CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

For human development to continue, it is a must to find new sources of

renewable or virtually inexhaustible energy. In the present scenario the

growing demand for energy is one of supply that has never been able to match,

it is incalculable. Energy demand plays a very important role in these

generations, due to the economic growth, the energy demand of the world

increase every year. Continuous usage of energy results in a quick depletion

of the fossil fuel which is the primary source of energy in these days. In the

energy conversion process in power plants and small engines, energy

efficiency is a key factor because the equipment with higher efficiency have

more work output. The constant search for new and viable energy sources has

led to a discovery about an alternative source of energy which is renewable

energy sources such as solar and wind energy which can help substitute the

fossil fuel. Nowadays lot of countries continually use wind energy for power

generation, as it is one of the feasible renewable energy sources.

The wind force can be very strong, as what we’ve seen in the aftermath

of a typhoon or a cyclone as it damages the infrastructures. In early times,

people have harnessed wind energy as means of using the sails of the ship.

Wind Energy is a viable industry that has become a valuable energy source.

The energy generated from wind is clean and efficient. The wind energy

industry helps to ensure that electric demands are met, wildlife impact is

minimal, the environment is not devastated, as well as creates new jobs during

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the construction of wind farms, daily operations, manufacturing components,

and exporting components to foreign countries. Wind has been used in

windmills to grind grain or to pump water for irrigation. Small scale wind

turbines should reliable, affordable and almost zero maintenance. In a large

scale wind turbines, a generator will be used as a motor to start and accelerate

the rotor and produce power. Windmills now in the form of wind turbines have

been used for millennia to convert the wind’s kinetic energy into mechanical

energy.

Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small wind plants

suitable for farms or residences, and larger utility-scale wind generators that

could be connected to electricity grids for remote use of power. Today wind

powered generators operate in every size range between tiny plants for battery

charging at isolated residences, up to near-gigawatt sized offshore wind farms

that provide electricity to national electrical networks. In recent years, wind

energy has become one of the most economical renewable energy

technologies. Today, electricity generating wind turbines employ proven and

tested technology, and provide a secure and sustainable energy supply. At

good, windy sites, wind energy can already successfully compete with

conventional energy production. Many countries have considerable wind

resources, which are still untapped.

Following the recent developments in renewable energy sources, wind

turbines have been one of the primary devices focused on. Basically, wind

turbines are devices that convert the kinetic energy from the wind into

electrical power for human usage. “Wind farms” are created in very windy

places to harness this energy. It is however impossible to harness the entire

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power potential from the wind. Only 59% of the total kinetic energy of the wind

flowing in the turbine can be harnessed. Efficiency greatly depends on the

maintenance of the wind turbine and its components.

1.1.1 Historical Review of Wind Energy

It was centuries ago when the technology of wind energy made its first

actual steps although simpler wind devices date back thousands of years ago

with the vertical axis windmills found at the Persian-Afghan borders around

200 BC and the horizontal-axis windmills of the Netherlands and the

Mediterranean following much later (1300-1875 AD). (Pasqualetti MJ, et.al.

2004)

Further evolution and perfection of these systems was performed in

the USA during the 19th century, i.e. when over 6 million of small machines

were used for water pumping between 1850 and 1970. On the other hand, the

first large wind machine to generate electricity (a low speed and high-solidity

wind turbine (WT) of 12 kW) was installed in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1888, while

during the late stages of World War I, use of 25 kW machines throughout

Denmark was widespread. Further development of wind generators in the USA

was inspired by the design of airplane propellers and monoplane wings, while

subsequent efforts in Denmark, France, Germany, and the UK (during the

period between 1935 and 1970) showed that large-scale WTs could work.

European developments continued after World War II. In Denmark, the Gedser

mill 200 kW three-bladed upwind rotor WT operated successfully until the early

1960s, while in Germany, a series of advanced horizontal-axis designs were

developed, with both of the aforementioned concepts dictating the future

horizontal- axis design approaches later emerging in the 70s. (Meyer NI, 1995)

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 New ways of using the energy of the wind eventually spread around the

world. By the 11thcentury, people in the Middle East used windmills

extensively for food production. Returning merchants and crusaders carried

this idea back to Europe. The Dutch refined the windmill and adapted it for

draining lakes and marshes in the Rhine River Delta. When settlers took this

technology to the New World in the late 19th century, they began using

windmills to pump water for farms and ranches and later to generate electricity

for homes and industry. The first windmill for electricity production is built by

Professor James Blyth of Anderson's College, Glasgow (now Strathclyde

University). The professor experiments with three different turbine designs, the

last of which is said to have powered his Scottish home for 25 years. (Wind

Energy Foundation, 2018)

HISTORY OF WIND TURBINE

Fig. 1 (courtesy: clean future.co)

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1.1.2 Categories of Wind Turbine

There are two categories of wind turbines: the horizontal axis design

(HAWT) and the vertical axis design (VAWT) as shown in figure 1.1. The most

commonly used turbine in today's market is the horizontal-axis wind turbine.

Since it is the more practical and popular, the HAWT enjoys more attention

than VAWT. The HAWT (see fig.1) has its main rotor shaft at the top of the

column along with the electrical generator. The turbines must be pointed into

the wind and is positioned favorably by either a small weathervane or a wind

sensor. The amount of power a horizontal-axis turbine will produce is

determined by the diameter of its rotor. The diameter of the rotor defines its

"swept area," or the quantity of wind intercepted by the turbine. The turbine's

frame is the structure onto which the rotor, generator, and tail are attached.

The rotor shaft and gearbox of the VAWT (see fig. 1) are positioned

vertically and are also installed near the ground. This makes it more accessible

for maintenance and other necessary adjustments. One of the reasons why

this type of wind turbine is less popular is that it can produce what is known as

pulsating torque. Vertical-axis wind turbines consist of two types: Savonius

and Darrieus. A Savonius turbine (see fig.1.2) can be recognized by its "S"

shaped design when viewed from above. Darrieus turbines (see fig.1.3) look

like an eggbeater and have vertical blades that rotate into and out of the wind.

It is a type of wind turbine where the main rotor shaft is set transverse to the

wind (but not necessarily vertically) while the main components are located at

the base of the turbine. This arrangement allows the generator and gearbox to

be located close to the ground, facilitating service and repair. VAWTs do not

need to be pointed into the wind which removes the need for wind-sensing and

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orientation mechanisms. Horizontal-axis turbines convert more of the wind’s

energy into useful mechanical motion because the blades are perpendicular to

wind direction, and the blades pick up the energy throughout their range of

movement. By comparison, the blades on a vertical-axis turbine suffer an

efficiency disadvantage, capturing energy from the wind only on the front side;

at the rear part of their rotation, they drag on the system. That’s why in this

study, it is more efficient to use HAWT. (Abas, M.F., 2006)

Fig. 1.1. HAWT (left), VAWT (right) (source: Hughes, K. 2008)

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Fig. 1.2. Savonius wind turbine (source: NW Wind & Solar,
2016)

Fig. 1.3. Darrieus wind turbine (source: Aggeliki K, 2011)

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1.1.3 Wind Turbine Blade

Wind turbine blades have been fashioned in many different

configurations and wind turbines themselves operate according to different

philosophies depending at least to some extent on the use to which the turbine

is put. The blade figure plays a big role in a wind turbine as it increases or

decreases the efficiency of the turbine and twisting it will theoretically increase

its harvested wind. Because of the aerodynamic design of the blades you can

notice that the blades start rotating very slowly and then begin accelerating

faster and faster.

Wind turbines are commonly used to generate electricity, and can be

connected directly or indirectly to a generator. It is often desired to generate

current at a predetermined frequency, and direct connection then requires

either that the turbine be operated at constant speed, or that a variable

frequency output be converted in for example a static converter to a fixed

frequency. The blades of a wind turbine are shaped similar to an airplane wing,

with one side (rear) much more curved than the other (front). With a wing, air

flows fastest over the top which reduces the pressure and causes the lift

needed for the aircraft to fly. Turbine blades also rely on pressure differentials

due to changes in air speed in order to operate.

When the wind begins blowing and passing over the blade, air behind

the blade starts travelling at a higher velocity than air in front of the blade. In

fact, the greatest velocity is at the rounded front edge which creates a pocket

of low-pressure air. This literally pulls the blade forward and we get the start of

rotation. Once the blades are rotating, they create their own headwinds (like

what we feel on our face when cycling). The velocity of this additional wind

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helps to lower the pressure on the back side of the blade and contributes to

even more lift. This causes the blade to rotate faster and produce additional

headwind. The net effect is that the blades of a turbine spin more rapidly until

they reach their maximum velocity. (Megraw, 2012).

1.1.4 Generating Energy from wind

Wind is created by the unequal heating of the Earth's surface by the sun.

Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in wind into mechanical power that

runs a generator to produce clean electricity; wind rotates the turbine to

generate electricity. The rotor blades on a wind turbine catch the kinetic energy

in the wind and transfer it via a rotor shaft to the generator. The wing blades

can be rotated and adjusted to the wind direction and strength, for maximum

utilization of energy. When the rotor spins, the power is transferred via the

drive shaft and gearbox. Then, the generator converts the kinetic energy from

the turbine into electrical energy. The electricity is sent to the substation,

where it is converted and then transported out on the net. (DOE, 2018)

1.1.5 Twisted Blade

Modern wind turbine blades have a twist along the length of the blade. The

airfoil's optimal angle of attack is affected by the apparent wind direction. The

apparent wind direction changes as the speed of blade increases, even when

a uniform wind velocity exists across the rotor swept area. As the tip of the

blade travels much faster than segments of the blade closer to the hub of the

rotor, the blades have incorporated a twist as to achieve an optimal angle of

attack along the full length of the turbine blade.

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 A lifting force is generated due to the curved shape of the blades just as

in case of an airplane wing. A low air pressure is created on the side with most

curves, while the high pressure created beneath pushes the other side of

blade aerofoil. This results in generation of a lift force that is perpendicular to

the air flow direction. The rotor blade also needs to be designed appropriately

to generate the right amount of rotor blade thrust and lift to produce the exact

amount of deceleration of air. The twist closer to the tip of the blade, the faster

the blade is moving through the air and so the greater the apparent wind angle

is. The blade needs to be turned further at the tips than at the root, in other

words it must be built with a twist along its length. The requirement to twist the

blade has implications on the ease of manufacture. (Peters, 2013)

Fig. 1.4. Image credit: Murdoch University

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 1.1.6 Conceptual Framework

Airfoil selection
Designing(solidworks)

Simulation (CFD) Conclusions/ recommendations

Fabrication of design

Modification
Experimental set-up

BEM (calculations)

1.2 Statement of the Problem

This study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What is the importance of airfoil selection when designing a wind turbine?

2. What is the effect of twisting the blade?

3. Why does the wind speed affect the over-all performance of wind turbine?

To answer the above questions, this study required the simulation results

from CFD in solidworks and the fabrication of blades to optimize the maximum

power output to be generated.These fabricated blades will then be tested in a

wind tunnel with a different velocity. In order to conclude that the designed

blade is at its best, it will be compared to the 3 base blades which are the

normal blade, twisted blade and twisted NACA 4412.

The null hypothesis to be tested in the study are the following:

1. The airfoils are an important part of the design. The airfoil shape is in

charge of generating lift by taking advantage of the Bernoulli Effect. Even

minor changes in the airfoil can greatly affect the power output and noise

produced by the turbine as the results display with the modifications done in

the baseline turbine.

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2. The blades rotate, the tip moves faster than the hub. So to make the blades

efficient, the blades are twisted, angle of attack of the blades at the tip is lower

than at the hub because it is moving at a higher velocity than the hub.

3. Wind speed determines the amount of electricity generated by a turbine,

thus, modifying the aerodynamic performance of the aerofoil blade is so

challenging to obtain results that might be of use for small-scale applications.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance of SD 7032

airfoil, to aerodynamically design, optimize twist angle distribution and pitch

angle using CFD to produce more power. But before that, the following issues

were considered:

 Study the effect of twist and pitch on the performance of a small-scale

HAWT.

 Study the effect of external forces for power generation.

 The angle of attack to be considered for twist distributions.

 The equipment and location used for this study.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study aims to expand the knowledge of St. Peter’s College

students specifically the Mechanical Engineering students in the area of Wind

Power Technology sharing thru community extension services which the

department is currently limited and inadequate and further more it can be used

as a reference to innovate the recent technologies for generating wind power.

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1.5 Scope and Limitation

 The blade design is limited to the blade geometry and fabrication is

limited to available resources (equipments and instruments) and

experiment shall be done at SPC Mechanical Shop.

 The blade design is based on untwisted blade SD7032 only and will be

modify into a twisted blade.

 This study focuses on the right angle of attack, blade design, and the

twisted blade will be compared to the 3 base blades that were

fabricated in FABLAB Mindanao located at MSU-IIT.

1.6 Theoretical Framework

1.6.1 Blade Element Theory

The Betz law explains that some of the wind needs to move through the

turbine blades in order to make room for the next amount of wind coming in. If

100% of the power would be harnessed, no more could be contained and

converted. Betz scientifically calculated that only 59% of the power in the wind

can be successfully captured and converted. This means that just over half of

the power available to us is being converted and is available for use. Betz's law

calculates the maximum power that can be extracted from the wind,

independent of the design of a wind turbine in open flow. It was published in

1919, by the German physicist Albert Betz. The law is derived from the

principles of conservation of mass and momentum of the air stream flowing

through an idealized "actuator disk" that extracts energy from the wind stream.

According to Betz's law, no turbine can capture more than 16/27 (59.3%) of the

kinetic energy in wind. The factor 16/27 (0.593) is known as Betz's coefficient.

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Practical utility-scale wind turbines achieve at peak 75% to 80% of the Betz

limit. (Betz, 1966)

1 16
P = ρAV3∞ ⋅ (eq. 1)
2 27

Where:

ρ= Density of air (kg/m2)

A= Swept area (m2)

V∞= Velocity force (Newton)

1.6.2 Reynolds Number

Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity that is used to help predict

similar flow patterns in different fluid flow situations.

ρ
V=μ (eq. 2)

Cm V
Re = ν
(eq. 3)

Where:

V = Velocity of the fluid (mps)

μ = viscosity of fluid (mPa)

ν = the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s)

Cm = the characteristics length, the chord width of an airfoil (m)

1.6.3 Swept Area

The swept area is the plane of wind intersected by the generator. As such,

the height of the blades times the diameter of rotation will produce the square

meters or feet of the swept area. It is the area though which the rotor blades of

a wind turbine spin, as seen when directly facing the center of the rotor blades.

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The power output of a wind turbine is directly related to the swept area of its

blades. The larger the diameter of its blades, the more power it is capable of

extracting from the wind. The larger the blades, the stronger they need to be

withstand the higher levels of centrifugal and cyclic varying gravitational loads.

(Molaeb, 2011)

A = πr2 (eq. 4)

Where:

r = Swept radius (m)

Fig. 1.6. wind turbine

1.6.4 Planform Area

The planform area of a wing is the area of a wing as if it were projected

down onto the ground below it. (Everything2, 2002)

AT = Cm xb (eq. 5)

Where:

Cm = Average cord length (m)

b = Blade length (m)

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1.6.5 Aspect Ratio

Aspect Ratio is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. Blade’s aspect

ratio is equal to its span over the average chord length. (Kermode, 1972)

Cm = CN + … + CN+1 (eq. 6)

b
AR = Cm (eq. 7)

Where:

Cm = Average cord length (m)

b = Blade length (m)

1.6.6 Lift and Drag Coefficient

The lift coefficient (CL) is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift

generated by a lifting body to the fluid density around the body, the fluid

velocity and an associated reference area. A lifting body is a foil or a complete

foil-bearing body such as a fixed-wing aircraft. CL is a function of the angle of

the body to the flow, its Reynolds number and it’s Mach number. The lift

coefficient c1 refers to the dynamic lift characteristics of a two-dimensional foil

section, with the reference area replaced by the foil chord. (Clancy, 1975)

2FL
CL = ρV2 AT
(eq. 8)

Where:

FL = Lift Force (Newton)

Ar = Planform Area (m2)

V = Velocity (mps)

ρ = Density of air (kg/m2)

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 The drag coefficient (Cd) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to

quantify the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment, such as air

or water. It is used in the drag equation, where a lower drag coefficient

indicates the object will have less aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag.

(McCormick, 1979)

. The drag coefficient is always associated with a particular surface area.

The drag coefficient of any object comprises the effects of the two basic

contributors to fluid dynamic drag: skin friction and form drag. The drag

coefficient of a lifting airfoil or hydrofoil also includes the effects of lift-induced

drag. (Clancy, 1975)

2Fd
CD = ρV2 AT
(eq. 9)

Where:

FD = Lift Force (Newton)

Ar = Planform Area (m2)

V = Velocity (mps)

ρ = Density of air (kg/m2)

1.6.7 Tip-speed
2πr
Ω=N 60
(eq. 10)

Where:

N = rotational speed (rpm)

r = radius (m)

1.6.8 Tip Speed Ratio

Ω
= U
(eq. 11)

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 Where:

Ω = Blade tip speed (mps)

U = Wind Speed (mps)

1.6.9 Local tip-speed ratio for the ith blade element

r,i =  (ri/ R) (eq. 12)

Where:

 Tip Speed Ratio

ri = ith radius (m)

R = Overall Radius (m)

1.6.10 Optimum relative wind angle for the ithblade

2
Ɵopt,i= 3
tan-1 (1 / r,i) (eq. 13)

2
Ɵopt,i= 3
tan-1 (1 / r,i) (eq. 14)

Where:

r,i= Local tip-speed ratio for the ith blade element

1.6.11 Twist distribution for the ithblade

iƟopt,i-  (eq. 15)

Where:

Ɵopt,i= Optimum relative wind angle for the ithblade(degrees)

angle of attack (degrees)

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1.7 SD 7032 airfoil

SD7032 is an asymmetric, low Reynolds number airfoil with a maximum

thickness of 10% and a maximum camber of 3.4% at 26.6% and 45.1% chord

length respectively, measured from the leading edge. The profile of the

Selig/Donovan, SD7032 airfoil with the points of maximum relative thickness

and maximum camber as shown in Figure 1.7

Fig.1.7: SD-7032 airfoil profile with 10% relative thickness

1.8 Definition of Terms

Fig.1.8. airfoil parameters

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 Angle of attack: is the angle between the reference line of a body and

relative wind. On an airfoil such as one on a wind turbine, it is the angle

between the chord line and the relative wind vector. (Hall, 2018)

 Chord Length: the distance between the trailing edge and the point on

the leading edge where the chord intersects the leading edge.

(Houghton, 2003)

 Leading edge: It’s the point at the front of an airfoil, which has the

maximum curvature. (Crane, 1997)

 Chord Line: It’s the straight line that connects the leading edge and

trailing edge of an airfoil. (Wikipedia, 2015)

 Trailing Edge: It’s the point at the rear of an airfoil, which has the

maximum curvature. (Crane, 1997)

 Mean Camber Line: A line joining the leading and trailing edge of an

airfoil from the upper and lower surfaces. The mean camber line

determines the characteristics of the airfoil. (Illustrated Dictionary of

Aviation, 2005)

 Tip Speed Ratio: Tip speed ratio is the most commonly and

conveniently used scaling parameter, which integrates the principle

aerodynamic effect of the wind speed, rotor size and rotor’s angular

speed with the power coefficient of the wind turbine rotor. It evaluates

the tangential speed of the turbine’s blade with respect to the free wind

speed (Duquette et al 2003).

 Cut-in Speed: The cut-in speed of a wind turbine is defined as the

minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine starts on its own and

generates some usable power.

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 Rated Speed: The rated speed of a wind turbine is defined as the

minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine generates its indicated

rated power.

 Cut-out Speed: The cut-out speed of a wind turbine is the maximum

wind speed up to which the wind turbine should operate. This is

required as a safety feature to protect the wind turbine from being

damaged at the high wind speed.

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 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Twist angle

The lift generated by an aerofoil section is a function of the angle of attack

to the in flowing air stream (Section 5.4). The inflow angle of the air stream is

dependent on the rotational speed and wind speed velocity at a specified

radius. The angle of twist required is dependent upon tip speed ratio and

desired aerofoil angle of attack. Generally the aerofoil section at the hub is

angled into the wind due to the high ratio of wind speed to blade radial velocity.

In contrast the blade tip is likely to be almost normal to the wind. The total

angle of twist in a blade maybe reduced simplifying the blade shape to cut

manufacturing costs. However, this may force aerofoils to operate at less than

optimum angles of attack where lift to drag ratio is reduced. Such

simplifications must be well justified considering the overall loss in turbine

performance.

2.2 Blade Shape Summary

An efficient rotor blade consists of several aerofoil profiles blended at an

angle of twist terminating at a circular flange (Figure 2.2).

It may also include tip geometries for reducing losses. To facilitate production,

several simplifications maybe made by:

 Reducing the angle of twist.

 Linearization of the chord width.

 Reducing the number of differing aerofoil profiles.

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 As Burton et al. (2011) stated “a successful blade design must satisfy a

wide range of objectives too, some of which can be in conflict” (p. 377). These

objectives are the followings:

1. maximize annual energy production;

2. restrict the maximum power output in the turbine

3. endure fatigue loads;

4. limit tip deflections to avoid blade and tower collisions;

5. prevent resonances and

6. overall, minimize weight and cost.

Burton et al. (2011) also affirmed that:

The design process can be divided into two stages: the aerodynamic

design, in which objectives (1) and (2) are satisfied, and the structural design.

The aerodynamic design addresses the selection of the optimum geometry of

the blade, the external surface, also referred as the blade geometry. The blade

geometry is defined by the airfoil family and the chord, twist and thickness

distribution. The structural design consists of blade material selection and

determination of a structural cross section or spar within the external envelope

that meets objectives (4) to (6). (p. 377). The two stages are intrinsically linked,

as the blade thickness needs to be large enough to accommodate a spar

which is structurally efficient. The focus on this study is to improve only the

blade geometry through the different design case studies of the parameters

within.

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2.2.1 Design Angle of Attack

As for the design angle of attack, generally, a high lift (which contributes

most to positive torque) and a low drag (which contributes most to thrust and

cause negative torque) are preferable for maximum power coefficient design of

wind turbine blades, thus the design angle of attack is often selected at the

critical angle of attack where the lift to drag ratio (cl/cd) is maximum. For this

blade design case, the design angle of attack is set at the critical angle of

attack 8°.

2.2.2 Airfoil Characteristic

For wind turbine blade design and analysis, it is essential to have the

aerodynamic data of the selected airfoil at the corresponding flow conditions,

i.e. Reynolds (Re) numbers. The Reynolds number is defined as:

Cm V
Re = ν
(1)

Where:

V = Velocity of the fluid (mps)

μ = viscosity of fluid (mPa)

ν = the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s)

Cm = the characteristics length, the chord width of an airfoil (m)

2.4 Twist distribution

Choosing the twist distribution is the least controversial design parameter

to be selected according to Schubel and Crossley (2012). In most cases, the

full length of the blade is twisted through the hub to the tip to change the blade

angle that increases the lift and prevents over speed of the rotor. Exceeding
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the rotor speed may lead to a catastrophic failure under excessive load or the

overload of the generator.

Gurit (2013) affirmed that “close to the tip of the blade is where the faster

the blade is moving through the air, so the largest the wind angle is. Thus the

blade needs to be turned further at the tips than at the root it must be built with

a twist along its length”(p.6) as it is shown in Figure 2.1. Typically the twist is

around 10-20º for large HAWT, in the case of the hand-made small wind

turbines like the Peruvian, the twist distribution goes from 14º to 2º. The

requirements to twist the blade have implications on the difficulty of

manufacture.

2.5 Blade Chord and Twist Angle Distributions

In the standard BEM method, if the Cp of each section along the blade

span is at its maximum, the maximum power coefficient of the whole blade is

achieved. Referring to equations of the standard BEM method. The sectional

power coefficient is expressed as:

F sin 2  cos    r sin  (sin    r cos  ) r [1  C d / C d  cot  ]  Max (2)

2

25
 Where:

F= is the tip-hub loss factor

 = relative angle of attack in rad

r= local tip speed ratio

Cd/Cl= drag to lift ratio

Ignoring the tip-hub loss and drag effect, i.e. F is equal to 1 Cd/Cl is equal

to zero, with the partial derivative of the main part being zero, the optimum

twist angle is obtained. In the standard BEM method, the following equations

are often used to calculate the optimal blade chords and twist angles:
2
Φr= 3
tan-1 (1 / r,i) (3)

8r
Cr  (1  cos  r )
ZC l
(4)

where,

r= is local radius in m,

Φr= is the local relative angle of attack in rad

r= local tip speed ratio

Cr= is the local chord in m

2.5.1 Blade Pitch and Twist Study

The pitch and twist angles are very important parameters which have a

considerable effect on the power production of wind turbine rotor blades. The

twist angle decides on the values of the local angle of attack. Twisted blades

for wind turbines have been proved to be superior to the untwisted ones due to

their full utilization of the blade area to produce lift at low drag. The twist angle

is defined in Fig.2.2.

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 Figure 2.2: The pitch and twist angles

Where Vt is the tangential velocity, Vz is the axial velocity and Vrel is the

relative velocity.

The angles appearing in Fig.2.2 are defined as follow:

 α: is the angle of attack defined as the angle between the chord line

and the relative velocity.

 Φ : is the flow angle defined as the angle between the relative velocity

and the plane of rotation.

 θ : is the local pitch angle defined as the angle between the local

airfoil chord line and the plane of rotation.

In fact is called the local pitch angle which is a combination of the pitch angle

θp and the twist angle β:

θ = θv+β (5)

Where the pitch angle is the angle between the tip chord line and the plane of

rotation and the twist angle is measured relative to the tip chord line. The pitch

angle is constant and it is added to the varying twist angle along the blade

span.

In particular it is possible to use the twist to influence the flow separation

and stall at a certain wind speed. For this reason, the fixed pitch rotor blades

are not linearly twisted. The twist angles towards the root are greater than the
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angles towards the tip. This variation in twist is determined by both the stall

characteristics and the starting torque

The effect of different blade twist variations on the power production of the

blade can be seen in Fig.2.3. It is clear that non-twisting the blade results in

considerable reduction in power. The advantage of untwisted blades is the

easy and low cost manufacturing. However, since the modern blades are

mostly manufactured in molds and made of fiber glass, manufacturing became

also easy for twisted blades. The profit of the more energy produce by twisted

blades is more than the price difference of manufacturing untwisted blades.

Figure 2.3: Effect of blade twist on the blade

power coefficient

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 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The present work was performed in the following steps:

 Selection of airfoil to be modified

 Design of the model using CFD (Solidworks)

 Fabrication of blades using the 3d printer in FABLAB Mindanao

 Performing the wind tunnel experiments

 Data Analysis

3.1 Conceptual Design

Through the use of Solidworks simulation, SD7032 was then simulated

from 4° to 10° to get the best angle of attack with a wind velocity of 4.5m/s.

From the simulation results, the highest lift-to drag ratio (Cl/Cd) was chosen and

is used to get the optimum relative wind angle to be used in designing the twist

distributions along the sectioning of the blade through the use of equations

from the relative studies.

3.2 Geometry of Twist Distribution

SD7032 was used as the blade profile for this design. Having a blade

length of 300mm and a chord length of 100mm. Using Solidworks, the blade

length was then divided into 10 sections, This modification has been

performed such that twist distribution of the blade has been linearized. Using

(eq.12) and (eq.13), the blade’s ith radius were calculated same as to the

Optimum relative wind angle for the ithblade. From the results of this calculation,

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the twist distribution per section was obtained and is used for designing the

twisted blade.

3.3 Determining the best angle of attack through Solidworks simulation.

Wind speed 4° 5° 6° 7° 8° 9° 10°

5m/s 5.785 5.496 7.565 5.579 5.989 5.392 5.576

6m/s 6.051 5.971 7.748 5.6212 6.255 5.609 5.623

Table 3.1: SD 7032 simulation reports

Fig. 3.2: L/D in Different Wind Speed for each angle of attack

3.4: Twist Distribution

3.4.1 Computation

Using equations 10, 11, 12, 13 and 15

N=450RPM

30
r1   0 .1
300

U= 4.5m/s (wind speed)

U= 6°

30
 2r  450 
N  2  .360 
60  60 
  16 .964 m / s
 16.964
   3.769
U 4 .5

r   30 
 r .i    i   3.769   0.3769
R  300 

2  1  2
i  tan 1    tan 1  1   46.23
 3
3   r ,i   0.3769 

10   i    46.23 o  6 o  40.23 o

3.4.2: Computation Design Result

Fig. 3.3: Blade sectioning (ith radius)

ri ri/R  r,i Ɵ,i  

0.03 0.1 3.768 0.3768 46.23 6 40.23
0.06 0.2 3.768 0.7536 25.33 6 29.33
0.09 0.3 3.768 1.1304 27.66 6 21.66
0.12 0.4 3.768 1.8072 22.37 6 16.37
0.15 0.5 3.768 1.884 18.63 6 12.63
0.18 0.6 3.768 2.2608 15.9 6 9.9
0.21 0.7 3.768 2.6376 13.84 6 7.84
0.24 0.8 3.768 3.0144 12.23 6 6.23
0.27 0.9 3.768 3.3912 10.95 6 4.95
0.30 1 3.768 3.768 9.9 6 3.9
0.33 1.2 3.768 4.5216 8.31 6 2.31

Table 3.2: Complete Computation

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3.4.3: Preliminary Design

Fig 3.4.: Tip angle and root angle 40.23o

3.4.4: Blade Specification

Fig.3.5: Modified Twisted Blade

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 Fig.3.6: front view Fig.3.7: back view

3.5 Construction

Ultra-maker 3d printer in FABLAB Mindanao was used for fabricating the

blades. The whole duration of printing a single blade takes about 7 hours to

finish. The blade was originally designed to have a blade length of 300mm, but

then due to some restrictions from the 3D-printer it was scaled down to 295mm.

The fabricated blades were then attached to the turbine rotor which is also

designed to be detachable for an easy shifting of pitch angles. It was then

set-up in the wind tunnel at SPC Machine Shop. Gathering of results was

made possible through the use of 2 industrial fans as a source of wind.

33
3.5.6 Actual set-up

Fig.3.8: Wind speed measurement

Fig.3.9: RPM measurement using the tachometer

34
3.6 Schematic flow of the system

Wind Turbine in Wind Power output

Source of Wind
tunnel

3.7 Data analysis

The blade testing is held at St. Peter’s College Machine shop during the

time where external wind condition is normal to avoid additional external force

while the testing is on-going, also the number of people were limited. The

blades were attached 1.42 meters away from the industrial fan. The test

started by adjusting the pitch angle of the blade which is already attached to

the turbine, after this set-up, the industrial fan is turned on. By the use of

tachometer, RPM is measured at 5 different speed. Using the 5 different speed,

the voltage, current, energy and power output were then read and collected.

Gathered results from the testing were put in Chapter IV.

35