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Biology II (FSB2124)

CHAPTER 1
PLANT ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
Lecture 1
Lecture 1

Structure of Plants
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 To identify the plant body organization and
functions (including root, stem, and leaf).
 To define the tissues and cell types of plants.
 To differentiate the monocot and dicot
plants.
 To understand the function of meristem
tissue.
1.1 PLANT BODY ORGANIZATION
Three basic organ

Root Stem Leaf


1.1 PLANT BODY ORGANIZATION

Angiosperms
• Roots (Flowering Plants)
• Leaves
• Flowers
• Vascular tissue
• Seeds
Monocots Dicots
1.1 PLANT BODY ORGANIZATION
 Structure is used in classification.
 Monocots have one cotyledon (seed leaf)
 e.g. grasses, lilies, palms, orchids, banana
 Dicots have two cotyledons (seed leaves)
 e.g. roses, mango, peas, oaks, maples
1.1 PLANT BODY ORGANIZATION
Roots
 Monocots: fibrous root system with no main tap
root
 Dicots: main tap root, with smaller side roots
branching off.
1.1 PLANT BODY ORGANIZATION
Leaves
 Monocots: parallel veins in leaves
 Dicots: network of veins in the leaves
1.1 PLANT BODY ORGANIZATION
Flowers
 Monocots: floral parts usually in 3’s or
multiples of three.
 Dicots: floral parts usually in 4’s or 5’s, or
multiples of four or five.
1.1 PLANT BODY ORGANIZATION
Stems
 Monocots: small vascular bundles scattered
throughout the stem.
 Dicots: large vascular bundles arranged in a
ring around the stem.
1.1 PLANT BODY ORGANIZATION
Seeds
 Monocots: single cotyledon; endosperm and
cotyledon are separate.
 Dicots: two cotyledons; endosperm is contained
in the cotyledon.
IN REVIEW . . .
1.1 PLANT BODY ORGANIZATION
 divided into a
root system and
a shoot system.
 connected by
vascular tissue
that is
continuous
throughout the
plant.

Morphology of a flowering plant: an overview


1.1.1 ROOT SYSTEM
 Major parts of the root
system:
a) Primary root
 Arises from the embryo
 May become the main
tap root
b) Secondary root or
rootlets
 Branches (often fibrous)
from the tap root
1.1.1 ROOT SYSTEM
c) Root hairs
 Small enough to
penetrate openings in
the soil structure
 Major role in nutrient
absorption
d) Apical Meristem
 Area at the tip of the
root where new cells
develop
1.1.1 ROOT SYSTEM
 Root Systems:
 Fibrous:
 A system that has no dominant primary root.
 No distinguishable primary root
 Many fine roots of similar size originating from the
stem
 Often spread near the soil surface
 Tap:
 A system composed of one primary root and many
secondary roots that branch off.
 All other rootlets originate from taproot
 Penetrate deep into the soil
1.1.1 ROOT SYSTEM
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM
 Major part of shoot
system:
a) Stem
 Helps form the major
above ground structure
of the plant
 Attachment point for
leaves, flowers, and fruit
 Develops from a bud to
bear leaves and more
buds
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM
 Swelled points called nodes -
point on a stem where leaf
is attached

 Area between nodes - called


the internode
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM
 Contains the vascular system
Xylem - System by which water & nutrients are
transported and distributed up through the plant
Phloem - Food and materials generated from
photosynthesis transported and distributed throughout the
plant
 Can be adapted for diverse functions:
1) Stolons
2) Rhizomes
3) Tubers
4) Bulbs
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM
1) Stolons
 grow on the surface of the ground and enable a
plant to colonize large areas asexually when the
single parent plant fragments into many smaller
offspring.

Strawberry
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM
2) Rhizomes
 horizontal stems similar to stolons except
that they grow underground.

Ginger
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM
3) Tubers
 the swollen ends of rhizomes specialized
for storing food.

Potato
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM
4) Bulbs
 vertical, underground shoots consisting
mostly of the swollen bases of leaves that
store food.

Onion
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM
b) Leaves
 main photosynthetic organs of most plants,
(although green stems also perform
photosynthesis)
 Parts of the leaf:
 Blade
 Petiole
 Stipule
 Small leaf-like
appendages at the
base of the petiole
 Not all plants have
them
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM
c) Flowers
 Reproductive part of
angiosperms
 Male organ – Stamen -
produces pollen
 Female organ – Pistil -
receives pollen and
forms seeds
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM
 Complete – Flower containing sepals, petals,
stamens, and pistil
 Incomplete – Flower lacking sepals, petals, stamens,
and/or pistils

 Perfect – Flowers containing male and female parts


 Imperfect – Flowers that lack either male or female
parts

 Pistillate – Flowers containing only female parts


 Staminate – Flowers containing only male parts
1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM

Incomplete, perfect flower

Complete, perfect flower


1.1.2 SHOOT SYSTEM

Incomplete,
imperfect flower
1.1.3 FUNCTIONS OF ROOT SYSTEM
 Anchor plant.
 Absorb water and
minerals.
 Store sugar as starch.
 Transport materials
 Produce some
hormones.
 Interact with soil
microbes.
1.1.4 FUNCTIONS OF SHOOT SYSTEM
 Photosynthesis
(primarily in leaves)
 Transport of materials
(water, minerals, sugars,
and hormones among
leaves, flowers, fruits,
and roots)
 Reproduction
 Hormone synthesis
1.1.5 INTERDEPENDENT SYSTEMS
 Both systems depend
on the other
 roots depend on sugars
produced by
photosynthetic leaves
 shoots depend on water
& minerals absorbed
from the soil by roots
1.2 PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS
 Plant body – root,
shoot, leaf - make up
of 3 major tissue
systems
 Ground tissue
 Vascular tissue
 Dermal tissue

 Tissue systems are


continuous
throughout the plant
1.2 PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS
 Dermal tissue – for protection (e.g. wax and bark)
 Ground tissue – for storage, photosynthesis and
secretion
 Vascular tissue – for
conduction (xylem: water
and dissolved minerals;
phloem: nutrient-
containing solution)
1.2 PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS
1.2.1 MERISTEM TISSUES
 Undifferentiated embryonic tissue.
 Clumps of small cells with dense cytoplasm,
large nuclei, thin-walled, and small vacuoles.
1.2.1 MERISTEM TISSUES
1.2.1 MERISTEM TISSUES
 Act as stem cells do in animals – one cell divides
producing a differentiating (specialized) cell and
another remains meristematic.
1.2.1.1 PRIMARY MERISTEM
 Present right from the embryonic stage and continues to
be active throughout the life of a plant.
 Responsible for primary growth in the plant body,
extend plant length.
 Found at the tip of the stem and root.
 Examples: apical
meristem and
intercalary
meristems.
1.2.1.1 PRIMARY MERISTEM
 Examples: apical meristem
and intercalary meristems.
1.2.1.2 SECONDARY MERISTEM
 Appears later in the life cycle of a plant.
 Responsible for secondary growth in the plant body,
increase girth.
 Found at vascular cambium (between xylem and
phloem).
 Example: lateral meristem.
1.2.1.3 FUNCTIONS OF MERISTEM TISSUES

 Retain the ability to


divided by mitosis to
produce new cells.
 Growth of the plant
especially roots and
shoots.
 Increase the plant’s
diameter.
1.2 PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS
1.2.2 DERMAL TISSUE
 Dermal tissue forms the outer
protective covering of a plant.
 Epidermis - Generally flat cells,
thick outer walls, waxy cuticle,
protection.
 Periderm - Waterproof cells
with thick walls, dead at
maturity, forms outer bark in
trees.
1.2.2.1 EPIDERMIS
 Covers flowers, seeds, fruit.
 Secretes a waxy substance called cuticle
(cuticular membrane - hydrophobic) as
waterproofing.
1.2.2.1 EPIDERMIS
 Can be modified in roots,
stems, and leaves
 in roots, it has root hairs
 in epidermal cells
exposed to air, a waxy
cuticle is present
 hairs on stems protect the
plant
 guard cells surround
stomata
 replaced by periderm in
older woody plants
1.2.2.2 PERIDERM
 Replaces epidermis on roots and stems of woody
plants with age.
 Composed mainly of thick, waterproof cork cells.
 Protects stems and roots.
 Anchor system (doesn’t absorb water & minerals).

How many years?


1.2 PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS
1.2.3 GROUND TISSUE
1.2.3.1 PARENCHYMA
 Most common type of plant cell
 Thin-walled cells, Alive at maturity
 Found in the cortex of stems and roots, leaves as
leaf mesophyll, flower and fruit tissues.
 Parenchyma cells which contain chloroplasts
form a tissue called chlorenchymas.
 Large intracellular air spaces allow exchange of
gases.
1.2.3.1 PARENCHYMA
 Functions of Parenchyma Tissues:
 Form the major component of ground tissues of
stems and roots especially in herbaceous plants.
 Support the herbaceous plants through turgor
pressure.
 Has chloroplast for photosynthesis.
 Hormone production.
1.2.3.1 PARENCHYMA
 Functions of Parenchyma Tissues:
 Water and food storage (starch, water, fat and
minerals) at the roots and leaves.
 Potentially meristematic and can form
secondary meristem tissue such as vascular
cambium and cork cambium.
 Can be differentiated to
form specialised cells to
carry out specific functions.
Example: mesophyll,
endodermis, secretory cells,
pericycle.
1.2.3.2 COLLENCHYMA
 Elongated cells with irregular shapes and
unevenly thickened walls.
 Provide support for plant organs, allowing
bending but not breaking (flexible).
 Found at the outer layer of cortex, beneath
epidermis (hypodermis) of stem, middle of
the leaf.
 Living at maturity.
 Stretchable but
strengthened, in young
organs with rapid
expansion
1.2.3.2 COLLENCHYMA
 Functions of Collenchyma
 Mechanical support to new developed or
growing organs especially roots and stem. The
edge of collenchyma walls are thickened by
cellulose to increases the strength of tissues.
 Protection to the cells
 Photosynthesis
 Store food
1.2.3.3 SCLERENCHYMA
 Provides support for the non-growing parts of
plants.
 Dead at maturity.
 Dead cell that have thick secondary walls with
lignin (very hard polysaccharide).
 Rigid, non-stretchable cell walls.
 Cell walls are so thick that the
cells usually die when they
reach maturity forming a rigid
structure to support the plant.
 2 type: fibers and sclereids.
1.2.3.3 SCLERENCHYMA
1. Fibers
1.2.3.3 SCLERENCHYMA
2. Sclereids
1.2.3.3 SCLERENCHYMA
 Functions of Sclerenchyma
 Supporting the plants. Fiber is the
main support of dicotyledonous
because the cell wall is imprenagted
with lignin that increase the
strength of the tissue. The tapered
ends of fibers overlap and interlock
with one another, further increasing
their combined strength.
 Sclereids increase the strength of the
plant structure.
1.2.3 GROUND TISSUE
1.2.3 GROUND TISSUE
1.2.3 GROUND TISSUE
1.2 PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS
1.2.4 VASCULAR TISSUE
1.2.4.1 XYLEM TISSUE
 Complex, made up from more than one cell type
 Cells are elongated & dead at maturity

 Possess elaborately thickened secondary walls


with lignin (very strong)
 Functions
 transport water and minerals
 Structural support
1.2.4.1 XYLEM TISSUE
 Contains 4 types of cells:
 tracheids
 xylem vessels
 xylem parenchyma
 sclerenchyma fibers
1.2.4.1 XYLEM TISSUE
Tracheids
 Transport and support.
Water flow

 Transport water and mineral ions but Pits


are less efficient than vessels.
 Cells (non-living) are long and
slender.
 Cell wall impregnated with lignin

 Tracheids are connected and form a


long vessel. Pits

 Pits are found at the end of the wall


which allows the passage of water in
xylem.
1.2.4.1 XYLEM TISSUE
Xylem Vessels
 Shorter and larger in diameter Water
flow
than tracheids. Perforation
plate
 Vessel wall is impregnated with
lignin
Vessel
 Mature xylem vessel is non- member

living cells and does not consist


of cytoplasm (water can flow
through with less friction).
Pits
 Most water travels in the xylem
vessels.
1.2.4.1 XYLEM TISSUE
1.2.4.1 XYLEM TISSUE
Xylem Parenchyma
 The only living component in the xylem tissue.

 groups of parenchyma cells - found in between the


vessels and the fibers.
 storage of reserve food.
1.2.4.1 XYLEM TISSUE
Sclerenchyma Fibers
 Dead sclerenchyma fibers that are found in between
the xylem vessels and the tracheids.
 providing mechanical support to the essential
elements.
1.2.4.2 PHLOEM TISSUE
 Tissue that transports
dissolved sugars (sap) in a
plant.
 Cells are alive at maturity but
highly modified (eg: Sieve
tubes - no nucleus)
 Contains 4 types of cells:
 sieve tube element
 companion cell
 parenchyma cell
 sclerenchyma fiber
1.2.4.2 PHLOEM TISSUE
Sieve Tubes
 arranged parallel to one
another from one end of the
plant body to another.
 formed by sieve tube cells -
separated from each other
by horizontal perforated
plates called sieve plates.
 Mature sieve tube elements
are impregnated with lignin
and cellulose.
1.2.4.2 PHLOEM TISSUE
Sieve Tubes
 Mature cell – no nucleus, no
vacuole, most organelles are
degenerate, leave a narrow
layer of cytoplasm.
 Sieve tube cell is a living
cells. Its metabolic needs are
supplied by its companion
cell at its side.
1.2.4.2 PHLOEM TISSUE
Companion cell
 Enable sieve tube to be a
living cell.
 Provide most of the
metabolic component that is
needed by the sieve tube
cells.
 Companion cells are linked
by numerous
plasmodesmata to sieve
tubes.
1.2.4.2 PHLOEM TISSUE
Parenchyma Cell
 group of living parenchyma cells - found in-
between the sieve tubes.
 for storage of organic food.
1.2.4.2 PHLOEM TISSUE
Sclerenchyma fiber
 Found in between the sieve tubes.

 providing mechanical support.


1.2.4.3 COMPARISON OF VASCULAR TISSUE
1.2.4 VASCULAR TISSUE
 Xylem and phloem -
found together in
vascular bundles
 The vascular bundle -
different in the root, stem,
and leaf
1.2.4.4 VASCULAR TISSUE IN ROOT
 Found in the centre
 A large central core of
xylem- usually forms a star
shape with 2-6 arms.
 Around the vascular
bundle - the endodermis
- help to get water into the
xylem vessels
 Just inside the endodermis
- pericycle - contains
meristem cells that can
divide
1.2.4.4 VASCULAR TISSUE IN ROOT
1.2.4.4 VASCULAR TISSUE IN ROOT
1.2.4.4 VASCULAR TISSUE IN STEM
 Found near the outer edge of the stem
 The xylem - towards the inside of each vascular
bundle
 The phloem - towards the outside

 Cambium - a layer
of meristem cells -
divide to make new
xylem and phloem
1.2.4.4 VASCULAR TISSUE IN STEM
1.2.4.4 VASCULAR TISSUE IN LEAF

 The vascular bundles


(xylem and phloem) form
the midrib and veins of
the leaf
 Within each vein, the
xylem can be seen on top
of the phloem
1.2.4.4 VASCULAR TISSUE IN LEAF
Chuah Yaw Kuang

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