constant k2. Let the voltage thru the nonlinear resistor be VR.
Consider the effects of both sources on:
VR = (k1 · I1 + k2 · I2)3 = (1 · k1 + 2 · k2)3 = (1 · k13 + 4 · k12 · k2 + 8 · k1 · k22 + 8 · k23) A.
Consider the effect of I1 only, with I2 as an open circuit:
VR1 = (k1 · I1)3 = (k1 · 1)3 = (1 · k13) A.
Consider the effect of I2 only, with I1 as an open circuit:
VR2 = (k2 · I2)3 = (k2 · 2)3 = (8 · k23) A.
Clearly VR1 + VR2 ≠ VR, which do not obey neither the principle of additivity nor the homogeneity.
Illustrative Example 25c
139
Consider the linear circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
Let’s evaluate the open circuit voltage at the right side due to the three different sources. One first step could be evaluation this
circuit using mesh analysis:
Figure: J. Riollano
The linear equations are:
Supermesh 12 (KVL): 4 · I1 + 4 · I2 = 4
Mesh 12 Constraint (KCL): 1 · I1 - 1 · I2 = 2
Leaving that I1 = 1.5A, and I2 = -.5A. Therefore the voltage at the left side is 4 · -.5 = - 2V, with the “+” pointing upwards. The
final voltage Vab, because there is no voltage at the 2Ω resistor is:
140
Vab = 4 - 2 = 2V.
With this result in mind, let’s apply superposition to three different circuits:
Circuit One:
Figure: J. Riollano
The voltage Vab1 can easily be found by voltage division:
Vab1 = 4 · (4 / 8) = 2V.
Circuit Two:
Figure: J. Riollano
The voltage Vab2 can easily be found by Ohm’s Law to the parallel combination of the two 4Ω resistors:
141
Vab2 = - 2 · 2 = - 4V.
Circuit Three:
Figure: J. Riollano
The voltage Vab3 can be found directly by voltage third source (a voltage source):
Vab3 = 4V.
Finally:
Vab = Vab1 + Vab2 + Vab3 = 2 - 4 + 4 = 2V.
142
Topic 26: Equivalent Circuits
143
Equivalent Circuits
Consider a linear circuit composed of independent and dependent sources, as well as resistors. They are not seen because
they are inside a box, as seen:
Figure: J. Riollano
It is possible without knowing its internal content of how these elements are connected, to take make some measurements in
the external terminals marked in red as shown above. The first measurement is called the Open Circuit Voltage or Voc, as
illustrated:
Figure: J. Riollano
Because it is an open circuit, there is no current passing thru, and the resistance is infinity (R = ∞). We then go again over our
circuit, and cross the external terminals. The second important measurement that comes out is called the Short Circuit Current
or Isc, as illustrated:
144
Figure: J. Riollano
Because it is a short circuit, there is no voltage across it, and the resistance is zero (R = 0). Using this information (Voc and Isc),
we can develop a very powerful theorem that says that it is possible to make a simplified circuit representation using only one
source and one resistor. The applications will be discussed later.
145
Topic 27: The Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
146
The Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
The Thevenin Equivalent Circuit is described:
Figure: J. Riollano
This circuit is composed on the measurements of two elements that depend on the Voc and Isc measurements, like:
Vth = Voc, Rth = Voc / Isc.
This circuit qualifies as an equivalent circuit, because it has to produce the same Voc and Isc measurements of the original
circuit.
147
Topic 28: The Norton Equivalent Circuit
148
The Norton Equivalent Circuit
The Norton Equivalent Circuit is described:
Figure: J. Riollano
This circuit is composed on the measurements of two elements that depend on the Voc and Isc measurements, like:
In = Isc, Rn = Voc / Isc.
This circuit qualifies as an equivalent circuit, because it has to produce the same Voc and Isc measurements of the original
circuit. As a conclusion we can see that it is possible to translate from a Thevenin to Norton equivalent circuit and viceversa.
149
Topic 29: Equivalent Circuits Examples
150
Equivalent Circuits Examples
We will consider now a couple of examples related to the equivalents circuits topic. The goal is to obtain three different values,
measured from two reference terminals, called terminal “a” and “b”:
1) The open circuit voltage: Voc

2) The short circuit current: Isc
3) The equivalent resistance of the circuit: Rth
The first method to get the equivalent circuit is based on the transformation of the entire circuit by making small equivalent
circuits and then integrating these into the rest of the circuit. It will be illustrated thru an example.
Example 29a: Equivalent Circuits Example by Source Transformation
a) Given
Consider the circuit below:
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
We want to find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits seen from terminals “a” and “b”.
151
c) Solution
Step 1: Make a transformation of the circuit of the extreme left side from one with voltage source to one with current source.
Figure: J. Riollano
Now change the circuit from a Thevenin to a Norton Equivalent Circuit and connect again to the circuit:
Figure: J. Riollano
Figure: J. Riollano
152
Figure: J. Riollano
Step 2: Simplify the circuit consisting in two parallel current sources and two parallel resistors.
Figure: J. Riollano
The two current sources can be reduced to only one of 1A, arrow pointing upwards. The two 4Ω parallel resistors can be
reduced to one of 2Ω. Our new circuit has been reduced from six to four elements:
Figure: J. Riollano
153
Step 3: Get on the left side a circuit with a voltage source in series with a resistor. Then add two voltage sources in series and
two resistors in series.
Figure: J. Riollano
Change the network and connect again:
Figure: J. Riollano
Figure: J. Riollano
154
Figure: J. Riollano
This is the Thevenin Equivalent Circuit. The Norton Equivalent Circuit is located at the right side below.
Figure: J. Riollano
Notice that the value of Voc = Vab = 2V of the previous superposition example. It is important to know that the equivalent
resistance value of Rth = 4Ωcan be obtained by canceling all the sources, this is, making all the voltage sources an open circuit,
and all the current sources a short circuit. Therefore we have:
Figure: J. Riollano
Example 29b: Equivalent Circuits Example by Voc and Isc Measurement
155
a) Given
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits seen from terminals “a” and “b”.
c) Solution
Step 1: Evaluate the open circuit voltage Voc thru the “a” and “b” terminals, like:
Figure: J. Riollano
156
The equations to support this are two:
Equation 1: IX = 5A, (current thru terminals “a” and “b” is zero),

Equation 2: - 2 · IX - 2IX + Voc = 0, (KVL thru second mesh).
From this:
Voc = 20V.
Step 2: Make a short circuit at the “a” and “b” terminals. We have:
Figure: J. Riollano
Apply again KVL at the second mesh (note that IX’ ≠ IX). Then for:
- 2 · IX’- 2IX’ = 0, the only option is that IX’ = 0.
The dependent voltage source becomes a short circuit. This leaves a new circuit:
157
Figure: J. Riollano
And finally,
Isc = 5A.
Step 3: Sketch the equivalent circuits. Therefore Rth = Rn = (20 / 5) = 4Ω. The equivalent circuits look like,
Figure: J. Riollano Figure: J. Riollano
As a final comment, dependent sources are sensible to changes in the measurements that control them. This is true because
the circuit analysis to get Voc is entirely different than the one for Isc. Both circuits are different.
Example 29c: Equivalent Circuits Example by Voc and Isc Measurement
a) Given
158
Figure: J. Riollano
b) Determine
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits seen from terminals “a” and “b”.
c) Solution
Step 1: Evaluate the open circuit voltage Voc = Vx thru the “a” and “b” terminals. Then let V1 = 24V, V2 = Vx, (1 / 2) = .5, and (1 /
4) = .25. The summary of the KCL at Node 2 gives us:
159
Figure: J. Riollano
.5 · (V2 - V1) + .375V2 + 2 + .125 · V2 = 0.
Multiply this equation by 8 and get the following system of equations:
Node 1 (KVL): 1 · V1 + 0 · V2 = 24,

Node 2 (KCL): - 4 · V1 + 8 · V2 = -16.
Substitute KVL equation into KCL equation giving that V2 = Vx = Voc = 10V.
Step 2: Make a short circuit at the “a” and “b” terminals. The effect would be to change the entire circuit, which looks like:
160
Figure: J. Riollano
Using superposition it is very easy to verify that,
Ix = Isc = 10A.
Step 3: Sketch the equivalent circuits. Therefore Rth = Rn = (10 / 10) = 1Ω. The circuits look like,
Figure: J. Riollano Figure: J. Riollano
161
Topic 30: Maximum Power Transfer
162
Maximum Power Transfer
Consider a Thevenin Equivalent Circuit with a load resistance RL connected between the terminals “a” and “b”:
Figure: J. Riollano
The power at the load list function of RL:
P(RL) = [Vth / (Rth + RL)]2 · RL.
Apply differential calculus to find the value of RL that maximizes the transfer of power:
dP / dRL = 0 = Vth2 · [(Rth + RL)2 - RL · 2 · (Rth + RL)] / (Rth + RL)4.
Solving: (Rth + RL)2 = 2 · RL · (Rth + RL),
or, RL = Rth, which is the optimal value.
The sketch of the curve gives us an optimal value of the power to a specific value of RL:
163
Picture: Alexander & Sadiku (2013)
For the circuit of the Example 29c:
For RL = 1Ω, Pmax = (10)2 / (4 · 1) = 25W.
164
Module 00 Practice
165
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Review Problem # 1 (Linear System of Equations)
Solve the simultaneous linear systems of equations with real coefficients by hand. Then use a calculator:
System # 1 System # 2
4x + 2y = 5 2x - 2y + 3z = 1
5x - 3y = -2 x - 3y - 2z = -9
x+y+z=6
Solution: x = .5, y = 1.5
Solution: x = 2, y = 3, z = 1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Review Problem # 2 (Equivalent Resistance, Voltage and Current Division, Power)
For the circuit:
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source, the current I, and the power at the 22Ω resistor.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
166
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Review Problem # 3 (Mesh and Node Analysis, Power)
For the circuit:
Find the current Ib and the voltage Vo using both Mesh and Node Analysis. Also find the power at the 10 Ω resistor.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Review Problem # 4 (Mesh and Node Analysis)
For the circuit:
Find the voltage Vo using both Mesh and Node Analysis.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
167
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Review Problem # 5 (Thévenin and Norton Circuits)
For the circuit:
Use source transformations to find an equivalent circuit between terminals “a” and “b” and the current Io.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Review Problem # 6 (Thévenin and Norton Circuits, Maximum Power Transfer)
For the circuit:
Find the resistance for maximum power transfer between terminals “a” and “b”.
(Hint: find the equivalent circuit first).
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
168

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Module 00: Review of EE 2000

Electrical Engineering can be divided in two great application fields:

- Field 1: Electricity in Energy

- Field 2: Electricity in Information

This field is divided in three sub-fields:

• Communication Systems: They process visual or sound information among others.

Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

There are other units derived from the fundamental units:

Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Symbol Power Prefix

1) A common mathematical representation of an electrical system is a circuit model.

The definition of voltage is given by:

v = the voltage in volts,

The definition of current is given as:

i = the current in amperes,

It relates the following things:

1) The unknown circuit element pictured only as a box.

The figure follows:

Power is defined as the transfer of energy:

p = the power in watts,

1) Change the current direction, or flowing from terminal 2 to terminal 1,

the product becomes:

The electrical resistance, called R, is connected to an electric circuit, as given:

The electric power is given by the equations:

Consider the following two figures:

Consider the following two figures:

For the circuit:

Step 1: Note that Vx = 4V.

KCL: .5Vx - 1 - Io = 2 - 1 - Io = 0. Therefore Io = 1A.

We show next a sketch of how these currents look:

Element Voltage · Current Power (Status)

For the circuit:

A summary of the information is given:

For the circuit:

Find the value of the resistor R.

A summary of the information is given:

For the circuit:

Find the value of the current Io and the voltage Vx.

Step 5: Solving the previous two equations gives us:

For the circuit

Find the value of the current Io and the voltage Vx.

Step 5: Solving the previous two equations gives us:

For the circuit:

Find the value of the current Io and the voltage Vx.

A figure to enforce the details of previous equations references is given in red:

Solving the previous two equations gives us:

For the circuit:

Find the value of the current Io and the voltage Vx.

A figure to enforce the details of previous equations references is given in red:

KVL: Vx + 2Io = 20,

Solving the previous two equations gives us:

Consider the circuit composed of three series resistors:

Applying KVL and solving for the current I, gives us:

- E + (I · R1) + (I · R2) + (I · R3) = 0, then

I = E / (R1 + R2 + R3) = E / (Req).

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 = ΣRs in series.

Illustrative Example 18a

Consider the circuit:

The final circuit looks like:

Now consider this case of a circuit composed of three parallel conductances:

G1 = 1 / R1, G2 = 1 / R2, G3 = 1 / R3.

- I + (V · G1) + (V · G2) + (V · G3) = 0, then