UNIT III

1. Consider the following two transactions and schedule (time goes from top to
bottom). Is this schedule conflict-serializable? Explain why or why not.

Transaction T0 Transaction T1
r0[A]
w0[A]
r1[A]
r1[B]
c1
r0[B]
w0[B]
c0

The schedule is not conflict serializable because the precedence graph contains a cycle.
The graph has an edge T0 → T1 because the schedule contains w0[A] → r1[A]. The
graph has an edge T1 → T0 because the schedule contains r1[B] → wo[B].

2. What type of locking is needed for insert and delete operation?

When you execute an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement, the database server
uses exclusive locks. An exclusive lock means that no other users can update or delete the
item until the database server removes the lock.
In addition, no other users can view the row unless they are using the Dirty Read
isolation level.

3. State the need for concurrency.

1. Concurrency control is needed so that data can be updated correctly when multiple
transactions are executed concurrently. Increased processor and disk utilization, leading
to better transaction throughput. E.g. one transaction can be using the CPU while another
is reading from or writing to the disk
2. Reduced average response time for transactions: short transactions need not wait
behind long ones
So, the reasons for allowing concurrency,
If the transactions run serially, a short transaction may have to wait for a
preceding long transaction to complete, which can lead to unpredictable delays in running
a transaction. So, concurrent execution reduces the unpredictable delays in running
transactions.

4. Differentiate strict two phase protocol and rigorous two phase protocol.
In strict two phase locking the shared locks are released in shrinking phase, but in
rigorous two phase locking all the shared and exclusive locks are kept until the end of the
transaction.
 Strict two phase locking protocol provide only cascadeless schedules, recovery is very
easy. But the set of schedules obtainable is a subset of those obtainable from plain two
phase locking, thus concurrency is reduced.

In rigorous two phase locking we do not need to know the access pattern of locks on data
items beforehand so it is more appropriate for dynamic environments while in strict two
phase locking the access pattern of locks should be specified at the start of transaction

5. Describe about wait-die and wound-wait schemes.

wait-die scheme — non-preemptive
Older transaction may wait for younger one to release data item. (older means smaller
timestamp) Younger transactions never Younger transactions never wait for older ones;
they are rolled back instead.
A transaction may die several times before acquiring needed data item
wound-wait scheme — preemptive
older transaction wounds (forces rollback) of younger transaction instead of waiting for
it. Younger transactions may wait for older ones.
may be fewer rollbacks than wait-die scheme.

6. List the SQL statements used for transaction control. (Nov/Dec 2011)
Transaction Control Language(TCL) commands are used to manage transactions in
database.These are used to manage the changes made by DML statements.
1. Commit command: Commit command is used to permanently save any transaction
into database. Following is Commit command's syntax,
Commit;
2. Rollback command: This command restores the database to last commited state. It is
also use with savepoint command to jump to a savepoint in a transaction. Following is
Rollback command's syntax,
rollback to savepoint-name;
3. Savepoint command: savepoint command is used to temporarily save a transaction
so that you can rollback to that point whenever necessary. Following is savepoint
command's syntax,
savepointsavepoint-name;

7. What is serializability? What are its types? Why it is needed in database?

Serializability is a concept that helps to identify which non-serial schedules are correct
and will maintain the consistency of the database. The two types are:
o Conflict Serializability
o View Serializibility
It ensures that a schedule for executing concurrent transactions is equivalent to one that
executes the transactions serially in some order. It assumes that all accesses to
the database are done using read and write operations
8. Under what conditions is it less expensive to avoid deadlock than to allow deadlocks
to occur and then to detect them?
Deadlock avoidance is preferable if the consequences of abort are serious (as in
interactive transactions), and if there is high contention and a resulting high probability of
deadlock.

9. Specify the three different ways of handling deadlocks.

o Deadlock Prevention
o Deadlock Detection
o Deadlock Recovery

Deadlock prevention or avoidance - Do not allow the system to get into a deadlocked
state.
Deadlock detection and recovery - Abort a process or preempt some resources
when deadlocks are detected.

10. Define the term ACID properties.

ACID-Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability
Atomicity: Either all operation of transaction are reflected properly in database or none
done
Consistency: The total amount of data items before transaction and after transaction is
equal.
Isolation: Every transaction is independent of each other transaction
Durability: After transaction completes successfully, the values stored in disk so no loss
of data occurs.

UNIT IV

1. Difference between sparse index and dense index

 Dense Index: An index record appears for every search key value in file.
This record contains search key value and a pointer to the actual record
 Sparse Index: Index records are created only for some of the records. To
locate a record, we find the index record with the largest search key value less
than or equal to the search key value we are looking for.

2. Define data transfer rate and Mean time to failure

 Data-transfer rate – the rate at which data can be retrieved from or
stored to the disk.
a. 25 to 100 MB per second max rate, lower for inner tracks
 Mean time to failure (MTTF)–the average time the disk is expected to
run continuously without any failure.
 3. How dynamic hashing differ from static hashing?
The problem with static hashing is that it does not expand or shrink dynamically as the
size of the database grows or shrinks. Dynamic Hashing -Dynamic hashing provides a
mechanism in which data buckets are added and removed dynamically and on-
demand. Dynamic hashing is also known as extended hashing.

STATIC HASHING DYNAMIC HASHING

Numbers of buckets are fixed Numbers of Buckets are not fixed

As the file grows, performance decreases as the Performance do not degrade
file grows.
Space overhead is more Minimum space lies overhead.
Here we donot use Bucket Address table. Bucket address table is used.
Open hashing and Closed hashing are forms of Extendable hashing and Linear hashing are
it. forms of it.

4. Define Software and Hardware RAID systems

With hardware RAID, logical disks are configured and mirrored outside of the system. A
physical controller manages the array, presenting data to applications and operating systems as
logical units. The controller resides on a PCI bus.

The difference in hardware RAID and software RAID is where the RAID processing happens.
Software RAID performs the processing on the host’s CPU. Because it does not use the server
processor, hardware RAID provides better performance. However, because of the need for
additional hardware, it is more expensive than software RAID.

5. What are the two type of stripping? Give example for both.
If we need to read a large file, instead of pulling it all from a single hard disk, it is much faster to
chop it up into pieces, store some of the pieces on each of the drives in an array, and then use all
the disks to read back the file when needed. This technique is called striping, after the pattern
that might be visible if you could see these "chopped up pieces" on the various drives with a
different colour used for each file. It is similar in concept to the memory performance-enhancing
technique called interleaving.
Striping can be done at the byte level, or in blocks. Byte-level striping means that the file is
broken into "byte-sized pieces". The first byte of the file is sent to the first drive, then the second
to the second drive, and so on. Sometimes byte-level striping is done as a sector of 512 bytes.
Block-level striping means that each file is split into blocks of a certain size and those are
distributed to the various drives