Dyes Applications, Properties And Equipment

Definition of Dyeing

The application of color to the whole body of a textile material with some degree
of fastness. Dyeing is the process of imparting colours to a textile material in
loose fiber, yarn, cloth or garment form by treatment with a dye.

Dye types

For most of the thousands of years in which dyeing has been used by humans to
decorate clothing, or fabrics for other uses, the primary source of dye has
been nature, with the dyes being extracted from animals or plants. In the last 150
years, humans have produced artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of
colors, and to render the dyes more stable to resist washing and general use.
Different classes of dyes are used for different types of fiber and at different
stages of the textile production process, from loose fibers through yarn and cloth
to completed garments.

Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, Nylon and protein fibers such as wool
and silk are dyed with acid dyes, polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes.
Cotton is dyed with a range of dye types, including vat dyes, which are similar to
the ancient natural dyes, and modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes.
Natural Dyes
Cochineal
Tyrian purple
Madder
Indigo
Safflowers
Saran
Woad
Logwood

Methods

Dyes are applied to textile goods by dyeing from dye solutions and by printing
from dye pastes.

Direct application

The term "direct dye application" stems from some dyestuff having to be either
fermented as in the case of some natural dye or chemically reduced as in the
case of synthetic vat and sulfur dyes before being applied. This renders the dye
soluble so that it can be absorbed by the fiber since the insoluble dye has very
little substantively to the fiber. Direct dyes, a class of dyes largely for dyeing
cotton, are water soluble and can be applied directly to the fiber from an aqueous
solution. Most other classes of synthetic dye, other than vat and sulfur dyes, are
also applied in this way.

The term may also be applied to dyeing without the use of mordents to fix the
dye once it is applied. Mordents were often required to alter the hue and intensity
of natural dyes and improve their color fastness. Chromium salts were until
recently extensively used in dying wool with synthetic mordant dyes. These were
used for economical high color fastness dark shades such as black and navy.
Environmental concern has now restricted their use, and they have been
replaced with reactive and metal complex dyes which need no mordant.

Yarn dyeing
There are many forms of yarn dyeing. Common forms are the at package form
and the at hanks form. Cotton yarns are mostly dyed at package form, and
acrylic or wool yarn are dyed at hank form. In the continuous filament industry,
polyester or polyamide yarns are always dyed at package form, while viscose
rayon yarns are partly dyed at hank form because of technology

The common dyeing process of cotton yarn with reactive dyes at package form is
as follows:

1. The raw yarn is wound on a spring tube to achieve a package

suitable for dye penetration.
2. These softened packages are loaded on a dyeing carrier's spindle
one on another.
3. The packages are pressed up to a desired height to achieve
suitable density of packing.
4. The carrier is loaded on the dyeing machine and the yarn is dyed.
5. After dyeing, the packages are unloaded from the carrier into a
trolly.
6. The packages are hydro extracted to remove the maximum amount
of water.
7. The packages are then dried to achieve the final dyed package.

After this process, the dyed yarn packages are packed and delivered.
Removal of dyes

In order to remove natural or unwanted color from material, the opposite

process of bleaching is carried out. if things go wrong in the dyeing process, the
dyer may be forced to remove the dye already applied by a process that is
normally known as stripping. This normally means destroying the dye with
powerful reducing agents (sodium hydrosulphite’ ;) or oxidizing agents (hydrogen
peroxide or sodium hypochlorite). The process often risks damaging the
substrate (fiber). Where possible, it is often less risky to dye the material a darker
shade, with black often being the easiest or last option.

Objectives Of Dyeing

Shade
Fastness Properties
Cost

Keys To Good Quality

Consistency
Uniformity
Knits-low tension
Wovens-penetration

Types Of Dyeing Systems

Aqueous - air, water
Non-aqueous - in organic solvents
Sublimation - thermosal, heat transfer
Types of Fibers

Hydrophilic Fibers
Cotton, rayon, wool, silk
HvdroDho bic Fibers
Acetate, polyesters, polyamides, polyacrylonitriles

Exhaustion Dyeing

(From Aqueous Bath) Cloth Dye bath

Key Terms

Depth of shade (% dye owt)

Liquor Ratio
Fractional Exhaustion
Equilibrium
- Exhaustion
- Fiber Concentration
- Dye bath Concentration
- Distribution Coefficient

Four Basic Steps in the Dyeing Process

1. Dissolve or disperse dye

2. D-e the dye to the surface of the fiber
3. Adsorb the dye "onto" the fiber surface
4. Diffuse dye "into" the fiber
Causes Of Non-Level Dyeings

Too little agitation

Too low liquor ratio
Rate of dyeing too high
Uneven pick-up in padding
Uneven moisture penetration
Migration during drying
Chemical or mechanical bard in the fabric
Dye bath Instability
Construction

Dyestuff Classes

There are many types of colorants varying according to end use requirements for
wash, light, resin, chlorine, heat, gas and crock fastness. Variations in dyeing
charges are dependent upon many factors, including course, fastness, brilliance,
depth and intensity.

Direct Dves

Direct dyes are perhaps the most widely used and most economical of all
classes. Some of the pastels and light shades possess good wash and light
fastness but Medium and heavy colors, particularly the latter, are not
recommended.

The application of direct dyes is the least complicated; chemically they are salts
of complex sulfuric acids. They are soluble in water and have an affinity for a
wide variety of fibers.

Developed Dyes

The wash fastness properties of Developed dyes are better than Directs,
particularly in the medium and heavy ranges of colors. Generally speaking,
developed colors have a tendency to be dull. They are not recommended where
light fastness is a requisite.

Developed dyeings are actually selected direct dyeings treated in a cold bath
with nitrous-acid and coupled with a developer to make a larger molecule of the
original direct dye, while on the other hand, the direct dyes are physically held
onto the fiber.
Sulfur Dyes

Sulfur dyes are relatively inexpensive; they are insoluble in water and have no
affinity for the fiber until reduced with alkaline sulfide compounds. They are
applied to the fiber in a reduced state and oxidized within the fiber to an insoluble
dye again. Shades in Sulfur dyes are dull; therefore these dyes are used chiefly
for black. They possess good wash and light fastness and are satisfactory for dry
crocking. They should be classed as poor for wet crocking and chlorine fastness.

Reactive Dyes

Very bright shades of pink, green, blue and turquoise can be produced with
Reactive dyes. Fastness properties are generally good except to chlorine. These
dyes are edluble in water and are salted out of solution onto the fiber where they
are making to react chemically within the fibers. Used primarily on cotton and
rayon

Naphthol Dyes

Naphthol dyes are classified as fast dyes, usually slightly cheaper than Vat
dyeings; the methods of application are complex and the range of colors limited.
Brilliant reds are the most important but Naphthol dyes are also used for maroon,
brown and black.

Naphthol dyes are insoluble azo dyestuffs that are produced on the fiber by
Applying a Naphthol to the fiber and then combining it with a diazotized base or
salt at a low temperature to produce an insoluble dye molecule within the fiber.
Crocking fastness varies with shades but washing fastness is equal to Vat
dyeings, generally with less light fastness than the Vats.

Vat dyes

Vat dyes are best for all-around fastness and are generally the most expensive.
They may be selected for fastness to over bleaching and are the best class for
chlorine fastness. Reasonably bright shades can be produced except for brilliant
red. Vat dyes are insoluble compounds and have no amenity for the fibers until
reduced with caustic soda and hydro. These dyes are applied in a solution in
reduced state and oxidized to the insoluble dye again within the fiber.

Acid Dyes

Acid dyes are used for dyeing wool, nylon, certain acrylics such as Types 24 and
28 Orlon, and other chemical fibers. They are applied in a similar method to
direct dyes but usually from an acid bath. Fastness properties vary with the dyes
as in other classes.

Basic Dyes

Basic dyes are applied mainly to acyclic fibers such as Types 42 and 75 Orlon
and Type 61 Creslan, to produce bright and deep shades with good light and
wash fastness. The application of Basic dyes is similar to that of Direct dyes n
cotton but requires different and more precise controls with auxiliaries and
temperature. Disperse dyes are used mainly on acetate, nylon, polyesters and
acrylics. Their fastness properties vary with the dye, color and fiber on which they
are used; on acrylics their fastness properties are generally inferior to Basic or
Acid dyes. Disperse dyes are applied by a procedure similar to Direct dyes but
with different controls depending on the fiber to which they are applied. Used
primarily on cotton and rayon

Bleaching

Bleaching is a process used to remove color from an undyed fiber, yarn, or

fabric. The object is to produce a good white of d o r m color, while maintaining
the desirable elasticity, strength, luster and other physical properties. Hydrogen
peroxide or sodium hypochlorite is used on cotton while hydrogen peroxide is
used almost exclusively on synthetics.

Blends

The dyeing of blends, such as Damn with Cotton or Orlon with Cotton, normally
will require the application of several dyestds depending on the fastness
requirements of the end use application. Because of the combination of different
dyes and their individual processing requirements, the procedure (almost always
a two cycle dyeing) may be lengthy and complicated, adding substantially to the
cost of dyeing.
Fiber- Dye Possibilities

Dye trapped in fiber

Dye and fiber have opposite charges
Chemical reaction between dye and fiber
"Glue" dye on fiber

Factors In Selecting Dyes

Economy
Shade (brightness or dullness)
Fastness Requirements
Level Dyeing Properties
Barr6 Control
Ease of Dispersio Dissolving
Dusting
Environmental Concerns

Applications.

Have you ever wondered what gives the t-shirt you wear its jazzy colours or the
leather shoes its shinning black or for that matter the color print out you have just
taken from your printer. Perhaps there would be a very few applications, where
there would be no use of the dyes. Constant researches done over the 20th
century and there after has resulted into every imaginable form of color of dye.
Modern dyes serve more than just being pretty. They have become
indispensable tools for a variety of industries. From acting as colorants for
plastics, Textile dyeing industries and the highly sophisticated biotechnology
industry dyes are touching our life everywhere. Dyes are also used by industries
for inks and tinting. Today various dyes are manufactured to meet the
requirements of each type of industries. Dyes are available in various forms.
Examples are dry powders, granules, pastes, liquids, pellets, and chips.

Other industries where dyes are used in a variety of products include paper and
pulp, adhesives, art supplies, beverages, ceramics, construction, cosmetics,
food, glass, paints, polymers, soap, wax biomedicine etc.

Dyes that cater to specialty industries often come with specialized properties that
include:

• Resistance to heat
• Resistance to weather conditions
• Resistance to ultraviolet light (UV)
• Some products are water soluble
• Conducts electricity
• Contain reinforcing fibers
• Free from heavy metals

Did you know?

Dyes are an integral part of Microbiology Dyes are used to make the
microorganisms distinctly visible and or differentiate them. Crystal violet (C-8650)
and safranine (S-0700) are the two dyes that are used in Gram's stain. Gram's
stain, is a technique of staining that is used to classify bacteria. In it a bacterial
specimen is stained with crystal violet, afterwards it is treated with an iodine
solution, decolorized with alcohol, and lastly again counter stained with safranine.

History

Early evidence of dyeing comes from Sindh (Pakistan), where a piece of cotton
dyed with a vegetable dye has been recovered from the archaeological site
at Mohenjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE). The dye used in this case was madder,
which, along with other dyes such asindigo, was introduced to other regions
through trade Contact with Alexander the Great, who had successfully used
dyeing for military camouflage, may have further helped aid the spread of dyeing
from India.
Principles and Applications of Dye Sensitized
Nanocrystalline Solar Cells (DSC)

At present dye-sensitized photo systems provide the only technically and

Economically credible alternative to the conventional and established solid state
photovoltaic devices. Optical absorption by an electro active dye and charge
separation on the semiconductor take place on distinct sites within these
photovoltaic cells, and in contrast to the solid state junction cell these are
majority carrier devices. In consequence the oppositely charged mobile carriers
are restricted to separate phases and conventional recombination losses are
therefore significantly inhibited. In consequence device photo conversion
efficiency is maintained to low light levels. Various configurations of the dye-
sensitized concept are under investigation, including electrochemical and
heterojunction variants.

Basic concepts

While the concept has stimulated significant interest among electrochemists

andphotochemists, the operating principle of the dye-sensitized solar cell is less
familiar to solid-state photovoltaic specialists. However, at the present state of its
development and with growing awareness in the solar energy field in general, it is
useful to review the basic concepts for that wider community on the occasion of
PVSEC 14, Bangkok January 2004. Solid state photovoltaic devices require a
non-ohmic contact between two phases with different conduction mechanisms. A
metal contact to a semiconductor can provide a Schottky barrier, while
semiconductor layers with opposite carrier polarity in contact provide a p-n
junction device. The excitation of the charge carrier pair follows on the absorption
of a photon by the semiconductor, the energy of the photon being greater than
the band gap. Then the interfaces serve to separate the charge carriers,
electrons and holes, so that a potential difference is developed and a current
flows in an external circuit. In these devices, the materials are solids and the
conduction is by electronic processes. These solid-state semiconductor based
devices dominate photovoltaic science and technology. However it should be
remembered that the first observation of the photovoltaic effect by A.-E.
Becquerel (1839) was in fact at a solid-liquid interface, with a photo electrode
contacting a liquid electrolyte in a photo electrochemical cell However, intensive
research over the past two decades has led to an inescapable conclusion: a
relatively narrow band gap, compatible with the photo conversion of visible light,
is indicative of weaker chemical bonding in the semiconductor. It is therefore
liable to photo corrosion which is incompatible with a stable extended lifetime as
an energy conversion device. The resolution of this dilemma lies in the
separation of light absorption and charge separation functions, by sub-band gap
sensitization of the semiconductor with an electro active dye. A wide band gap,
intrinsically stable semiconductor, such as titanium dioxide with its band gap of
3.1 eV, and which therefore normally exhibits a photovoltaic response only under
ultraviolet irradiation, can then photo respond to visible light of wavelength 400 –
750 nm, or 1.6 – 3.0 eV photons. More recently other contacting phases as
alternatives to electrolytes have come under investigation, particularly organic
charge transport materials. Such devices however are more closely related to
heterojunctions with sensitization that to purely electrochemical systems

Schematic of operation of the dye-sensitized electrochemical photovoltaic cell.

The photo anode, made of a mesoporous dye-sensitized semiconductor,
receives electrons from the photo-excited dye which is thereby oxidized, and
which in turn oxidizes the mediator, a redoxspecies dissolved in the electrolyte.
The mediator is regenerated by reduction at the cathode by the electrons
circulated through the external circuit.
It has been found that Gram-positive bacteria is able to retain the violet stain,
while gram

Applications.

It is very satisfactory to note that the dye-sensitized device is now emerging from
the research laboratory and that pilot production and field evaluation can be
reported. Fig. shows an installation on the roof of the CSIRO – Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization - building, Australia (courtesy of
Sustainable Technologies International Ltd.). At the same time, cells on flexible
substrates appropriate for application in consumer goods and under low-level
illumination are emerging from industrial development laboratories are realizing
the "artificial leaf" in practice, Fig. 6b (Hitachi-Maxell, Japan).