Unit-1
Define Information System? Explain how information helps in decision
making.?
Ans:
BASIC CONCEPT OF INFORMATION
Information is a processed form of data. According to Davis and Olson,
'Information is data that has been processed into a form that is
meaningful to the recipient and is of real or perceived value in current
or prospective actions or decisions.'
Types of Information
Different types of information are used in performing different functions
of an organization. Based on the use and purpose of information,
information can be broadly categorized into the following types:
 Strategic information
 Tactical information
 Operational information
Different levels of management such as top, middle and lower use
different types of information. For example, top management uses
strategic information, whereas lower management uses operational
information.
Strategic information: Strategic information helps the top management
to devise the strategies that need to be implemented in an organization.
The strategic information is vital for decision making in an organization
and generally used for long-term planning.
For example, the top management of an organization needs strategic
information to plan for adopting new technologies for increasing the
production in an organization.
Tactical information: Tactical information helps the middle-level
management to devise the strategies that need to be implemented in an
organization. Tactical information is vital for making control-related
decisions in an organization. This information is generally obtained from
the records of the day-to-day activities in an organization.
For example, the regional sales manager of an enterprise needs to
forecast the future sales of the products on the basis of sales records of
past three-four years. In such cases, the daily records maintained by an
organization are the basis of collecting tactical information. Information
obtained from external sources such as competitor records also has a
deep impact on tactical information.
Operational information: Operational information helps the lower-level
management to devise the strategies that need to be implemented in an
organization. Operational information is vital for making decisions
required on a day-to-day basis and used for short-term planning.
Operational information generally consists of work status, customer
orders and stocks in hand related information.
20. Define MIS. Explain various functions of MIS.
Definition of MIS
MIS is an integrated system which collects, maintains, correlates and
selectively displays information to meet the specific needs of the various
levels of management. It helps in making decisions and taking actions
for fulfilling the objectives of an organization.
According to Schwartz, 'MIS is a system of people, equipment,
procedures, documents and communication that collects, validates,
operates on transformers, stores, retrieves, and present data for use in
planning, budgeting, accounting, controlling and other management
process.
Goals of MIS
Various goals of MIS in an organization are:
 To provide information to managerial end-users to support
their day-to-day decision-making needs
 To produce reports for specific time periods designed for
managers responsible for specific functions in an
organization.
 To provide correct information to the concerned manager at
the right time
 To help in carrying out regular and routine operations
 To control, organize and plan better business operations
Significance of MIS
The significance of a planned, analyzed, designed and maintained MIS is
as follows:
 Provides timely, useful and reliable information that helps in
the progress and growth of the business and management
infrastructure in a situation of increased business
complexities.
 Supports the business processes and operations of the
organization that help in globalization and liberalization of
the organizations and enables the organization to compete
both locally and globally.
 Provides Management Information (MI) at various stages of
decision making in an organization that helps assist the
decision makers to take decision in an organization.
Limitations of MIS
When the organization decides to implement an MIS, the following
problems directly affect and limit an MIS:
 Organizational framework: MIS does not help to achieve the
goal without a good planning and control within the
framework of an organizational structure.
 Generation of information: The information is the raw
material of decision making for MIS and if information is not
being generated, disseminated and used for management,
then no system manual or computer is going to solve the
organizational problems.
 Managerial participation: The most striking characteristic of
the successful company is that the development of MIS has
been viewed as a responsibility of the management.
Elements of MIS
The Elements of MIS are
 Management is defined as the process of achieving the
business objectives of an organization by making the best
decisions that involve optimized combination of manpower,
resources and working environment of the organization. The
key person involved in the management of an organization is
the manager. The various activities performed by a manager
are:
o Planning:
o Organizing
o Staffing
o Directing
o Controlling:
o Information
 Information is the processed data that are provided to the
decision makers or managers to aid them in their project. The
various types of information in an organization can be:
o Structured
 o Unstructured
o External
o Internal
 System: The system in MIS is defined as a set of elements
that are joined together toachieve a common objective.
These elements are interrelated and interdependent. A
system has three elements, namely, inputs, process and
output.
Characteristics of MIS
The various characteristics of MIS include:
 System approach: MIS follows the system approach which
implies a step by step approach to the study of complete
system of an organization and its performance in the light of
the objectives of the system.
 Management-oriented: The management-oriented of MIS
implies that top-down approach needs to be followed for
designing MIS. MIS, being management-oriented, also
implies that the management is actively involved in directing
the system development efforts.
 Need-based: This implies that MIS needs to provide the
requirements for the managers throughout the management
hierarchy of the organization.
 Future-oriented: It should also look into the future aspects
on the basis of the predictions made for the system.
 Integrated: MIS has the ability to produce meaningful
information because of the integration concept.
 Common data flows: The common data flow is an
economically sound and logical concept that supports several
basic principles of system analysis that include avoiding
duplication, combining similar functions and simplifying
operations.
 Long-term planning: While planning the MIS, the designer
needs to be cautious that the system should not be an
outdated one.
 Subsystem concept: The development of MIS allows you to
understand the subsystem concept which helps view the
system as a combination of various subsystems.
 Central database: The development of MIS allows an
organization to collect data at a central location.
Functions of MIS
MIS needs to perform the following functions:
 Collecting data: MIS helps collect data from different
external and internal sources of an organization.
 Processing data: Processing the data includes converting the
collected data into the required management information.
 Storing information: MIS allows you to store both processed
and· unprocessed data used in an organized manner for
future use.
 Retrieving information: MIS helps retrieve information from
its databases when users request for the information.
 Disseminating management information: Disseminating MI
involves dividing and distributing the retrieved information to
the users of the information.
Types of Models in Information System
The information system is considered to be evolved through three
different levels of systems which are as follows:
 Conceptual Model: It is the first level of development of
information system in an organization. At this level, experts
think about such a system in which entire information of
organization flows from one place to another place without
the intervention of any person.
 Logical Model: In this model, all objectives which are decided
at the middle level are logically implemented.
 Physical Model: Testing and evaluation processes related to
MIS are also implemented at this level of development of
information system in an organization. Physical model of MIS
contains software, programmes, data files and
documentation related to MIS.
STRUCTURE OF MIS
The structure of MIS can be described by using the following
approaches:
 Physical components
 Information processing functions
 Levels of management activities
 Decision support
 Physical Components:The various physical components used
in an information system are:
o Hardware: Hardware refers to the components of an
information system that includes the physical data processing
equipment and the peripheral devices used in the
information system.
o Software: Software refers to the written instructions or
programmes that are used to manage the operations of the
hardware in an information system.
o Database: Database refers to an organized collection of data
used by application software in an information system.
o Procedures: Procedures refer to a written set of steps which
helps operate an information system.
o Operating personnel: Operating personnel refers to the
manpower involved in operating an information system.
o Input and output: Input refers to the data entered into an
information system and output refers to the data which is
received from the information system after the processing of
the input data.
 Information Processing Functions: The following information
processing functions of MIS help explain the functionality of
MIS:
o Processing transactions: MIS helps process a transaction
which you can define as an activity performed in an
organization.
o Maintaining master files: MIS handles the creation and
maintenance of the master file in an organization.
o Producing reports: MIS helps produce various reports in an
organization,
o Processing enquiries: MIS is also used to process enquiries
that help you understand and maintain the data used in MIS.
o Processing interactive support applications: MIS contains
various interactive applications which help support the
'planning, analysis and decision making of the system.
 Levels of Management Activities: The levels that help
describe the structure of MIS are: '
o Strategic planning level: The strategic planning level of
management activities specifies the long-term plans which
are based on the business objective of the organization.
o Management control level: Management control level of
activities specifies the internal activities performed by one or
more managers.
o Operational control level: The operational control level of
management activities specifies short-term plans and
decisions for the currents operations in the organization.
 Decision Support: A decision in an organization depends on
the structure which is provided to make the decision. A
structured decision is generally pre-planned, whereas a
highly unstructured decision is not pre-planned.The
structured decisions are regular and well-defined and they
can be processed with the software instructions related to
MIS.
CLASSIFICATION OF MIS
MIS can categorize these information systems on the basis of their roles
in the operations and management of business as:
1. Operations support systems
2. Management support systems
3. General support systems
1. Operations Support Systems:The operations support
systems allow to perform various tasks such as efficient
processing of business transactions, supporting
organizational communications and updating databases of
 the organization. The different types of operating support
systems in an organization are:
 Transaction Processing Systems: A Transaction Processing
System (TPS) allows you to process and record data and helps
produce reports from the processed data.
 Process Control Systems: A Process Control System (PCS)
monitors and controls the physical processes in an
organization.
 Office Automation Systems: Office automation systems
refers to those information systems in which computer and
communication technology applications are used to process
office transactions and office activities at all levels of an
organization.
 Word Processing: Word processing enables you to create
computer-assisted documents such as reports and memo
using textual data which are entered via a keyboard.
 Electronic Filing: Electronic filing allows you to store incoming
and outgoing documents on a magnetic disk that you can use
for future reference.
 Electronic Mail: Electronic mail (e-mail) uses the
telecommunication network and software applications to
transfer different documents among several computers
connected through a network.
2. Management Support Systems
Management support systems include those information systems which
emphasize on providing information and support for effective decision
making by the managers of an organization. The various management
support systems are:
Management Information System: Management information system is
the information system that takes data as input and processes the data
to convert it into information as the output. Management information
system also helps provide analysis and planning of data and support
decision making.
Decision Support System:Decision Support Systems (DSS) are
information systems that supportdecision- making in an organization.
DSS is also used in planning and error handling in the organization.
Executive Support System:Executive Support System (ESS) extends the
management information system and includes the functionality of a DSS
that helps support the decision making of the chief executives in an
organization.
3. General Support Systems:
The information systems under MIS that perform both the roles of
operations and management are categorized as general support
systems. The various general support systems are:
Business Expert System: A Business Expert Systems (BES) is an advanced
and knowledge-based information system that acts as an expert to
provide knowledge-specific solutions to application areas which include
medical, business and engineering. The main elements of a BES are:
 Knowledge base: It contains information about the specific
area for which the BES can provide expert information.
 Inference engine: It specifies how you can deduce an
inference from the stored data and rules.
 User interface: It allows a user to communicate with BES.
Knowledge Management Systems: A Knowledge Management System
(KMS) is a knowledge-based information system that helps support in
creation and distribution of business knowledge to the managers and
other employees of an organization.
Strategic Information Systems: A Strategic Information System (SIS) is
an information system that helps an organization in achieving strategic
advantage over its competitor by applying Information Technology (IT)
to the products and services of the organization.
Functional Business Systems: A Functional Business System (FBS) helps
support the various function areas such as production, marketing and
accounting of an organization.
7. Describe, in brief, the various subsystems of an information
system.
SUBSYSTEMS OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEM
Subsystem refers to a part of information system that plays a specific
role in the working of information system. Subsystems have a great
importance for the end-users of the information system since the
subsystems are the integral part of any type of information system.
These subsystems are as follows:
1. Real-Life Business Subsystem
Real-life business subsystem is responsible for collecting
information about the organization and its business environment.
This information is very important to implement an information
system in the organization because the information system of the
organization must be compatible with each and every business
activities of the organization.
2. Production Subsystem
Production subsystem is responsible for collecting all the
information provided by the production department of the
organization. The production department of the organization deals
with the decision making related to the production process so that
the resulting goods and services are produced in accordance with
the quantitative specifications and demand schedule with
minimum cost.
3. Marketing Subsystem
Marketing subsystem is responsible for collecting information
about acquisition transportation, storage and delivering of the
product of the organization. All the data, which are required for
the marketing subsystem of the information system, are gathered
from the records of the marketing department of the organization.
4. Personnel Subsystem
Personnel subsystem is responsible for maintaining information
such as records of account, employees and finance of the
organization. It also provides a way to record information in the
storage medium of the information system from the terminal ends
of the information system.
5. Material Subsystem
It is responsible for collecting information about materials used in
different departments of an organization. All inventory- and stock-
related information is handled by this subsystem of the
organization. Financial Subsystem
6. Financial Subsystem
Financial subsystem is responsible for collecting all the information
related to financial management of the organization.
Decomposition of System
Decomposition of system refers to the division of system into
various subsystems.
The decomposition of system into various subsystems allows you
to perform complex tasks with greater ease. A system is divided
into smaller units until the smallest unit of the system becomes
manageable at the system level. The decomposition of a system
can be best exemplified by the hierarchical arrangement of various
departments in an organization.
The process of decomposition helps to identify and separate the
subsystems that can work independently in a system and decouple
them to achieve efficient results. Decoupling refers to the
phenomenon in which the interaction between subsystems and
other elements of the system disappears.
 Unit -2  Structured observation: Structured observation takes place in
1. What is fact finding analysis? Briefly explain various types of a formal way in which each activity in the observation
fact finding techniques. process is predefined.
Ans:  Unstructured observation: In this type observer observes
FACT-FINDING TECHNIQUES whatever might be pertinent at the time.
Fact-finding analysis is a process of ensuring that the information c) Time sampling
gathered is the actual required information. To gather the actual Time sampling is an information collection technique which helps the
required information, you need to use the fact-finding techniques. The system analyst to maintain a definite time interval between two
fact-finding techniques are: subsequent observation of various activities of managers and decision
makers.
1. Review of Literature, Procedures and Forms d) Event sampling
Procedure manuals and forms are excellent sources of information Event sampling involves sampling of entire events such as meetings and
because they describe the format and functions of the present system. conferences. Event sampling provides observation of an integral
Update manuals can provide lots of information which saves a lot of behavior in its natural context.
time. e) Examining behavior of decision makers
i) Analyzing quantitative documents To obtain the information about how tasks related to a software system
These reports supply strategic overviews of the organizational plans. are done, you need to observe each task carefully. It must be structured
Beyond these key reports, many summary reports are used by the in order to be interpretable.
decision makers to provide the background information and spot f) Physical environment observation
exceptions to normal circumstances. Decision makers influence and in turn are influenced by their physical
ii) Performance reports environment. The method for Structured Observation of the
Performance reports provide the information related to the Environment (STROBE) provides a standard methodology and
performance of the system. It helps in analyzing the varying trends in classification for the analysis of those organizational elements that
the performance and in implementing the required changes. influence decision making.
iii) Records
Records are maintained to help the system analyst determine the
functioning of the system.
iv) Data capturing forms
Data capturing forms helps in collecting the specific information related
to therequirement of the system.
v) Analyzing qualitative documents
Analyzing the qualitative documents helps understand how the
organizational members engage in the process of organizing. The types
of qualitative documents are memos and sign-on bulletin boards and in
work areas, manuals and policy handbooks.
vi) Memos
Memos are qualitative documents which help in providing the details
regarding the daily activities of the organization.
vii) Manuals
Manuals are the qualitative documents pertaining to the working area
of any system. These manuals can be based on the functioning of an
organization or the system and help in analyzing their performance.
viii) Policy handbooks
Policy handbooks are the documents that provide the information
regarding the policies and rules of the organization or the system.
2. On-Site Observation
On-site observation allows analysts to gain information they cannot
obtain by any other fact-finding methods. With thorough on-site
observation, you can gain the first-hand information.
a) Steps for observation
Following is the sequence of steps that must be followed while carrying
out on-site observation:
 Decide what is to be observed
 Decide the level of activities
 Create categories for capturing key activities
 Prepare materials for observations
 Decide the time for observation

b) On-Site observation methods

When humans are observed, four alternative observation methods are
considered which are as follows:
 Natural observation: Natural observation takes place in a
setting such as at an employee's work place.
 Contrived observation: It takes place in a set-up by the
observer such as laboratories.
 Obtrusive observation: Obtrusive observation takes place
with the knowledge of the respondent.
 Unobtrusive observation: It takes place without the
knowledge of the respondent.
 Direct observation: Direct observation takes place when the
observer observes the system at work by being physically
present at the actual work place.
 Indirect observation: This type of on-site observation makes
use of secondary devices such as video cameras to capture
information.
 2. Explain the spiral model of system development. How is it
different from prototyping model?
9. Compare and contrast various system development life
cycle models.
12. List the features, advantages and disadvantages of prototyping
model.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE MODELS
SDLC models represent descriptive and diagrammatic model of a
software product with a series of identifiable phases through which the
software product goes during its lifetime.
The fundamental need for using a life cycle model is to provide a basis
that helps in controlling the various activities required for developing
and maintaining a system. In addition, it establishes a precedence
ordering among the various activities and helps the development team
in facilitating and understanding the activities involved in the project.
The primary task of the development team, while developing a system,
is to identify a suitable life cycle model and follow the model throughout
the life cycle of the product.
Another need for using a life cycle model is that it helps in defining the
entry and exit criteria for every phase of the system life cycle. This
enables the system project managers to easily monitor the progress of
the system development process and also helps in controlling and
systematically organizing the various activities of its life cycle.
Some of the well-known SDLC models include:
1. Classic waterfall model
2. Prototyping model
3. Spiral model
4. Rapid Application Development (RAD) model
5. Incremental model
6. V Model
7. Build and fix model
8. Evolutionary development model
9. Synchronize and Stabilize Model
1. Classical Waterfall Model
The classical waterfall model or waterfall model is follows a sequential
approach from feasibility analysis phase to the maintenance phase of
the system development process. Since the classical waterfall model
follows a sequential approach to the various phases of the software
development, it is often referred to as linear sequential model.The
classical waterfall model is the simplest among all SDLC models where
all the requirements are known before the start of the system
development process. It consists of different phases and each phase has
its distinct goal. The phases of the classical waterfall model are:
 Feasibility study: This phase analyze the technical and
economic feasibility of the software. The technical feasibility
of software involves analyzing software development
environment, characteristic of the end-users and software
development resources such as human resources and
hardware resources.
 Requirement analysis and specifications: This phase focuses
on the requirements of the system to be developed. In this
phase, the key activity is to gather and understand what the
clients require from the system. System analyst analyzes the
client requirements and removes all inconsistent and
ambiguous requirements.
 Design: It determines the detailed process of developing
software after the requirements are analyzed. In this phase,
the system designer translates requirements specified in SRS
into various diagrammatic representations such as flow
chart, data flow diagram, entity relationship diagram and
Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagrams. Structural
design and object-oriented design are the two different
system design techniques. The design document is the work
product of design phase.
 Coding: This phase emphasizes the translation of the design
into a programming language by using the coding style and
guidelines.
 Testing: This phase ensures that the product is developed
according to the requirements of the user. Testing is a multi-
stage activity and in this phase, the software engineer
conducts various types of software testing such as
conditional testing, structural testing and basis path testing
and boundary value analysis to uncover errors and bugs and
fix these errors.
 Implementation and maintenance: This phase delivers the
fully functioning operational software to the user. Once the
software is accepted and deployed at the user's end, various
changes occur due to changes in external environment.
These include upgrading new operating system or adding a
new peripheral device. This phase focuses on modifying
software, correcting errors and improving the performance
of the software.
The advantages of classical waterfall model are:
 Each phase of development in the waterfall model proceeds
in a sequential order.
 This model allows managerial control where a schedule with
deadlines is set for each stage of development.
 This model helps in controlling schedules, budgets and
documentation.
The limitations include:
 The classical waterfall model is appropriate for the small
project; but for a large project, it is very difficult to follow this
model where exact requirements are not known initially.
 It is not suitable for GUI-based applications where it is not
possible to maintain document for every page.
 Once an application is in the testing phase, it is difficult to
incorporate changes at such a late phase.
 No user involvement and working version of the software is
available when the software is developed.
 This model lacks any feedback path to the preceding phases
of SDLC. As a result, the cost of defect removal increases in
this model.
 This model assumes that requirements are stable and frozen
across the project span.
2. Prototyping Model
Prototyping model is applied when there is an absence of detailed
information regarding input and output requirements of the system.
Proto typing model is developed on the assumption that it is often
difficult to know all the requirements at the beginning of a project.
Prototyping model is usually used, when a system does not exist or
there is no manual process to determine the requirements in case of
large and complex system.
Generally, prototyping can be prepared by following the various
approaches listed below:
 By creating major user interfaces without any substantive
coding in the background in order to give the users a feel of
what the system will look like
 By abbreviating a version of the system that will perform
limited subsets of functions
 Using system components to demonstrate functions that will
be included in the developed system
The various steps in the prototyping model are:
 Requirements gathering and analysis: Prototyping model
begins with requirements analysis and the requirements of
the system are defined in detail. The user is interviewed to
know the requirements of the system.
 Design: When the requirements are known, a preliminary
design or a quick design for the system is created.
 Build prototype: Information gathered from quick design is
modified to form a prototype.
 Assessment or user evaluation: Next, the proposed system is
presented to the user for consideration and users thoroughly
evaluate the prototype and recognize its strengths and
weaknesses such as what is to be added or removed.
 Prototype refinement: Once the user evaluates the
prototype, it is refined according to the requirements. The
developer revises the prototype to make it more effective
and efficient according to the user requirements. Once the
user is satisfied with the developed prototype, a final system
is developed based on the final prototype.
 Engineer product: After the requirements are completely
met, the user accepts the final prototype. The final system is
thoroughly evaluated and tested followed by routine
maintenance on continuing basis to prevent large scale
failures and to minimize downtime.
Advantages of prototyping model
The various advantages of the prototyping model are:
 The prototyping model provides a working model to the user
early in the process enabling early assessment and increasing
user confidence.
 The software developer gains experience and insight by
developing a prototype thereby resulting in better
implementation of requirements.
 Prototyping model serves to clarify requirements which are
not clear, therefore, reducing ambiguity and improving
communication between the developer and the user.
 There is a great involvement of the user in software
development. Therefore, the requirements of the user are
met to the greatest extent.
 The prototyping model helps in reducing the risks associated
with the project.
Disadvantages of prototyping model
The disadvantages of the prototyping model are:
 If the user is not satisfied by the developed prototype, then a
new prototype is developed. Thus, this model is time-
consuming and expensive.
 Prototyping can lead to false expectations.
 The primary goal of prototyping is rapid development;
therefore, the design of system can suffer as it is built in a
series of layers without considering integration of all the
other components.
3. Spiral Model
In 1980, Boehm introduced a process model known as the spiral model.
The spiral model comprises activities organized in a spiral which has
several cycles. This model combines the features of the prototyping
model and the classical waterfall model and is advantageous for large,
complex and expensive projects. The spiral model determines the
requirement problems in developing prototypes. In addition, the spiral
model guides and measures the need for risk management in each cycle
of the spiral model. IEEE defines the spiral model as a model of the
software development process in which the constituent activities,
typical requirements analysis, preliminary and detailed design, coding,
integration and testing are performed iteratively until the software is
complete.
The various regions available in the spiral model are:
 Client communication: This region includes tasks to establish
effective communication between the client and the
software engineer to understand the system requirements.
 Planning: This region includes estimating schedule, cost and
staff for the project.
 Risk analysis: This region involves identifying, estimating and
monitoring the technical and management risks.
 Engineering: This region involves software development. It
includes requirement gathering, design, coding and testing of
the software.
 Construction and release: This region includes deploying and
testing the software at client's site and creating user support
documents.
 Client evaluation: This region includes tasks to evaluate the
software by client and provides feedback regarding the
quality and functional capability of software to the software
engineer.
As the development process starts in the spiral model, the software
engineering team moves in clockwise direction around the spiral. The
first iteration around the spiral results in concept development of the
system. Similarly, next iteration produces the prototype of the system
and the subsequent iteration produces more sophisticated version of
the system. During each of the iteration around the spiral, planning
region adjusts the project plan if there is any deviation in execution of
actual plan. System quality, cost and project schedule are monitored
after getting the feedback from the client evaluation region.
The various advantages associated with the spiral model are:
 Spiral model avoids the problems resulting in risk-driven
approach in the software.
 This model specifies a mechanism for software quality
assurance activities.
 Spiral model is utilized by complex and dynamic projects.
 Re-evaluation after each step in spiral model allows changes
in user perspectives, technology advances or fmancial
perspectives.
 The estimation of budget and schedule gets realistic as the
work progresses.
The disadvantages associated with the implementation of the spiral
model are like. In the spiral model, assessment of project risks and its
resolution is not an easy task. It is difficult to estimate budget and
schedule in the beginning of this model, as some of the analysis is not
done until the design of the software is developed.
4. RAD Model
RAD model lays emphasis on delivering projects in small pieces. In case
the project is large, it is divided into a series of smaller projects. Each of
these smaller projects are planned and delivered individually. Therefore,
with a series of smaller projects, it is delivered quickly and in a less
structured manner. The RAD model enables high-speed development by
using waterfall model techniques. RAD model is applied when all the
requirements are well described in advance and frozen. The RAD model
adopts component-based development process and all the components
are integrated in the testing phase.
The various phases involved in the RAD model are:
 Business modelling: Business modelling phase is the concept
development phase for software development process. The
business modelling represents all the client requirements
which are to be transformed into the data modelling.
 Data modelling: This phase transforms the business
information into the data objects. Each data object has
attributes which describe the relationship of data object with
another data object.
 Process modelling: Process modelling phase describes how
various data objects are combined to achieve a common
goal. The process model implements functions to add,
modify, delete and retrieve the attributes of data objects.
 Application 'generation: RAD uses fourth generation
programming language such as Case tool languages to
implement the functions defined in the process model. RAD
applies reuse engineering principles and uses Computer
Added Software Engineering (CASE) tool for rapid
development of the software.
Various advantages associated with RAD model are:
 In the RAD model, deliverables are easier to transfer as high-
level abstractions, scripts and intermediate code are used.
 It provides greater flexibility as redesign is done according to
the developer.
 RAD model results in reduction of manual coding due to code
generators and code reuse.
 This model encourages user involvement.
 This model involves with the possibility of lesser defects due
to prototyping in nature.
 These disadvantages include:
This model is useful for only larger projects.
 RAD projects fail if there is no commitment by the developers
or the users to get software completed on time.
 This model is not considered appropriate when technical
risks are high. This occurs when the new application utilizes
new technology or when new software requires a high
degree of interoperability with the existing system.
 As the interests of users and developers can diverge from
single iteration to next, requirements may not converge in
the RAD model.
 This model requires the mapping of all client requirements
into well-defined functional module which is not always
possible.
5. Incremental Model
In the incremental model, the system is developed in various
incremental steps. Each step adds some functional feature to the
existing version of system until the system is fully developed. At each
step, the client suggests enhancement and modification to be
introduced in the partially developed systems which are implemented in
the next increment. The incremental model reduces the testing effort,
as the partial system is fully tested in each increment. Quality of the
system also increases, as client evaluates each increment and gives
feedback to the software engineer.
In this model, system analyst analyzes client requirements and places
them in a project activity list on the priority basis. Project activity list is a
list of client requirements which are to be implemented in phases to
develop the complete software. The three phases are:
Select the topmost activity from the project activity list and create
design for it
Implement design in a programming language and perform testing on
the partial product
Do analysis to understand the functional capability of the partially
developed product
The three phases are called design, implementation and analysis phase.
The incremental approach is followed until all the activities of the
project activity lists are implemented.
The project activity list forms the basis of the incremental model. Order
of the activity in the project activity list is the key factor because
disorder in activities may cause problems.
Following are the advantages that are associated with the incremental
model:
 The understanding of the problem increases through
successive refinements in the incremental method.
 It performs cost benefit analysis before enhancing software
with capabilities.
 It incrementally grows in effective solution after each
multiple iterations.
 This model does not involve high complexity rate.
 Early feedback is generated in this model because
implementation occurs rapidly for a small subset of the
software.
The major disadvantage of the incremental model is that it requires
planning at the management and technical level. This model also
becomes invalid when there is time constraint in the project schedule or
when the user cannot accept the phased deliverables.
6. V Model
V model is very useful in each phase of SDLC. This model determines the
complex relationship between each phase of system development
process and ensures that each phase of system development is
associated with testing.
Following points shows the activities of V model:
 V model emphasizes that testing occurs in every phase of
software development and does not occur after coding is
completed.
 V model helps determine activities and results to be
produced in SDLC.
 SDLC describes the products that are to be created during the
software project life cycle.
V model is divided into two branches. The left branch analyses and
determines the requirements of the software to be developed. On the
other hand, the right branch includes the testing activities. The left and
right branches of this model work concurrently. The interrelationship
between the branches of V model is listed below:
 Unit testing verifies the technical design. It individually tests
the units to verify that the units are functioning according to
the requirements.
 The integration and system testing verifies the functional
design of the programme. System testing verifies the
functional design of the programme to ensure that the
functional design is implemented correctly.
 The requirements of the business are validated at the user
end with the help of acceptance testing. Acceptance testing
is used when the final system is developed. It verifies that the
requirements are accomplished according to user
requirements.
 Lastly, the production verification is carried out.
One of the key aspects of V model is that verification and validation are
performed simultaneously in both branches. It is essential to link the left
branch with the right branch as the left side of V model is executed to
correct problems which are encountered during verification and
validation. Following are the advantages of V model:
 V model covers all functional areas.
 This model contains instructions and recommendations that
provide a detailed explanation of problems involved.
 This model emphasizes the significance of testing and
ensures that testing is planned.
The main disadvantage associated with V model is that the processes of
this model are institutionalized during the project and when the project
is finished, they are abolished.
Q. What is DFD and what is its element. Discuss the rules to construct a
DFD. What is Zero level DFD.
DATA FLOW DIAGRAM
Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a technique which is used to specify how the
data flow between the functions of the system. The basic purpose of the
diagram is to show how the system is currently implemented.
Elements of DFD
A data flow diagram illustrates the flow of data through a system and
the work performed by that system. In data flow diagrams, the symbol
set comprises diagram, data flow, entity, data store and process.
An entity is used to define the boundaries of the system. An entity is
represented by a rectangle. A process is work or action performed by
people, machines, etc. within the system. It is used to transform input of
a system into an output. In DFD, process is represented by bubbles. In
DFD, data store is used to store data and it is represented by open box.
A data flow is any item that carries data to, within or from the system.
That is, it is used to represent inputs and outputs of the system. In DFD,
flow of data is represented by arrows.
There are basically two types of DFD, one is called physical DFD and
other is known as logical DFD.
Physical DFD:A physical DFD is an implementation dependent view of
the current system, showing what functions are performed. A physical
diagram provides details about hardware, software, files and people
involved in the implementation of the system.
Logical DFD:Logical DFD is an implementation independent view of a
system that focusesonly on the flow of data between different
processes or activities. Logical diagrams show how the business
operates, not how the system can be implemented. It explains the
events of the system and the data required by each event of the system.
Rules to Construct a DFD
Following are the rules that must be followed to construct the DFD of a
particular system:
 Each process involved in a system should be named and
numbered for easy reference.
 Name of each process should be symbolic.
 The direction of flow of information in a DFD should be from
top to bottom and from left to right.
 When a process is divided into several lower level processes,
each low-level process should be numbered.
 The names of the data stores, sources and destination should
be in capital letters.
Zero Level DFD
Zero level DFD provides more detail than the context diagrams by
exploding them. By exploding context diagram processes into sub
processes, the system analyst begins to fill in the details about the flow
of data within the system. Each sub process in the zero level DFD is
numbered with an integer. Generally, this number starts from the upper
left comer and proceeds towards the lower right comer of the zero level
DFD.
Each process in zero level DFD may in turn be exploded to create a more
detailed child diagram. The process of zero level DFD that is exploded is
called the'parent process' and the resultant diagram is called the 'child
diagram'.
The primary rule while creating child diagram is that the child diagram
can not receive input or produce output that are not produced or
received by its parent process. That means any data that are flowing in
or out of the parent process should be shown flowing into or out of the
child diagram.
The processes in the child diagram are numbered using the parent
process number, a decimal point and a unique number assigned for each
child process of the child diagram.
FLOWCHART
Flow chart can be defined as a graphical picture of the logical steps and
sequence involved in a procedure and programme. Flow chart is
basically a graphical representation of an algorithm or process.
Algorithm is a set of ordered stepswhich are used to solve a problem. It
is designed by a user to make a problem more understandable. In order
to solve a problem, a user has to first design an algorithm related to the
solution of that problem.
It represents the flow of data from one stage to another stage of solving
a problem. In a flow chart, some specific rules or conventions are used
to show various blocks of a flow chart. As per standard convention",
some shapes are used to show particular part of a flow chart. For
example, a rectangle with rounded edge is used to represent START and
END (STOP) ofa flow chart, Parallelogram for Input & Output operations,
Rectangle for Execution operation and Diamond for Decision operation.
Unit -3
Explain Marketing and Human Resource Information System briefly?
FINANCIAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
A financial information system is defined as a subsystem of the
organizational management information system that supports the
decision-making process of financial functions at the organizational
levels.
A brief description of each of the financial decisions that a financial
manager needs to take is as follows:
 Capital budgeting: Allocates the funds for long-term assets
that yield benefits/returns in the future.
 Financing: Refers to when, where and how to acquire funds
to meet the investment needs of the organization. The
financial manager needs to decide about the proportion of
equity and debt capital. In addition, he needs to determine
the areas where the use of debt capital affects the return and
poses a risk to shareholders.
 Dividend: Relates to the dividend policy of the organization.
A decision whether the organization should distribute all
profits or retain them or distribute a portion and retain the
balance is taken by the financial managers.
 Current asset management: Refers to the management of
current assets of the organization in order to safeguard the
organization against illiquidity.
In addition to the abovementioned managerial functions, other
functions of financial systems are summarized as:Controlling the receipt
& payments, Maintaining statutory records and preparing periodic
reports for statistics, performance and results forinternal control and
audit.
Financial information systems also include accounting systems as these
systems are concerned with recording the business transactions. Such
transactions include wages, salaries and all other types of income and
expenditure related to an organization. The records of these
transactions become the basis for preparing periodic or annual profit
and loss accounts, balance sheets, etc. in the organization.
MARKETING INFORMATION SYSTEM
Marketing information system provides information about various
functions of the marketing system of an organization.
Various important marketing functions are as follows:
Marketing identification: It means that the determination of the
potential buyers and their characteristic is important in order to satisfy
the needs and desires of the customers.
Purchase motivation: It refers to the assessment of various social,
economic and psychological forces that influence the purchase behavior
of the market.
Product adjustment: It includes all such activities that are necessary to
match the product and services offered in the market. As the needs and
desires of customer keeps on changing, an equivalent adjustment is
required in terms of product planning. .
Physical distribution: It refers to the actual movement of goods from
points of production to points of consumption.
Communication: It refers to the communication of information and
messages between buyers and sellers.
Transaction: It refers to the inclusion of activities such as invoicing and
billing that are needed to facilitate the transfer of title of ownership of
goods or services between the parties involved in a transaction.
Post-transaction: It refers to the feedback about the performance of the
product or service that is obtained from the customer.
To carry out the above-mentioned marketing functions, the marketing
manager needs timely, accurate and relevant information to take an
array of decisions. Thus, every organization needs to organize the flow
of marketing information to its marketing managers. This marketing
information is developed with the help of internal company records,
marketing intelligence activities, marketing research and marketing
decision support analysis.
Various options used in marketing information system are as follows:
Transaction: It specifies that the reports on orders, sales, prices,
inventorylevels and receivables are obtained from the internal records
of the organization.
Marketing intelligence: It specifies the relevant developments in the
marketing environment.
PRODUCTION/ MNUFACTURING INFORMATION SYSTEM
A production or manufacturing information system provides information
on the production or operation activities of an organization and
facilitates the decision-making process for the production managers of
the organization. .
The main decisions to be taken in the manufacturing system are related
to the following areas:
Product design, Plant location, Plant layout, Production planning,
Routing, Scheduling, Loading, Production control, Quality control,
Workforce&Environment.
The manufacturing information system gathers different types of data
from various sources. After gathering data, it processes data to
transform them into meaningful information. This information is then
provided to the production managers to facilitate decision making at the
various levels of management. Information that is required for
manufacturing decisions is processed from data that are gathered from
a wide variety of sources. These various types of data are discussed as
follows:
Production: It includes production orders, assembly orders, finished
items and scrap.
Inventory: It includes data related to the inventories of raw materials,
goods in process and finished goods.
Supplier: It provides information about the sources of raw materials.
The materials manager maintains the supplier data.
HUMAN RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEM
Human resource information system supports the functions of human
resource management of an organization. Human resource information
system also deals with employee compensation, wages, salary
administration, labor relations and employee services and benefits.
Various options used in human resource information system are as
follows:
Transaction: It is the basis for various types of output information or
analysis. These data include employee number, name, qualification,
experience and joining date of the employee. They also include the
categories and grades of posting and daily performance of the
employees.
Environmental: It includes data about the availability of personnel,
trends in the labor force, competition, and market offerings to the
employees, government and labor laws. The human resource
information system gathers environmental data from journals, news
items, research studies, seminars and informal talks by the managers.
Organizational Plans: It provides an important input data to the human
resource information system. On the basis of these data, future planning
for recruitment and job assignment is done. The human resource
information system processes all these types of data to convert it into
information which supports decision-making of human resource
managers.
3. Describe ESS and DSS.
Ans:
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM
Decision Support System (DSS) is a model that helps the management of
an organization in taking decisions related to the functioning of the
organization. DSS involves three phases: intelligence, design and choice.
During the intelligence phase of DSS, the main objective of the
management is to identify the problem for which the decision needs to
be taken. In the design phase, all possible solutions for the problem are
determined. After determining all the possible solutions for the problem
in the design phase, the best solution is selected in the choice phase.
The criterion for choice phase varies from problem to problem.
Therefore, it is necessary to go through these phases repeatedly until an
optimum solution is achieved.
DSS helps the management in taking various decisions such as:
 Optimum product mix
 Alternative loading pattern
 Alternative assignment of jobs and machines
 Alternative material, tools and process
Types of DSS
 Communication-driven DSS: This provides support to
internal teams including partners in organizing business
meetings in an organization. Communication-driven DSS is
implemented in an organization using either Web or client
server technology.
 Data-driven DSS: Data- driven DSS helps filter only the
required information from a database or data warehouse in
order to obtain specific results for specific objectives. Data-
driven DSS is implemented in an organization using the
mainframe and client server technology.
 Document-driven DSS: Document-driven DSS helps search
Web pages and documents related to an organization on the
basis of certain keywords and search items. Document-driven
DSS is implemented in an organization by using either the
Web or a client server technology.
 Knowledge-driven DSS: Knowledge-driven DSS helps the
management in taking managerial decisions and selecting
suitable products or services. Knowledge-driven DSS is
implemented in an organization by using either the client
server technology or the Web.
 Model-driven DSS: Model- driven DSS is primarily used by
the managers and staff members of an organization. Model-
driven DSS is implemented in an organization by using the
client server technology, the Web and the software or
hardware in stand-alone computer systems
Components of DSS
 User interface: It is a means through which a user interacts
with· the machine or a device.
 Database: It is a collection of current and historical records
stored in a systematic manner. The information retrieved
from the database can be used in decision-making by the DSS
of an organization.
 Network: It is a collection of terminals, computers, servers
and components which allow the information flow and
sharing of resources among different users.
 DSS software system: It is a collection of mathematical and
analytical tools used to perform various operations on the
information stored in a database.
Applications of DSS
Business and management: DSS provides information that help in
strategic planning and decision-making process. DSS generates payrolls,
inventory and financial reports to assist the top management in
decision-making process of an organization.
Banking: DSS enables the employees of banks to perform day-to-day
banking transactions easily and efficiently.
Railway: In railways, DSS can be used to test the equipment on a regular
basis and also to set time for the arrival and departure of trains.
Hospitals: DSS can be used in hospitals for various purposes such as
medical diagnosis.
Airlines: DSS can be used for various purposes such as flight scheduling
and passenger demand forecasting.
Oil refineries: In oil refineries, DSS can be used to determine the
potential drilling sites for oil.
EXECUTIVE SUPPORT SYSTEM
An Executive Support System (ESS) is a computer-based system which
helps senior executives to easily access internal and external
information required to take strategic decisions. ESS has an easy to use
graphical user interface and offers strong reporting. It helps top-level
executives to supervise performance by analyzing, comparing and
highlighting important variables.
The component of ESS can be classified as:
 Hardware: The hardware components required to implement
ESS in an organization are easy to use and less expensive.
Computer hardware for an ESS includes the following three
components:
 Input data-entry devices, which help the employees of
an organization to input and modify the information
necessary for decision making.
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU), which helps manage
the functioning of various components such as monitor
and keyboards of the computer.
 Output devices, which provide an interface to the
employees of an organization to visualize the output of
a particular operation.
 Software: It is necessary to select appropriate software
components for developing an effective ESS. Following are
the software components required to develop an effective
ESS:
 Text base software: This helps the employees of an
organization to record and update the information
about day-to-day transactions.
 Database: This is used by the employees of an
organization to store and access information related to
the organization in a tabular form.
 Graphic base: This helps an end-user to convert large
quantity of information into various kinds of charts such
as scatter chart, bar charts, pie charts and moving
graphics.
 Model base: This helps in analyzing the statistical and
financial information stored in the organization
database.
 Interface: It is required to access data by a user. Interfaces
should have consistent look, should be flexible enough to
meet the changing needs of end-users, and should have
provision for help and error reports.
 Telecommunication: It is used to establish an organization in
the market and meet the executives' need to access and
transmit data from one source to another.
Role of ESS
Executives use ESS to explore information according to the requirement
of the user. ESS can be used in the following fields:
 Manufacturing: It is defined as converting unprocessed
materials into finished goods. ESS critically evaluates
vendors, buyers and purchased materials. Executives can
manage and analyze the purchasing operations effectively
with ESS.
 Marketing: The marketing executives can use ESS to perform
the marketing involved in an organization. It also helps in
predicting sales and product price which helps end-user to
compare predicted sales with previous sales. Executives can
control data with the help of ESS by studying previous trends
and audits of the sales data.
 Financial: The financial executives can use ESS to perform
financial role in an organization. For this the financial
executives decide the investment strategies with the help of
financial ratios and cash flow analysis. By using the quality
information provided by ESS, an end-user can estimate
budget and set standards for cost. ESS also helps in long-term
plans by making it easier for end-users to keep a track of cash
flow and expanding needs of an organization.
Benefits of ESS
The use of ESS is very easy and provides various benefits to the
executives of an organization.
 It is not necessary for the users to be an expert in using
computers.
 It helps provide summarized information to the concerned
authority on time.
 It provides information in a form which is easy to understand.
 It can sort data into different categories. 26. Name some ERP software. What are the challenges faced by
 It helps to keep track of information. ERP?
 It helps to take efficient decision.
ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING SYSTEM
ERP system is a type of information system that is used to integrate all
the data and processes of the organization into a cohesive system. ERP
system is regarded as the enterprise-wide framework that includes all
the major departments of the organization such as sales, marketing,
production, inventory management, accounts, finance and human
resource department.
This is the cross-functional enterprise framework that handles the
processes related to all the departments and helps the organization to
use the available resources in an efficient manner. The ERP system
follows the philosophy of handling and integrating all the processes at
all levels. The ERP system also manages the resources of the
organization in an efficient manner so that it can satisfy the needs of the
customers in a convenient manner. The changes that are required to be
incorporated in the business processes can be easily done with ERP
system with no extra effort, because changes have to be incorporated in
one place that affect the complete process of information system
automatically.
some of the ERP software vendors.
ERP Software Vendor ERP Software Name
SAP SAP Rl3
Baan Triton
PeopleSoft PeopleS oft
ID. Edwards Word Software
QAD MFGlPro
Ross Systems Irenaissance
Oracle . Oracle Manufacturing
ERP Challenges
Companies have to face many problems while implementing the ERP
system. The first problem the, organization has to face is about the
selection of the ERP vendor. Most organizations face ERP challenges in
three areas which are:
 Integration of ERP modules: Different ERP vendors sell their
ERP software package consisting of production planning,
inventory control, finance and HR. The organizations have to
install all these modules in the beginning phase of ERP
implementation.The integration of the modules purchased
from different vendors is one of the major challenges for the
organizations.
 Integration of e-business applications: E-Business
applications consist of strategies, technologies and processes
that integrate the internal and external business processes
electronically. E-Business software system falls into four
categories. These are:
o Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
o Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
o Supply Chain Management (SCM)
o Knowledge Management (KM)
 Integration with legacy systems: A legacy system is the
existing computer system or application implemented in the
organization to handle different business processes.
Integration of ERP systems with the legacy systems requires
the installation of the third-party software that can be used-
as an interface between the ERP systems and the legacy
systems.
11. Discuss in detail, the Simons model of decision making.
MIS AND DECISION-MAKING
Decision making means making a choice from the given alternatives by a
manager or a decision maker. The decision-making process lets a
manager come to a conclusion about a given situation. Therefore
decision making may be defined as a process of selecting an optimum
and best alternative from a couple of given alternatives to accomplish a
particular task. Decision-making process is the core of managerial
functions in MIS. It is said that the decision-making process considers
two or more alternatives from which a final decision could be made.
A decision-making process involves the entire process of establishing
goals, defining activities, searching for alternatives and finally the
development of plans. In addition, the decision-making process includes
all the activities of problem solving, coordinating, information
processing and evaluating alternatives that usually precede a decision.
On the basis of the purpose of the decision-making activities, the
organizational decisions are divided into the following three different
categories:
 Strategic planning: These are the decisions in which a
decision maker develops objectives and allocates resources
to achieve these objectives Decisions in this category are of
long-time period and involve a large investment and effort.
Such decisions are taken by the strategic planning level
managers who belong to the top level of the management
hierarch) in an organization.
 Management control: These are the decisions taken by the
management control level managers who are from the
middle level of the management hierarchy in an organization.
These managers deal with the use of resources in the
organization. Analysis of variance, product mix and planning
decisions fall in this category of decisions.
 Operational control: These are the decisions dealing with the
day-to-day problems that affect the operation of an
organization.
Simon's Model of Decision-making
The decision-making process is based on the following three phases as
given by Herbert A. Simon in his model of decision making:
 Intelligence phase
 Design phase
 Choice phase
 Implementation Phase
a) Intelligence Phase: A decision maker studies the
environment and identifies the problem or opportunity. The
scanning of environment may be continuous or intermittent.
The Intelligence phase of the decision-making process involves:
Problem searching: Refers to the difference between the
expected and real result obtained after making a decision
which is given by the following formula:
(Desired/Expected) - (Actual/Reality)=Difference/Problem
In actual practice, the reality or actual is compared to some standard
desired model. Then the differences are measured and evaluated to
determine the problem or difference. Various types of models that are
used to compare reality are:
 Historical models based on estimated information
 Planning model
 Extra organizational models in which expectations
are derived from customers, consultants and
competition
 Models used by employees in an 'organization
Problem formulation: Refers to the proper identification of
the problem to avoid the risk of solving the wrong problem.
To avoid such a risk, it is very important to understand the
problem well and state it clearly. Sometimes, the process of
clearly defining the problem is sufficient, but in other cases,
we have to simplify the problem by determining its
boundaries. Boundaries are simplified by breaking the
problem into smaller manageable sub-problems. In problem
formulation, establishing relations with some problems that
are solved earlier prove quite useful.
b) Design Phase: A decision maker identifies alternative courses
of action to solve the problem. Design phase includes
inventing or developing various alternatives in order to get
the best possible alternative. Developing alternatives is a
time-consuming and crucial activity, as the decision maker
has to explore all the possible alternatives. Decision-maker
 should not take the risk of missing any alternative since the
missed-out alternative might be the best one from the given
alternatives. Developing alternatives is a creative activity
which' can be enhanced by various aids such as
brainstorming, checklists and analogies.
c) Choice Phase: Refers to the selection of the alternative
developed in the design phase as the decision by the decision
maker. A decision maker makes a detailed analysis of each
and every alternative for performing this selection. After
making the decision, the decision is implemented. However,
at any phase, the decision maker may return to the previous
phase. For example, the decision maker in the choice phase
may reject all alternatives and return to the design phase for
developing more alternatives.
d) Implementation Phase: Refers to the phase in which the final
decision made by the decision maker during the design phase
is implemented. It should be noted that the completion of
this phase means successful completion of the decision-
making process. In case of any discrepancies, the decision
maker might return to the previous phase or phases to carry
out the decision-making process. The implementation phase
includes training of the personnel, who implement the
decision put forward by the decision maker. In addition, this
phase may require additional support from the top-level
management of the organization for implementing the
decision. This additional support may be personnel or
financial support.

Role of Information System in Decision-making

The stages of the decision-making process are: intelligence, design and
choice. The role of information system in these three stages of the
decision-making process is discussed as follows:
 Intelligence stage: Information systems may provide
information about internal as well as external environments
of the decision-making process. Internal information is
generated from the functional areas but the external
information is collected from various sources such as
newspapers, and personal contacts. Availability of a large
amount of information in this stage makes it necessary to
scan the data sources to get the relevant information. As a
result, information system is used to scan the business
environment of an organization. In order to get the required
information in the intelligence phase of the decision-making
process, information system must be designed so as to
answer pre-specified and ad hoc queries made by a decision
maker.
 Design stage: Information systems provide support by
quantifying and automating a decision-making process during
the design stage while considering structured decisions. At
this stage, various alternatives are developed and evaluated.
On the other hand, for semi-structured and unstructured
decisions, the support of information system provides the
following abilities:

o To reach a decision in an interactive process which

includes DSS capability

o To make ad hoc queries for information in the

organizational databases

o Therefore, information systems should be designed to

incorporate various models of business operations and
advanced statistical and optimization techniques

 Choice stage: Information systems provide summarized and

organized information to the decision makers at this stage of
the decision-making process. It is the stage in which a course
of action is selected and feedback is collected on the
implemented decision. Information system also provides the
feedback support to decision- makers in case they want to
return to the preceding stages of the decision- making
process in order to gather more information. Models such as
optimization and suggestion should be used to select the
most appropriate alternative which helps the decision Unit-4
makers in selecting the best course of action. COMPUTERS NETWORKS COMPONENTS
Computer Network involves group of computers and associated devices
that are connected by communications facilities. A network can be small
as LAN consisting of few computers, printers and other devices or big as
WAN consisting of many small and large computers distributed over vast
geographic area.
Networking systems consists of five basic elements arranged in the
following manner and follow the process of communication in that
order:
 The originating/source computer that transmits data.
 A data communication device attached to the sending
computer.
 A communication channel, which carries the data from point
to point.
 Data communication device attached to the receiving
system, capable of converting the data in the form which
receiving system can read.
 The receiving computer, which receives the information and
displays it on the screen, prints them, and stores them in a
file.
ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING
Computer networks have many advantages. Some of them are listed
below:
 Sharing of Hardware: Networking allows the user to share
the hardware in departments of a company/Institution.
 Sharing of Information: It allows the sharing of information,
which may be used constantly throughout the company.
 Transfer of Text: Networking facilitates the electronic
transfer of text.
 Decentralization of Data Processing: A complicated job can
be divided into multiple modules and can be distributed to
different departments for processing.
 Easy Communication: Various organizations cooperating in a
task can communicate with each other on network and
exchange information.
COMMUNICATION INTERFACE DEVICES
 Network Interface Cards (NIC) - Network Interface Card
allows the transmission of data over a cable network which
connects various computer and other devices such as
printers. NIC has additional memory for buffering, incoming
and outgoing data packets, thus it increases the network
throughput. Since it is an expansion card on the mother-
board, thus, circuit on the board provides protocols and
commands required to support this kind of network card.
NICs are available in 8-bit orin 16-bit bus standards.
 Modem is a device which carries voice or sound signals like
telephone system. The modem refers to a device which
performs two processes modulation i.e. conversion from
digital to analog and demodulation i.e. reverse the
conversion from analog to digital. Modems transmission
speed is measured in bits per second. Typically, modems
speed ranges from 14,000 bps to 56,000 bps. Modem stands
for Modulator/demodulator. It is a communication device
that converts between digital data from a computer of
terminal and analog audio signals that can pass through
standard telephone lines.
 Multiplexer is an electronic device that divides a physical
channel into logical channel to carry data transmission
simultaneously from many sources. Multiplexing makes
optimal use of existing communication channel by merging
the transmission of several sources at one end of thechannel.
 Front-end Communication Processor: The most sophisticated
communication management device is the front-end
processor. In communications, a front-end processor is a
small computer that is connected to the main (host) or larger
computer and is used to transmit and receive messages over
the communication channels, detect and correct errors,
encoding of messages and relieves the host computer from
routine computational tasks.
 Protocol converter - Protocol is a set conventions/rules which
governs the exchange of data between sender and receiver
(computer) with as little error as possible. Dissimilar devices
cannot communicate with each other.
 Repeaters: A repeater is a device used on communication
circuits that decreases distortion by amplifying or
regenerating a signal so that it can be transmitted in its
original form. A repeater generally connects two networks at
the physical layer.
 Bridges: It is a device that connects the same type of
networks or LANs using same communication protocols so
that information can be passed from one to another. In order
to transmit this data successfully the bridge magnifies the
data transmission signal. This means that bridge can act as a
repeater as well as link.
 Gateway: It is a device that connects dissimilar networks
using different communication protocols so that information
can flow from one to the other. A Gateway performs two
functions, it transfers the information and it converts
information to a form compatible with the protocol used by
the receiving network.
 Router is an intermediary device on a communication
network that directs the communicating messages when
several networks are connected together. On a single
network, several computers may be linked through a mesh
topology of possible connections. A router receives
transmitted messages and forwards them to their correct
destinations by means of most efficient available route. High
speed routers can serve as part of the Internet backbone or
transmission path, handling the major data traffic.
 Switch: In networking, switch is a device capable of
forwarding packets directly to the ports associated with
particular network address.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Network topology refers to the geometrical arrangement and
connection of nodes in the network. Topology is the layout of the
connection between the computers. Network topology generally,
determines the reliability and efficiency of computer networks. Some
network works on the Client-Server technique where server does all
traffic control; on the other hand there are some networks which don't
need server at all. Depending upon different topologies, network can be
divided into following types.
 Bus Topology (Linear bus): In a bus structure of network,
there is a single cable and all the workstations are attached
to it. Its structure is like Spinal Cord of human body. In this
structure all network nodes have unique addresses and are
connected to a common transmission medium that is called
broadcasting bus. Bus type of network is meant for Local
Area Networks (LANs).
Advantages of bus topology are:
(a) It is easy to use and understand, reliability is higher in very
small networks.
(b) It is cheaper than other topologies because, it requires less
cable to connect the computers.
(c) It is easy to extend and more computers can be connected to
the network as cables can be joined with a connector.
(e) Bus network commonly rely on collision detection or token
passing to regulate traffic.
Disadvantages of bus topology are:
(a) Bus network works slow in heavy traffic because any computer
can transmit at any time and can interrupt each other by using a
lot of bandwidth.
(b) Each connection between two cables weakens the electrical
signals.
(c) A network is disabled if someone accidentally cuts the main
cable.
 Ring Topology (Ring connection): Ring topology is similar to
the bus, as it is also having a single cable, but the cable
(media) forms a complete loop. In this type of network
computer communicates with other by sending a signal
around the ring and each workstation takes an active part in
the transmission. Information is passed from node to node
around the ring until it arrives at the node that is addressed.
Advantages of Ring network are following :
 (a) Ring network offers reliable performance for small and larger
distances.
(b) It can be easily extended.
(c) A ring topology makes it easy for computers to co-ordinate
access and to detect whether the network is operating correctly.
Disadvantages of ring network:
(a) Compared to other networks it is difficult to install and relatively
expensive.
(b) Entire network is disabled if one of cable is cut.
(c) Because of the closed loop, adding a new node can be difficult and
can disrupt the network.
(d) Ring networks are highly vulnerable, if a single computer fails, then
at least one part of the network is not working.
 Star Topology (Star connection): In some networks when
communication goes through a center point, then star
topology is preferred. A star-shaped network resembles the
spoke of a wheel; the center of a star network is often called
a hub. The wiring between the nodes is not shared as in the
case of bus topology. This topology is used in applications
where a central computer communicates with remote
terminals or workstations.
Star network is a LAN in which each node is connected to a
central computer in a star shaped configuration.
Advantages of a star network are:
(a) It is easy to add and remove nodes
(b) It is easy to trouble shoot the network through a central
hub.
(c) If a node fails, it does not affect the network.
(d) A star topology helps protect the network from damage
to a single table.
Local Area Network (LAN)
When the network is spread in a small geographical area say 0 to 10 km.
then such network is called Local area network. Ring, Star, etc. are
examples of LAN. LANs are usually intra-organizational and privately
owned. For example, network can be used to connect different
terminals in the lab, to connect different offices of same organization or
to connect different departments of a university and so on.
COMPONENTS OF LAN
 Workstation: A workstation in LAN is a single user
microcomputer with communication capabilities.
 File Server:A file server is powerful computer that works as
server for the LAN. It is loaded with special software such as
Network Operating System is loaded to control the
functioning of LAN.
 Network Interface Card: Network interface card mediate
between the computer and the physical media such as
cabling over which data transmission takes place.
 Network Operating System: An operating system specifically
designed to support networking. A server based network
operating system provides networking support for multiple
simultaneous users as well as administrative, security and
management functions.
 Network cabling or cabling system - Once the server,
workstations and network interface cards are in place then
cable is required to connect the network.
WIDE AREA NETWORK
Wide area networks (WAN) are formed when a geographically
distributed network composed of LANs joined into a single large
network using services provided by common carriers. WANs are
commonly implemented in enterprise networking environment in which
company offices are in different cities, states or countries or on different
continents. WANs are usually public access networks.
The well-known examples of private and public networks are given
below:
(a) Private Network:
WANs are commercial and regulated network, while others are privately
owned usually by large-sized organizations. Some WANs Private
networks are regional networks for corporations spread over a large
area such as telephone companies.
Examples: ARPANET, SWIFT, SITA
(b) Public Network:
Some WANs can be implemented by public network in terms
of their management, resources and access. One such public
WAN is the Internet whereas public networks are, may be
international network as well, built by the Government
Telecommunication agencies e.g., global communication
service providers. Generally public network handles bulk
amount of data and is more economical.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
MAN is a network bigger than LAN but smaller than a WAN it is also
defined as multiple network that are connected within the same city to
form a city wide network for a specific Government or industry. MAN is
a high speed network that can carry voice data and images at up to 200
Mbps or faster over distances of up to 75 km.
A MAN can include one or more LANs as well as telecommunication
equipment such as microwave or satellite relay station. It operates at a
higher speed and it is smaller than WAN.
WHAT ARE PROTOCOLS?
In computing, a protocol or communication protocol is a set of rules in
which computers communicate with each other. The protocol says what
part of the conversation comes at which time. It also says how to end
the communication.
Types of Protocol
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), is used for accessing and
receiving Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) files on the
internet.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), is used for transferring
e-mail between computers.
 Post Office Protocol version 3 (PoP3) is the most common
account type for personal e‑mail. Messages are typically
deleted from the server when you check your e‑mail.
 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a protocol for e-
mail retrieval and storage developed in 1986 at Stanford
University as an alternative to POP.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP), is used for showing files to be
copied between devices.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), ensures the delivery of
information packets across networks.
 Internet Protocol (IP), is responsible for logical addressing
called "IP address" to route information between networks.
 In computer networking, Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a
data link (layer 2) protocol used to establish a direct
connection between two nodes.
TCP/IP protocol suite
The TCP/IP protocol suite maps to a four-layer conceptual model known
as the DARPA model. The four layers of the DARPA model are:
Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Interface.
 Network Interface Layer: The Network Interface layer (also
called the Network Access layer) sends TCP/IP packets on the
network medium and receives TCP/IP packets off the
network medium. TCP/IP was designed to be independent of
the network access method, frame format, and medium.
 Internet Layer: The Internet layer responsibilities include
addressing, packaging, and routing functions. The Internet
layer is analogous to the Network layer of the OSI model.
 Transport Layer: The Transport layer provides the
Application layer with session and datagram communication
services. The Transport layer encompasses the
responsibilities of the OSI Transport layer.
 Application Layer: The Application layer allows applications
to access the services of the other layers, and it defines the
protocols that applications use to exchange data.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNET
 As we know Internet is a network of separate distinct
networks. It does not represent a single entity and is not
owned by any single person or organization. Thus being
"Wild west", nature of Internet possess following
characteristics, these are:
 Complex Network: Internet is huge set of networks
connected together i.e., more than 100 separate Internet
networks meet to exchange data at the Network Access Point
(NAP).
 Hierarchical in structure: At the top, there are very large
national Internet Service Providers (ISPs). These national ISPs
connect together and exchange data at network access
points (NAPs). Though at end user level, it appears to be
unorganized and confusing.
  Open-membership professional society: Because Internet is
said to be network of networks, not one organization
operates and owns the Internet. The owner of the Internet is
the Internet Society which is open and allows anyone to join.
 Dynamic in nature: The Internet is changing. New
applications and access technologies keep changing.
 Internet covers globe: Internet is accessed by people across
the globe in over 155 countries.
 Wider application accessibility : The Internet offers access to
data, graphics, sound, software, text and people through a
variety of services and tools for communication and data
exchange.
 Growing exponentially: Internet joins a set of one or more
networks every day.
VARIOUS COMMUNICATION SERVICES
The innovations of the technological key areas that have filled e-
commerce are the following:
 Telecommunication Companies: Providing simple services
such as phone calls to all types of customers. They are
developing new technologies XDSL, fast switches for higher
bandwidth communication across existing networks.
 Satellite Technology: Vendors setting up new broadband
network with global reach.
 Wireless Network: Provides Internet facility at a faster pace,
Unit-5
even on cell phones using wireless Internet protocol.
 Cable Companies: Provide two way Internet traffic on
television by introducing set-top boxes which act as 4. What is normalization? Why is it needed? Explain the
converters and separators for the inbound and outbound following terms with respect to normalization giving
traffic. examples :
APPLICATION OF INTERNET a) First Normal Form
The common applications of the Internet can be classified into three b) Second Normal Form
primary types namely: c) Third Normal Form
Communication: Communication on the Internet can be both online or
offline. When some users connect to a single server at the same time, Normalization
they can communicate to each other in an "online chat manner". This Normalization is integral to the database design and it can be defined as
can be "many to many" as in a room full of people talking to each other the process of eliminating the redundancy of data in a database. A
on peer to peer basis. Alternatively, the users send e-mail to each other relational table in a database is said to be in a normal form if it satisfies
which can be read by the receiver whenever he/ she find the time. certain constraints. The various normal forms are first normal form
Data Retrieval: On the Internet, a large number of databases exist. For (1NF), second normal form (2NF), third normal form (3NF), fourth
data retrieval, availability of data that has been compiled from various normal form (4NF) and fifth normal Form (5NF).
sources put together in a usable form. These databases have been put The benefits of normalization are:
together by commercially run data providers as well as individuals or  Provides better overall database organization and data
groups with special interest in particular areas. To retrieve such data, consistency within a database
any user needs to know the address/ s of such Internet servers.  Allows you to create tables that can be easily joined with
Data Publishing: Information that needs to be made available to others other tables with related information
can be forwarded to specific addresses, posted in a Usenet site or kept  Helps to reduce redundant data across the tables
on display in a special site.  Prevents data loss by assigning primary and foreign keys in a
Business use of Internet: Business has taken to Internet in this era only. table
Business has to use Internet innovatively but within the norms and  Helps to reduce modification anomalies such as deletion,
modes of this fast growing world-wide community. Business methods insertion and update anomalies
and practices have changed the life styles of the people.  Defines relation constraints that are a logical consequence of
keys
Normalization terminology consists of various concepts frequently used
III normalization such as primary key and functional dependency.
Primary key
The primary key of a relational table uniquely identifies each row in a
table. A primary key is either a column in a table that is unique such as
identification number and social security number or it is generated by
the DBMS such as a Globally Unique Identifier (GUlD). Primary key is a
set of single column or multiple columns from a table. The first table,
STUDENTS, contains a record for each student at the university. The
table consists of various attributes such as student_id, first_name,
last_name and student_stream. Table
lists the various attributes in the STUDENTS table.
Student id First name Last name Student stream
SOl John Wilkins Computers
SOl Chris Burton Electronics
SOl Ken Wilkins Electronics
A unique Student_id number of a student is a primary key in the
STUDENTS table. You cannot make the first or last name of a student a
primary key because more than one student can have the same first
name and can have same stream.
Functional dependency
A functional dependency is a constraint between two sets of attributes
from the database. Functional dependency is represented by X - > Y
between two attributes, X and Y, in a table. The functional dependency entire primary key identified for the table. The tables formed after
X - >Y implies that Y is functionally dependent on X. lists the various applying 2NF to the employee project table are empproj table and EMP
attributes in the EMPLOYEE table. table and proj table. Table
Employee_id Employee_name Employee _ dept Empproject Table
K067263 John Sales Emp_id Proj no ProLhrs
K067264 Chris Accounts H76320 W36 08
K067265 Ken Sales H7632I W37 02
the various attributes of the EMPLOYEE are Employee_id, lists the various attributes in the EMP table.
Employee_name and Employee _ dept. You can state that: Emp_id Emp_name
Employee_id - >Employee_name H76320 W36
The above representation that the Employee_name attribute is H76321 W37
functionally dependent on the Employee _id implies that the name of an lists the various attributes in the proj table.
employee can be uniquely identified from id of the employee. However, Proj no Projjiame Projjuc
you cannot uniquely identify the Employee_id from the Employee_name H76320 Payroll system Houston
column because more than one employee can have the same name. H7632l Billing system Denver
However, each employee has different value in the Employee _id Transitive Dependency
column. A transitive dependency occurs when a non-key column is uniquely
Functional dependencies are a type of constraints based on keys such as identified by values in another non-key column of a table. A non-key
primary key or foreign key. For a relation table R, a column Y is said to column of a table refers to the column that is not identified as a key
be functionally dependent on a column X of the same table if each value such as candidate or primary key.
of the column X is associated with only one value of the column Y at a Third Normal Form
given time. All the columns in the relational table R should be A table is in 3NF if the table satisfies the requirements of 2NF and the
functionally dependent on X if the column X is a primary key. non-key columns are functionally dependent on only the primary key.
If the columns X and Yare functionally dependent, the functional The third normal form is based on the concept of transitive dependency.
dependency can be represented as: A functional dependency, A - > B, in a relation, R is a transitive
IR.x ~ R.y dependency if the following conditions are satisfied:
First Normal Form A column or set of columns, C, exists in the table that is neither the
A table is in 1NF if the data in the table has an identifying key and does candidate key of R nor the subset of any key of R.
not include repeating groups of data. To reduce data redundancy by The functional dependencies A - > C and C - > B hold in the table.
using first normal form, you need to: For example, consider a Subject table with attributes such as Subject no
 Remove the duplicate columns from a table. and chapter name.
 Create a separate table for related data and identify the Subject Table
primary key in the table. Subject_no Chapter_name Instructor Department

Order No Iteml Iteml_Qty Item l Price Item2 H76320 Data structure ABC Computer
Item2_Qty Item2_Price H76320 Communication XYZ Electronics
Oil IT90 322 36$ IT91 564 45$ In the above table, Subject_no is the only candidate key. Therefore, the
following functional dependency exists for the subject table.
In Table, the information provided is redundant. The multiple values of Subject_no ~ Chapter_name
the same type are stored in multiple columns such as quantity and price Subject_no~ Instructor
of two items are stored in different columns. Instructor~ Department
The requirements of first normal form are: From the above functional dependencies, you can say that Subject_no -
 Eliminate the multi valued fields from the table. > Department and therefore the above table is in 2NF. However, the
 Each column in the table must be atomic. table is not in 3NF since Department is not directly dependent on
 Each column in the table must have a key such as primary or Subject_no. In the Subject table, the Department column is determined
foreign key. by another non-key column, Instructor. Therefore, to apply 3NF to the
 Remove the repeating information from the table. Subject table, you need to decompose the table in two tables,
Second Normal Form Subject_inst table and instructor table.
A table is in 2NF if the table satisfies all the conditions of first normal Subject_inst Table
form and does not consist of any column that depends on only one part Subject_no Subject_name Instructor
of the identified primary key. The 2NF is based on the concept of full H76320 Data structure ABC
dependency. H76320 Advanced OS XYZ
To apply 2NF to a table you need to:
 Ensure that the table conforms to INF. lists the various attributes in the instructor table.
 Create a separate table for sets of values that apply to Instructor Department
multiple records. ABC Computer
 Relate these tables with a foreign key. XYZ Electronics
For example, Boyce-Codd Normal Form
Emp_id Proj no Projhrs Emp_name Proj name Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is stricter than third normal form. The
Projloc relation present in BCNF is also found in 3NF; however, the relation in
H76320 W36 08 Abc Payroll Houston 3NF form is not necessarily present in BCNF. In 3NF, anomalies can
H76321 W37 02 Xyz Billing occur, when a relation has more than one candidate key. In the situation
Denver of overlapping candidate keys, 3NF is unable to stop occurrence of the
In the above table, “Employee project” conforms to 1 NF since it does anomalies. This provides a base for BCNF which is based on the concept
not contain repeated values and Emp_id and Projjd are identified as the of determinant. A determinant is an attribute on which some other
primary keys for the 'table. However, the table is not in 2NF because all attribute is fully functionally dependent. The following code shows the
the columns of the table depend on only a part of the primary key which relation and determinants:
comprises Emp_id and Projno identified for the table. For example, the [R (a, b , c , d) [ :
column Emp_name is dependent on only the Emp _ id and does not a, c ~ b, d
depend on the Proj no part of the primary key. Similarly, the Projname a, d ~ b
column is dependent on only the Proj no column and not on the Emp_id In the above code, the first determinant states that you can change the
primary key. primarykey of relation R from a, b to a,c. After applying this change, you
Therefore, to apply 2NF to the employeeproject table, you need to make can stillrhefiftl determine the non-key attributes present in relation R.
a separate table for columns that depend on only a part of the primary The second determinant indicates that a, d determines b, but as a, d do
key. The new table should contain columns that are dependent on the not determine all the non-key attributes of R, it cannot be considered as
the primary key of R. This implies that the first determinant is a Smith I I New
candidate key, but the second determinant is not a candidate key; York Smith lNew York
hence, this relation is not in BCNF but is in 3NF. Smith 2 I
To be in BCNF, every determinant of the relation has to be a candidate Chicago Smith Chicago
key. The definition of BCNF specifies that a relation schema R is in BCNF
if a non-trivial functional dependency X -+ A holds in R, then X is a super Jones I 2
key of R . Chicago Jones Chicago
Decomposition
The relational database design algorithm start with a single universal
relation schema, R = {AI, A2, A3, ..... , An}, which includes all the
attributes of a database. The database designers specify the set, F of
functional dependencies, which holds true for all the attributes of R.
This set, F of functional dependencies, is also provided to the design
algorithms. With the help of functional dependencies, these algorithms
decompose the universal relation schema, R into a set of relation
schemas, D = {RI R2, ... , Rm}, which becomes the relational database
schema. In this case, D is referred as a decomposition of R. The
properties of decomposition
 Attribute preservation: It involves preserving all the
attributes of therelation which is being decomposed by the
design algorithms. While decomposing a relation, you need
to make sure that each attribute in R exists in at least one
relation schema, R, while decomposing the relation.
 Lossless-join decomposition: It ensures that the join remains
in the same relation, as it was before the decomposition of
the relation. The decomposition of the relation R into several
relations, RI, R2, ... , Rn is called a lossless-join
deClbmposition, if the relation R is the natural join of the
relations R-I, R2, ... , Ro. To test whether a given
decomposition is a lossless-join for a given set F of functional
dependencies, you need to decompose the relation, R into RI
and R2. If the decomposition of the relation R is lossless-join,
then one of the following conditions has to be true:
 (RI intersection RI) -+ (RI - R2) and
 (RI intersection RI) -+ (R2 - RI)
 Dependency preservation: It states that if each functional
dependency X -+ Y, specified in F, either directly appears in
one of the relation schemas R, in the decomposition D or is
inferred from the dependencies that appear in the relation,
Ri, The need of dependency preservation arises because each
.dependency in F represents a constraint on the database.
When a decomposition do not preserve the dependency,
then some dependency can be lost in decomposition. You
can check for a lost dependency by creating a join of two or
more relations in a decomposition to get a relation, which
includes all the left and right-hand side attributes of the lost
dependency. Then, check whether or not the dependency is
preserved on the result of join.
Fifth Normal Form
The "fifth normal form (5NF) is based on join dependency. Join
dependency implies that after a table is decomposed into three or more
tables, the tables can be joined to form the original table. A table is in
5NF if the table cannot have lossless decomposition into smaller tables.
A lossless decomposition implies that after a relational table is
decomposed into smaller tables, the joining of the tables’results in
exactly the same relation table which was decomposed. If an instance is
added to a table, which is not in 5NF, it results in spurious results when
the tables are decomposed and then rejoined.
lists the various attributes ofInstructor-MID-Location Table.
Instructor MID Location
Smith I New York
Smith 2 Chicago
Jones I Chicago
If you were to add the MID-2 to New York, you would be faced with
adding a line to the table for each instructor located in New YOlk. If
Jones were certified for MID-2 and could travel to New York, you would
have to add two lines to reflect this.
Fifth Normal Form ofInstructor-MID-Location Table
Instructor-Seminar Seminar-Location Instructor-
Location
Table Table
Table
Instructor MID MID 8.
What is a Data Model? Explain different categories of data
Location Instructor Location model.
DATA MODELS
A data model in DBMS is defined as a collection of concepts which is
used to describe the structure of a database. Data model describes
logical structure of a database by considering following concepts:
 Structure: It represents how the data are organized in a
database. The data can be organized using hierarchical,
network, relational or objectoriented data model.
 Integrity: It provides a definition of rules to indicate whether
or not the defined structure can be used to organize data in a
database.
 Manipulation: It provides a language in which you can update
the data in a database.
 Querying data: It provides a language in which the data in the
database are queried.
For DBMS implementation you can use various data models which
include all, database-related concepts for describing the structure of a
database. Following are the various data model used in DBMS:
1. Hierarchical
2. Network
3. Relational
4. Object-oriented
1. Hierarchical Model
In the Hierarchical model also called Hierarchical schema, data are
organized in the form of a tree structure. Hierarchical model supports
the concept of data independence. Data independence is the ability to
change the representation of data at one level of a database system
without the compulsion of changing the data representation at the next
higher level.
Hierarchical model uses two types of data structures, records and
parent-child relationship to define the data and relationship among
data. Records can be defined as a set of field values which are used to
provide information about an entity. An entity is a collection of object in
a database which can be described by using a set of attributes. Records
of same type can be easily grouped together to form a record type and
assigned a name. The structure of a record type can be defined by using
a collection of named fields or data items. Each data item or field has a
certain data type such as character, float or integer. Parent-Child
Relationship (PCR) can be defmed as a 1: N relationship between two
different record types. The record type on the l-side is called parent
record type and record type on the N-side is called child record type.
Occurrence of PCR type, also called instance, consists of one record of
the parent record type and a number of records of the child record
types.
Hierarchical schema consists of number of record types and PCR types.
In hierarchical schema, record types are represented by rectangular
boxes and PCR types are represented by the lines which are used to
connect parent record type to child record type.
The advantages of the hierarchical data model are:
 It is simple to construct and operate on data in the
hierarchical model.
 It involves hierarchically organized domains such as product
information in manufacturing and employee information in
organization.
 It uses constructs such as GET, GET UNIQUE and GET NEXT.
The disadvantages of the hierarchical data model are:
 It requires navigational and procedural processing of data.
 It provides less scope of query optimization.
2. Network Model
The network model can be defined as a database model which is used to
represent objects and the relationships among these objects. In network
model, a record can have a number of parent records and it also can
have multiple child records. Like Hierarchical model, network model also
supports the concept of data independence which can be defined as the
ability to change the representation of data at one level of a database
system without the compulsion of changing the data representation at
the next higher level. In network model, Data Manipulation Language
(DML) is used for searching and retrieving records from the database.
Network model uses two types of data structures: records and set type
to define the data and relationship among data. Records can be defined
as a set of field values which are used to provide information about an
entity. An entity is a collection of object in a database which can be
described by using a set of attributes. Records that have a same type
can be easily grouped together to form arecord type and assigned a
name. The structure of a record type can be defined by using a
collection of named fields or data items. Each data item or field has a
certain data type such as character, float or integer.
Set type is a description of a l:N relationship between two record types.
Each set type definition has following elements:
 Name for set type
 Owner record type
 Number record type
The advantages of the network data model are:
 It enables the representation of complex relationships and
effect of operations such as add and delete on the
relationships.
 It uses constructs such as FIND, FIND owner and FIND NEXT
within a set that allows the users to navigate through the
database.
 Network model can inherit the advantages of hierarchical
model.
 Many-to-many (M : N) relationships are easier to implement
in network model as compare to hierarchical model.
 This model ensures data integrity.
The disadvantages of the network data model are:
 It provides navigational and procedural processing of data.
 It provides complex array of pointers that thread through a
set of records.
 It provides less scope of query optimization.
3. Relational Data Model
In a relational data model, data is stored in tables which are also called
relations.The related tables or relations in the relational data model
form a database. Theproperties of relational data model are:
 Each row in a table is unique from every other row in the
table.
 Each row contains atomic data which implies that data are
not repeated and do not contain structures such as arrays.
In a relational model, tables are used to organize data. A table consists
of columns or fields that represent attributes of an entity. Each row or
tuple in a table represents occurrence of an entity and must consist of a
value that uniquely identifies the row. Such a column that uniquely
identifies the rows or tuples in table is called the primary key. The
relational model also consists of foreign keys that allow joining data of
two tables.
Relational data model makes use of the set theory and is based on the
concept of mathematical relation which contains several data elements.
The basic characteristics of the relational model are relational algebra
and relational calculus. Relational algebra is a set of operations for
manipulating relations and specifying queries. Relational calculus
provides a declarative way to specify database queries. The relational
algebra and the relational calculus are two different means of
representing the database queries. Any relational algebraic expression
can also be converted into a corresponding expression in the relational
calculus and vice versa.
Relations
A relation is a two-dimensional table which is used to represent data in
the form of rows and columns. The names of the columns are known as
attributes and rows are known as tuples of the relation. There are
various parts of a relation which are:
 Domain: It is a set of atomic values. The values that cannot
be divided into subcomponents are called atomic values.
 Tuple: In relational data model, a row IS termed as tuple that
gives complete information of an entity.
 Attribute: It is a column header in a relation that represents
the attributes of an entity.
Relational Schema
Relational schema is the description of the database that is specified
during database designing. You can graphically represent relational
schema which is known as schema diagram.
There are certain features of relations that distinguish relations from a
file or a table.
The various features of relations are:
 Ordering of Tuples
 Ordering of Attributes
 Interpretation of a Relation
Ordering of Tuples
In a relation, tuples are not defined in any particular order. Two tables
are same if they contain same attributes and tuples but the order of
tuple differs.
Interpretation of a Relation
You can interpret a relation in relational data model as a type of
assertion and declaration. Consider the relation student listed in Table
5.6. Student relation contains various attributes such as name, SSN and
phone number. Each tuple in the relation is an instance of assertion.
First tuple asserts the fact that John Bayer is a student whose SSN is
678-54, age is 19, city is Paris, GPA is 4.9 and phone number is 373-654.
Thus, interpretation of relation provides some facts.
4.Object-Oriented Model
The Object-Oriented (OO) data model consists of a collection of entities.
Entity refers to the concept or object described in a database and is
represented as a class in the object-oriented data model. The instances
of a class are called objects. Attribute provides additional information to
describe an entity. The attributes of a class help distinguish an object
from another object in a class.
For example, in an Employee database, employee is an entity and
employee name, salary and ID are the attributes of an employee entity.
Relationship describes the interaction between the various entities in a
database.
Consider an employee database that can be represented in 00 data
model as follows:
• Class :Employee
• Attributes: Employee_name,Employee_code, Employee_salary,
• Behaviour: Works for manager
The OO data model consists of:
 Object: It represents a real world entity.
 Attributes and methods: It represents the set of values for
the attributes of the object and set of methods to operate on
the attributes of the object.
 Class: It is a group of all the objects that share the same set
of attributes and methods.
 Class hierarchy and inheritance: It represents derivation of a
new class from an existing class which is called superclass.
The new class is called subclass and it inherits all the
attributes and methods of the existing class. In addition, it
also consists of additional attributes and methods of the
class.
27. What is mean by Database anomalies?
23. What is Database Management System? What are its basic
components? Name the different categories of database users
explaining.
WHAT IS DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS) ?
A database management system is a collection of programs that enables
users to create and maintain a database. Defining a database involves
specifying the data types, structures, and constraints for the data to be
stored in a database. Constructing the database is the process of storing
the data itself on some storage medium that is controlled by the DBMS.
Manipulating a database includes some functions as querying the data
base to retrieve specific data, updating the database to reflect changes
in the mini world, and generating reports from the data.
A DBMS may typically perform the following functions:
 It loads the existing data files, text files or sequential files into
the data base as per desired database structure.
 The database and DBMS catalogue are usually stored on disk.
Thus, the module of the DBMS controls access to information
stored on disk. It also handles the data transfers in the main
memory from secondary storage.
 When a command coded in data manipulation language
reaches to run time database processor, then control passes
from application program to the DBMS. The control unit of
CPU causes each instruction of the application program to be
executed in sequence.
 The query it receives may be retrieval or update operations
to be carried out on to the database. It parses, analyzes and
compiles or interprets a query by creating database access
code and executes that code.
 DBMS requests operating system to schedule Input/output
operations.
 DBMS interacts with operating system when disk access to
the database or to the catalogue. DBMS also interfaces with
compilers for general purpose host programming language.
 DBMS backup utility module creates backup copy of the
database that can be used to restore the database in case of
catastrophic failure.
 DBMS utility module reorganizes a database file into
different file organization to improve performance.
 DBMS provides status information to the application
program regarding record found or not found status.
 DBMS may be available for sorting files, handling data
compression, monitoring access by user and provide statistics
to the DBA.
COMPONENTS OF DBMS
The important component of DBMS is DBMS languages i.e. data
definition language and data manipulation language which allows user
to define, construct and manipulate a database.
DBMS Languages
For defining each level or component of the database i.e. internal level,
conceptual level and external level, DBMS provides languages and these
are:-
 Data Definition Language (DDL): It is used by the database
designers or application programmer to specify the content
and structure (conceptual view) of the database. DDL is used
to define the physical characteristics of each record i.e. the
logical name of the fields, their data types and size. DDL
performs the following functions:
DDL is used by DBA and by database designer to define
conceptual and internal schema.
DDL specifies the fields in each record and the record's logical
name.
o It specifies the data type and name of each field.
o It defines the structure and format of the data.
o It provides data independence at logical and
physical level.
o It specifies and provides the means to establish
relationship among various records.
o It identifies the records by unique data item
known as KEY.
o It sets up data security access and change/update
restrictions.
 Data Manipulation Language (DML): The database has to be
accessed by various users for typical manipulations such as
retrieval, insertion, deletion and modification of the data.
The DBMS provides a Data Manipulation Language (DML)
such as SQL for this purpose.
The summary of functions and features of DML/SQL are
following:
o SQL - Structured Query Language is data
manipulation language used in querying, updating
and managing relational databases. It is English
like command such as SELECT ... FROM ....
o WHERE. SQL is simple English like language.
o DML/SQL allows user to perform typical
manipulations that include retrieval, insertion,
deletion and modification of data.
o It is a comprehensive integrated language.
o DML statements can be entered interactively from
a terminal or can be embedded in a general
purpose programming language, such as COBOL,
PL/I and C++. Thus it provides, independence of
programming language.
o It allows to retrieve many records.
o It provides user-friendly interface for end users.
o It provides record relationship.
o Its syntax is easy that it can be used by non-
programmers
ADVANTAGES OF DATABASE APPROACH USING DBMS
 Standards can be enforced: In a centralized database
environment, industry, State, country standards can be
enforced more easily than in an environment
 Development time of an application may be reduced:
Designing and implementing a new database may take more
time but once the database is set up and running, then
developing any new application using DBMS requires 1/ 6th
time of the traditional file processing system.
 Flexible: DBMS allows changes to the structure if required, of
the database affecting the stored data and existing
application.
  Availability of currently updated information: In transaction
processing applications such as reservation system or
banking database, it is essentially required to retrieve the
information which is most currently updated. Moreover, the
information or data may be updated just by one user
according to the priority of the request.
 Reduces overall cost: The DBMS approach reduces the
wasteful overlap of activity of data processing personnel in
different departments. This reduces the overall cost of
operation and management as well.
 Redundancy can be controlled: Being central control over
data removes, duplication of data also reduces the
application of effort of recording and so is the updating of
data. Secondly, saving of the storage space and thirdly,
inconsistency of the data may be avoided using database
approach.
 Unauthorized access may be restricted: Database is used
when multiple users share the database. Financial data is
considered to be confidentialThus; only authorized user is
permitted to make changes in the existing database, whereas
other user category is allowed only to retrieve the database.
This modern DBMS provides a security and authorization
system for each class of user.
 Provide multiple user interface and support 4GL (or non-
procedural language) for manipulation of data: DBMS
provides a variety of user interfaces. The most common is
graphical user interface (GUI). In addition to this users do not
have to learn programming techniques to access the
database. The DBMS supports non-procedural language such
as SQL or QBE to access the database.
 Support multiple files and complex relationship among data:
DBMS generally has the capability to represent a variety of
complex relationships among data (As Database is an
integration of number of files), which may be retrieved and
updated efficiently.
 Database can maintain Integrity: A DBMS generally possess
the capability for defining and enforcing the constraints
(restrictions) that must hold for the data that results to the
correctness and accuracy of data. For example, a student
database contains inform action about marks scored by a
student in an examination, the maximum marks are 100 and
a student cannot score more than 100.
 Integrity constraints can be specified by the user while
designing the system, so that database will accept numbers
only in the range of a to 100.
 Provision of backup and recovery system: If there is any
failure of hardware or software, then DBMS provides the
facility of recovery by maintaining its regular backup.
Moreover, it also ensures that program may be resumed
from the point at which it was interrupted.
LIMITATIONS OF DATABASES
 Overhead Cost: when very large data need to be managed in
largescale organization, then database approach is
motivated. This also requires a powerful hardware platform
and software for database management, which are quite
expensive. Another cost incurred will be hiring of system
analyst, database designers, database administrators,
programmers and data processing personnel’s and cost of
training. This means to adopt this approach, a significant
extra cost has to be borne by the organization.
 Security problem: Another disadvantage of this approach is
that sharing of data also carries the risk of the data being
accessed by unauthorized user. Thus, the organization needs
to cope up this problem by taking security measures,
concurrency control, recovery and integrity.
 Problem of Resources: In order to run on-line, real time
system to answer on-line queries requires large amount of
data to be stored. As a result more terminals may be needed
to put managers and other users on-line. Communication
devices are also required to connect extra terminals to the
database. It may require resources such as multiprocessor
system and software to run a DBMS. Therefore, DBMS may
require extra computing resources depending upon the
application.
 Ownership problem: In file based system, programmer/user
is the owner of the data and program whereas database
consisting of such files is owned by entire company. For any
change or read or insertion of data in the database, user
needs to seek permission from managers of the company.
For a database to be successful the database must be viewed
and updated as a corporate resource, not as individual
resource.
 Concurrency problem: Several problems can occur when
concurrent transactions execute in an uncontrolled manner.
There may be lost update problem when two transactions
that access the same database items have their operations
inter-leaved in a way that makes the value of some database
item incorrect.
19. How are parallel databases different from distributed
databases?
TYPES OF DATABASE
Nowadays, there also exist three new types of databases: parallel
database, distributed database and object-oriented databases.
1) Parallel Database
Parallel database architecture follows parallel dataflow architecture
with new designs used for high speed of database while processing
relational database queries. In parallel database systems, the relational
data model is used; for parallel dataflow, relational queries and various
relational operators, which are composed of parallel dataflow graphs,
are used. Parallel database supports the concept of pipe lined and
partitioned parallelism. When the output of one operator is used as the
input of the other operator, then the two operators can work in a series
which it turn is called pipe lined parallelism. When the input data are
partitioned among multiple processors and memories, then this
partitioned data and execution is known as partitioned parallelism.
Following are the advantages of parallel database:
 Higher performance: Higher speedup and scale up can be
attained with CPU availability. Synchronization activities
improve the performance in which lock operation is a
processor and message intensive.
 High availability: In the parallel database, nodes, which are
also called terminals, are apart from each other so the entire
system will not get down if the failure occurs. System
continues to provide data access to the users when the
surviving nodes recover the failed node. The availability of
data, even if there is a node failure, shows higher database
availability.
 Greater flexibility: There is more flexibility in parallel
database, as you can allocate or deallocate instances as per
your requirements. You can allocate more instances as the
database demand increases. Once the instances are no
longer required, they can be deallocated.
 More users: Parallel database technology makes it possible to
enable a single system to serve thousands of users
simultaneously.
2) DDB
DDB is a collection of multiple interrelated databases that are spread
over a computer network. Each computer contains its own database
which is managed by an individual database management system. A
Distributed DBMS (DDBMS) manages DDBs and makes the distribution
transparent to the user so that the user is not aware of the distribution
and accesses the data as they are stored at one place. The applications
that use the data, which are distributed across different sites, operates
from a logical point of view, i.e., the application is not aware of the fact
that the data are stored at different places and executes as if all data are
managed by a single DBMS.
Some of the advantages of DDBs are as follows:
 Increased reliability and availability: Reliability is a measure
of the possibility that a system is running at a given time
point. On the other hand, availability is a measure of the
possibility that the system is continuously serving the queries
made to it during a time interval. When you use DDBs, which
are spread over several sites, one site may fail but other sites
continue to function normally. Only the data and software
that resides on the failed site cannot be accessed without
 affecting the performance of other sites in the distributed The database system architecture possesses three level architecture,
database. This improves both reliability and availability. these are:
 Improved performance: A distributed DBMS fragments the  The internal level: This describes the physical storage
database and keeps the data closer to the site where it is structure of the database along with the details of data
required most. As a large database is fragmented and storage and access paths for the database.
distributed over many sites, this leads to smaller databases at  The conceptual level: The conceptual level gives the
each site. The queries and transactions accessing data at complete structure of the whole of the database for all users.
smaller databases have a better performance. In addition, In this description, physical storage structure is hidden, but
when the database is fragmented into smaller databases, emphasis is more on describing entries, data types,
each site has less overhead of transaction in the execution of relationships, user operations, and constraints. Data-mode
a query. implementation takes place at this level.
 The external level: At this level, user views part of the
3) Object-Oriented Database database as per the access rights given to the user.
Object-oriented databases were designed to meet the needs of the
complex application. The object-oriented databases give the designer
the capability to create the structure of complex objects and the
operations which are applied to these objects. The other reason for the
creation of the object-oriented databases is the use of object-oriented
programming languages such as C++ or java. The object-oriented
database provides support to these languages. Some of the object-
oriented databases are ORION systems, IRIS systems and ODE systems.
Object-oriented database vendors proposed a standard called as ODMG
standard which has the standard model and its language was
recognized.

Roles Performed in DBMS

In DBMS, several people play important roles in organizing and
manipulating the data. These roles are assigned to people according to
the work performed by them in creating and maintaining the DBMS. The
various roles performed in DBMS are:
i. Database administrator
ii. Database designers •
iii. Database users
iv. Database manager

i. Database administrator
DBA is responsible for making the strategy and policy decisions
regarding the organization of data in the database. DBA also provides
technical support in implementing the decisions which are taken by the
data administrator. DBA performs the following functions:
 Defining the conceptual schema for a database
 Defining the internal schema for a database
 Coordinating with users
 Defining security and integrity constraints for the
database
 Defining dump and reload policies for a database
 Monitoring performance and responding to
changing requirements
ii. Database designers
A database designer identifies the data to be stored in a database. The
database designer is also responsible for choosing the right database
structure to represent and store the data in the database. The tasks of
identifying the data and choosing the structure are performed before
the implementation of a database. The database designer
communicates with the various database users to understand their
requirements before selecting the database structure.
iii. Database users
The database users are the people who need to interact with DBMS. The
database users can be categorized according to their requirements of
data. The people who interact with DBMS to retrieve data are called the
naive users and the people who interact with DBMS to make some
changes in the database are called the developers.
iv. Database manager
The database manager refers to the software that helps use and
management of the data stored in a database. The database manager
handles the requests of database users to access the data items from
database. The database manager also provides facilities such as support
for a query language, to retrieve and update the database. The facilities
provided by the database manager depend on the design of the
database manager. For example, if the data manager is designed to
handle one request at a time, then multiple users cannot access data
simultaneously.

DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE