Professional Documents
Culture Documents
710222
© D e l f t University o f Technology • Faculty of C i v i l Engineering and Geosciences •
Section of Hydraulic Engineering
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6.2 S e d i m e n t d o m i n a t e d c o a s t a l f e a t u r e s 97
6.2.1 E s t u a r i e s 97
6.2.2 T i d a l flats 100
6.2.3 Deltas 101
6.2.4 B e a c h e s 108
6.2.5 D u n e s 110
6.2.6 L a g o o n s 112
6.2.7 Barrier c o a s t s 114
6.2.8 T i d a l inlets 115
6.3 Biology d o m i n a t e d c o a s t l i n e s 116
6.3.1 Salt m a r s h e s 116
6.3.2 M a n g r o v e s w a m p s 117
6.3.3 D u n e v e g e t a t i o n 119
6.3.4 Coral reefs 120
6.4 R o c k y c o a s t s 123
6.4.1 O r i g i n of r o c k y c o a s t s 123
6.4.2 R o c k e r o s i o n 125
7. C O A S T A L Z O N E M A N A G E M E N T 127
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Global c h a n g e s 127
7.2.1 G r o w t h of t h e w o r l d population 127
7.2.2 C l i m a t e c h a n g e a n d s e a level rise 130
7.2.3 Pollution 131
7.3 T h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s u b s y s t e m 132
7.4 T h e n e c e s s i t y o f m a n a g e m e n t 135
7.5 M a n a g e m e n t tools 139
7.5.1 W e i g h i n g t h e interests 139
7.5.2 M a n a g e m e n t practice 140
7.6 Building with N a t u r e 142
8. T I D A L I N L E T S A N D E S T U A R I E S 143
8.1 Introduction 143
8.2 Tidal inlets 143
8.3 Tidal c h a n n e l s 145
9. P O L L U T I O N A N D D E N S I T Y P R O B L E M S 149
9.1 Introduction 149
9.2 Pollution 149
9.2.1 T y p e s of pollution 149
9.2.2 C o n t r o l m e a s u r e s 151
9.3 D e n s i t y c u r r e n t s in rivers 151
9.3.1 Salinity variations with tide 152
9.3.2 Static salt w e d g e 154
9.3.3 Horizontal stratification 155
9.3.4 Siltation in rivers 157
9.3.5 M e t h o d s to c o m b a t d e n s i t y c u r r e n t s in rivers 158
9.4 Density c u r r e n t s in h a r b o u r s 160
9.4.1 Siltation in h a r b o u r s 166
9.4.2 T h e practical p r o b l e m 167
9.4.3 M e t h o d s to c o m b a t d e n s i t y currents in h a r b o u r s 171
10. P R A C T I C A L P R O B L E M S A N D C O M M O N S O L U T I O N M E T H O D S 173
10.1 Introduction 173
10.2 C o a s t a l p r o t e c t i o n p r o b l e m s 173
10.2.1 Structural erosion of c o a s t s 173
10.2.2 B e a c h a n d d u n e e r o s i o n d u r i n g s e v e r e s t o r m s u r g e s 175
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10.2.3 Protection of n e w l y r e c l a i m e d a r e a s 176
10.2.4 Stabilization of d y n a m i c tidal inlets 176
10.2.5 D i s c u s s i o n of coastal protection p r o b l e m s 176
10.3 U s e of structures in coastal protection 177
10.4 Solutions with s t r u c t u r e s to p r o b l e m s as m e n t i o n e d 181
10.4.1 Structural e r o s i o n of c o a s t s 181
10.4.2 B e a c h a n d d u n e erosion d u r i n g s e v e r e s t o r m s u r g e s 182
10.4.3 Protection of n e w l y r e c l a i m e d a r e a s 183
10.4.4 Stabilization of d y n a m i c tidal inlets 183
10.5 Solutions w i t h o u t structures to p r o b l e m s as m e n t i o n e d 184
10.5.1 Quality r e q u i r e m e n t s for the s a n d 184
10.5.2 Origin of t h e s a n d 184
10.5.3 P l a c e s w h e r e suppletion is u s e d 185
11. DREDGING 187
11.1 Introduction a n d Definitions 187
11.2 T h e W o r l d of D r e d g i n g 188
11.3 D r e d g i n g P r o c e s s a n d D r e d g i n g E q u i p m e n t 189
11.3.1 G e n e r a l 189
11.3.2 B r e a k i n g up t h e Soil Structure 189
11.3.3 Vertical T r a n s p o r t 190
11.3.4 Horizontal T r a n s p o r t 190
11.3.5 D e p o s i t i o n 191
11.3.6 Back to o n e p r o c e s s 191
12 U S E O F T H E O R Y IN D R E D G I N G 193
12.1 Soil M e c h a n i c s 193
12.1.1 Classification of Soils 193
12.1.2 Porosity a n d Bulk Density 193
12.1.3 P e r m e a b i l i t y 194
12.1.4 S t r e s s e s 195
12.1.5 D e f o r m a t i o n s 196
12.1.6 Stability of s l o p e s 197
12.2 Hydraulics 198
12.2.1 G e n e r a l 198
12.2.2 S e d i m e n t T r a n s p o r t in o p e n c h a n n e l s 198
12.2.3 Flow in c l o s e d conduits 199
12.2.4 S e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t in c l o s e d c o n d u i t s 200
13. D R E D G I N G C Y C L E 203
13.1 G e n e r a l 203
13.2 Disintegration 203
13.2.1 S u c t i o n 203
13.2.2 Jets 203
13.2.3 B l a d e s 203
13.3 Vertical t r a n s p o r t 204
13.3.1 M e c h a n i c a l T r a n s p o r t 204
13.3.2 Hydraulic t r a n s p o r t 204
13.4 Horizontal t r a n s p o r t 206
13.4.1 Pipeline 206
13.4.2 B a r g e 207
13.5 D i s p o s a l 208
14. C O M M O N D R E D G I N G E Q U I P M E N T 211
14.1 G e n e r a l 211
14.2 T y p e s of d r e d g e s 211
14.2.1 Trailing suction h o p p e r d r e d g e 211
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14.2.2 Cutter suction d r e d g e 212
14.2.3 G r a b d r e d g e 212
14.2.4 Bacl<hoe d r e d g e 212
14.2.5 B u c k e t ladder d r e d g e 213
14.2.6 Plain suction d r e d g e 213
14.2.7 B a r g e u n l o a d i n g d r e d g e 213
15. C O S T A N D C O N T R A C T S O F D R E D G I N G P R O J E C T S 215
15.1 C o s t 215
15.1.1 G e n e r a l 215
15.1.2 D e p r e c i a t i o n a n d interest 215
15.1.3 M a i n t e n a n c e a n d repair 216
15.1.4 L a b o u r 216
15.1.5 Fuel a n d L u b r i c a n t s 216
15.1.6 I n s u r a n c e 216
15.1.7 O v e r h e a d s 216
15.1.8 Profit a n d risk 216
15.1.9 O t h e r c o s t e l e m e n t s 217
15.1.10 R e v i e w 217
15.2 C o n t r a c t s 217
16. L I S T O F R E F E R E N C E S 219
APPENDIX 1 HISTORY OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM 223
APPENDIX 2 RELATIVE MOTION 227
APPENDIX 3 THE CLOSURE OF THE AFSLUITDIJK 241
APPENDIX 4 DELTA PROJECT 251
APPENDIX 5 HYDROGRAPHIC CHARTS 261
APPENDIX 6 THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 269
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I <l ,1 1 n ,[ I
1.1 T h e c o a s t
It is also n e c e s s a r y to m e n t i o n t h e n e c e s s i t y for c o n s c i o u s c o a s t a l z o n e m a n a g e m e n t . It is
predicted (World Coast C o n f e r e n c e '93 [1994]) that m o r e than half of the h u m a n population of the
w o r l d will s o o n be living in the c o a s t a l z o n e (coastal z o n e in a rather b r o a d s e n s e in this c a s e ) .
M o s t of the largest m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s a r e located along the c o a s t : T o k y o , J a k a r t a , S h a n g h a i ,
H o n g K o n g , B a n g k o k , Calcutta, B o m b a y , N e w Y o r k , B u e n o s A i r e s , Los A n g e l e s . A l a c k of
b a l a n c e b e t w e e n the natural p r o c e s s e s a n d the h u m a n s o c i e t y in the c o a s t a l z o n e c a n l e a d to
g r e a t poverty, pollution, social p r o b l e m s a n d structural d e f i c i e n c i e s . In short: the w o r l d ' s f u t u r e
d e p e n d s largely on t h e future o f t h e c o a s t a l z o n e s .
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1.2 Coastal Engineering
C o a s t a l e n g i n e e r i n g is the general term for all engineering activities related to the coast. T y p i c a l
e n g i n e e r i n g activities are:
• s y s t e m , p r o c e s s a n d p r o b l e m analysis
• m a n a g e m e n t of information a n d data acquisition p r o g r a m s
• system schematization and modelling
• p l a n n i n g , d e s i g n a n d construction of artificial s t r u c t u r e s
• m e a s u r e s for t h e preservation of t h e natural s y s t e m
B a c k to the e n g i n e e r i n g k e y w o r d s . M o s t of t h e m ( p r o b l e m , i n f o r m a t i o n , m e a s u r e m e n t , m o d e l ,
artificial m e a s u r e s , and structures) n e e d to be v i e w e d in a larger c o n t e x t a n d this c o n t e x t f o r m s
t h e c o n t e n t of this b o o k .
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1.3.2 Contents of this book
Chapter 10 of this introduction into coastal engineering gives s o m e practical details of the subject.
S e v e r a l p r o b l e m s w h i c h m i g h t be e n c o u n t e r e d in t h e e v e r y d a y practice of t h e c o a s t a l e n g i n e e r
h a v e b e e n a d d e d . D e s i g n skills f o r m a m a j o r part of this practice a n d therefore attention paid to
s o m e coastal d e s i g n b a s i c s .
C h a p t e r s 11 to 15 d e s c r i b e t h e b a s i c a s p e c t s of d r e d g i n g .
Lastly, there are six a p p e n d i c e s with additional information o n t h e history of the planet earth, t h e
m e c h a n i c s of relative m o t i o n (Coriolis a c c e l e r a t i o n ) , the t w o largest c o a s t a l e n g i n e e r i n g w o r k s
in the Netherlands ( T h e reclamation of the "Zuiderzee w o r k s " a n d the Delta Project), the reading
of h y d r o g r a p h i c c h a r t s a n d on centrifugal p u m p s .
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1.4 Authors
M a n y others contributed by correcting text or preparing figures. In this respect the contribution of
the following p e r s o n s is greatly a c k n o w l e d g e d :
V . L . v a n D a m - Foley
W . B . G . B i j m a n , Delft University of T e c h n o l o g y
P. R a v e n s t i j n , Delft University of T e c h n o l o g y
Ing. M.Z. V o o r e n d t , Delft University of T e c h n o l o g y
1.5 Miscellaneous
T o avoid m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , t h e r e a d e r is referred to a s e v e n - l a n g u a g e v o c a b u l a r y on c o a s t a l
e n g i n e e r i n g ( T h e Liverpool T h e s s a l o n i k i N e t w o r k [1996]).
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2.1 Introduction
T o understand the present i m a g e of the world coasts, it is n e c e s s a r y to start briefly at the genesis
of t h e u n i v e r s e , to d i s c u s s s o m e m a j o r e v e n t s in geological history, a n d to f o c u s o n the m o s t
r e c e n t geological history of the e a r t h . Finally, the g e n e r a l review will be illustrated by a m o r e
detailed description of the r e c e n t history of the D u t c h coast.
It is widely accepted that the universe originated in a great explosion, the so-called 'big b a n g ' . This
m o d e l is consistent with o b s e r v a t i o n s first m a d e in 1929 that distant galaxies a r e r e c e d i n g f r o m
the earth at velocities proportional to their distance from earth. In 1948 G e o r g e G a m o w predicted
that a s t r o n o m e r s w o u l d o n e d a y detect b a c k g r o u n d m i c r o w a v e radiation left o v e r f r o m t h e big
b a n g . In 1965, P e n z i a s a n d W i l s o n p r o v e d G a m o w right w h e n they d e t e c t e d this r a d i a t i o n , a n d
s u b s e q u e n t m e a s u r e m e n t s p r o v i d e d further c o n f i r m a t i o n . O t h e r theoretical m o d e l s h a v e b e e n
p r o p o s e d to explain the origin of the u n i v e r s e , but t h e s e h a v e p r o v e d deficient w h e n t e s t e d
a g a i n s t o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d physical m e a s u r e m e n t s .
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before the present. In T a b l e 2 - 1 , the chronology is s h o w n f r o m the big bang to the creation of our
planet. For t h o s e w h o are interested in the f o r m a t i o n of our solar s y s t e m , A p p e n d i x 1 gives
additional i n f o r m a t i o n .
10 is a radioactive carbon isotope, which originates from Nitrogen-14. Cosmic radiation causes the
production of C^"* in the atmosphere. This radioactive isotope is incorporated in the biosphere. It decays
with a half-life time of 5730 years. It is mainly used to date the younger geological processes (of the
past 50,000 years)
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c o n t i n e n t s in w t i a t is called the m o d e r n Ice A g e . T o d a y m a n y of the g e o m o r p h o l o g i c f e a t u r e s
s h a p e d or d e p o s i t e d at that t i m e are still clearly r e c o g n i s a b l e . F r o m a r o u n d 18 to 15 t h o u s a n d
years a g o , the global climate w a s w a r m i n g a g a i n . A t the s a m e time the Holocene T r a n s g r e s s i o n
started with the beginning of global rise in sea level. M a n y morphological features associated with
the coastal e n v i r o n m e n t are Holocene in age, but the pre-existing geology is often visible, as well.
This m o s t recent history of the earth also contains e v i d e n c e of primitive h u m a n life. It reflects the
d e p e n d e n c e of m a n k i n d o n global c h a n g e s .
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Remarks Main period 1='sub- 2' " sub- 3"' sub-division Time scale
divlslon division in years
before
present
(BP)
Fanerozoic Genozoic Quarternary Holocene Sub-Atlanticum 2 900 BP
(or old name: Sub-Boreal
Alluvium) Atlanticum
Boreal
Pre-Boreal 10 000 BP
Pleistocene Weichselian
(or old name: glacial age
Diluvium) Eemian
Soalian glacial
(Glacial Periods) age
Holsteinian
Elsterian glacial
age
Cromerlan
Menapian glacial
age
Waalian
Eburonian glacial
age
Tiglian
1.8* 10" BP
Tertiary Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Africa, America Eocene
separated
End of dinosaurs Paleocene 6 5 * 10" BP
Abundant life Mesozoic Cretaceous Late Cretaceous
Early Cretaceous
Jurassic Malm
Dogger
Lias
Triassic Keuper
Muschelchalk
Bont sand stone 2 2 5 * 10" BP
Paleozoic Permian Zechstein
Rotliegendes
Carboniferous Silesian
Start of reptiles Dinantian
Devonian Late Devonian
Middle Devonian
Early Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian 600 * 10" BP
Cryptozoic Precambrian
First primitive life 3.2 * 10" BP
Formation of 4.75 * 10"
planet BP
T a b l e 2-2 G e o l o g i c a l time s c a l e
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m a j o r w o r k , "Die E n t s t e h u n g d e r K o n t i n e n t e und O z e a n e " , in w h i c h he p r e s e n t e d an e n o r m o u s
a m o u n t o f e v i d e n c e in s u p p o r t of his theory.
Plate t e c t o n i c t h e o r y states that the c o n t i n e n t s , being part of the lithosphere, the Earth's
u p p e r m o s t layer c o n t a i n i n g the crust, drift on the s e m i - m o l t e n underlying material w e call t h e
a s t h e n o s p h e r e , or the upper mantle. By the 1960's, scientists had c o n c l u d e d that the lithosphere
is d i v i d e d into 12 large, tightly fitting plates a n d s e v e r a l small o n e s . Six of t h e large plates b e a r
the c o n t i n e n t s ; t h e other six a r e o c e a n i c . A n d , as W e g e n e r a s s e r t e d , all of t h e plates a r e in
m o t i o n (Figure 2-3).
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2 0 0 million y e a r s B.P.
today
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N o w a d a y s the rates of plate m o v e m e n t are also m e a s u r e d with the aid of satellites that use v e r y
a c c u r a t e g e o d e t i c positioning s y s t e m s (like D G P S ) . T h e m o v e m e n t s a p p e a r to v a r y f r o m a b o u t
1 c m a year at the Mid-Atlantic ridge to 10 c m a year at the East Pacific rises in the south-eastern
Pacific. Last but not least, the mid-Atlantic rift b e c o m e s visible at t h e s u r f a c e on Iceland in a v e r y
s p e c t a c u l a r w a y (Figure 2-5).
S e a level c h a n g e s
S i n c e it w a s f o r m e d , the o c e a n has never b e e n c o n s t a n t or static. T h e p r o c e s s of " n e w w a t e r
f o r m a t i o n " by v o l c a n i c activity (see A p p e n d i x 1) p r o d u c e d v e r y s m a l l w a t e r level c h a n g e s . But
t h e r e h a v e b e e n , a n d t h e r e still are, other p r o c e s s e s , w h i c h h a v e a m u c h stronger effect o n t h e
g l o b a l s e a level. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t of t h e s e is certainly t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e . If the g l o b a l
t e m p e r a t u r e rises, this leads to the m e l t i n g of ice c a p s a n d e x p a n s i o n of the total w a t e r m a s s .
T h i s has h a p p e n e d often d u r i n g earth's history, a n d it is still h a p p e n i n g . Melting of the ice c a p s
also r e d u c e s the load on the crust as a result of which areas previously c o v e r e d by ice are rising,
w h e r e a s other a d j a c e n t a r e a s that w e r e n e v e r c o v e r e d with ice t e n d to sink d u e to the e f f e c t of
isostacy (equilibrium flotation) on the earth crust. In this w a y , s e a level c h a n g e s are relative
m o v e m e n t s ; t h e y c a n be c a u s e d by a b s o l u t e c h a n g e s of the s e a level and/or by a b s o l u t e
m o v e m e n t s of t h e continental crust.
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T h e following p r o c e s s e s ( D a v i s , 1 9 9 4 ) c a u s e s e a level c h a n g e s in the p r e s e n t d a y c o n d i t i o n s :
1 tectonic activity
2 climatic fluctuations (natural or m a n m a d e )
3 regional s u b s i d e n c e d u e to c o m p a c t i o n and fluid w i t h d r a w a l
4 s u b s i d e n c e a n d r e b o u n d of t h e lithosphere
5 c h a n g e s in t h e v o l u m e of t h e w o r l d o c e a n
6 a d v a n c e and retreat of ice s h e e t s
7 continental r e b o u n d
F i g u r e 2-6 F o r m a t i o n of l e a d i n g a n d trailing e d g e c o a s t s
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e d g e of the other plate. T h e t r e m e n d o u s friction created by t h e c o n v e r g i n g plate e d g e s
c a u s e s the lighter continental crust to fold a n d buckle, creating the m o u n t a i n r a n g e s that c a n
often be f o u n d near leading e d g e c o a s t s . M o r e o v e r , the s t r e s s e s that d e v e l o p d u r i n g t h e
subduction process cause earthquakes. T h e W e s t Coast of the A m e r i c a n continent is a g o o d
e x a m p l e of a leading e d g e coast. T h e A n d e s M o u n t a i n s are the result of the b u c k l i n g
p r o c e s s . This is illustrated by Figure 2-7, the c o a s t near A n t o f a g a s t a , Chile. T h e rising
m a g m a m a y also create volcanic activity, w h i c h is the c a s e in the A n d e s a n d t h e m o u n t a i n
r a n g e s a l o n g the W . coast of N. A m e r i c a .
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A Neo-trailing e d g e c o a s t o c c u r s as plates d i v e r g e f r o m an active s p r e a d i n g c e n t r e . If t h e
n e w l y p r o d u c e d crust f o r m s a coast, it r e p r e s e n t s the first stage of c o a s t a l d e v e l o p m e n t . It
is only a f e w million years old. Coasts like this m u s t h a v e existed just after the proto-Atlantic
d e v e l o p e d , as the continents (Africa and S o u t h A m e r i c a ) split up during the Triassic p e r i o d ,
190 million y e a r s a g o . T h e c o a r s e gravel b e a c h a l o n g a high-relief coast on the S e a of
C o r t e z , M e x i c o , p r o v i d e s an e x a m p l e of a Neo-trailing e d g e coast. Its p h o t o g r a p h is s h o w n
in Figure 2-8.
T h e African continent occupies a position in the middle of a crustal plate that has little tectonic
activity a l o n g its m a r g i n s , a n d has been relatively stable for m a n y millions of y e a r s . T h e
typical coastal f e a t u r e s of this continent have led to the n a m e Afro-trailing e d g e coast. A f r o -
trailing e d g e c o a s t s h a v e d e v e l o p e d p r o n o u n c e d continental shelves and coastal plains, but
t h e s e features lack the extent of m o r e mature coasts, and sedimentary features s u c h as large
d e l t a s a r e rare. T h e African continent has b e e n relatively stable for a long t i m e , s o n o
e x t e n s i v e , high m o u n t a i n ranges are present. T h e m o d e s t to large river s y s t e m s drain a r e a s
of only m o d e s t relief, s o s e d i m e n t gets a lot of t i m e to be deposited before arriving in the river
mouth.
Marginal s e a coasts are near to the plate boundary w h e r e a collision is occurring, but are kept
a p a r t f r o m its influence. In t h e s e places, a m o d e r a t e - s i z e d marginal sea separates a p a s s i v e
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a n d tectonically stable continental margin from the volcanic island arc at the plate e d g e near
a s u b d u c t i o n z o n e . A l t h o u g h fairly close to the c o n v e r g e n c e z o n e , t h e m a r g i n a l s e a c o a s t is
far e n o u g h a w a y to be u n a f f e c t e d by c o n v e r g e n c e tectonics - it b e h a v e s like a trailing e d g e
c o a s t . W e l l - d e v e l o p e d rivers carry large quantities of s e d i m e n t to the coast, w h e r e a b r o a d
and gently sloping continental shelf provides an ideal resting-place for large quantities of land-
derived sediment.
2.5 T h e Dutch c o a s t
sea level
GEOLOGICAL AGE position
TIME SCALE C14 calendar! (m) OBSERVATIONS COASTAL DEVELOPMENT
Late Weichsellen
10 000
iHolocene
Prae-Boreal
9 000
Boreal 8700 BP Sea protrudes into Strait of Dover/Calais
8300 BP Connection between Northern and
Southern part of Nortti Sea is formed
8 000 25
Atlanticum 7800 BP Average coast line position 25 km West of
the present position
7 000 5500 15
BC
Period of coastal retreat
Dutch coast develops into open Wadden Coast
6 000 - 7
.1999 _ L NAP.
T a b l e 2-3 T i m e T a b l e w i t h t h e m a i n e v e n t s for t h e D u t c h c o a s t d u r i n g t h e H o l o c e n e
23
Pre- Bore- Atlantic Subboreal Subatlantic
bor. al
24
I
25
F i g u r e 2-12 T h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g P r e - B o r e a l : 7500-8500 B C ( Z a g w i j n , 1991)
T h e fast rising sea level resulted in an overall retreat of the coastline, since the available a m o u n t s
of s e d i m e n t w e r e too s m a l l to stabilise the coast. T h e transgression of the s e a took place via the
valleys in the late-glacial l a n d s c a p e . T h e s e valleys c h a n g e d into l a g o o n s a n d e s t u a r i e s that
b e c a m e m a j o r s i n k s f o r s e d i m e n t s of p r e d o m i n a n t l y m a r i n e origin ( c o m p a r e Figure 2 - 1 3 a n d
Figure 2-14). In periods of rising sea level, a coastal plain has the tendency to maintain a more-or-
less constant level of t h e shoals with reference to the m e a n s e a level by a c c u m u l a t i n g s e d i m e n t .
R e p e a t e d f l o o d i n g of t h e inter-tidal a r e a s d e p o s i t e d s e d i m e n t s o n t h e s h o a l s . M o r e o v e r , fine-
grained s e d i m e n t s t e n d to a c c u m u l a t e in lagoons. T h e s e d i m e n t originates f r o m the s u r r o u n d i n g
c o a s t s that s h o w a t e n d e n c y to e r o d e in the vicinity of the tidal inlets. At p r e s e n t w e t e r m this
p h e n o m e n o n t h e " s a n d h u n g e r of the W a d d e n Sea". T h e s e d i m e n t s w e r e t r a n s p o r t e d t o w a r d s
the tidal basins by wave-driven longshore and cross-shore transport a n d by tidal action. T h e rivers
R h i n e a n d M e u s e d e p o s i t e d s a n d a n d clay in their valley, thus k e e p i n g the i n v a d i n g s e a out.
26
F i g u r e 2-13 T l i e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g E a r l y A t l a n t i c u m : 5 5 0 0 B C ( Z a g w i j n , 1991)
F i g u r e 2-14 T h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g L a t e A t l a n t i c u m : 4 1 0 0 B C ( Z a g w i j n , 1 9 9 1 )
27
A t the e n d of the Atlantic period, a b o u t 6 0 0 0 to 5 5 0 0 B P , the rate of sea-level rise h a d d e c l i n e d
significantly (Figure 2 - 1 0 ) . T h i s c a u s e d a c h a n g e in the coastal evolution. T h e tidal b a s i n s in
Z e e l a n d a n d S o u t h - a n d N o r t h - H o l l a n d (up to A l k m a a r ) started to silt up. T h e s e d i m e n t s u p p l y
g r a d u a l l y b e c a m e sufficient to fill in t h e s e b a s i n s , w h i c h resulted in c l o s u r e of the tidal inlets.
S u b s e q u e n t l y , the c o a s t a l barrier started to p r o g r a d e to the w e s t . Eventually this r e s u l t e d in a
c l o s e d coastline that w a s only d i s s e c t e d by the m o u t h s of the rivers Scheldt, R h i n e / M e u s e , t h e
O l d Rhine n e a r Leiden a n d the O e r - I J n e a r G a s t r i c u m (Figure 2 - 1 5 ) .
Behind this coastal barrier the m a r i n e influence had completely disappeared and large-scale peat
f o r m a t i o n s t a r t e d . T h e coast b e t w e e n A l k m a a r a n d the present island of Vlieland w a s still
d o m i n a t e d by the T e x e l High. This 'high' c a u s e d to coastline to retreat m u c h m o r e slowly than it
did to the s o u t h of it. C o n s e q u e n t l y , this part of the coast w a s a p r o m o n t o r y . T h e s e d i m e n t that
w a s e r o d e d f r o m the Texel High w a s transported to the north east and south, into the tidal basins.
T h e tidal b a s i n s east of Vlieland n e v e r silted up completely. This m e a n s that t h e r e h a s a l w a y s
b e e n a p r e d e c e s s o r of the p r e s e n t - d a y W a d d e n S e a ( c o m p a r e Figure 2-15 to Figure 2 - 1 7 ) .
F i g u r e 2 - 1 5 T h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g E a r l y S u b - B o r e a l : 3000 B C ( Z a g w i j n , 1991)
28
F i g u r e 2-16 T h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g Mid S u b - B o r e a l : 2100 B C ( Z a g w i j n , 1991)
29
F r o m 3 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o o n w a r d s d e v e l o p m e n t s in our region w e r e no longer d e t e r m i n e d by t h e
f o r c e s of n a t u r e alone. T h e c o n d i t i o n s for h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t i m p r o v e d and gradually t h e land
b e c a m e inhabited by p e o p l e w h o increasingly interfered with the flow of w a t e r and the f l o w of
s e d i m e n t . T h u s , d e v e l o p m e n t s f r o m a b o u t 1000 B C o n w a r d s included a mixture of natural a n d
h u m a n i n f l u e n c e s , the h u m a n factor b e c o m i n g m o r e i m p o r t a n t as technical skills g r a d u a l l y
i n c r e a s e d . D e v e l o p m e n t s after 3 0 0 0 B C w e r e no longer revealed only by g e o l o g y but by
a r c h a e o l o g y a s w e l l , later s u p p o r t e d by early written history.
T h e S u b a t l a n t i c u m , f r o m 2 9 0 0 y e a r s a g o up to the present, is c h a r a c t e r i s e d by an e v e n s l o w e r
rate of s e a level rise. A l t h o u g h o n e w o u l d e x p e c t that this w o u l d lead to further c o n s o l i d a t i o n of
t h e coastline, that did not o c c u r . S u b s i d e n c e of the a r e a s b e h i n d the coastal barrier led t o n e w
incursions of the s e a , resulting in the d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w tidal basins. In Z e e l a n d , this eventually
resulted in the formation of large estuaries. T h e coast of Holland between Schouwen and A l k m a a r
s t o p p e d p r o g r a d i n g . T h e delta of the O l d R h i n e w a s e r o d e d after the a b a n d o n m e n t of this river
c o u r s e . T h i s stretch of coast started e r o d i n g slowly, w h i l e t h e r e m a i n d e r of the T e x e l H i g h ,
b e t w e e n A l k m a a r a n d Vlieland w a s finally f l o o d e d , c r e a t i n g t h e w e s t e r n W a d d e n S e a . S e v e r a l
b r e a c h e s d e v e l o p e d . O n e of t h e m e x p a n d e d at the cost of the o t h e r s , a n d finally b e c a m e t h e
M a r s d i e p , the largest tidal inlet of the p r e s e n t - d a y W a d d e n S e a . T h e M a r s d i e p c o n n e c t e d t h e
A l m e r e , a large inland lake, with the North S e a . T h e Vlie f o r m e d another connection, to the north.
T h e e a s t e r n part of the W a d d e n S e a e x p a n d e d again ( s e e Figure 2-18 to Figure 2 - 2 0 ) .
F i g u r e 2-18 T h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g E a r l y S u b - A t l a n t i c u m : 100-400 B C ( Z a g w i j n , 1 9 9 1 )
30
F i g u r e 2-19 T h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g R o m a n E m p i r e : 100 A D ( Z a g w i j n , 1991)
31
A s a result of the new inlets, e x t e n s i v e peat areas w e r e being drained, partly by a natural s y s t e m
of creeks and gullies, partly by h u m a n interference that b e c o m e s noticeable f r o m the R o m a n a g e
(say 2 0 0 0 years a g o ) . T h e better d r a i n a g e of the peat a r e a s also c a u s e d s o m e s e t t l e m e n t .
Slightly later during this period, the coastal erosion w a s interrupted in s o m e w a y , since w e k n o w
that d u r i n g the R o m a n a g e river m o u t h s a n d tidal inlets (Rhine near Katwijk a n d " O e r IJ") w e r e
c h o k e d . ( E v e n at p r e s e n t w e c a n distinguish the c o u r s e of the "Oer I J " in the vicinity of
A m s t e r d a m by the d e e p location of firm foundation layers). A remarkable event in this period also
w a s the creation of the W e s t e r n part of the W a d d e n S e a by inundation of t h e m a s s i f a r o u n d
T e x e l . T h e sea level in this period m u s t h a v e b e e n a r o u n d N A P - 0.5m (see Figure 2 - 1 9 ) .
Centuries later, medieval rulers constructed d a m s in larger creeks and rivers thus influencing the
distribution of w a t e r o v e r the v a r i o u s outlets of the m a i n rivers. T h e p u r p o s e of t h e d a m s v a r i e d ,
s o m e w e r e m e a n t to e n h a n c e land traffic, others w e r e m e a n t to obstruct navigation in o r d e r to
levy t a x e s or to p r e v e n t salt w a t e r intrusion. T h e result w a s not only a c h a n g e in the hydraulic
c o n d i t i o n s , but also a c h a n g e in the s e d i m e n t distribution, with m u c h of the s e d i m e n t t r a p p e d
b e h i n d the d a m s a n d not r e a c h i n g the coast.
During the ninth century A D , extensive cultivation of the peat lands, which had been f o r m e d under
the favourable climatic conditions, started. T h e cultivation of the land w a s n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e of
the population p r e s s u r e . L a r g e parts of the land c o n s i s t e d of peat m a s s e s , situated s o m e (1-3)
m e t e r s a b o v e s e a level, a n d t h u s not too v u l n e r a b l e to f l o o d i n g during s t o r m s . In the N o r t h a n d
the S o u t h , marine s e d i m e n t fields w e r e f o u n d , w h i c h w e r e inundated only during high floods. Peat
a n d m a r i n e s e d i m e n t deposits w e r e a buffer against the s e a . A t that time, the c o a s t w a s c l o s e d ,
apart f r o m a f e w river m o u t h s a n d s e a a r m s . T h e r e w e r e s a n d d u n e r o w s , parallel to t h e c o a s t
(Old D u n e s ) .
In the eleventh century, the rate of population growth i n c r e a s e d . Peat excavation for h e a t i n g a n d
salt extraction w e a k e n e d the w a t e r - w e i r f u n c t i o n of the peat lands. Cultivation of t h e l a n d w a s
further intensified. In the c a s e of peat lands, artificial drainage (first by gravity, later by w i n d m i l l s )
led to greater land s u b s i d e n c e ; this contributed to t h e g r o w i n g vulnerability to inundation a n d a n
e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g n e e d for artificial d r a i n a g e .
B e t w e e n the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries, the extensive peat area between the Old D u n e s
a n d the Utrechtse Heuvelrug w a s cultivated (Grote Ontginning = Big Cultivation). In the thirteenth
32
a n d fourteenth c e n t u r i e s , this land s u b s i d e d s o m u c h ( s o m e t i m e s e v e n 4 to 5 m e t e r s ) , t h a t it
b e c a m e situated at or e v e n b e l o w s e a level. D r a i n a g e w a s a g r o w i n g p r o b l e m ; t h e r e f o r e
agriculture yielded to cattle b r e e d i n g . T h e s e a level rose, the land s u b s i d e d , a n d l a k e s w e r e
f o r m e d d u e to peat m i n i n g . Rivers c a u s e d i n u n d a t i o n s , as the u p p e r parts of their c a t c h m e n t
a r e a s w e r e also a f f e c t e d by deforestation a n d s u b s e q u e n t cultivation.
In the first place these tools w e r e powered by s t e a m engines that could replace the windmills. T h e
g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y of t h e s t e a m d r i v e n p u m p i n g stations facilitated the r e c l a m a t i o n of large inland
l a k e s that h a d b e c o m e a threat in their o w n right. L a k e H a a r l e m ( H a a r l e m m e r m e e r ) w a s
r e c l a i m e d , a n d s o w e r e the c r e e k s between Amsterdam a n d I J m u i d e n , a l o n g with the
construction of the North Sea C a n a l , giving A m s t e r d a m a m o d e r n connection with the North S e a .
T o stabilise the eroding d u n e coast, groynes w e r e constructed. T h e " H o n d s b o s s c h e Z e e w e r i n g " ,
a h e a v y s e a w a l l w a s c o n s t r u c t e d south of D e n Helder.
33
F i g u r e 2-21 T h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g L a t e IWiddle A g e s : 1000-1200 A D ( Z a g w i j n , 1991)
Even m o r e serious w a s the storm flood of February 1953, w h i c h c a u s e d extensive flooding in the
S W part of the country and took over 1800 lives. After repair of the d a m a g e , it w a s c o n c l u d e d that
the c o m m o n p r a c t i c e of raising the level of d i k e s a little higher than the highest r e c o r d e d flood
level posed great risks. For the first time, a real statistical risk analysis w a s carried out to establish
an acceptably s m a l l c h a n c e of a n e w m a j o r flood disaster. T h e Delta c o m m i s s i o n advised taking
34
a flood level with a probability of e x c e e d a n c e of 10"'* per a n n u m a s the b a s e for design of the s e a
d e f e n c e s y s t e m . T h i s w o u l d require s u c h m a j o r s t r e n g t h e n i n g w o r k s of the existing dikes in t h e
Delta region that it w a s considered better to close the estuaries in the S W part of the country. T h e
Delta project w a s b o r n . It took m o r e than 2 5 y e a r s to finalise t h e project. A m o r e detailed
description is given in A p p e n d i x 3.
peat
coastal sedlmenlatlon
F i g u r e 2-22 H o l o c e n e s e d i m e n t s in the N e t h e r l a n d s
35
T h e Pleistocene deposits c a n be f o u n d u n d e r the H o l o c e n e layers in the W e s t e r n part of the
country. O n m a n y o c c a s i o n s , t h e s e Pleistocene layers f o r m the b a s e for pile f o u n d a t i o n s , since
thick layers of ice h a v e s u r c h a r g e d t h e m . T h e P l e i s t o c e n e d e p o s i t s can still be f o u n d at the
s u r f a c e in the e a s t e r n part of the country.
F r o m the geological analysis the conclusion c a n be d r a w n that for several millennia the import of
sand from outside the coastal system has probably been too little to stabilise the coast. T o d a y the
it c a n n o t be anticipated that this import will increase. Recently, a decision w a s m a d e to m a i n t a i n
the coastline in its p r e s e n t position. T h i s decision implies t h e n e c e s s i t y to find artificial w a y s to
e n s u r e s a n d import. A t this s t a g e , ( 1 9 9 9 ) , a b o u t 6 million m^ per a n n u m is supplied artificially. It
m u s t be e x p e c t e d t h a t a n a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e rise in s e a level u n d e r the influence of t h e
g r e e n h o u s e effect will c a u s e a n increasing d e m a n d for s a n d f r o m the W a d d e n S e a , resulting in
stronger e r o s i o n of t h e existing c o a s t . It is e x p e c t e d that i m p r o v e d t e c h n i c a l capabilities
(dredging) will e n a b l e us to c o p e with this increased erosion. F r o m the geological analysis at the
s a m e time it can be learned that m a j o r natural c h a n g e s c a n take place in a relatively short period
with i m m e n s e effects o n the population of the c o a s t a l z o n e .
36
I
1 ^ M > V. '
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meteorological s y s t e m
T h e climate is the s u m of the annual effects of the weather. In s o m e area (equatorial rain forests)
t h e r e is little difference between the data relating to climate and w e a t h e r . W h e r e t h e r e is g r e a t e r
s e a s o n a l or daily variation, w e a t h e r e f f e c t s m a y vary greatly.
T h e r e f o r e , w e a t h e r effects are quantified by so-called m e t e o r o l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e s , w h i c h a r e :
1. Temperature
2. Atmospheric pressure
3. A t m o s p h e r i c humidity
4. Air density
5. V e r t i c a l air velocity
6. Horizontal air velocity (wind)
1. the g a s l a w
2. the first law of t h e r m o d y n a m i c s (heat e q u a t i o n )
3. the e q u a t i o n of continuity ( m a s s c o n s e r v a t i o n )
4. the m o i s t u r e e q u a t i o n ( c o n s e r v a t i o n of m o i s t u r e )
5. the vertical e q u a t i o n of m o t i o n ( N e w t o n ' s s e c o n d law)
6. the horizontal e q u a t i o n of m o t i o n (Nev\rton's s e c o n d law)
37
3.3 From meteorology to climatology
3.4 T h e hydrological c y c l e
38
w a t e r vapour, w h i c h is thus a d d e d to the g a s e s in the a t m o s p h e r e , increases the pressure within
the a t m o s p h e r e . T h e part of the total p r e s s u r e that is attributable to the w a t e r v a p o u r is referred
to as the v a p o u r p r e s s u r e (e). A n alternative w a y of specifying the a m o u n t of w a t e r v a p o u r
p r e s e n t in the air is by using the humidity m i x i n g ratio, w h i c h is the ratio of the m a s s of w a t e r
v a p o u r a n d the m a s s of dry air.
T h e o p p o s i t e p r o c e s s to e v a p o r a t i o n is c o n d e n s a t i o n . W h e n the p r o c e s s e s of e v a p o r a t i o n a n d
c o n d e n s a t i o n b a l a n c e o n e another, equilibrium is r e a c h e d ; the air is said to be s a t u r a t e d w i t h
w a t e r vapour. T h e pressure at w h i c h this is the c a s e is called saturation vapour pressure e^. T h i s
saturation v a p o u r p r e s s u r e is very t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t , increasing m o r e and m o r e rapidly as
t e m p e r a t u r e increases. Therefore, w h e n , while cooling an a m o u n t of partly saturated air, the d e w
point is r e a c h e d , that is the t e m p e r a t u r e at w h i c h the air is fully saturated (at c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e ) .
W h e n t h e r e is no s u r f a c e of any kind for w a t e r to c o n d e n s e o n , air c a n b e c o m e s u p e r s a t u r a t e d
and still retain its w a t e r vapour. A m e a s u r e of the a m o u n t of w a t e r v a p o u r in the air is the relative
h u m i d i t y (U).
U = —-100% (3.1)
where:
U = relative h u m i d i t y (%)
e = water vapour pressure (mb)
Bw = saturation v a p o u r p r e s s u r e ( m b )
A l t h o u g h no s u r f a c e s s e e m to b e available in a f r e e c l o u d l e s s a t m o s p h e r e , t h e r e are m a n y
impurities s u c h as salt particles f r o m the evaporation of s e a s p r a y dust f r o m deserts a n d volcanic
e r u p t i o n s a n d s m o k e f r o m fires on w h i c h c o n d e n s a t i o n c a n t a k e place. T h e s e a r e k n o w n a s
c o n d e n s a t i o n nuclei. O n m o s t types of nuclei, c o n d e n s a t i o n already t a k e s place b e l o w a relative
h u m i d i t y of 1 0 0 % .
39
3.5 Solar radiation and temperature distribution
£ = a r; (3.2)
where:
a = constant o f S t e f a n - B o l z m a n n = 5 . 6 7 * 10 " ® W m " ^ K "
Ts = absolute t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e s u n s u r f a c e , w h i c h c a n be c o n s i d e r e d to be 6 0 0 0 K.
U s i n g Equation (3.2), the a m o u n t of radiation per unit surface area is 3.402 * 10"^ W / m ^ . This s u n
radiation is divided o v e r a r a n g e of f r e q u e n c i e s or w a v e l e n g t h s ( F i g u r e 3-3).
40
wavelength \im ^
absorption in upper
atmosphere mainly by
ozone (-3 units)
absorption in lower
atmosptiere mainly by
water vapour (-10 units) reflection from
clouds to space
45 units)
absorbtion in
clouds (-10 units)
80 units 25 units
reacti ground reacti ground
F i g u r e 3-4 R e d u c t i o n of s o l a r radiation i n t e n s i t y
a s it is t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h the a t m o s p h e r e
41
If the earth continued to absorb solar radiation without any loss of heat, its t e m p e r a t u r e w o u l d rise
indefinitely. T h i s d o e s not h a p p e n , b e c a u s e the e a r t h , in its turn also e m i t s e l e c t r o - m a g n e t i c
radiation into s p a c e . T a k i n g m e a n annual v a l u e s , a n d ignoring a n y c h a n g e in the earth's m e a n
a n n u a l t e m p e r a t u r e f r o m o n e year to the next, a b a l a n c e m u s t exist b e t w e e n i n c o m i n g solar
radiation a n d o u t g o i n g terrestrial radiation.
T h e earth follows an elliptical path around the s u n ; its m e a n distance being about 150 million k m ,
but this varies at the p r e s e n t t i m e by about 5 million k m in the c o u r s e of a year. T h e a m o u n t of
radiation received in a day depends upon the length of time the area is e x p o s e d to the sun's rays,
the angle b e t w e e n the sun's rays and the earth's s u r f a c e , and the distance of the earth f r o m the
s u n . T h e s e factors v a r y with latitude a n d s e a s o n .
300 n r
OL)—I 1 1 I I I 1 I
90° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30° 20° 10° 0
L a t i t u d e (scaled proportional to area)
F i g u r e 3-5 L o n g - t e r m a v e r a g e i n c o m i n g a n d o u t g o i n g radiation i n t e n s i t y
42
F i g u r e 3-6 A i r t e m p e r a t u r e s r e d u c e d to s e a level in J a n u a r y a n d J u l y
1 Latitude
2 Altitude
3 N a t u r e of t h e s u r f a c e , in particular t h e distribution of land a n d s e a
4 A d v e c t i o n of h e a t by w i n d s a n d c u r r e n t s
T h e advective transport .=y winds wiil be d i s c u s s e d in this Chapter; the O c e a n Currents will be
t r e a t e d in C h a p t e r 4 .
e a c h ( F i g u r e 3-8).
2 Troposphere Is that part of the atmosphere where the temperature decreases with increasing altitude
43
Equator
F i g u r e 3-8 S i m p l e t h r e e - c e l l c o n v e c t i o n
44
POLAR HIGH
Polar Easterlies^
POLAR HIGH
-9 S c h e m a t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n of p r e s s u r e b e l t s a n d w i n d s y s t e m s at the earth
Figure 3
surface
c o n t a i n data collected at s e a .
45
F i g u r e 3-10 G l o b a l w i n d p a t t e r n s in J a n u a r y a n d J u l y
46
47
Beau- Windspeed Description Wave
fort
Height
No.
m/s Knots Phenomena observed on State of the s e a As used fay Navy in time In Dutch a s m
land surface of sailing v e s s e l s used by
KNMI
0 0-0.2 0-1 Calm: Still; Smoke will rise Sea like mirror. Windstil 0
vertically
1 0.3-1.5 1-3 Light Air: Rising smoke Ripples with Just sufficient to give Zwakke 0.1 -
drifts; weather vane is appearance of steerage way. wind 0.2
inactive scales; no foam
crests.
2 1.6-3.3 3-6.5 Light Breeze: Leaves Small wavelets; 1 t o 2 knots Zwakke 0.3¬
rustle, can feel wind on crests of glassy A man-of- wind 0.5
your face, weather vane is appearance, not war with
inactive. breaking. all sail set
3 3.4-5.4 6.5-11 Gentle Breeze: Leaves and Large wavelets; and clean 3 to 4 knots Zwak tot 0.6¬
twigs move around. Light crests begin to full would matige wind 1.0
weight flags extend. break; scattered go in
whitecaps. smooth
4 5.5-7.9 11-16 Moderate Breeze: Moves Small waves, water 5 to 6 knots Matige wind 1.5
thin branches, raises dust becoming longer; from:
and paper. numerous
whitecaps.
5 8-10.7 16-21 Fresh Breeze: Moves trees Moderate waves, Royals, etc. Vrij 2.0
sway. taking longer form; krachtige
many whitecaps; wind
some spray.
6 10.8¬ 21-28 Strong Breeze: Large tree Larger waves Single-reefed Krachtige 3.5
13.8 branches move, open wires forming; whitecaps topsails and wind
(such as telegraph wires) everywhere; more top-gal. Sail
begin to whistle, umbrellas spray. A well-
are difficult to keep under conditione
control. d man-of-
7 13.9¬ 28-34 Near Gale: Large trees Sea heaps up; white war could Double Harde wind 5.0
17.1 begin to sway, noticeably foam from breaking just carry reefed
difficult to walk. waves begins to be in chase, topsails, jib,
blown in streaks. full and by: etc.
8 17.2¬ 34-42 Gale: Twigs and small Moderately high Treble- Stormachtig 7.5
20.7 branches are broken from waves of greater reefed
trees, walking into the wind length; edges of topsails etc.
is very difficult. crests begin to break
into spindrift; foam is
blown in well-marked
streaks.
9 20.8¬ 42-49 Strong Gale: Slight damage High waves; sea Close-reefed Storm 9.5
24.4 occurs to buildings, shingles begins to roll; dense topsails and
are blown off of roofs. streaks of foam; courses
spray may reduce
visibility.
10 24.5¬ 49-57 storm: Large trees are Very high waves with She should scarcely bear Zware storm 12.0
28.4 uprooted, building damage overhanging crest; close-reefed main-topsail
is considerable. sea takes white and reefed fore-sail.
appearance as foam
is blown in very
dense streaks;
rolling is heavy and
visibility is reduced.
11 28.5¬ 57-65 Violent Storm: Extensive Exceptionally high Would reduce her to storm Zeer zware 15.0
32.6 widespread damage. These waves; sea covered staysails. storm
typically occur at sea, and with white foam
rarely Inland. patches; visibility still
more reduced.
12 >32.7 >65 Hurricane: Extreme Air filled with foam; No canvas would Orkaan >15
destruction. sea completely white withstand.
with driving spray;
visibility greatly
reduced.
48
1
4.1 Introduction
T h e first systematic, specific study of the o c e a n s w a s carried out by the H.M.S. Challenger. T h i s
ship sailed f r o m P o r t s m o u t h , England on the 21st of D e c e m b e r 1872, and in SVa years s h e sailed
m o r e t h a n 100,000 k m . T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d observations resulted in a 50-volume report. T h i s
w a s also the first report to s u b d i v i d e o c e a n o g r a p h y into its four m o d e m m a j o r fields:
0 biological o c e a n o g r a p h y
e chemical oceanography
• geological oceanography
• physical o c e a n o g r a p h y
In this section, s o m e aspects of physical o c e a n o g r a p h y are described. However, o n e m u s t realise
that biological, c h e m i c a l , and geological processes have a major influence o n , a n d are influenced
d e e p l y b y c o a s t a l e n g i n e e r i n g m e a s u r e s in t h e m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t .
I Conlinenldl Shelf
49
T h e three primary forces that produce a disturbance of the sea surface are w i n d (wind w a v e s a n d
p r o b a b l y s e i c h e s ) , earthqual<es (tsunamis), and gravitational attraction within the s u n , m o o n a n d
e a r t h s y s t e m (tides). T i d e s are described in Section 4.4. S e i c h e s are the s u b j e c t of S e c t i o n 4 . 5 ;
T s u n a m i s a r e t r e a t e d in S e c t i o n 4.6. In Section 4.7, a short description of short w a v e t h e o r y is
g i v e n . O n l y t h e basic principles a r e treated in this chapter. T h o s e desiring to learn m o r e details
a b o u t the s u b j e c t s t r e a t e d in this c h a p t e r a r e referred to h a n d b o o k s or to specific lectures a n d
lecture notes c o n t a i n i n g a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e discussion^.
Salinity and t e m p e r a t u r e are not constant throughout the water depth. W i t h increasing d e p t h , both
salinity a n d t e m p e r a t u r e usually decrease. Evaporation is responsible for the higher salinity of the
s u r f a c e layer. A higher salinity m e a n s a higher d e n s i t y w h e r e a s a higher t e m p e r a t u r e c a u s e s a
l o w e r density. Still, in g e n e r a l , the t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s are sufficient to m a i n t a i n a s t a b l e
d e n s i t y profile, i.e. w h e r e d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s with d e p t h . T h e r e are e x c e p t i o n s to this rule, w h i c h
a r e i m p o r t a n t w h e n a c o u s t i c s u r v e y i n g is in p r o g r e s s . In a r e a s w h e r e an inversion is p r e s e n t , it
is p o s s i b l e for o b j e c t s ( s u b m a r i n e s ) to e s c a p e f r o m d e t e c t i o n by sonar.
3 At TU Delft, these specific lectures are: CT3310 (open channel hydraulics), OT3620 (oceanography
and waves), CT4320 (short waves), CT5316 (wind waves) and CT5317 (physical oceanography).
50
• titration w i t l i silver nitrate as indicated a b o v e
• d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e density p
• m e a s u r e m e n t of electric conductivity
Since t h e scientific equations and tables to calculate the density are a bit c u m b e r s o m e in use, W L
I Delft H y d r a u l i c s u s e s a s i m p l e r relationship for e n g i n e e r i n g p u r p o s e s :
= 0.75S (4-3)
where:
S = salinity [in % o ]
Density variations c a n be used in ingenious w a y s . Imagine that w e t a k e a long (1 k m ) pipe and put
it vertically d o w n f r o m t h e o c e a n s u r f a c e . Next, w e attach a p u m p a n d slowly d r a w u p the d e e p
w a t e r W e d o this slowly so that the rising w a t e r c a n be w a r m e d by the s u r r o u n d i n g o c e a n A f t e r
w a t e r f r o m the d e p t h s reaches the surface w e r e m o v e the p u m p and find that t h e water continues
to flow Why-? It is not perpetual motion; the process stops as s o o n as the upper 1-km layer of the
o c e a n has b e c o m e m i x e d . T h e c a u s e for t h e m o t i o n is the lower density of t h e w a t e r in the pipe
s y s t e m By the s l o w flow, w e e v e n out t e m p e r a t u r e effects, but in t h e c l o s e d s y s t e m w e prevent
e v a p o r a t i o n , w h i c h c a u s e s t h e higher d e n s i t y n e a r t h e s u r f a c e in t h e f r e e o c e a n .
51
4.3 Geostrophic currents
T h e o c e a n is not a static body of water. (If it w e r e , then "bottle mail" w o u l d n e v e r w o r k out, right!)
W e have s e e n that there are d o m i n a n t wind patterns around the globe. T h e y c a u s e friction at the
interface with t h e w a t e r and are thus the driving force for very characteristic f l o w patterns a r o u n d
the globe as well. W e c a n recognise a strong w e s t w a r d current around the e q u a t o r a n d e a s t w a r d
currents at latitudes b e t w e e n 4 0 ° and 60° in both the N. and S. h e m i s p h e r e . In the N h e m i s p h e r e ,
the circulation cells a r e m o v i n g clockwise, while in the S. h e m i s p h e r e , they run anti-clockwise. In
the North Atlantic, t h e Gulf S t r e a m , running f r o m Florida to N o r w a y is best k n o w n . S i m i l a r flows
a r e k n o w n near J a p a n ( K u r o - S h i o ) , along the coast of Latin A m e r i c a (Brazil s t r e a m , a n d along
t h e E. c o a s t of A f r i c a the m i g h t y A g u l h a s drift. T h e m a j o r driving f o r c e for t h e s e geostrophic
o c e a n currents is t h e prevailing w i n d at different latitudes. T h e m a x i m u m velocities o c c u r in the
u p p e r layer (the u p p e r 500 to 1 0 0 0 m ) a n d a r e small (< 1m/s). A l t h o u g h the total b o d y of m o v i n g
w a t e r is e n o r m o u s , b o t t o m friction is relatively unimportant. O n the other h a n d , the Coriolis effect
d o e s play a v e r y i m p o r t a n t role.
T h e current patterns are not completely static. Short-term variations that are related to short term
climatic variations (El Nino) a r e o b s e r v e d . It is s u g g e s t e d by s o m e s o u r c e s t h a t long t e r m
variations in t h e c l i m a t e are related to long t e r m variations of the g e o s t r o p h i c c u r r e n t p a t t e r n s .
T h a t m a k e s o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e s e patterns e x t r e m e l y relevant.
52
F i g u r e 4-2 O c e a n c o n v e y o r belt [ A . L . G o r d o n , 1986]
acceleration:
a= 2co,Vsin(l> (4-4)
where:
ac = Coriolis a c c e l e r a t i o n . , ,^ ^
OJ, = a n g u l a r velocity of the earth = 7 2 . 9 * 10-°rad/s ( b a s e d o n sidereal d a y )
V = c u r r e n t velocity
(p = latitude
T h e acceleration acts towards the right in the Northern H e m i s p h e r e and to the left the S o u t t i e r n
H e m i s p h e r e . T h e influence of latitude is d u e to the fact that all forces h a v e to be split into a
53
c o m p o n e n t parallel to tfie local earth surface and a normal c o m p o n e n t that w o r k s along t h e s a m e
v e c t o r a s gravity.
If the flow t a k e s place in a confined conduit or channel that prevents a deviation of the c o u r s e (i.e.
a s t e a d y c u r r e n t ) , the Coriolis a c c e l e r a t i o n c a u s e s a p r e s s u r e gradient a c r o s s the c o n d u i t :
= 2(o,\/s/n(j) (4.5)
p dn
where:
p = water density
p = water pressure
n = n o r m a l to the current
4.4 T h e tide
54
centre of gravity
of tfie S u n
attracting f o r c e s
resulting forces
resulting water
shell
F i g u r e 4-3 C e n t r i f u g a l a n d attracting f o r c e s of t h e E a r t h - S u n s y s t e m
T h e m a i n f a c t s a b o u t the t w o s y s t e m s a r e ( a p p r o x i m a t e f i g u r e s ) :
• T h e m a s s of the s u n is: 1.99 x 10^° i<g
• T h e m a s s of the e a r t h is: 5.98 x 10^" kg
• T h e m a s s of the m o o n is: 7.35 x 10 k g ^
• T h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n s u n a n d earth is 150.10 k m
• T h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n earth a n d m o o n is 4 0 0 0 0 0 k m
• T h e earth circles the s u n in 3 6 5 days
• T h e earth rotates a r o u n d its o w n axis in 24 h o u r s
• T h e m o o n circles the earth in 2 9 d a y s
Earth Moon
-X"'È^ — — —0
F i g u r e 4-4 E q u i l i b r i u m ( m o o n ) tide
55
W h e n s u n , earth and m o o n are in o n e line (full a n d new m o o n ) , the solar and lunar tides reinforce
e a c h other. T h e ellipsoid b e c o m e s m o r e p r o n o u n c e d a n d the tide gets a bigger amplitude a n d is
called spring tide. W h e n the solar a n d lunar tide are 9 0 ° out of p h a s e , their effects c a n c e l e a c h
other (first a n d last quarter). T h e ellipsoid a p p r o a c h e s a circle, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y the tide gets a
s m a l l e r a m p l i t u d e . T h i s situation is called neap tide (Figure 4 - 5 ) .
ONLY MOON
luna, tide
©
F i g u r e 4-5 S p r i n g a n d n e a p tide
c = 49d (4.8)
where:
c = w a v e p r o p a g a t i o n s p e e d [m/s]
g = gravitation a c c e l e r a t i o n [m/s^]
d = w a t e r d e p t h [m]
A s s u m i n g a n a v e r a g e d e p t h in t h e O c e a n of 4 0 0 0 m , t h e p r o p a g a t i o n s p e e d of the tidal w a v e is
a b o u t 2 0 0 m / s , o r over 750 k m / h ! In this w a y , it t a k e s t h e tidal w a v e up to s e v e r a l days to r e a c h
the m o s t r e m o t e spots in t h e N. h e m i s p h e r e . O n its w a y , t h e tidal w a v e is distorted by t h e n o n -
uniform depth contours of the o c e a n s a n d coastal waters a n d , since the propagation of t h e w a v e
involves the m o t i o n of water, it is a l s o influenced by the Coriolis a c c e l e r a t i o n . It is p o s s i b l e to
visualise the propagation of the tidal w a v e by m a p p i n g the lines of simultaneous H W (in s u n hours
after m o o n culmination) and the lines of equal tidal range (vertical distance between H W a n d L W
in m ) . A t s o m e locations, t h e a m p l i t u d e of t h e vertical tide c a n b e c o m e z e r o . This is c a l l e d a n
a m p h i d r o m i c point. T h i s is illustrated in Figure 4-6 a n d Figure 4 - 7 .
56
F i g u r e 4-6 P r o p a g a t i o n of t h e tide in t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n
T h u s every place along the coasts of the world has its o w n specific tidal curve. At s o m e locations,
the difference b e t w e e n high and low water is up to 12 m . T h e further the location ,s a w a y roni t h e
S o u t h Pole the longer is the t i m e shift b e t w e e n the celestial event and its a p p e a r a n c e in the f o r m
of the tide. In this w a y , in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , t h e o c c u r r e n c e of s p r i n g tide a n d n e a p tide is a b o u t
t w o d a y s after the c o r r e s p o n d i n g m o o n c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .
57
F i g u r e 4-7 P r o p a g a t i o n of t h e tide in the North S e a
58
B e c a u s e t h e tide is c a u s e d by regular a s t r o n o m i c a l p h e n o m e n a , ,t c a n b e predicted a c c u a ely
a long t i m e a h e a d (although n o t including m e t e o r o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s . T e "method u s e d for ^e
prediction is called h a r m o n i c analysis. T h e w a t e r level a t a certain location a s a function of t i m e
is e x p r e s s e d by t h e following f o r m u l a :
where:
C o n t r a r y t o t h e D u t c h tide t a b l e s , in other s u c h t a b l e s Ao r e p r e s e n t s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a
C h a r t D a t u m a n d M e a n S e a Level. Chart D a t u m is t h e n d e f i n e d a s a low level that ,s e x c e e d e d
rarely, f o r i n s t a n c e L L W S . B e c a u s e of this site-specific definition of t h e D a t u m ' e v e U t s n o t
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e D a t u m plane t o b e horizontal. U t m o s t c a r e ,s '^^^^'^^^"^^^"l ^^fZ'^^
hydraulic calculations in this c a s e . ( S e e also A p p e n d i x 5 ) . D a t u m level u s e d b y
countries f o r t h e s a m e w a t e r w a y c a n also b e different, w h i c h leads t o different d e p t h f i g u r e s f o r
the s a m e l o c a t i o n . T h i s is t h e c a s e for t h e W e s t e r n S c h e l d t , w h e r e D u t c h a n d B e l g i a n c h a r t s
show such differences.
59
Componen Angular Amplitude cm Vlissingen Euro Platform H. of Holland Rotterdam IJmuiden Delfzijl
Velocity Phase lag g " 51''-27^ N 52''-00' N SI^-SS^ N 52''-28^N 53''-20' N
In ° per tiour ref. to MET 3"-36' E S"-!?' E 4''.07^ E 4''-30' E 4''-35^ E 6°-56' E
Ao ref. to NAP in cm -1 0 7 24 2 7
SA 0.041 H cm 7 9 8 7 10 9
g" 216 213 222 241 220 219
SM 1.016 H cm 4 3 3 3 3 4
g° 33 31 32 43 22 32
Qi 13.399 H cm 3 4 3 3 4 3
g° 133 126 131 148 133 179
Oi 13.943 H cm 11 11 11 9 11 9
g° 195 188 191 209 193 247
Pi 14.959 H cm 3 3 3 2 3 3
g° 353 340 346 11 346 48
Ki 15.041 H cm 7 8 8 6 8 8
g" 10 358 359 17 358 43
3MS2 26.952 H cm 3 2 2 2 2 4
g° 281 288 312 344 338 167
MNS2 27.424 H cm 3 1 2 2 2 3
g° 143 154 182 211 210 33
NLK2 27.886 H cm 4 2 2 2 2 4
g° 354 1 26 58 54 245
27.968 H cm 13 6 8 8 9 15
g° 161 174 200 232 227 55
N2 28.440 H cm 29 12 12 10 10 21
g° 35 26 59 95 108 310
NU2 28.513 H cm 9 4 5 5 4 8
g° 26 25 52 86 88 288
MPS2 28.943 H cm 3 1 1 1 2 5
g° 110 107 170 206 205 27
M2 28.984 H cm 175 74 79 72 68 136
g° 59 54 86 121 129 333
^2 29.456 H cm 6 3 3 •• 3 3 5
g° 76 80 110 144 142 348
2MN2 29.528 H cm 13 6 7 7 7 12
g° 257 261 290 325 323 168
S2 30.000 H cm 48 i8 19 17 17 34
g° 117 111 147 184 198 46
K2 30.082 H cm 14 5 6 5 5 10
g° 117 111 147 184 198 43
2S M2 31.016 H cm 4 2 2 2 3 4
g° 348 358 25 61 54 270
2M K3 42.927 H cm 3 1 1 1 1 1
g° 162 141 191 225 263 120
MK3 44.025 H cm 2 1 1 1 0 1
g° 316 281 288 349 279 278
3MS4 56.952 H cm 2 1 2 2 3 4
g° 196 193 235 303 268 216
MN4 57.424 H cm 4 4 6 5 7 5
g° 94 105 137 204 157 118
M4 57.968 H cm 13 10 17 15 20 17
g° 120 130 165 230 186 145
MS4 58.984 H cm 9 7 11 9 12 10
g° 181 185 222 291 246 224
MK4 59.066 H cm 2 2 3 '3 4 • 3
g° 178 184 221 290 244 222
2MN6 86.408 H cm 5 2 2 2 2 4
g" 82 64 95 211 269 321
Ms 86.952 H cm 9 4 5 4 4 7
g" 109 92 128 243 290 352
2MS6 87.968 H cm 9 4 4 4 5 7
g° 161 146 188 302 343 61
Mb 115.936 H cm 3 1 2 1 3 1
9° 115 142 230 358 330 217
3MS8 116.952 H cm 5 2 4 2 4 2
g" 166 194 281 51 23 276
T a b l e 4-1 Main c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e tide at s e v e r a l p l a c e s in the N e t h e r l a n d s
60
4.4.2 The horizontal tide
The variation of the water level is called vertical tide. The currents resulting from this variation are
called horizontal tide. These currents can be calculated using
• the driving force of the vertical tide
• the friction
, the storaoe capacity of the area concerned
Depend ng on he local conditions, friction or storage can be simplified or neglected. CaIcula.ons
of this kind are dominated by the boundary conditions imposed. It ,s necessary to select
0 ndaries carefully, far enough from the area of interest to eliminate - ~
possibly at a place where they can be simplified to merely level variation or flow variation. If the
model I used to study the effect of changes in the physical surroundings d ^ ^ d ^ ^
construction), the boundaries must be chosen at such a distance that they are not affected by the
changes.
Because of the uncertainty about storage capacity and friction, emulations of tidal - - n t s must
be calibrated by flow measurements. Such measurements must last a ^^^if^^J^''^^^^^^
hours 25 min ) and must preferably be done from slack water to the next slack water. (Slack water
ee n o t ^ n c i d e with HW or LJ). It is specifically recommended that s^^^^^^^^^^
should be carried out during both regimes when the difference between neap tide and spring tide
is considerable,.
When considering horizontal tides in a river mouth, one must also take into account the influence
of the upland discharge.
Some rivers located at the landward end of an estuary experience another extreme tide-
dependrnTconcJtL - a tidal bore, an abrupt and migrating rise in the -teM^^^^^^^^^^
of the flood tide (Figure 4-9). This "wall of water" is a response to the quick reversal from an
ebb ng i^^^^^^^ to a flooding one. Bores are uncommon, forming ony in special
• cl'stances that depend on tida, conditions and the morphology of - " ^ ^ ^
Truro River of the Bay of Fundy is typically only about half a metre high J he Bay of s , Malo on
the northern coast of France, a bay with the world's second largest tidal range the bore rarely
exceeds a meter in height. Large tidal bores occur in the Pororoca River, a branch of the Amazon
and in the Chien-tang estuary in China. The bore reaches 5 m in the Pororoca and nearly that
height in the Chien-tang.
61
F i g u r e 4-9 T i d a l b o r e o n the P e t i t c o d i a c R i v e r , N e w B r u n s w i c k ( S t o w e , 1987)
4.4.4 D e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l p r e d i c t i o n
in w h i c h
/ = gradient of the w a t e r s u r f a c e
U = w i n d s p e e d in m/s
g = a c c e l e r a t i o n of gravity in m/s^
h = w a t e r d e p t h in m
c = empirical coefficient (3.5 to 4 * 10"*^)
62
T h e f o r m u l a clearly indicates that this effect is i m p o r t a n t in s h a l l o w w a t e r s , i.e. in a r e a s w i t h a n
e x t e n s i v e a n d shallow continental shelf.
Rainfall plays a role w h e n an enclosed area is considered and the quantity of rainfall is e x c e s s i v e .
This c a n be the c a s e in a tropical h u r r i c a n e . River d i s c h a r g e plays a role in e s t u a r i e s a n d river
m o u t h s . T h e discharge can be c a u s e d by a n independent event or by the s a m e event that c a u s e s
atmospheric depression and storm.
z
>
63
In other countries, it m a y be possible to derive similar statistics f r o m the occurrence, strength a n d
path of h u r r i c a n e s , c y c l o n e s or other s t o r m e v e n t s .
4.4.5 S o u r c e s o f information
Tidal observations cannot be m a d e without the use of instruments, ranging from a simple tide pole
to a n automatic recording g a u g e . T h e first reliable tide g a u g e w a s invented in 1882 by Sir W i l l i a m
T h o m s o n , later Lord Kelvin, a Scottish physicist. It consists of a float inside an o p e n pipe a t t a c h e d
to a pier. T h e t o p of the pipe e x t e n d s f r o m near t h e floor of the s e a b e d to a b o v e H W level. T h e
base of the pipe is a b o v e the bottom; only the slow rise a n d fall of the tide invades the pipe. A p e n
records the m o v e m e n t of the float o n a g r a p h - p a p e r c o v e r e d cylinder that is driven at a c o n s t a n t
s p e e d . N o w a d a y s m o s t stations h a v e m o r e m o d e r n electronic r e c o r d e r s that a u t o m a t i c a l l y
t r a n s m i t digital information to a c o m p u t e r .
4.5 S e i c h e s
64
antinode
node ~ i
F i g u r e 4-11 S t a n d i n g w a v e in a c l o s e d b o d y of w a t e r
F i g u r e 4-12 S t a n d i n g w a v e in a s e m i - e n c l o s e d b o d y of w a t e r
In simple cases tiie wavelength is twice or four times the basin length, but other possibilities exist:
4U (4.11)
where:
Tj = period of w a v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n n u m b e r i
Lb - length of the basin
/ = w a v e configuration number (harmony number)
In the Port of R o t t e r d a m , a seiche w a s observed in the morning of 1st M a r c h 1990. It appears first
as a m i n o r fluctuation of a r o u n d 1 0 c m at Lichteiland G o e r e e (an o b s e r v a t i o n post s o m e
k i l o m e t r e s o f f s h o r e ) at 0.00 h o u r s . T h e n , at a b o u t 0 1 . 3 0 h o u r s , it a p p e a r s as a h u g e s t a n d i n g
w a v e of 1.75 m at R o z e n b u r g s e Sluis, a navigation lock s o m e 15 k m inland. ( S e e Figure 4 - 1 3 )
65
observed
250
astronomical
200
150
\ \ /) \ \ / f \ \
100 --x-y
\ \ i
- - / - Y i - i - -\-
/ •'' \
1
50 - - -It - ---\\ /i0.1Óm-\-l
ï ' ! M
// \
i
O \ //' \
1 Ti
\ ^ /
-50
\
'1
-100 \ / i i\ .
1 y 1 1 : v/'
0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12
28-2-90 1-3-90
Light Island Goeree
^+350
4+300
-4+250
+200
-[ + 150
+ 100
A "
000
i -050
28-2-90 1-3-90
Rozenburg Lock
F i g u r e 4-13 S e i c h e in t h e port of R o t t e r d a m
4.6 T s u n a m i s
66
In Figure 4 - 1 4 , ttie situation after ttie 1983 t s u n a m i in Minehialia is s t i o w n . Tfie t s u n a m i lifted large
fistiing boats a b o u t 6 t o 8 m a b o v e s e a level. After the 1946 t s u n a m i , seismologists b e g a n work
o n a s e i s m i c s e a - w a v e w a r n i n g s y s t e m . By ttie early 1 9 6 0 s , a network of s e i s m i c m o n i t o r i n g
stations covered tfie entire Pacific O c e a n , the only basin w h e r e strong earthquakes a r e c o m m o n .
K n o w i n g the location of t h e e a r t h q u a k e , s e i s m o l o g i s t s c a n n o w predict the path a n d rate of
t s u n a m i m o v e m e n t a n d provide w a r n i n g s for m o s t a r e a s , t h e r e b y allowing at least a f e w h o u r s
of preparation time before the w a v e s hit a given coast. Generally this is e n o u g h time to e v a c u a t e
p e o p l e . A l t h o u g h c o a s t s near the origin of the e a r t h q u a k e m a y receive as little a s 10 to 15
m i n u t e s a d v a n c e notice, loss of life has b e e n greatly r e d u c e d since the s y s t e m c a m e into effect.
4.7 W a v e s
4.7.1 ( L i n e a r ) W a v e T h e o r y
S u r f a c e Elevation
In t e x t b o o k s the t r e a t m e n t of w a v e s usually starts with a description of linear w a v e theory.
A l t h o u g h this theory is s o m e t i m e s quite far f r o m reality it d o e s help the student to acquire insight
the b a s i c s principles. A s s u m i n g that the w a v e height is s m a l l with r e f e r e n c e to w a v e length a n d
water depth, it is possible to describe the pressure field and the flow field, and to analyse c h a n g e s
in t h e b e h a v i o u r of w a v e s w h e n t h e y travel f r o m d e e p w a t e r into s h a l l o w e r water. It s h o u l d a l s o
be n o t e d that s u c h t h e o r y refers only to m o n o c h r o m a t i c , regular w a v e s . It is t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l e
to d i s t i n g u i s h the f o l l o w i n g basic e l e m e n t s ( S e e Figure 4 - 1 5 ) :
H = w a v e height in m
T = w a v e period in s
L = wave length in m
h = w a t e r d e p t h in m (i.e. b o t t o m at -h)
67
L
F i g u r e 4-15 D e f i n i t i o n s of a r e g u l a r w a v e
Surface elevation:
H (2nx Int.
/? = — c o s (4.12)
Or if 271/7 is s u b s t i t u t e d by m, a n d 27r/L b y k.
H H
ri = —cos[kx-(ot) = —cosd (4.13)
V\lave celerity:
c =j (4.14)
and
c = J—tanh (4.15)
W a v e length:
2^^' (4.16)
2n
68
For s h a l l o w w a t e r , t h e w a v e celerity b e c o m e s i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e w a v e p e r i o d , b e c a u s e
tanh(/(/7) = kh:
c = Jgh (4
69
relative d e p t h shallow water transitional water deep water
f/ 1 1 d 1 d 1
L 25 25 " Z. 2 L 2
1. wave profile same as in transitional water H [27tx 27ttl H same as in transitional
rj = — cos = — cos 0
water
2 I L T j 2
2. wave celerity L gT (2nd\ L gT
c = - = 4gd c = c„ =- = ^
T r 2;r \ L )
T 2ji
3. wave length L = T^gd = CT gT' (27id\ gT'
L=-—tanh\
2;r y L )
4. group velocity ^\ And/L 1 gT
C =nC=- 1+ C c =-c = —
2[ sinh{And/L)\ ' 2 An
Orbital Motion
Still, within t h e linear s m a l l a m p l i t u d e w a v e t h e o r y it is possible to d e r i v e t h e periodic c h a n g e s of
t h e position, the velocity a n d the acceleration of w a t e r particles. In d e e p water, the particles follow
a circular p a t t e r n , in s h a l l o w e r w a t e r the circular m o t i o n is t r a n s f o r m e d into a n elliptical p a t t e r n .
T h i s orbital m o t i o n can be d e s c r i b e d by splitting position, velocity a n d a c c e l e r a t i o n into horizontal
a n d vertical c o m p o n e n t s {^and u a n d w, a n d and respectively).
coshr2.^(z + / 7 ) / L l /-/sinhr2;/r(z + / ? ) / / .
^
H
^ = -11
2
L_J^
sinh(2;r/7/L)
L-^sind C = -
^ 2 sinh(2;r/7/L)
V ^ c o s ö (4.20)
w coshr2;T(z + / 7 ) / L ] H sinhr2;^(z + /7)/L
70
N o t e that at the w a t e r s u r f a c e (z = 0 ) , t h e e x p r e s s i o n s for f and t] b e c o m e identical, a n d that at
the b o t t o m , for z = -h, all vertical m o v e m e n t s b e c o m e zero d u e t h e influence of sinh (0).
coshl27i:(z +h)/L]
p = -pgz + pgn ^ \ J (4.22)
cosh(2;^n/L)
W a v e E n e r g y and G r o u p S p e e d
If w e e x a m i n e a finite n u m b e r of w a v e s (group) in othenwise still water, w e will o b s e r v e that w a v e s
s e e m to originate at t h e rear of the g r o u p , m o v e fonward t h r o u g h the g r o u p and die out near t h e
front of the g r o u p . S i n c e the celerity of the individual w a v e w a s called c, w e m u s t c o n c l u d e t h a t
t h e r e is a g r o u p velocity Cg, w h i c h is s m a l l e r t h a n c. Linear t h e o r y s h o w s that:
c 4 2kh ^
1+- (4.23)
s\nh{2kh)
Er=lpgH'L (4.24)
o
O f t e n it is m o r e c o n v e n i e n t to e x p r e s s the e n e r g y in t e r m s of e n e r g y per s q u a r e m e t e r of w a t e r
surface:
E = lpgH' (4.25)
o
U = E Cg=E n c (4.26)
W a v e s entering s h a l l o w water
W h e n a w a v e is a p p r o a c h i n g perpendicular to the coast, the depth d e c r e a s e s , but the e n e r g y flux
m u s t r e m a i n c o n s t a n t . It is further a s s u m e d that t h e w a v e period also r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t . If t h e
d e e p w a t e r c o n d i t i o n is d e n o t e d by the s u b s c r i p t o, a n d the c o n d i t i o n at the limited w a t e r d e p t h
by s u b s c r i p t i , t h e n :
1 1
-pgHfn,c,=-pgH^noC, (4.27)
Ö o
s i n c e no = ^ i , this e x p r e s s i o n c a n be rewritten a s :
71
(4.28)
or
-+- (4.29)
tanh(2;r/7/L) ^ {Anh/L)
^ smh{A7th/L)
F i g u r e 4-17 T h e effect of s h o a l i n g
T h i s o c c u r s only w h e n no e n e r g y is d i s s i p a t e d , or in other w o r d s w h e n no b r e a k i n g t a k e s p l a c e .
B r e a k i n g a n d t h e limits of b r e a k i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d a little later in this chapter.
72
0.05
1 r
2 I-Shallow transitional • • deep'
H/gT"
Miche breaking limit (H/L=0.142)
.1, I . .. I
0.02 I order theor/ •
0.005 NON-BREAKING
Miche
breaking
2nd order theoiy
limit
0.002 • (H/h=0.88)
cnoldal
theory
0.001
7 linear theory
0.0005
0 0005 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5
ii/gT
F i g u r e 4-18 Validity of w a v e s t h e o r i e s
73
h / L „ tanh(kh h/L kh sinh(kh cosh(kh) H / H o ' h / L o tanh(kh h/L kh sinh(kh) cosh(kh H/Ho'
)
0.000 0.000 0.0000 0.000 0.000 1.000 OO 0.200 0.888 0.225 1,41 1.926 2.170 0.918
0.002 0.112 0.0179 0.112 0.112 1.006 2.12 0.210 0.899 0.234 1,47 2.060 2.290 0.920
0.004 0.158 0.0253 0.159 0.160 1.013 1.79 0.220 0.909 0,242 1.52 2.177 2.395 0,923
0.006 0.193 0.0311 0.195 0.196 1.019 1.62 0.230 0.918 0,251 1.57 2.299 2.507 0,926
0.008 0.222 0.0360 0.226 0.228 1.026 1.51 0.240 0,926 0,259 1.63 2.454 2.650 0.929
0.010 0.248 0.0403 0.253 0.256 1.032 1.43 0.250 0.933 0,268 1.68 2.590 2.776 0.932
0.015 0.302 0.0496 0.312 0.317 1.049 1.31 0.260 0.940 0,277 1.74 2.761 2.936 0.936
0.020 0.347 0,0576 0.362 0.370 1.066 1.23 0.270 0.946 0,285 1.79 2.911 3.078 0.939
0.025 0.386 0.0648 0.407 0.418 1.084 1.17 0.280 0.952 0.294 1.85 3.101 3.259 0.942
0.030 0.420 0.0713 0.448 0.463 1.102 1.13 0.290 0.957 0.303 1.90 3.268 3.418 0.946
0.035 0,452 0.0775 0.487 0.506 1.121 1.09 0,300 0.961 0,312 1.96 3.479 3.620 0,949
0.040 0.480 0,0833 0.523 0.547 1.140 1.06 0.310 0.965 0,321 2.02 3.703 3.835 0,952
0.045 0.5,07 0.0888 0.558 0.587 1.160 1.04 0,320 0.969 0.330 2.08 3.940 4.065 0.955
0.050 0.531 0.0942 0.592 0.627 1.180 1.02 0.330 0.972 0.339 2.13 4.148 4.267 0.958
0.055 0.554 0.0993 0.624 0.665 1.201 1.01 0.340 0,975 0.349 2.19 4.412 4.524 0,961
0,060 0.575 0.104 0.655 0.703 1.222 0.993 0.350 0.978 0.358 2.25 4.691 4.797 0.964
0.065 0.595 0.109 0.686 0.741 1.245 0.981 0.360 0.980 0.367 2,31 4.988 5.087 0.967
0.070 0.614 0.114 0.716 0.779 1.267 0.971 0.370 0.983 0.377 2.37 5.302 5.395 0.969
0.075 0.632 0.119 0.745 0.816 1.291 0.962 0.380 0,984 0.386 2.43 5.635 5.723 0.972
0.080 0.649 0.123 0.774 0.854 1.315 0.955 0.390 0.986 0.395 2.48 5,929 6.013 0.974
0.085 0.665 0.128 0.803 0.892 1.340 0.948 0.400 0,988 0,405 2.54 6.300 6.379 0.976
0,090 0.681 0.132 0.831 0.930 1.366 0.942 0.410 0.989 0.415 2.60 6,695 6.769 0.978
0.095 0.695 0,137 0.858 0.967 1.391 0.937 0.420 0.990 0,424 2,66 7.113 7.183 0.980
0.100 0,709 0.141 0.886 1.007 1.419 0.933 0,430 0.991 0.434 2.73 7.634 7.699 0.982
0.110 0.735 0.150 0.940 1.085 1.475 0.926 0,440 0.992 0.443 2,79 8.110 8.171 0.983
0,120 0.759 0.158 0.994 1.166 1.536 0.920 0,450 0.993 0.453 2.85 8.615 8.673 0.985
0.130 0.780 0.167 1.05 1.254 1.604 0.917 0,460 0.994 0,463 2.91 9,151 9.206 0.968
0.140 0.800 0.175 1,10 1.336 1.669 0.915 0.470 0.995 0.472 2.97 9.720 9.772 0.987
0.150 0.818 0.183 J . 1 5 1.421 1.737 0.913 0.480 : : 0.996 0,482 3.03 10,324 10,373 0.988
0,160 0.835 0.192 1.20 1.509 1.811 0,913 0.490 0.996 0.492 3.09 10.966 11.011 0.990
Q.170 0.850 0.200 1.26 1.621 1.905 0.913 0.500 0.996 0,502 3,15 11,647 11.689 0.990
0.180 0.864 0.208 1.31 1.718 1.988 0.914 1.000 1.000 1.000 6.28 266.893 266,895 1.000
0.190 0.877 0.217 1.36 1.820 2.076 0.916 oo 1,000 OO oo OO oo 1,000
0.200 0.888 0.225 1.41 1.926 2.170 0.918
T a b l e 4-3 S i n u s o i d a l w a v e f u n c t i o n s
Refraction
W l i e n w a v e s travel f r o m d e e p w a t e r into s h a l l o w e r water, s o m e significant c h a n g e s o c c u r . F r o m
e q u a t i o n s ( 4 , 1 5 ) a n d ( 4 . 1 9 ) , it c a n clearly be s e e n that t h e w a v e c e l e r i t y d e c r e a s e s w i t h d e p t h .
W h e n a w a v e a p p r o a c h e s u n d e r w a t e r c o n t o u r s at a n a n g l e , it is e v i d e n t that t h e s e c t i o n s of t h e
c r e s t in t h e d e e p e r parts t r a v e l f a s t e r t h a n t h o s e in t h e s h a l l o w e r s e c t o r s . T h i s c a u s e s t h e w a v e
c r e s t to turn t o w a r d s t h e d e p t h c o n t o u r . T h i s b e n d i n g e f f e c t is called r e f r a c t i o n , a n d is a n a l o g o u s
to s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n a in p h y s i c s (light, s o u n d ) . T h e e f f e c t is s h o w n in F i g u r e 4 - 1 9 .
T h e r e f r a c t i o n t h e o r y , a s s u m e s that no w a v e e n e r g y m o v e s laterally a l o n g t h e w a v e c r e s t . T h e
e n e r g y r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t b e t w e e n o r t h o g o n a l s , n o r m a l t o t h e w a v e c r e s t . T h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e
o r t h o g o n a l s c h a n g e s p r o p o r t i o n a l l y to t h e w a v e celerity a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a w of S n e l l i u s :
74
sin a. (4.30)
coastline
F i g u r e 4-19 W a v e refraction
(4.31)
Diffraction
W h e n w e d i s c u s s e d refraction, w e a s s u m e d that no lateral t r a n s f e r of w a v e e n e r g y w o u l d t a k e
p l a c e a l o n g the w a v e crest. T h i s a s s u m p t i o n is correct as long as t h e lateral g r a d i e n t is not t o o
great. H o w e v e r , this a s s u m p t i o n is no longer valid w h e n a n infinitely high g r a d i e n t o c c u r s , for
i n s t a n c e w h e n at o n e location the w a v e e n e r g y is a l l o w e d to p a s s , w h e r e a s next to it, t h e w a v e
p r o p a g a t i o n is p r e v e n t e d by a n o b s t r u c t i o n (island or b r e a k w a t e r ) . In s u c h c a s e t h e r e is s o m e
lateral transfer of w a v e e n e r g y . T h e p h e n o m e n o n c a n clearly be d i s t i n g u i s h e d in Figure 4 - 2 0
T y p i c a l E x a m p l e of Diffraction.
75
F i g u r e 4 - 2 0 Diffraction pattern
4.7.2. Breaking
tan«
(4.32)
where:
a = s t e e p n e s s of the b e a c h
Lo = w a v e length in d e e p w a t e r
76
F i g u r e 4-21 Breaker types
4.7.3 Irregular w a v e s
77
F i g u r e 4-22 Irregular w a v e
Short T e r m S t a t i s t i c s
Individual w a v e s c a n be distinguished a c c o r d i n g to international s t a n d a r d s by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
w a t e r s u r f a c e e l e v a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o s u b s e q u e n t u p w a r d or d o w n w a r d c r o s s i n g s of the m e a n
w a t e r level. T h e t i m e s p a n b e t w e e n t h e s e c r o s s i n g s is the w a v e p e r i o d ; the r a n g e b e t w e e n t h e
highest crest a n d the lowest trough is the w a v e height. Since all heights a n d periods of individual
w a v e s are different, it is logical to apply statistical m e t h o d s to c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e set of d a t a . T h e
e a s i e s t w a y is t o d e t e r m i n e the statistical properties of the w a v e heights only.
78
w a v e h e i g h t ratio H/Hsig H
W a v e p e r i o d s a r e g e n e r a l l y t r e a t e d in a slightly different w a y . It is p o s s i b l e to c o n s i d e r t h e
irregular s u r f a c e level i]{t) to be the s u m of a large n u m b e r of periodic w a v e s :
In w h i c h
a; = a m p l i t u d e of c o m p o n e n t /
fi = MTi= f r e q u e n c y of c o m p o n e n t /
Pi = p h a s e a n g l e of c o m p o n e n t /
T h e s p e c t r a l e n e r g y d e n s i t y S{(o) c a n t h e n be e x p r e s s e d a s :
Ao)
S{o)) = y2Yaf/Aco (4.35)
Consequently:
^ o = 7 =X È a / ' (4.36)
H s = 4 J ^ = H,,,,., (4.37)
79
W h e n the w a v e e n e r g y s p e c t r u m h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d in this w a y , in m o s t c a s e s it is p o s s i b l e
to distinguish a f r e q u e n c y f= I / T o r period T w h e r e the m a x i m u m e n e r g y is c o n c e n t r a t e d . This
value is called the peal< period Tp. Of course, o n e can also count the total n u m b e r of w a v e s during
the r e c o r d i n g period a n d thus d e f i n e an a v e r a g e period.
S u m m a r i s i n g , o n e can state that the short-term distribution of w a v e heights, i.e. the w a v e heights
in a s t a t i o n a r y s e a state exhibits s o m e v e r y characteristic relations:
In a similar w a y , w a v e periods c a n b e r e l a t e d :
Name Notation R e l a t i o n to s p e c t r a l T i n
moment
Peal< period 1 //d 1
M e a n period V(mo/m2) 0.75 to 0.85
Significant period 0.9 to 0.95
T a b l e 4-5 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c w a v e p e r i o d s
W h e n irregular w a v e s enter shallow water, the highest w a v e s will break first. This m e a n s t h a t t h e
Rayleigh distribution is no longer a p p l i c a b l e . T h e breaking limit for regular w a v e s is HI h=0.78,
but for irregular w a v e s the value H / Hs=0.5 is often used as the breaking limit. This indicates that
for b r e a k i n g w a v e s Hs will not i n c r e a s e b e y o n d 5 0 % of the w a t e r d e p t h .
L o n g T e r m Statistics
A s indicated a b o v e there is no point in d e t e r m i n i n g the either the significant w a v e h e i g h t or a
s p e c t r u m if the w a v e train is not part of a stationary process. T h e r e f o r e , w a v e s a r e m e a s u r e d at
regular intervals of 3 to 6 hours d u r i n g a relatively short p e r i o d . It is highly unlikely t h a t t w o
s u b s e q u e n t o b s e r v a t i o n s will lead to identical values of Hs a n d Tp.
80
For s o m e p r o b l e m s , it is sufficient to e x p r e s s this long-term w a v e c l i m a t e in t e r m s of t h e
probability of e x c e e d a n c e of s t o r m s with a particular strength (Hs) but for o t h e r s , it is n e c e s s a r y
to h a v e a n idea of the probabilities of individual w a v e heights o c c u r r i n g . In s u c h c a s e s , the s h o r t
t e r m and the l o n g - t e r m expectations m u s t be c o m b i n e d into a g r a p h or table that e x p r e s s e s t h e
probability of e x c e e d a n c e of individual w a v e heights during a fixed period, for e x a m p l e the lifetime
of a s t r u c t u r e .
81
82
1
5.1 Introduction
M o r p h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s a r e strongly correlated. S a n d t r a n s p o r t is c a u s e d by w a v e s , w i n d a n d
c u r r e n t s , but w a v e s , w i n d a n d currents also influence e a c h other. M o r e o v e r , the s a n d t r a n s p o r t
c a u s e s c h a n g e s in t h e t o p o g r a p h y , w h i c h in turn lead to c h a n g e s in t h e w a v e w i n d a n d c u r r e n t
p a t t e r n s . In Figure 5 - 1 , a s c h e m e of this c o h e r e n c e in the m o r p h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m is s h o w n . It is
a c o m p l e x s y s t e m . T h e e l e m e n t s (input variables) a r e :
• original coastal t o p o g r a p h y
e w a t e r level
• wind
• waves
• tide
83
average sea level
tide movement
1
tide-driven
tide difference current
wind
wind-driven
wind setup current
atm. pressure
oscilations
waves
wave-driven
wave setup current
morphology
84
5.2 Surfzone p r o c e s s e s
In t h e surf z o n e , c o m p l e x h y d r o d y n a m i c p r o c e s s e s t a k e place. T h e m o s t o b v i o u s o n e is t h e
e n e r g y dissipation d u e to breaking. It can easily be o b s e r v e d that w a v e e n e r g y is t r a n s f o r m e d into
t u r b u l e n c e and noise. Less visible, but still very important, is the c h a n g e of the m e a n w a t e r level
in t h e surf z o n e . Mathematically, this c a n be derived f r o m a calculation of t h e t r a n s p o r t of
m o m e n t u m . This p h e n o m e n o n is called radiation stress. For details, o n e is referred to a textbook
o n short w a v e s (Battjes 1986). For w a v e s a p p r o a c h i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e s h o r e this leads to
a slight d e c r e a s e of the m e a n w a t e r level outside the surf z o n e ; inside the surf z o n e it leads t o a
rise in the m e a n level w h e n o n e gets closer to the s h o r e ( w a v e s e t u p ) . Physically, we can
u n d e r s t a n d that in the crests of b r e a k i n g w a v e s an e x c e s s of w a t e r is t r a n s p o r t e d t o w a r d s the
s h o r e . T h i s m u s t lead to a rise in w a t e r level close to the s h o r e l i n e . T h e g r a d i e n t t h u s f o r m e d
drives an u n d e r t o w in s e a w a r d direction that c o m p e n s a t e s the m a s s t r a n s p o r t in t h e crest of the
breaker.
F i g u r e 5-2 L o n g s h o r e c u r r e n t
85
A
y
wave crests
water line
»
X
F i g u r e 5-3 Horizontal c i r c u l a t i o n cell with rip c u r r e n t
breaker line
T r a n s p o r t by w a v e s a n d c u r r e n t s
S e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t plays an i m p o r t a n t role in n e a r l y e v e r y coastal e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m . A n
important goal of coastal engineering is to u n d e r s t a n d ttie natural morpliological c t i a n g e s d u e to
s e d i m e n t transport a n d to predict the s e d i m e n t transport rates along a coast in general a n d in t h e
vicinity of s t r u c t u r e s in particular. Frequently a s h o r t a g e of material o c c u r s at s o m e l o c a t i o n
( u n d e s i r e d e r o s i o n ) ; w h i l e at other places an o v e r a b u n d a n c e of material c a n be j u s t as
t r o u b l e s o m e (siltation of a navigation c h a n n e l , for e x a m p l e ) .
86
follow the s a m e path. This m a y be d e m o n s t r a t e d by the e x a m p l e of a w a v e that a p p r o a c h e s t h e
s h o r e perpendicularly. It creates only orbital velocities n o r m a l to the c o a s t . T h i s m e a n s t h a t
b o t t o m t r a n s p o r t is also restricted to the c r o s s - s h o r e d i r e c t i o n . Material that c o m e s into
s u s p e n s i o n , however, for instance in the breaker zone under the influence of breaking w a v e s , c a n
be t r a n s p o r t e d parallel to the coast u n d e r t h e influence of a w e a k tidal current along the s h o r e ,
e v e n if this current w o u l d be too w e a k to c a u s e a n y b o t t o m transport.
in w h i c h
s = s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t in m^/s/m(width)
m = coefficient
U = ( a v e r a g e ) current velocity in m/s
n = p o w e r varying f r o m 3 to 5
and:
S = - ] ] c(z,t)u(z,t)dzdt (5.4)
^1 -h 0
87
F i g u r e 5-5 S e d i m e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n of time
T r a n s p o r t by w i n d
A l o n g the c o a s t , s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t by w i n d s h o u l d not be n e g l e c t e d , a l t h o u g h it is often
overlool<ed. S e d i m e n t transport by wind plays a d o m i n a n t role in the f o r m a t i o n of d u n e s a n d thus
in the s h a p e of t h e c o a s t i m m e d i a t e l y l a n d w a r d of the waterline.
T h e p r o c e s s of d i s p e r s i v e m o v e m e n t by w i n d is d e p e n d e n t on g e o m e t r y a n d vegetation (Figure
5-6 a n d T a b l e 5-1).
height [m]
r
20 30
distance [m]
88
wind force windspeed sediment transport
(Beaufort) ( m / s ) (approx.) {10•^m^/s/m)
3 4.5 -
4 7.0 1
5 10.0 3
6 12.5 14
7 15.5 31
8 19.5 86
9 22.5 165
10 26.5 310
11 31.0 408
T a b l e 5-1 Correlation between wind force, wind velocity and blown s a n d transport
longshore transport
(tide movement)
breaker line
cross-shore
surf transport
(wet)
longshore transport
zone
(surf current)
water line
cross-shore
longshore transport
transport
i(dry) (wind-blown transport)
F i g u r e 5-7 L o n g s h o r e a n d c r o s s s h o r e t r a n s p o r t
89
velocities in ttie opposite direction. Alttiougti ttie duration of ttie stioreward velocity is sliorter, tfie
p o w e r relation b e t w e e n s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t a n d velocity (see e q u a t i o n (5.4)) c a u s e s a net
s h o r e w a r d s e d i m e n t transport.
h = Ay"" (5.6)
90
7.6 w
y = 0.4714 x + 18 -2.0 (5.7)
0.0268
In w h i c h :
Hso = significant w a v e height in d e e p w a t e r ( m )
w = fall velocity of b e a c h s a n d in s e a w a t e r of 5 ° C (nn/s)
X = horizontal d i s t a n c e to shoreline (= d u n e b a s e )
y = d e p t h b e l o w w a t e r level a s s o c i a t e d with equilibrium profile
accretion •-
>.-#^
=: 0.75H
profile
and
y = 5 . 7 1 7 ( ^ g ) = 0.75H
91
G r a d i e n t s in the ( l o n g s h o r e ) transport c a n result fronn incident w a v e s u n d e r a different a n g l e ,
w a v e height d i f f e r e n c e s along the c o a s t , b o t t o m material c h a n g e s and w i n d a n d w a v e driven
currents (Figure 5-10).
B X
increasing
tide-driven
© t currents
y
® increasing
wave lielght
increasing
breaker zone
current +
increasing
suspension
increasing
angle of
approach
increasmg
breaker zone
current
F i g u r e 5-10 C a u s e s of a g r a d i e n t in l o n g s h o r e t r a n s p o r t
92
For a long time the a m o u n t of s a n d transported in this w a y has b e e n a p p r o x i m a t e d by a f o r m u l a
d e v e l o p e d by the Coastal E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h C e n t r e ( C E R C ) of t h e U S A r m y C o r p s of
Engineers:
in w h i c h :
S = s a n d transport (m%)
Co = w a v e celerity in d e e p w a t e r ( m / s )
(/)i,r = a n g l e b e t w e e n d e p t h c o n t o u r s a n d w a v e crest at breal<er line
Hso = significant w a v e h e i g h t at d e e p w a t e r ( m )
Kr = refraction coefficient
T h e formula appears in different s h a p e s , depending on the use of particular values and definitions
for H c K a n d 4>. Use of this f o r m u l a is complicated because both w a v e height and w a v e direction
vary throughout the year. For a reliable result, the w a v e climate over the year m u s t be divided into
a n u m b e r of characteristic periods with conditions that are c o n s i d e r e d to be representative of
certain periods of t i m e . T h i s leads to t r a n s p o r t rates in t w o directions. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e s e
leads to a net t r a n s p o r t rate. Net t r a n s p o r t m a y v a r y f r o m s a y 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 to 1,000,000 m per
annum.
Although there are more sophisticated expressions for the longshore transport rate, the final result
is often not m u c h better than the result of the C E R C formula b e c a u s e of the great uncertainty with
respect to the b o u n d a r y conditions H a n d ^. It is r e m a r k a b l e that the C E R C f o r m u l a neglects a n y
influence of grain size. It m u s t also be r e m e m b e r e d that the f o r m u l a d o e s not consider t r a n s p o r t
d u e to tidal currents if any.
Considering the f o r m u l a in m o r e detail, it is evident that longshore transport is zero w h e n (po= 90°,
i.e. w h e n the w a v e s are a p p r o a c h i n g at right a n g l e s to the c o a s t . T h e t r a n s p o r t r e a c h e s a
m a x i m u m for (pb = 4 5 ° .
93
1
6.1 Introduction
95
ESTUARY EVOLUTION
Prograding
High Riverine Sediment Input
Delta
. Sediment Supply .
Sediment Supply High
Reduced
Rote of Sea Level
Rate of Sea Level Rise Low
Rise High
= Coostal Progradotion = Marine Tronsgression
SAND
•_-J MUD
MARSH
F i g u r e 6-1 C o a s t a l f o r m s for p r o g r a d i n g a n d t r a n s g r e s s i v e c o a s t s ( B o y d et a l , 1 9 9 2 )
96
in the figure gives a possible idea of the evolution in t i m e , relative to the c h a n g e in s e a level a n d
s e d i m e n t supply. W i t h a rising s e a level, all deltas c h a n g e into estuaries a n d vice v e r s a . S t r a n d
plains a n d tidal flats v a n i s h a n d b e c o m e shelf w h e n the s e a level rises.
RIVER
IF
WAVE
Wave/Tide Power
F i g u r e 6-2 T e r n a r y s h o r e l i n e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n d i a g r a m
( B o y d et a l , 1992 a n d D a l r y m p l e et a l , 1992)
6.2.1 E s t u a r i e s
A n estuary is a tidal a r m of the s e a or part of a river that is affected by tides. It is the region in t h e
vicinity of t h e m o u t h of a river w h e r e f r e s h a n d salt w a t e r m i x . E s t u a r i e s f o r m a d y n a m i c
e n v i r o n m e n t , receiving f r e s h w a t e r f r o m rivers, a n d salt w a t e r f r o m t h e s e a . S e e n f r o m he s e a
side a n e s t u a r y is a n a r m of the o c e a n that is thrust into t h e m o u t h a n d lower c o u r s e of a river
a s far a s the tide will t a k e it. E v e r y e s t u a r y has t h r e e m a i n s e c t i o n s . T h e inland e n d w h e r e t h e
river e n t e r s , is called the h e a d . T h e middle part is the fully estuarine a r e a , w h e r e fresh w a t e r a n d
salt w a t e r o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h e s e a w a r d e n d is called t h e m o u t h .
97
r e m o t e part of the e s t u a r y located at t h e l a n d w a r d e n d . In the N e t h e r l a n d s also this c a n be
o b s e r v e d in t h e W e s t e r n Scheldt, a l t h o u g h the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the tidal r a n g e s in F l u s h i n g
a n d A n t w e r p is not equally s p e c t a c u l a r .
F i g u r e 6-3 Stratification in a n e s t u a r y : d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n s a n d v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s
98
T h e a c t u a l t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l distribution of salinity in a n estuary is v e r y d y n a m i c It c a n v a r y in
as short a t i m e period as a single tidal c y c l e . It also varies with the s e a s o n s , a n d in relation to
e v e n t s lil<e a storm s u r g e at s e a or a high river d i s c h a r g e .
Fluviol
Sediment
Boundary Between
Morlne (Tido'lly) Influenced
and Fluvial Sediments
Estuory River
Marine
F i g u r e 6-4 P l a n v i e w of d i s t r i b u t i o n of e n e r g y a n d p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s in e s t u a r i e s
Estuary
100
h 50
=J_ 0
99
Sediment
F i g u r e 6-6 T i m e - a v e r a g e d s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t p a t h s
In industrialised a n d densely populated regions, rivers a n d estuaries have long been (and still are)
u s e d as s e w e r s . T h e industrial waste usually contains considerable a m o u n t s of heavy metals a n d
c o m p l e x p e t r o - c h e m i c a i a n d o t h e r c o m p o u n d s that a r e b o n d e d ( a t t a c h e d by e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l
f o r c e s ) to the clay particles. T h u s the deposits of m u d in t h e estuaries a r e often heavily polluted
a n d f o r m a threat to t h e o r g a n i s m s living in the e s t u a r y B e c a u s e of the f o o d c h a i n w i t h i n a n
e s t u a r y this f o r m s a threat not only to the lower o r g a n i s m s , but e v e n to h u m a n society.
6.2.2 T i d a l flats
Large parts of m o s t estuaries consist of tidal flats or w e t l a n d s . T h e s e are areas that are e x p o s e d
at l o w tide a n d f l o o d e d at high tide. Their extent is d e t e r m i n e d by the s h a p e of t h e e s t u a r y a n d
by t h e tidal r a n g e . O b v i o u s l y a large tidal r a n g e will usually p r o v i d e a b r o a d e r inter-tidal
e n v i r o n m e n t u n d e r a n y g i v e n set of c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Not s o o b v i o u s is the influence of t h e s l o p e
of the shoreline a l o n g the estuary. S o m e slopes are v e r y gentle a n d therefore provide w i d e tidal
flats. H o w e v e r w h e n slopes a r e steep for e x a m p l e , t h e s i d e s of f j o r d s or tectonically f o r m e d
100
e s t u a r i e s , ttie tidal flats, are narrow, e v e n in a setting witti a large tidal r a n g e . IVIuch of ttie a r e a
of m a n y e s t u a r i e s all o v e r the w o r l d is m a d e up of tidal flats intersected by tidal c h a n n e l s .
T h e s a m e currents that distribute s e d i m e n t s t h r o u g h o u t the estuary and along the shoreline also
d e p o s i t t h e m onto t h e tidal flats. Local w a v e s play a part, but m o s t tidal flat s y s t e m s a r e
d o m i n a t e d by tidal c u r r e n t s . Tidal flat s e d i m e n t is c o m p o s e d of m u d and fine-grained s a n d a n d
the shells of the small animals that have lived there; coarser grains settle out in the tidal channels.
W h e n e x p o s e d at low tide, the tidal flats have the a p p e a r a n c e and texture of sandy m u d or m u d d y
sand.
6.2.3 D e l t a s
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of deltas
Deltas a r e typically c o n n e c t e d to a p r o g r a d i n g c o a s t , w h i l e the o p p o s i t e is true of e s t u a r i e s .
H o w e v e r , it is p o s s i b l e to find c o m b i n a t i o n s of t h e t w o , w h e n o v e r t h e geological history
p r o g r a d a t i o n a n d t r a n s g r e s s i o n have a l t e r n a t e d . T h e s o u t h w e s t part of the Netherlands prior to
the e x e c u t i o n of t h e Delta project w a s an e x a m p l e of s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n , within the delta of t h e
River R h i n e , e s t u a r i e s like the Haringvliet a n d the w e s t e r n S c h e l d t could be d i s t i n g u i s h e d .
Like estuaries, a l t h o u g h their "morphological opposites", deltas are strongly influenced by rivers,
w a v e s , a n d t i d e s . T h e i r influence d e t e r m i n e s t h e s h a p e a n d the c h a r a c t e r of e a c h e s t u a r y to a
large extent. W i l l i a m G a l l o w a y ' s triangular d i a g r a m classifies deltas a c c o r d i n g to t h e relative
i n f l u e n c e of t h e s e t h r e e m a j o r factors a f f e c t i n g their d e v e l o p m e n t . It is g i v e n in Figure 6-7.
101
Mississippi
RIVERS
WAVES TIDES
S h a p e s of deltas
T h e a m o u n t a n d c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f s a n d a c c u m u l a t i n g in t h e d e l t a - f r o n t d e p e n d s o n t h e relative
roles o f the interacting river, w a v e , a n d tidal c u r r e n t s . A c o m m o n type of s a n d a c c u m u l a t i o n is a
s a n d b a r that f o r m s j u s t s e a w a r d of the c h a n n e l m o u t h a n d typically c a u s e s t h e c h a n n e l to
bifurcate. A n o t h e r is t h e f o r m a t i o n o f b a n k s a l o n g the sides of the c h a n n e l . A s the river d e p o s i t s
s a n d in the m o u t h , the situation c a n be r e a c h e d in w h i c h the w a t e r level is a f f e c t e d b y t h e s a n d
d e p o s i t s . T h e river c a n t h e n o v e r f l o w its b a n k s a n d t h e n divide into distributary channels. Each
distributary c h a n n e l t h e n c o n t i n u e s t o t r a n s f e r m a s s i v e a m o u n t s of f i n e - g r a i n e d s e d i m e n t t o t h e
c o a s t a l a r e a . W h e n this n e w - b o r n delta is s i t u a t e d in a n e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h little t i d e a n d w a v e
a c t i o n , it is c a t e g o r i s e d as b e i n g river d o m i n a t e d . It c a n g r o w out into a birdfoot t y p e of delta.
E x a m p l e s of this type o f e s t u a r y a r e s h o w n in F i g u r e 6-8 a n d Figure 6-9 ( M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r a n d
D a n u b e Delta r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .
102
F i g u r e 6-8 iWississippi d e l t a
103
T i d e - d o m i n a t e d deltas d e v e l o p w h e r e a large r a n g e b e t w e e n the high a n d low tides l e a d s to
strong tidal currents. O n these coasts, the w a v e height is moderate to low, and longshore currents
a r e w e a k . T h e s e deltas r e s e m b l e estuaries b e c a u s e of their e m b a y e d setting of salt m a r s h e s ,
s w a m p s , a n d tidal flats. A n e x a m p l e of s u c h t i d e - d o m i n a t e d delta is the delta of the river Fly o n
t h e S o u t h c o a s t of P a p u a N e w G u i n e a (Figure 6-10).
F i g u r e 6-11 F o r m a t i o n of a w a v e - d o m i n a t e d delta
104
p o w e r of t h e w a v e s striking the delta front is stronger t h a n the carrying power of the river. W h e n
the w a v e c l i m a t e is s t r o n g e n o u g h to carry all t h e river s e d i m e n t a w a y , the delta will s h r i n k a n d
e v e n t u a l l y d i s a p p e a r . T w o different s h a p e s c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e s e deltas. T h e g e n e r a l s h a p e is
s y m m e t r i c a l l y c u s p a t e . O n e of the best e x a m p l e s is t h e delta of the S a o F r a n c i s c o in B r a z
(Figure 6 - 1 2 ) T h e other s h a p e is c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a strong l o n g s h o r e current. A s a n d spit
d e v e l o p s a n d protects the extensive wetlands that cover the delta plain. A n e x a m p l e of this is t h e
S e n e g a l River Delta, a s c a n be s e e n in Figure 6-13, or t h e E b r o delta (Figure 6-14).
Atlantic
Ocean
C0««t»l Ö U M »
SAO FKANCISCO
Altuvium
F i g u r e 6^12 S a o F r a n c i s c o d e l t a , B r a z i l (Wright a n d C o l e m a n , 1972)
105
F i g u r e 6-14 E b r o delta, S p a i n (Wright a n d C o l e m a n , 1972)
Resulting landscape
T i i e l a n d w a r d a n d v e r y flat part of a delta is t h e delta plain ( F i g u r e 6-15). T h e u p p e r d e l t a plain
is m e r e l y an e x t e n s i o n of the upland m e a n d e r i n g river s y s t e m , e x c e p t that the river here c o n s i s t s
of o n e or m o r e distributary c h a n n e l s . Each t i m e a distributary c h a n n e l o v e r f l o w s its b a n k s , t h e
c o a r s e r s a n d y s e d i m e n t particles are d u m p e d first, p r o d u c i n g a low ridge of a c c u m u l a t e d
s e d i m e n t along t h e b a n k m a r g i n . T h i s ridge is the natural levee. It m a y build up to a n e l e v a t i o n
of a meter or t w o a b o v e the surrounding delta plain. During s u b s e q u e n t flooding, the natural levee
m a y be b r e a c h e d either through a naturally low section or through cuts m a d e for h u m a n p a s s a g e .
W h e n the sediment-laden fioodwaters pass through the b r e a c h , generally called a c r e v a s s e , there
is a n i m m e d i a t e reduction in carrying c a p a c i t y as their velocity d e c r e a s e s abruptly. A t h i n , f a n -
s h a p e d s e d i m e n t accumulation f o r m s beyond the breach. This f o r m a t i o n , called a crevasse splay,
c a n e x t e n d s e v e r a l k i l o m e t r e s a c r o s s t h e u p p e r delta plain.
106
F i g u r e 6-15 B a s i c e n v i r o n m e n t s of a delta
107
e x a m p l e s are: Mississippi River Delta in the Gulf of Mexico; the Rhone, Nile, Po, a n d Ebro Deltas
in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a ; a n d the h u g e deltas of C h i n a that e m p t y into the S o u t h C h i n a S e a .
Melting glaciers brought a rapid rise of sea level, and river mouths retreated s o rapidly that deltas
could not develop. Finally, about 7000 years ago, the Holocene sea level rise s l o w e d , a n d in s o m e
parts of the w o r l d it stabilised at a p p r o x i m a t e l y its present position. W h e r e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e
a p p r o p r i a t e , deltas b e g a n to d e v e l o p as large quantities of river s e d i m e n t a c c u m u l a t e d .
6.2.4 B e a c h e s
T h e b a c k s h o r e , or b a c k - b e a c h , e x t e n d s f r o m the b e r m at the l a n d w a r d e n d of t h e f o r e s h o r e
a c r o s s the r e m a i n d e r of the b e a c h . G r a v e l b e a c h e s of shell a n d rock f r a g m e n t s c o m m o n l y
include a storm ridge that is just landward of the foreshore. S o m e t i m e s this storm ridge m a y g r o w
until it rises several m e t e r s a b o v e high tide and entirely replaces the b a c k - b e a c h . Its c o m p o s i t i o n
d e p e n d s on the nature of the gravel material in the i m m e d i a t e area; its size is proportional to t h e
rigor of the s t o r m s that p r o d u c e it.
108
coast
\ hrsaker line
F i g u r e 6-16 S a n d y b e a c h profile n o m e n c l a t u r e (distorted s c a l e s )
In C h a p t e r 5, m o r p h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s c a u s i n g b e a c h c h a n g e w e r e m e n t i o n e d . M a n y of t h e s e
a r e cyclic processes. Their scale of t i m e and s p a c e can differ very m u c h f r o m o n e p r o c e s s to t h e
other Cycles c a n be long-term or s h o r t - t e r m . For e x a m p l e , the s e a s o n c a u s e s b e a c h v a r i a t i o n
D e p e n d i n g on the climate, o n o n e h a n d t h e r e are the fair-weather, l o w - e n e r g y , a c c r e t i o n a l
b e a c h e s and on the other hand foul-weather, h i g h - e n e r g y erosive b e a c h e s . T h e correlated b e a c h
profiles a r e called s u m m e r a n d winter profiles.
Special b e a c h f o r m s are the t o m b o l o and the spit. T h e y are f o r m e d d u e to the longshore transport
of s a n d along the b e a c h . In c a s e of a t o m b o l o . the driving f o r c e b e h i n d t h e l o n g s h o r e c u r r e n t
(i e t h e w a v e s ) , is interrupted by an o f f s h o r e island. D u e to the r e d u c e d t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y s a n d
settles in the lee of t h e island a n d f o r m s a typical o u t c r o p o n t h e b e a c h , w h i c h m a y e v e n t u a l l y
e v e n c o n n e c t with the island (Figure 6-17).
F i g u r e 6-17 T o m b o l o s b e h i n d t w o b r e a k w a t e r s at A l m a n z o r a , S p a i n
109
F i g u r e 6-18 Spit
B e a c l i e s o c c u r , in b o t l i conditions of t r a n s g r e s s i o n a n d of p r o g r a d a t i o n .
6.2.5 D u n e s
D u n e s c a n eittter be bed f o r m s (typical s h a p e s in the s e a b e d ) larger than ripples and smaller than
bars or ridges or, a b o v e water, m o u n d s of loose w i n d - b l o w n material s u c h as s a n d . Both play a
role in coastal engineering. In the present context w e confine ourselves to the wind-blown m o u n d s
that are quite familiar a s the l a n d w a r d b o u n d a r y of s a n d y b e a c h e s . T h e d u n e s often provide the
stockpile of material that allows the b e a c h to a d a p t to c h a n g i n g seasonal or incidental conditions,
specifically w h e n t h e s e conditions c r e a t e a m o r e gentle f o r e s h o r e profile or a higher b a s e level
of the f o r e s h o r e d u e to s e a level rise or s t o r m s u r g e .
111
F i g u r e 6-20 T w o dimesional a n d three dimensional d u n e s (adapted from R e i n e c k and
Singh)
r fresh water
g(H + AH) =
r seawater
gH (6.1)
A f t e r a bit of m a t h e m a t i c a l calculation this b e c o m e s :
H = — ^ — A H = 40AH (6.2)
Psea ~Pfresh
6.2.6 L a g o o n s
112
Generally, they are protected f r o m the o p e n sea by a barrier island, a reef, or an obstruction that
prevents w a v e attack and inhibits tidal circulation. S t a g e s in the evolution of a barrier to e n c l o s e
a lagoon are s h o w n in Figure 6-22. T h e prolongation of the spit, as is s h o w n in t h e u p p e r part of
the figure, is c a u s e d by the longshore transport. S h o r e w a r d migration of a barrier that originated
o f f s h o r e is c a u s e d b y the c r o s s - s h o r e transport. It is s h o w n in the lower part of the s a m e Figure.
F i g u r e 6-21 S e c t i o n t h r o u g h a B a r r i e r c l o s i n g a L a g o o n ( B i r d , 1984)
113
6.2.7 B a r r i e r c o a s t s
114
w h o l e d o e s not m o v e . I n s t e a d , t h e addition of s e d i m e n t c a u s e s the d e v e l o p m e n t of multiple
b e a c h - d u n e s y s t e m s , a n d the o p e n w a t e r shoreline actually m o v e s s e a w a r d , while the l a n d w a r d
backbarrier shoreline r e m a i n s in place. A n individual barrier island can e x p e r i e n c e t r a n s g r e s s i o n
a n d progradation at t h e s a m e t i m e .
6.2.8 T i d a l inlets
Barriers generally are b r e a c h e d at various points by tidal inlets (Figure 6-24), w h i c h link the o p e n
m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d he coastal e n v i r o n m e n t s l a n d w a r d of the barrier islands. Like b e a c h e s ,
tidal inlets a r e d y n a m i c parts of t h e barrier s y s t e m a n d r a n g e w i d e l y in size, stability, a n d w a t e r
flux T h e y o w e their origin to a variety of c i r c u m s t a n c e s , although s t o r m s a n d h u m a n activities a r e
the m o s t important f a c t o r s . F l o o d tidal deltas a n d e b b tidal d e l t a s either c a n be t i d e - d o m i n a t e d
or w a v e - d o m i n a t e d . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t factor is t h e b a t h y m e t r y of the b a c k - b a r r i e r bay. A l o n g
m a n y barrier c o a s t s , for e x a m p l e t h e D u t c h W a d d e n C o a s t , the l o n g s h o r e t r a n s p o r t c a u s e s a
structural a s y m m e t r y in t h e ebb-tidal deltas.
115
6.3 Biology dominated coastlines
6.3.1 S a l t m a r s h e s
F i g u r e 6-25 C o r d g r a s s ( S p a r t i n a A n g l i c a ) ( P a c k h a m , 1997)
D u e to its dense cover and its ability to g r o w in a z o n e extending from 1 m below to 0.15 m a b o v e
a v e r a g e high w a t e r level t h e p i o n e e r v e g e t a t i o n of c o r d g r a s s "Engels slijkgras" plays a very
d o m i n a n t role in the a c c u m u l a t i o n of silt. Its ability to trap s e d i m e n t , either by physically capturing
it f r o m p a s s i n g c u r r e n t s or by retarding currents a n d permitting the s e d i m e n t to settle into the
plant c o m m u n i t y , m a k e s t h e s e plants very i m p o r t a n t contributors to c o a s t a l s e d i m e n t
116
a c c u m u l a t i o n . In addition to their positive role in c a t c h i n g s e d i m e n t to t h e s u b s t r a t e , m a r s h
g r a s s e s are very important s e d i m e n t stabilisers. T h e y prevent or inhibit currents a n d w a v e s f r o m
r e m o v i n g s e d i m e n t f r o m the v e g e t a t e d s u b s t r a t e , partly b y their root s y s t e m ( s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e
soil), partly by r e d u c i n g the c u r r e n t velocities ( r e d u c i n g the l o a d ) . T h i s g r a s s is t h e r e f o r e o f t e n
introduced artificially to e n h a n c e siltation a n d f o r m a t i o n of n e w f a r m l a n d .
T h e upper limits of the salt m a r s h coincide with the landward or upper limit of the spring high tide,
the highest level of regular inundation a n d s e d i m e n t s u p p l y A salt m a r s h m a y b e a f e w m e t e r s
w i d e or it m a y o c c u p y the entire e s t u a r y e x c e p t for t h e tidal c h a n n e l s . In Figure 6-26, a c r o s s -
section of a salt m a r s h is d r a w n . This Figure s h o w s the different z o n e s within the m a r s h l a n d that
c a n be distinguished by the different s p e c i e s that are present.
MUDFLATS
y/ith Zostera
F i g u r e 6-26 C r o s s - S e c t i o n of a s a l t m a r s h
For h u n d r e d s of y e a r s , the D u t c h , G e r m a n s , a n d D a n e s h a v e b e e n c o n v e r t i n g m a r s h e s t o
f a r m l a n d by draining t h e m t h r o u g h a s y s t e m of d a m s , d i k e s , a n d c a n a l s . T h i s p r o c e s s has novv
b e e n s t o p p e d , mainly b e c a u s e the ecological value of the tidal wetlands has been recognised a n d
t h e W a d d e n S e a h a s b e e n d e c l a r e d a nature r e s e r v e .
6.3.2 M a n g r o v e s w a m p s
In tropical a n d subtropical c l i m a t e s , e x t e n s i v e s t a n d s of m a n g r o v e s - w o o d y t r e e s of v a r i o u s
t a x o n o m i e g r o u p s - invade the inter-tidal z o n e s of e s t u a r i e s and o t h e r b a y s , similar to the salt
117
m a r s h e s in the m o d e r a t e z o n e s . T h e y f a v o u r silty c o a s t s with a m o d e r a t e w a v e c l i m a t e a n d a
regular supply of clean oxygen-rich water. Thiols tangles of s h r u b and tree roots, c o m m o n l y called
s w a m p s but properly k n o w n as m a n g l e s , f o r m a n almost i m p e n e t r a b l e wall at a b o u t w a t e r level.
M o s t trees g r o w f r o m 2 to a b o u t 8 m h i g h , a l t h o u g h s o m e a r e m u c h higher, d e p e n d i n g on the
s p e c i e s a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions - rare s t a n d s m a y be t w i c e that height.
AVICENNIA RHIZOPHORA
118
F i g u r e 6-28 D e n s e sediment stabilizing m a z e s
of the m a s s i v e M a n g r o v e root s y s t e m s
T h e m a n g r o v e trees are not only useful in living condition, the local population cuts m a n y of t h e m
to provide f i r e w o o d . B e c a u s e the m a n g r o v e s w a m p s a r e rich in e x p e n s i v e s e a f o o d like s h r i m p ,
the s h o r e s are often turned into artificial fish a n d s h r i m p f a r m s . Destruction of m a n g r o v e f o r e s t s
a n d their r e p l a c e m e n t by s h r i m p f a r m s is a m a j o r factor r e s p o n s i b l e for the i n c r e a s e in the
severity of f l o o d i n g in m a n y coastal a r e a s , e s p e c i a l l y in India a n d I n d o n e s i a . F i n a l l y w a t e r
pollution is also h a m p e r i n g the c o n t i n u e d g r o w t h of m a n g r o v e forest. This m e a n s that t h e
m a n g r o v e vegetation is disappearing rapidly. O n c e the forest has d i s a p p e a r e d , it b e c o m e s clear
h o w effective the forest w a s in preventing erosion of the generally silty coastline. Re-afforestation
is e x t r e m e l y difficult since the y o u n g t r e e s a r e quite v u l n e r a b l e .
6.3.3 D u n e v e g e t a t i o n
119
b e a c h . In t h e s e higher places, s o m e f r e s h w a t e r c a n be s t o r e d , w h i c h c r e a t e s m o r e f a v o u r a b l e
conditions for the following species, of w h i c h M a r r a m or " H e l m " ( A m m o p h i l a arenaria) is t h e best
k n o w n variety. H e l m has a more extensive root s y s t e m a n d it f o r m s a d e n s e c o v e r with its s t e m s
a n d leaves. In this w a y , real s m a l l d u n e s a r e being f o r m e d , a n d the higher t h e d u n e s b e c o m e ,
the better b e c o m e the conditions for m o r e v a r i e d v e g e t a t i o n . In the s a n d hills, f r e s h w a t e r is
c a u g h t and this drains slowly to the lower parts of the slopes w h e r e species requiring m o r e water
c a n establish t h e m s e l v e s . It is b e y o n d the s c o p e of this t e x t b o o k to describe all s p e c i e s , but it is
w o r t h w h i l e to visit s o m e of the older d u n e r e s e r v a t i o n s that have not yet b e e n d e s t r o y e d by the
w i n n i n g of d r i n k i n g water, a n d to a d m i r e the r i c h n e s s in v e g e t a t i o n .
6.3.4 C o r a l r e e f s
120
Umtnde
month
•chamber
F i g u r e 6-29 C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l m o d e l of a n i n d i v i d u a l c o r a l
s:s=ï=s^:=;—
e x p t « hTve b e e n carried out, but they have failed. T h i s is serious, since m a n y lovv-income
Tmrnunitt d e p e n d o n the coral reefs to protect their property against flooding by high tides a n d
wind set-up.
S t o d d a r d ( 1 9 6 9 ) has identified f o u r m a j o r f o r m s of l a r g e - s c a l e c o r a l reef types (Figure 6 - 3 0 ) :
1 Fringing reefs
2 Barrier reefs
3 P l a t f o r m reefs
4 Atolls
121
FRINGINS REEFS BARRIER RECF
a A c t i v e v o l c a n o rising f r o m the s e a f l o o r
b Extinct v o l c a n i c island with fringing reef
c S u b s i d i n g island; reef builds u p w a r d a n d s e a w a r d , f o r m i n g barrier reef
d C o n t i n u e d s u b s i d e n c e c a u s i n g r e m n a n t v o l c a n i c island to be c o m p l e t e l y s u b m e r g e d
G r o w t h c o n t i n u e s u p w a r d a n d s e a w a r d until the r e m n a n t v o l c a n o is c o v e r e d .
It is i m p o r t a n t to stress that reef islands a r e naturally d y n a m i c . S e d i m e n t p r o d u c t i o n o c c u r s
a r o u n d reef islands, a n d e r o s i o n , d e p o s i t i o n a n d c e m e n t a t i o n c a n o c c u r c o n c u r r e n t l y o n atolls
t o d a y ( W i e n s , 1 9 6 2 ) . S o m e islands m a y be in a stable equilibrium with neither addition n o r loss
of s e d i m e n t . H o w e v e r , o n m o s t islands, s e d i m e n t is a d d e d a n d lost over t i m e a n d t h e r e is m o r e
likely to be a d y n a m i c equilibrium b e t w e e n inputs a n d outputs. Islands adjust over a range o f time
scales.
122
Youriii volcatH)
Mid ui:t.<iMi
Old vok'.mo furms Bland
Kiil.iiterooti
\
Sea level
F i g u r e 6-31 E v o l u t i o n of a c o r a l i s l a n d ( a d a p t e d f r o m P r e s s a n d S i e v e r , 1986)
6.4 R o c k y c o a s t s
6.4.1 O r i g i n of r o c k y c o a s t s
123
c o a s t s , v a r i o u s s e d i m e n t a r y strata a r e tiorizontal or dip at l o w a n g l e s . T h e a d j a c e n t c o n t i n e n t a l
shelf is w i d e , with a gentle slope.
F i g u r e 6-32 F j o r d at K e n a i F j o r d s National P a r k , A l a s k a
124
F i g u r e 6-33 G a y H e a d , IWartha's V i n e y a r d , [ M a s s a c h u s e t t s
W a v e i m p a c t s of b r e a k i n g w a v e s m a y also c a u s e e r o s i o n t h r o u g h t h e p r e s s u r e w a v e t h a t is
hitting t h e rock a n d p r o p a g a t i n g t h r o u g h voids a n d f i s s u r e s . A s s o o n as material b r e a k s off, t h e
larger particles m o v e a c r o s s the r o c k s u r f a c e a n d p r o d u c e c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p a c t a n d a b r a s i o n
( F i g u r e 6-35).
125
F i g u r e 6-34 W a v e - e r o s i o n E f f e c t s ( a d a p t e d f r o m D e Blij a n d Muller, 1993)
F i g u r e 6-35 R o c k perforated b y s p h e r i c a l h o l l o w s , C a l l e d T a f o n i ,
S a n Mateo C o u n t y , C a l i f o r n i a
126
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Global c h a n g e s
7.2.1 G r o w t h of t h e w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n
127
City Country P o p u l a t i o n in million
persons
1950 1995 2015
estimate
Tol<yo Japan 6.92 26.96 29
IVIexico City Mexico 2.88 16.56 19
S a o Paulo Brazil 2.42 16.53 20
New York USA 12.34 16.33 18
Bombay India 2.9 15.14 26
Shangtiai China 5.33 13.58 18
Los A n g e l e s USA 4.05 12.41 14
Calcutta India 4.45 11.92 17
B u e n o s Aires Argentina 5.04 11.8 14
Seoul Korea 1.02 11.61 13
Beijing China 3.91 11.3 16
Osaka Japan 4.15 10.61 11
Lagos Nigeria 0.29 10.29 25
Rio d e J a n e i r o Brazil 2.86 10.18 12
Dellii India 1.39 9.95 17
Karactii Pakistan 1.03 9.77 19
Cairo Egypt 2.41 9.69 14
Paris France 5.44 9.52 10
Tianjin China 2.37 9.42 14
Moscow Russia 5.36 9.3 9
Manila Philippines 1.54 9.29 15
Jakarta ndonesia 1.45 8.62 14
Dacca Bangladesh 0.42 8.55 19
London UK 8.73 7.64 8
T a b l e 7-1 Urban population
Inland mega cities shaded in grey
128
8
(S
3 7
a.
o
2000 2025
1950 1375
time
F i g u r e 7-1 D e v e l o p m e n t of w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n
Black indicates coastal population
Cairo
20-30milii
/A
London
1 ! i
1 j ^-v «
€ l
1988
F i g u r e 7-2 D e v e l o p m e n t of u r b a n c o n g l o m e r a t i o n s in the w o r l d
129
It also a p p e a r s however, that the natural resources of the coastal z o n e are not sufficient t o c o p e
with the growing d e m a n d . T h e rich resources of the coastal z o n e are being rapidly depleted w h i c h
e n d a n g e r s the sustainability of the u n i q u e e c o s y s t e m , both o n land a n d in the w a t e r . In o r d e r to
s a f e g u a r d the sustainability of the coastal z o n e the only r e m e d y is to include the interests of t h e
e c o s y s t e m in the spatial planning considerations. This is coastal zone m a n a g e m e n t . Sustainability
is defined as the possibility for future generations to use the r e s o u r c e s to the s a m e extent a s w e
h a v e b e e n u s i n g t h e m to date.
7.2.2 C l i m a t e c h a n g e a n d s e a level r i s e
130
-3 • "l400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 i m
900 1000 1100 1200 1300
year
zone.
7.2.3 P o l l u t i o n
In f a c t t h e e m i s s i o n of g r e e n h o u s e g a s e s is a particular a s p e c t of a m o r e general p r o b l e m ; t h e
discharge of b y - p r o d u c t s and wastes from our industrial p r o d u c t i o n processes into the
e n v i r o n m e n t . A s early as t h e middle of the 1970's, it w a s r e c o g n i s e d that industrial w a s t e s s u c h
as heavy metals, polychlorinated hydrocarbons and nuclear w a s t e material w e r e being discharged
into o p e n w a t e r (rivers a n d s e a s ) on a large scale
131
c a t e g o r i s e d a s c t i e m i c a l w a s t e s . D i s p o s a l in o p e n w a t e r w a s no longer p e r m i t t e d a n d s o o n
restrictions w e r e imposed on disposal on land as well. T h e ports felt victimised b e c a u s e they w e r e
m a d e r e s p o n s i b l e for solving a p r o b l e m that w a s essentially c a u s e d by others (the c h e m i c a l
industry) o u t s i d e the jurisdiction of the ports, often e v e n in other states or c o u n t r i e s .
Further international co-operation will be required to solve the problem of trans-boundary pollution.
S p e c i a l attention is required for the d e v e l o p i n g countries w h e r e the f u n d s a r e lacking t o t a k e
restrictive m e a s u r e s at the s o u r c e s of pollution, and w h e r e pollution of the coastal z o n e c a n easily
lead to d i s e a s e s similar to t h o s e f o u n d in J a p a n .
7.3 T h e socio-economic s u b s y s t e m
A n y coastal z o n e usually has m a n y different functions, which are all relevant for h u m a n wellbeing.
W h i c h f u n c t i o n s a r e m o s t significant d e p e n d s o n the ecological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the s o c i o -
e c o n o m i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d the m a n a g e m e n t objectives or political priorities of the a r e a in
q u e s t i o n . T h e f u n c t i o n s are listed in T a b l e 7-2.
T h e s e f u n c t i o n s d o not e v e n include t h e n e e d to s a f e g u a r d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t in t e r m s of
sustainability or bio-diversity or refer to v a l u e s like cultural heritage or l a n d s c a p e .
132
Potential c o n s e q u e n c e s
Main c a t e g o r i e s | F u n c t i o n s Examples
within the m a i n
category
Agriculture Eutrofication by fertilisers
Basic Food
Fisheries D e p l e t i o n of r e s o u r c e s
Drinking w a t e r D e p l e t i o n of a q u i f e r s
W a t e r supply
Irrigation Salt intrusion via rivers
S p o r t s facilities Hooliganism
Ports a n d H a r b o u r s Space
Economic Transport
Airports Pollution of air a n d w a t e r
Noise
Effects of d r e d g i n g
Erosion
Extraction of m i n e r a l s Noise
IVlining
like oil, g a s , salt, etc. Pollution
S u b s i d e n c e of land
Factories Pollution
Industry
Noise ^ .
cattle b r e e d i n g Eutrofication
Agriculture
Fruit plantations Plant d i s e a s e s
E x c e s s of m a n u r e
nature r e s e r v e s
Space requirements
Public Mobility Roads
Railroads Noise
C a b l e s a n d pipelines Pollution
Accidents
133
E a c h activity c a n conflict with conditions required for a n y of the other activities. T h a t m e a n s that
a n y integrated a p p r o a c h m u s t start with a n inventory of the actual f u n c t i o n s , their spatial
r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d their characteristics. T h e m o s t s e n s i b l e w a y to do this is to mal<e u s e of
G e o g r a p h i c a l Information S y s t e m s (GIS). T h e y provide a basis for further analysis.
T o obtain an idea of the complexity of the use of the coastal zone, the reader c a n refer to Figure
7-4, w h i c h gives an inventory of functions in the area w h e r e the Netherlands offshore airport w a s
envisaged.
woongt-'bicd
— pr(p!eidingef! in ^ebimk
tOc-küftisfigc pfjpicidingfn
pLiifonns GfO<>n;^,^btf:d
^ J gebied iracéverbinding/lsnooppunt milii-aife oefengebieden
] diiiriwatorwm gebied : ïandwingetfiedÉii Ofibepaaid
knooppiiiU Sdiipiit'l : ioswa! (baggpr stortpi.iato
HSI- A'L'kgt^b^ed windinoienpark (N.SVV)
; i^miiisïone(-ndicatic-f) autosnelwegen
: Wfkfwrscfifidingsteite! fii)lcib(!t.'(v/fgen gepland
ff^iefoo.ikdbels in gebruik
ïoekoriistige k-lfiforjük.ilïH-.
134
7.4 T h e necessity of management
A n imoortant constraint o n the coastal zone is that it is essentially linear; it is a narrow strip of land
^ ::::l:::::::::6e) a,ong the coast. This puts high p r e s s u . or. land ^oese^ recre o 1
acuities T h e coastal z o n e is essentially a very scarce c o m m o d i t y . Finally, the coastal ^ o n ^ is very
fraoi e a n d t h e r e is a w o r l d w i d e t e n d e n c y for coastal f o r m a t i o n s to e r o d e . T h i s puts high pnorKy
onToteclg a m a i n t a i n i n g w h a t is t h e r e , particularly b e c a u s e real e s t a t e v a l u e s a l o n g t h e
c o a s t are s o high.
135
H i g h e r Priority L o w e r Priority C h a n g e d Priority
Residential Industrial a n d C o m m e r c i a l Fishing
Recreational Agriculture W a s t e Disposal
Nature Reserves Transportation
CONCLUSION < !
\ l
KNOWLEDGE
II II ' \
PROBLEM
/
J
A
> DECISION
F i g u r e 7-5 P a t h s of k n o w l e d g e a n d c h o i c e in d e c i s i o n m a k i n g ( B o s , 1974)
F i g u r e 7-6 S h o r t - c u t s in d e c i s i o n m a k i n g
136
GÖAt^Z
m m m m s
F i g u r e 7-7 W e l l - b a l a n c e d d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s
NATURAL
SUBSYSTEM
F i g u r e 7-8 A s y s t e m s v i e w of the c o a s t a l z o n e
137
STEP 1 STEP 2
d e l i n e a t i o n of d e l i n e a t i o n of
case study area system elements
STEP 4
i
STEP 3
a s s e s s m e n t of identification of
s y s t e m relations development factors
STEPS
i
STEP 6 STEP 7
f o r m u l a t i o n of a s s e s s m e n t of c h o i c e of a c t i o n s
possible strategies system responses
F i g u r e 7-9 S t e p w i s e a p p r o a c h of C Z M p r o b l e m
T h e s t e p s c o m p r i s e of the f o l l o w i n g :
1. D e l i n e a t i o n of c a s e s t u d y a r e a
T h e limits of the a r e a to be s t u d i e d m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d , both g e o g r a p h i c a l l y a n d s o c i o -
e c o n o m i c a l l y This is the outer circle in the system diagram (Figure 7-8). T h e relevant factors f r o m
the s u b s y s t e m s are d e s c r i b e d f r o m available field data a n d m a c r o - e c o n o m i c d a t a .
2. D e l i n e a t i o n of s y s t e m e l e m e n t s
D a t a b a s e s for the e l e m e n t s within the a r e a to be studied are d e s c r i b e d f r o m available o r n e w l y
d e r i v e d m a t e r i a l . T h e s e a r e the inner circles in the s y s t e m d i a g r a m .
3. Identification of d e v e l o p m e n t factors ( s c e n a r i o s )
A n inventory is m a d e of relevant processes a n d plans, of both the natural and the s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
s u b s y s t e m s . T h e s e a r e the a r r o w s f r o m the outer circle in the s y s t e m d i a g r a m to the s y s t e m
e l e m e n t s (inner circles). T h e y c a n be s e e n a s the a g e n t s of c h a n g e in the s y s t e m e l e m e n t s .
T h e s e a g e n t s c a n b e either d e m a n d driven ( f r o m the s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s u b s y s t e m ) or d r i v e n by
natural p r o c e s s e s .
4 . A s s e s s m e n t of s y s t e m relations
A m o d e l is m a d e of the relations b e t w e e n the various e l e m e n t s of the s y s t e m . In this m o d e l , the
e f f e c t of c h a n g e s in o n e s y s t e m e l e m e n t o n t h e other e l e m e n t s is d e s c r i b e d . T h i s c a n b e d o n e
in a m a t r i x of p o s s i b l e conflicts of interest, d e s c r i b i n g qualitatively the possible e f f e c t s . T h e s e
e f f e c t s are u s e d in t h e next step, w h i c h is to d e s i g n p r o m i s i n g strategies.
5. F o r m u l a t i o n of p o s s i b l e strategies
W i t h the i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d in the previous s t e p s , it is n o w possible to d e s i g n s t r a t e g i e s that
look p r o m i s i n g or that a r e a d v o c a t e d by s o m e interest g r o u p . T h i s is w h e r e the C Z M c o n t r o l
c e n t r e , the triangle in t h e c e n t r e of the s y s t e m d i a g r a m , c o m e s into the picture. T h i s c a n b e a n
administrative institution or c o m b i n a t i o n of involved interest groups. T h e decision d o e s not reflect
the interests of a particular g r o u p . T h e C Z M control centre operates at a level b e y o n d the s c o p e
of a n y single interest g r o u p .
6. A s s e s s m e n t of s y s t e m r e s p o n s e s
In the s y s t e m d i a g r a m , t h e s e are the s a m e a r r o w s as in step 4, but n o w the effects a r e quantified
for t h e particular s t r a t e g i e s that w e r e d e v e l o p e d in step 5.
138
7 C h o i c e of actions
In the final s t e p , the control c e n t r e t a k e s care t h a t a decision is t a k e n by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
authorities o n the preferred actions.
NATURAL
SUBSYSTEM
SOCIOECONOMIC
SUBSYSTEM
F i g u r e 7-10 S t e p s related to s y s t e m d i a g r a m
T h i s s t e p w i s e a p p r o a c h e n s u r e s that t h e e l e m e n t s f a c t s , theory, g o a l s a n d m e a n s f r o m t h e
d e c i s i o n m a k i n g p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d by B o s a r e u s e d p r o p e r l y (Figure 7-11)
F i g u r e 7-11 Alternating in t h e B o s d i a g r a m by m e a n s of a s t e p w i s e a p p r o a c h
7.5.1 W e i g h i n g t h e i n t e r e s t s
F r o m t h e a b o v e it is clear that C Z M is a c o n t i n u o u s d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s . T h e p r o b l e m
f o r m u l a t i o n , t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of m a n a g e m e n t o b j e c t i v e s a n d the d e s i g n of a p p r o p r i a t e p o l i c i e s
s h o u l d follow a s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e d u r e of g e n e r a t i n g , a n a l y s i n g a n d e v a l u a t i n g alternative
strategies.
Policy analysis is c e n t r e d o n the c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the future a n d the d e s i r e d situation. M a n y
a s p e c t s of the f u t u r e a n d d e s i r e d situation m u s t be t a k e n into a c c o u n t , e s p e c i a l l y the d i f f e r e n t
interests of all the parties that a r e i n v o l v e d . O n e of t h e p r o b l e m s is t h a t t h e interests of t h e s e
parties c a n n o t a l w a y s be e x p r e s s e d in the s a m e units. C o m p a r e , for e x a m p l e , purely e c o n o m i c
139
interests ttiat c a n b e c a i c u l a t e d in m o n e y witti ttie interests o f t l i e e n v i r o n m e n t or the n u m b e r of
v i c t i m s d r o w n e d d u r i n g f l o o d s , w h i c h h a v e a largely e m o t i o n a l v a l u e . A d v a n t a g e s of policy
analysis a r e e v i d e n t in the f o l l o w i n g situations:
e W h e n s o c i a l i s s u e s a r e involved
• W h e n t h e r e a r e m a n y c o n t r a d i c t o r y interests
• W h e n n o n - c o m p a r a b l e v a l u e s are to b e j u d g e d
• W h e n t h e r e a r e m a n y v a l u e s to be c o m p a r e d .
T h e u s e of policy a n a l y s i s b e c o m e s m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d in t h e e x e c u t i o n p h a s e . In m a n y c a s e s ,
iteration l o o p s h a v e t o be m a d e . G o a l s a n d s t a n d a r d s m u s t be w r i t t e n d o w n at a n early s t a g e .
T h e r e a r e t w o k i n d s o f q u e s t i o n s that s h o u l d b e s u b m i t t e d to a policy a n a l y s i s :
• Is it n e c e s s a r y to c a r r y out a p r o j e c t ?
• W h i c h a l t e r n a t i v e is t h e best o n e ?
a b c d e f g h i
a Residential X
b Recreational -1 X
0 Nature Reserves -1 2 X
d Aquaculture -1 -2 -1 X
e Fishing 1 1 -2 0 X
f Waste Disposal -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 X
c, Industrial a n d C o m m e r c i a l -2 -2 -2 0 0 2 X
h Agriculture -2 -2 -2 1 0 1 -1 X
i Transportation -1 -1 -2 0 0 0 2 1 X
j Military a n d S t r a t e g i c -2 -2 -2 0 -1 0 1 -1 1
T a b l e 7-5 C o m p a t i b i l i t y matrix ( K a m p h u i s , 1997)
7.5.2 M a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e
M a n a g e m e n t b o u n d a r i e s s h o u l d reflect natural p r o c e s s e s
C o n f l i c t c a n n o t a l w a y s b e r e s o l v e d , so p l a n n i n g a n d legislation is r e q u i r e d
C o n f l i c t s c h a n g e w i t h t i m e , s o a flexible m a n a g e m e n t f r a m e w o r k is r e q u i r e d
T a b l e 7-6 M a n a g e m e n t p r i n c i p l e s ( T o w n s e n d , 1994)
140
Frameworks Geograptiic Information System
(Conceptual and Computational)
Tools Zoning
Regulations a n d E n f o r c e m e n t
Public A w a r e n e s s a n d C o n s u l t a t i o n
Responsiveness Legal C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
Economics Considerations
Social C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
O t h e r Scientific a n d T e c h n i c a l Disciplines
M a n y Jurisdictions involved
T a b l e 7-7 M a n a g e m e n t i s s u e s ( T o w n s e n d , 1994)
In t h e d e c i s i o n m a k i n g p r o c e s s , t h e following parties m a y be i n v o l v e d :
e Government agencies
• Ministries
e Provincial authorities
• Regional water boards
• Towns
• Individuals, a n d c o r p o r a t e a n d private interest g r o u p s
It is n e c e s s a r y to h a v e a legal a n d institutional f r a m e w o r k , t h r o u g h w h i c h the allocation of t a s k s
a n d responsibilities is m a d e . P o s s i b l e e l e m e n t s are: international a g r e e m e n t s (multilateral o r
bilateral), national regional a n d local legislation a n d the transfer of responsibilities to a s i n g l e
existing or newly c r e a t e d a g e n c y O n e of t h e a g e n c i e s c o n c e r n e d m a y b e g i v e n a leading r o l e .
Institutional changes are generally slow and do not provide a suitable w a y to improve coastal z o n e
m a n a g e m e n t . M o s t e s s e n t i a l is t h e political d e s i r e to i m p r o v e the m a n a g e m e n t of t h e s y s t e m .
141
O n e of the m o s t c o m m o n w a y s to j u d g e p r o p o s e d c h a n g e s in the infrastructure of c o a s t a l z o n e
is the e x e c u t i o n of a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t a s s e s s m e n t ( D u t c h : M E R ) carried out a c c o r d i n g to
the s p e c i f i c a t i o n s given in the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d legislation.
142
8. T I D A L I N L E T S AND E
8.1 Introduction
A m s t e r d a m etc.)
coast.
143
In the range f r o m A to C on this curve, the entrance channel is so small that it chol<es off the tidal
f l o w s o that t h e tidal d i f f e r e n c e within the e s t u a r y will be less t h a n at s e a . O n section C-E of t h e
c u r v e this is no longer true a n d the m a x i m u m current velocity d e c r e a s e s as the channel b e c o m e s
larger.
S h i p p i n g interests m a y m a k e it d e s i r a b l e to e n l a r g e t h e e n t r a n c e of a given e s t u a r y to
a c c o m m o d a t e larger s h i p s . If s u c h a n e x p a n s i o n s c h e m e p l a c e s t h e c h a n n e l o n section D-E of
the c u r v e , t h e d r e d g i n g industry will r e m a i n profitable for the f o r e s e e a b l e future. It m a y b e
possible to c a r r y out t h e e x p a n s i o n a n d still prevent continual d r e d g i n g by c h a n g i n g the c h a n n e l
alignment a n d artificially constricting its width - techniques often u s e d in rivers - so that the larger
c h a n n e l c r o s s - s e c t i o n r e m a i n s stable. Translating s u c h c h a n g e s into a figure s u c h as Figure 8-1
m e a n s that a n e w c u r v e of v e r s u s x has b e e n g e n e r a t e d w h i c h generally yields a slightly
higher value of \ / „ for a given x v a l u e . T h i s results in point D, the equilibrium situation, b e i n g
m o v e d to t h e right in the figure.
O n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s to be a n s w e r e d in o r d e r to u s e the a p p r o a c h by E s c o f f i e r
outlined a b o v e is "what is the stable equilibrium condition of an estuary?" or in other w o r d s , " w h e n
has point D in Figure 8-1 b e e n r e a c h e d ? " . Several investigators including O'Brien (1969)', Jarret
( 1 9 7 6 ) a n d S h i g e m u r a ( 1 9 8 0 ) h a v e d e v o t e d s p e c i a l attention to the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e
equilibrium cross sectional area of an estuary entrance. T h e results for s a n d y coasts d o not differ
very m u c h f r o m t h o s e of O'Brien ( 1 9 6 9 ) . He m a d e use of f r e q u e n t surveys of inlets o n the North
Pacific C o a s t of the United S t a t e s . He f o u n d that the m i n i m u m equilibrium cross s e c t i o n a l a r e a
of the e n t r a n c e . A , w a s linearly related to the v o l u m e of the tidal p r i s m . In e q u a t i o n f o r m :
A = 6.56x10P (8.1)
in w h i c h :
A = the m i n i m u m equilibrium c r o s s section of the e n t r a n c e c h a n n e l (throat) m e a s u r e d b e i o w
m e a n s e a level in m^
P = the tidal prism v o l u m e in m^
144
in this eauation P the tidal p r i s m , is the storage v o l u m e of the estuary b e t w e e n low tide a n d high
~ : r h o : f t h = t S ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
time (hrs
aver.curr
F i g u r e 8-2 C u r r e n t at R o t t e r d a m
,,dU dU dz UU
in w h i c h :
C = C h e z y coefficient
g = a c c e l e r a t i o n of gravity
h = depth
t = time
U = flow velocity
X = c o - o r d i n a t e m e a s u r e d a l o n g t h e river
z = absolute water surface elevation
146
F i g u r e 8-3 I d e a l i s e d v e l o c i t y - l e v e l r e l a t i o n s h i p
N o t e that the low tide slack c o m e s m u c h later relative to low w a t e r t h a n is the c a s e at high t i d e .
This is partially c a u s e d by f r e s h w a t e r river f l o w acting to fill the portion of the tidal p r i s m t h a t is
furthest inland during a rising tide. T h i s e n h a n c e s the d e v e l o p m e n t of a w a t e r s u r f a c e s l o p e to
retard the tide w a v e , w h i l e at low w a t e r , t h e river f l o w t e n d s to p r o l o n g t h e e b b current.
•£ 0.0
F i g u r e 8-4 V e r t i c a l a n d h o r i z o n t a l tide in R o t t e r d a m
A s e c o n d r e a s o n w h y e b b c h a n n e l s a r e d e e p e r a n d m o r e c o n t i n u o u s t h a n flood c h a n n e l s is
indicated in Figure 8-4. N o t e that the m a x i m u m e b b current o c c u r s w h e n the tide level is l o w e r
t h a n that c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the m a x i m u m f l o o d current. T h e c o m b i n e d effect of higher total e b b
f l o w a n d the lower s t a g e d u r i n g this f l o w t e n d s to i n c r e a s e the velocity a n d e n h a n c e s e r o s i o n in
147
e b b c h a n n e l s . In principle, o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e p h e n o m e n a by adding up a hypothetical
sinusoidal tidal current a n d a c o n s t a n t river d i s c h a r g e (Figure 8-5). C o n v e r s e l y it is p o s s i b l e to
d e r i v e the tidal prism and river d i s c h a r g e f r o m the m e a s u r e d d i s c h a r g e c u r v e .
inflow
F i g u r e 8-5 C o m b i n e d effect of tidal f l o w a n d river d i s c h a r g e
148
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Pollution
9.2.1 T y p e s of pollution
Pollutants include:
1 Human wastes
2 Oil
3 Halogenated hydrocarbons
4 O t h e r o r g a n i c materials
5 Heavy metals
6 Heat
7 Radioactive materials
8 Fine s e d i m e n t
H a l o g e n a t e d c a r b o n s include t h e m o s t c o m m o n o r g a n i c pesticides. W h i l e a f e w of t h e s e
c h e m i c a l s s u c h a s T E P P lose their lethal properties rather quickly, others s u c h as D D T s e e m t o
be v ^ a l f y indestructible in nature. T h e p r o c e s s of the concentration of pesticides in certain t y p e s
of m a r i n e life ( b i o - a c c u m u l a t i o n ) is rather well k n o w n a n d quite a l a r m i n g .
149
H o w e v e r if u n c o n t r o l l e d , this s o o n b e c o m e s a w a y of o v e r stimulating, w h i c h c a n be d i s a s t r o u s
to the ecological equilibrium. O x y g e n is c o n s u m e d in the biodegradation of the nutrient materials.
O b v i o u s l y the last w o r d a b o u t this item has not yet b e e n s p o k e n .
0 20 AO 60
teod c o n c e n t r a t i o n (ppm)
F i g u r e 9-1 L e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n in s e d i m e n t , B a s c o m (1974-1)
Fine sediment itself, as residue f r o m dredging, can be a danger for m a r i n e life in certain locations.
High c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of s u s p e n d e d clay particles c a n inhibit the p e n e t r a t i o n of sunlight into t h e
w a t e r w h i c h m a y be d i s a s t r o u s to certain s p e c i e s a l t h o u g h in o t h e r places this m a y not be a
150
p r o b l e m . S o s e d i m e n t has t w o w a y s of f o r m i n g a threat to the e n v i r o n m e n t ; by reducing light
penetration a n d by carrying other pollutants s u c h as h e a v y m e t a l s .
9.2.2 C o n t r o l m e a s u r e s
Legal sanctions that are attainable a n d consistent provide good control m e a s u r e s . Environmental
a s s e s s m e n t of plans c a n be a control i n s t r u m e n t . C o m m o n p r o b l e m s during e n v i r o n m e n t a l
a s s e s s m e n t are:
activity
2 direct c o n s e q u e n c e s of an activity a r e often not e a s y to quantify
3 direct c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e m e a s u r e d in different units
4 direct c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e not e a s y to e x p r e s s in t e r m s of m o n e y
5 alternatives a r e e v a l u a t e d o n their final e f f e c t s , a n d t e m p o r a r y effects a r e o f t e n o m i t t e d / n o t
considered
During the last forty years, international legislation has been d e v e l o p e d with respect to the m a r i n e
e n v i r o n m e n t . This started with the T r e a t y for the Continental Shelf ( 1 9 5 8 ) , w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e
rights of coastal countries, a n d also obliges t h e m to t a k e protective m e a s u r e s for m a n n e life. T t i e
L o n d o n ( D u m p i n g ) C o n v e n t i o n ( 1 9 7 5 ) , w h i c h h a s m a n y signatories, c o n t a i n s a p e n o d i c a l l y
u p d a t e d black list ( c h e m i c a l s w h i c h m a y not be d u m p e d or burnt at s e a ) a n d a grey list
( d u m p i n g / b u r n i n g only w i t h a p e r m i t ) . In order to p r e v e n t s h i p s f r o m P^J^^'^S ^^^^'^^^^^^^^
M A R P O L - a g r e e m e n t (1982) has b e e n widely a c c e p t e d . T h e Convention of the United Nations o n
the Right o f t h e S e a ( 1 9 8 2 ) i n c l u d e s the legal f r a m e w o r k for t h e w o r l d w i d e u s e of s e a s a n d
o c e a n s . R u l e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n and m a n a g e m e n t of m a r i n e life, a n d protection a n d
c o n s e r v a t i o n of t h e m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t a r e included in this a g r e e m e n t .
U p to this point, tidal influences o n rivers have b e e n considered without regard to the fact that t h e
river w a t e r is relatively f r e s h w h i l e t h e o c e a n w a t e r is relatively salty. Salinity variations c a u s e
variations in w a t e r density, j u s t a s d o t e m p e r a t u r e variations (as d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 4 ) .
c h e m i s t r y of f i n e s e d i m e n t s .
151
9.3.1 S a l i n i t y v a r i a t i o n s w i t h tide
152
E
•(5
3 6 9 12
F i g u r e 9-3 C u r r e n t a n d s a l i n i t y at R o t t e r d a m
QJ (9.1)
in w h i c h :
M = t h e m i x i n g p a r a m e t e r [-] ^
P = t h e v o l u m e of the tidal prism [m^]
Qr = t h e f r e s h w a t e r river f l o w [m^ls]
T = t h e tide period [s]
(9.3)
QJ M
153
in w t i i c l i :
M = mixing p a r a m e t e r
9.3.2 S t a t i c s a l t w e d g e
In a fresh water river discharging into a saline sea, a salt w e d g e s f o r m s (see Figure 9-4). T h e sea
w a t e r intrudes along the river bottom under the fresh discharge water. T h e length of the intruding
w e d g e is d e t e r m i n e d by the equilibrium b e t w e e n the friction, % a l o n g the interface a n d t h e
horizontal p r e s s u r e gradient resulting f r o m inclination of the interface. W h e n this equilibrium is
strictly satisfied, the salt w e d g e will be in a stable position with t h e f r e s h w a t e r flowing s e a w a r d
o n the s u r f a c e a n d s p r e a d i n g out in a thin s u r f a c e layer at s e a . Schijf a n d S c h ö n f e l d ( 1 9 5 3 )
d e r i v e d a n e x p r e s s i o n for the length of s u c h a w e d g e in a p r i s m a t i c , horizontal, r e c t a n g u l a r
c h a n n e l d i s c h a r g i n g into a n infinite, non-tidal s e a .
V / / /
tH^ RIVER-
S EA
F i g u r e 9-4 S t a t i c s a l t w e d g e in river m o u t h
h 1 - 6 -
— V - 2 + 3F3 (9.4)
5F=' 5
where:
8r,
(9.5)
' p(V,-V,)\/,-\4
and:
(9.6)
where:
= length of w e d g e [m]
\/r = velocity in the river u p s t r e a m of the w e d g e [m/s]
154
Vi = velocity in t i i e f r e s t i w a t e r a b o v e t h e w e d g e [ m / s ]
V2 = velocity in t h e salt w e d g e [m/s] ^
TI = friction stress along t h e interface [Him ]
S = relative density of t h e w a t e r m a s s e s ((p2-pi)/pi) H
In a real situation there is a state of d y n a m i c equilibrium. Mixing will take place along the interf^^^
b e t w e e n t h e w a t e r m a s s e s . Salt and s e a w a t e r will b e transported with he river water back o t h e
s e a This is indicated in Figure 9-4 at the vertical d a s h e d line half w a y along t h e w e d g e . Since t h e
total net f l o w o u t of t h e river m u s t b e e q u a l to t h e f r e s h w a t e r runoff:
(9.7)
where:
= inflow in t h e w e d g e
Qr = f r e s h w a t e r river f l o w
= n e t outflow t h r o u g h t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n
w h e r e Si a n d S g a r e t h e r e s p e c t i v e salinities.
9.3.3 H o r i z o n t a l stratification
155
this interface, j u s t as on the u p p e r s u r f a c e . I n d e e d , the upper s u r f a c e of a b o d y of w a t e r is also
an interface b e t w e e n t w o m e d i a (water a n d air). H o w e v e r , for internal w a v e s o n an interface
b e t w e e n water layers, the density of the upper fluid is nearly the s a m e as the density of t h e lower
fluid. T h e resulting low density difference will have a strong influence o n the p h e n o m e n a involved,
especially w h e n t h e s e are c o m p a r e d to w i n d w a v e s .
_2_
Pi e.
P2 e.
/ / / /
F i g u r e 9-5 Internal w a v e .
where:
c = wave speed
p = density
0 = layer t h i c k n e s s
This is explained via a n e x a m p l e . A ship of 4 m draft sails into a stratified harbour with a 3 m thick
s u r f a c e layer of relatively fresh water (salinity S = 5 %o a n d t e m p e r a t u r e 7 = 2 °C) a b o v e a d e e p e r
layer of 7 m thick with S = 36%o a n d 7 = 4 ° C . W h a t is the m a x i m u m s p e e d that this s h i p c a n
attain?
156
(T,i=4.00; A-1004.00/eg/m^•
(7,2=28.70.•p2=1028.70/cg/m^•
TÏÓ28y^lÖÖ4:ó)(9^^
(1004.0)(7) + (1028.7)(3)
ThP onlv w a v the ship c a n m o v e faster t h a n this w a v e is to cut t h r o u g h it or c l i m b over it; neither
is v e ; i S l h s^^^^^^^^^^ p h e n o m e n o n also played a role in a nava, ^^^J^^^^
a g o in t h e a r e a w h e r e the rather f r e s h Baltic S e a w a t e r flows o v e r m o r e d e n s e w a t e r f r o m t h e
Sl<agerak.
9.3.4 Siltation in r i v e r s
in s u s p e n s i o n .
t h a n 1:50.
157
s u c h a high v o l u m e of w a t e r will k e e p the m u d density low (usually b e t w e e n 1100 a n d 1 2 5 0
k g / m ). T h e material behaves as a viscous fluid with a viscosity in the order of 100 to 5 0 0 0 t i m e s
that of w a t e r ; this is c o m p a r a b l e to Dutch yoghurt (except for c o l o u r ) . T h i s material, called sling
m u d , is difficult to detect w h e n m a k i n g soundings. It appears as a faint reflection on an e c h o g r a m .
T h e s e d i m e n t is s o soft that ships can often sail through it. T h e consolidation process of s u c h soft
silt is v e r y s l o w . Layers up to 2.5 m thick r e m a i n fluid for s e v e r a l w e e k s - e v e n in a l a b o r a t o r y
settling t u b e . T h i s sling m u d c a n be brought into s u s p e n s i o n a g a i n w h e n the current v e l o c i t y
a b o v e it r e a c h e s a critical value ranging b e t w e e n 0.2 a n d 1.0 m/s.
T h e upper portion of the m u d layer behaves as a viscous fluid a n d while this is easy to p u m p with
a d r e d g e , its e x t r e m e l y low d e n s i t y results in poor d r e d g e productivity m e a s u r e d in t e r m s of
quantity of solids m o v e d per hour. O n e m e a n s of i m p r o v i n g this situation is to d r e d g e a d e e p pit
s o that the silt layers c a n m o v e to that pit a n d consolidate slowly there. M u d of higher d e n s i t y c a n
t h e n be w i t h d r a w n f r o m the d e e p e s t part of the pit using a d r e d g e . N o w , t h e r e r e m a i n s o n l y a
p r o b l e m of getting the m u d layer to m o v e to the pit. T h e r e are t w o options/possibilities:
9.3.5 M e t h o d s to c o m b a t d e n s i t y c u n - e n t s in r i v e r s
b e t w e e n intakes a n d outlets.
December, 1999)
ij
metropolitan area.
The corps a.arfcd a Sl.^trtBlion dredging contra, in «ep-^. to >^Ue Hoo.^^^
intake on tlie river is at Belle Chasse, about 20 mi (32 Imr) south of New Orleans.
"The siH's location was chosen because we can use heavier dran -;tr:^n:m?rl^
159
9.4 Density currents in harbours
door u- door
V7
^ MMm
' \ hi
\
\ , I
pressure diagram *- g ( P j h2 - h., )
resultant
pressure
Figure 9-6 Hydrostatic pressures on each side of a lock gate separating salt from fresh
water.
This situation is very m u c h the s a m e as that of a lock, w h e r e there is fresh water o n o n e side a n d
salt w a t e r o n the other side. Hydrostatic p r e s s u r e differs o n e a c h sides a n d the result is s h o w n
in Figure 9-6. O p e n i n g of the lock gate can take place w h e n there are equal w a t e r levels o n both
s i d e s of the g a t e . In this c a s e , t h e r e is still a resultant horizontal f o r c e w o r k i n g o n the g a t e t h a t
p r e v e n t s s m o o t h o p e n i n g . T h e resultant force b e c o m e s z e r o , if:
\p^Q^^ = (9.12)
where:
p = m a s s d e n s i t y of w a t e r
g = gravity a c c e l e r a t i o n
h = depth
(9.13)
W h i l e the resultant f o r c e o n the gate is zero, the resultant m o m e n t on the gate is not z e r o ! A f t e r
o p e n i n g the g a t e this c o n d i t i o n is unstable. It t h e r e f o r e leads to a current pattern as s h o w n in
Figure 9-7. T h e flow of the d e n s e r layer can be c o m p a r e d to the flow of w a t e r d o w n a river valley
j u s t after a d a m h a s burst. This is called a dry b e d c u r v e . T h e toe of the dry b e d c u r v e is held
slightly back by t h e friction a l o n g the b o t t o m .
160
velocities m u s t b e e q u a l for a r e c t a n g u l a r c h a n n e l .
SL
R e s u l t a n t pressure ^^^rve
distribution
F i g u r e 9-7 Dry b e d c u r v e
where:
Vd = velocity in t h e dry b e d c u r v e
S = relative d e n s i t y = {pD-p)l P
h = water depth
rrsxr=i;rsr::i*entire^dep..^
. s a n example, tbe actual conditions ^ ^ ^ ^ Z Z ^ J ^ ^ ^ t : : ^ ^
Harbour are given. Previously, we have f'^'^J^^^l'"^^^^ , 3 , ^ , ^^e much l e s s important
in a river e v e n after high water. For ^^s^^^;^^^^^^^^ high and low water. T h i s is
and the current in the harbour moutl^ wfll ^= ''^^ ^ . ' f ^ ^ , , „ 3 ^ ^ , „ p,o, Figure 9-8 showing
true when no density effects are invoivec^^TableW lists^^^^ V ^^^^^^^
the tidal conditions in the R»''«^<'=''^ " = ' 7 ; ' ^ „ " j ™ l ° ó , I e d e n s i ^ current have b e e n
previously mentioned. (For the t,me be,ng f ^ ^ ^ " ^ ^ t h e harbour entrance are s o
:rarcrirrc:rtrrp::sitn^:tLfiguresare^
listed in T a b l e 9 - 1 .
161
Time H a r b o u r T i d e Level River C u r r e n t Harbour Filling
Current
(hrs.) (m N A P ) (m/s) (cm/s)
0 -0.69 -0.15 0.9
1 -0.50 +0.08 2.2
2 -0.03 +0.60 3.2
3 +0.52 +0.75 2.2
4 +0.91 +0.44 1.1
5 +1.04 +0.07 0
6 +0.91 -0.44 -1.5
7 +0.61 -0.73 -2.1
8 +0.25 -1.03 -1.6
9 -0.15 -1.05 -1.1
10 -0.47 -0.85 -1.5
11 -0.58 -0.52 -0.8
12 -0.62 -0.30 0
1 T i d a l c o n d i t i o n s m e a s u r e d in t h e R o t t e r d a m w a t e r w a y {2e P e t r o l e u m h a v e n )
Petroleumhaven)
162
P e t r o l e u m h a r b o u r are given in T a b l e 9-2 and Figure 9-9. C o m p a r i n g t h e s e m e a s u r e d data w i t h
t h e f i g u r e s that c a n be calculated using e q u a t i o n (9.14) leads to the c o n c l u s i o n that t h e r e a r e
s o m e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e o r y a n d practice.
F i g u r e 9-9 D e n s i t y c o n d i t i o n s m e a s u r e d at R o t t e r d a m ( m o u t h 2 e P e t r o l e u m h a v e n )
River Harbour S
at s u r f a c e
Time S S
163
Figure 9-8 n o w s h o w s the idealised current profiles in the m o u t h of the 2 n d P e t r o l e u m H a r b o u r
b a s e d o n the c o m b i n e d effect of the filling current a n d the density current.
8.0 6.9
1.0
10
nnnhnnun nnnn/n
4.0
In t h e a b o v e a p p r o a c h , it has been a s s u m e d that the harbour had a n infinite length. In reality this
is never true. T h e a v e r a g e salinity increase in the harbour basin a n d t h e density current d e p e n d s
o n t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f the b a s i n . T o d e t e r m i n e h o w far the salinity t o n g u e p e n e t r a t e s into t h e
harbour it is n e c e s s a r y to calculate the continuity of the progression of the density t o n g u e . T h e r e
are two conditions:
1 T h e salt m u s t h a v e s o m e w h e r e to g o
2 T h e r e m u s t b e a driving f o r c e (i.e. t h e d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e )
164
500 m
PLAN
t= 2 l / 2 h
harbor
t='.1/2h V_-
h=7m
77777
t = 2h
F i g u r e 9-11 P r o g r e s s of d e n s i t y c u r r e n t in h a r b o u r
from the inner end of the harbour, just a s d o e s any other ' " " g w ^ ,^^3
-^'^-^^'^Z^^s s ' !
r t r r r ,
towards the entranoe at the by t r d a s h e d line's in Figure 9 - 1 1 ,
a density d i f f e r e n c e a c r o s s t h e h a r b o u r e n t r a n c e .
::rr;rhgr:rurttr\]=tS^^ 165
to ttie d e e p e r river. Quantitative evaluations of all ttiese p r o c e s s e s a r e beyond t h e s c o p e of this
c o u r s e . T h e c o m p l e x filling process of a harbour basin, h o w e v e r has major c o n s e q u e n c e s for the
s e d i m e n t transport b e c a u s e large quantities of silt enter the harbour along with the d e n s e r water.
A n i m p r e s s i o n of the f o r m of the interface b e t w e e n the t w o w a t e r m a s s e s s o m e t i m e later is
s h o w n in the figure.
.0.289 m/s
p = 1005 h =7m
p=1005 r p = 1015
1 VB= 0 . 2 8 9 m/s
h///////////j////////////////}///////////////////////////////,
p = 1005 /,
J
p = 1015
•'//////////////////////////)/u/////)/n/iif)//i////)////////)7.
F i g u r e 9-12 D e n s i t y c u r r e n t s in a h a r b o u r
9.4.1 Siltation in h a r b o u r s
166
9.4.2 T h e p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m
mmmmmM
institutions involved in the m o d e l l i n g of saline density c u r r e n t s .
where:
p^.^ = m i n i m u m river density
Pmax = m a x i m u m river d e n s i t y
p = a v e r a g e river density over o n e tide period
calculations in not g o o d e n o u g h .
feasibility s t u d i e s . E v e n a c r u d e c o m p u t a t i o n c a n be helpful in s u c h c a s e s .
^,^005.18-1000.85^^ .3
(9.17)
1003.02
Harbor
2000 m
H.W.
L.W.
Harbor
T t i e a v e r a g e w a t e r d e p t h in the h a r b o u r is:
h = 13.5 + - X 1 . 7 = 1 4 . 3 5 m (9.18)
2
T h e a v e r a g e f l o w a r e a in t h e e n t r a n c e is, t h e n :
168
h a r b o u r is t h e v o l u m e of w a t e r s u p p l i e d per tide by t h e filling current.
T h e tidal p r i s m , P, of t h e
(9.21)
P=(515)(2000)(1.7)=1.75x10''m^
(9.23)
V, = ( 8 0 0 0 ) ( 6 6 6 5 ) J ( 4 . 3 2 x 1 0 - ' ) ( 1 4 . 3 5 ) = 1 , 3 1 x 1 0 ' m V f/de
Half of this water, 6 , 5 3 x 1 0 ' m = » e , enters along the harbour bottom with the intruding salt tongue
T h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n f r o m t h e v a r i o u s s o u r c e s is c o m p a r e d in T a b l e 9-3. W e s e e t h a t m o r e t h a n
8 0 % o f t h e h a r b o u r siltation is c a u s e d by t h e d e n s i t y current.
Quantity P e r c e n t of
Component
n<a/tide) tola!
169
c a n be a n s w e r e d if the densities of the dry s e d i m e n t particles a n d of the in situ s e d i m e n t are
k n o w n . R e a s o n a b l e v a l u e s for t h e s e a r e 2 6 5 0 k g / m ' a n d 1200 kg/m^ respectively. T h e n , if
d e n o t e s the v o l u m e of water-filled voids in 1 m ' of s e d i m e n t :
1200=(2650)(1-i/J+(1000)(i/J (9.26)
(1-0.88)(2650)=318/cg (9.27)
(5.90x10'')
^ - ( ^ = 1 8 5 5 ^ 3 (328)
T h i s v o l u m e of s e d i m e n t a c c u m u l a t e s in o n e tide period. T h e r e a r e :
(365.25) (24)
(12.42) (S'^S)
T h i s v o l u m e is s p r e a d o v e r t h e h a r b o u r b o t t o m in a layer t h i c k n e s s o f :
(1.31x10')
(2000)(400) = ^ - ^ ' ^ (9-31)
9.4.3 M e t h o d s to c o m b a t d e n s i t y c u r r e n t s in h a r b o u r s
C o m b a t i n g d e n s i t y currents h a p p e n s via:
r e d u c e s the intrusion.
A combination Of m e a s u r e s c a n be .aKen, o t h e r
d e v i c e s c a n be c o n c e i v e d by u s i n g a bit of ingenuity.
171
10.1 Introduction
10.2.1 S t r u c t u r a l e r o s i o n of c o a s t s
173
In the erosion area the v o l u m e of s a n d in an arbitrary cross-section ( m ' / m ) b e t w e e n w e l l - c h o s e n
b o u n d a r i e s in t h a t c r o s s - s e c t i o n , are a p p a r e n t l y gradually r e d u c e d as a f u n c t i o n of t i m e . Y e a r
after year, s u c h a v o l u m e is r e d u c e d . Typical orders of m a g n i t u d e of this type of e r o s i o n are 10
to 50 m ' / m per year. Structural e r o s i o n is a permanent erosion phenomenon. The construction
of a h a r b o u r o n a s a n d y c o a s t a n d t h e u p - s t r e a m d a m m i n g of a river are clearly m a n - m a d e
actions with a d v e r s e effects on coasts. Purely natural r e a s o n s c a n also be associated with s o m e
structural e r o s i o n p r o b l e m s .
H<50%
F i g u r e 10-1 T y p i c a l s t r u c t u r a l e r o s i o n p r o b l e m o n the l e e - s i d e of a b r e a k w a t e r
Structural erosion under normal conditions entails that the upper part of the profile (dry b e a c h a n d
s l o p e of d u n e or m a i n l a n d f r o n t ) d o e s not participate in the t r a n s p o r t p r o c e s s e s ; t h e w a t e r a n d
the w a v e s do not r e a c h this part of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n . H o w e v e r , the erosion of the f o r e s h o r e will
c o n t i n u e u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s . O n l y if the w a v e s reach the d u n e s ( u n d e r s t o r m c o n d i t i o n s ,
higher water level a n d higher w a v e s ) , d o e s the upper part of the cross-section f o r m an integrated
part o f the entire active profile. In that c a s e , the erosion of d u n e s or firm land will occur. W h i l e in
a basically s t a b l e situation this e r o s i o n of d u n e s or firm land is only t e m p o r a r y , in a s t r u c t u r a l
eroding case this erosion is partly permanent. During n o r m a l conditions, s e d i m e n t from t h e upper
174
part of ttie cross-section will not fully return, but will be r e m o v e d in the longshore direction. At the
end of t h e day, with the 'help' of c r o s s - s h o r e transport p r o c e s s e s gradual erosion will also c a u s e
e r o s i o n of the d u n e s or f i r m land. T h i s distinction is often not clear to o u t s i d e r s . Ultimate
p e r m a n e n t losses of d u n e s a n d firm land are incorrectly directly a s s o c i a t e d with s t o r m s u r g e
e v e n t s , while the basic p r o b l e m is still the structural e r o s i o n p r o b l e m .
10.2.2 B e a c h a n d d u n e e r o s i o n d u r i n g s e v e r e s t o r m s u r g e s
F i g u r e 10-2 D u n e e r o s i o n d u r i n g a s e v e r e s t o r m s u r g e
T h e e f f e c t s of p e r m a n e n t structural e r o s i o n or of t e m p o r a r y e r o s i o n b e c a u s e of a s t o r m s u r g e ,
o n properties built too close to the shoreline are eventually the s a m e . In both cases, the properties
m a y be lost. (See Figure 10-3) H o w e v e r , it is b e y o n d d o u b t that c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s m e a n t to
r e s o l v e both t h e s e types of e r o s i o n m u s t be quite different.
175
F i g u r e 10-3 D a m a g e b e c a u s e of d u n e e r o s i o n
10.2.3 P r o t e c t i o n of n e w l y r e c l a i m e d a r e a s
10.2.5 D i s c u s s i o n of c o a s t a l p r o t e c t i o n p r o b l e m s
A f e w g e n e r a l c o a s t a l e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s h a v e b e e n briefly d i s c u s s e d in the p r e c e d i n g
sections. Different p r o b l e m s call for quite different solutions. E a c h p r o b l e m is c a u s e d by specific
c o n d i t i o n s . In d e v e l o p i n g p r o p e r s o l u t i o n s to e a c h specific p r o b l e m , o n e has to m e e t p r o b l e m -
176
t r a n s l r t n^^ " l^Vl" ''''''' '"^^ P^^^^'^ ° f ^^e p r o b l e m . S e d i m e n t
sufffrinn f
tha T f t "
T T "'"'"^
I t r u ^ ' c ^ u L T t n ' i n ! " ? ' ' °f^^^tructures a s a tool f o r coastal protection relies o n t h e ability o f s u c h
Talo th?Z
1 stptch
SPH m f n M
0
Ï "
i
?.r'" P""""^'""^- ^'•9^'-^ ^ 0 - 4 « h o w s a plan v i e w o f s u c h
T P ^ ^ P ^ ^ °^ ^^'9^^^ ^0-4 the net yearly s e d i m e n t transports
""^^^""^ ^ " ^ ^ schematically Apparently the
dLrtn
renrpT T " " " " '
r
' " ' ^ ' " ' ' " ^ ^'^^^"^^ ^ ^^e coast. Line a of Figure 1 0 - 4
^ ' • ^ " ' P " ^ distribution. T h e i n c r e a s i n g transport f r o m A t o B
( d i f f e r e n c e V) c a u s e s t h e e r o s i o n p r o b l e m in stretch A - B . (Along A - B dS/dx ^ 0.)
be a^htevPd" In h rlT'i
r r x - " o T n T h ? ' ' ' t : / r ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ^
""-^
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^° ^- ( ^ ' - ^ ' S i o '
^*°P distribution Ö c o u l d
be achieved. In the left-hand section f r o m A the erosion will just continue; the s e d i m e n t transports
177
1^
i?6
no f u r t h e r erosion allowed
A B
If artificial n o u r i s h m e n t has b e e n s e l e c t e d as c o u n t e r m e a s u r e in s e c t i o n A - B , v o l u m e V ( s e e
Figure 10-4) m u s t be nourished o n a regular basis. In practice, it is not useful to nourish V every
year, so usually a lifetime of 5 to 10 y e a r s is c h o s e n for a n o u r i s h m e n t .
In this chapter the use of structures is the m a i n point of interest. In this introduction the structural
e r o s i o n p r o b l e m indicated by Figure 10-4 w a s c h o s e n to clarify the possible use of s t r u c t u r e s in
solving the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m . I n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h existing s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t h a d b e c o m e a
n e c e s s a r y r e q u i r e m e n t of structures as c o u n t e r m e a s u r e . F r o m this r e q u i r e m e n t , it can easily b e
u n d e r s t o o d that in principle series of g r o y n e s , series of d e t a c h e d o f f s h o r e b r e a k w a t e r s a n d
s u b m e r g e d breakwaters can be used as a tool. All these possibilities are able to affect the existing
l o n g s h o r e s e d i m e n t transport.
S u b m e r g e d b r e a k w a t e r s : E v e n s u b m e r g e d b r e a k w a t e r s (crest height b e l o w M e a n S e a L e v e l
a n d built parallel to the shore) are able to r e d u c e the w a v e heights in the z o n e landward o f t h e s e
178
s t r u c t u r e s . In tills c a s e also a reduction of the l o n g s h o r e s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t rate m a y b e
e x p e c t e d . O n e s h o u l d be a w a r e of the n e g a t i v e effect of rip currents t h r o u g h t h e o p e n i n g s
b e t w e e n the breal^waters.
F i g u r e 1 0 - 5 D a m a g e of a n i n c o r r e c t l y a p p l i e d r e v e t m e n t
179
it hias to be concluded that in fact the c h o s e n solution w a s far f r o m ideal. T h e experience gained
in this w a y c a n be very helpful w h i l e d e s i g n i n g n e w projects.
• C o a s t a l protection as part of coastal e n g i n e e r i n g practice is a difficult task. Skilled a n d
e x p e r i e n c e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s a r e required to d o t h e j o b . In s o m e c o u n t r i e s special Institutes or
authorities h a v e b e e n a p p o i n t e d to carry out t h e t a s k s i n v o l v e d . (Coastal Z o n e A u t h o r i t i e s . ) It
is o b v i o u s that s u c h Authorities c a n only a d e q u a t e l y o p e r a t e if p r o v i d e d with g o v e r n m e n t a l
s u p p o r t and legal b a c k i n g .
10.4.1 S t r u c t u r a l e r o s i o n of c o a s t s
S o m e a s p e c t s of the structural e r o s i o n of c o a s t s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d as a s p e c i f i c
e x a m p l e in the Introduction of this section. S t r u c t u r e s m a y be u s e d as a n alternative s o l u t i o n to
the structural erosion p r o b l e m .
180
W i t h the help of series of e m e r g e n t s h o r e - p a r a l l e l o f f s h o r e b r e a k w a t e r s in section A - B , t h e
erosion problem of stretch A - B c a n be resolved. In principle s u c h breakwaters are able to interfere
in t h e longshore s e d i m e n t transport (are able to r e d u c e this transport). D u e to the partial s h a d o w
effects of the b r e a k w a t e r s , the g e n e r a l w a v e conditions l a n d w a r d of the series b r e a k w a t e r s a r e
r e d u c e d , yielding less s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t s . H o w e v e r , t h e fine-tuning of series of o f f s h o r e
b r e a k w a t e r s is a difficult task. In the e x a m p l e of Figure 10-4 the s e d i m e n t transport in the c r o s s -
section t h r o u g h point B m u s t be r e d u c e d f r o m Se to SA. T h e r e f o r e , near section B, t h e r e m a i n i n g
l o n g s h o r e t r a n s p o r t should not be 0. Either in t h e a r e a l a n d w a r d of an o f f s h o r e b r e a k w a t e r n e a r
B or in the area s e a w a r d of that b r e a k w a t e r o n - g o i n g s e d i m e n t transport is still r e q u i r e d . In t h e
first c a s e , this calls for the f o r m i n g of a f e a t u r e called a salient; in the latter c a s e a t o m b o l o m a y
form.
W i t h a proper series of o f f s h o r e b r e a k w a t e r s the lee-side e r o s i o n at t h e r i g h t - h a n d side of B is
also u n a v o i d a b l e .
A c o n t i n u o u s s u b m e r g e d b r e a k w a t e r parallel to a n d at s o m e d i s t a n c e f r o m it will u n d o u b t e d l y
reduce the w a v e heights landward of the s u b m e r g e d breakwater (depending o n the w a v e climate,
the location a n d the crest height relative to t h e still w a t e r level). By reducing the w a v e heights, a
reduction of the s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t c a n b e e x p e c t e d . This holds for both c a s e s w i t h only w a v e
driven longshore s e d i m e n t transport a n d for c a s e s w h e r e a c o m b i n a t i o n of w a v e driven currents
a n d tidal currents o c c u r s . A first a p p r o x i m a t i o n s u g g e s t s that in the latter c a s e s the tidal currents
l a n d w a r d of the s u b m e r g e d b r e a k w a t e r a r e u n a f f e c t e d . H o w e v e r , t h e resulting sediment
transport will be greatly r e d u c e d by the reduction of the w a v e heights in the area l a n d w a r d of t h e
submerged breakwater.
10.4.2 B e a c h a n d d u n e e r o s i o n d u r i n g s e v e r e s t o r m s u r g e s
181
If a basically stable (stable: with respect to structural erosion) situation is c o n s i d e r e d , t h e use of
seawalls or revetments m a y be useful to restrict the rate of erosion during a s e v e r e s t o r m s u r g e .
T h e s e s t r u c t u r e s physically prevent the loss of m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e d u n e s or land. T h e d e s i r e d
reduction in the retreat of the d u n e s or m a i n l a n d c a n be a c h i e v e d . Since behind the s e a w a l l s or
r e v e t m e n t s no material c a n be e r o d e d to provide the o f f s h o r e directed t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t i e s , o n e
has to expect a lot of erosion j u s t in front of the structures. A d e e p scour hole c a n be anticipated;
this potential s c o u r i n g has to be t a k e n properly into a c c o u n t in the d e s i g n of the s t r u c t u r e s .
Steetzel ( 1 9 9 3 ) p r o p o s e s a m e t h o d to calculate the s c o u r d e p t h in front of s e a w a l l s a n d
revetments.
10.4.3 P r o t e c t i o n of n e w l y r e c l a i m e d a r e a s
A more-or-less zero option for land reclamation w o u l d be an entire shift of the c r o s s - s h o r e profile
of 2 k m in s e a w a r d direction. This holds not only for the waterline, but also in principle a l s o for all
o t h e r depth c o n t o u r s to a w a t e r d e p t h w h e r e natural a d a p t a t i o n s of the profile are h a r d l y to be
e x p e c t e d . In s o m e c a s e s , this d e p t h has to be e s t i m a t e d at s a y 15 m b e l o w M e a n S e a Level
( M S L ) . In order to achieve a 2 k m shift of the coastline, per running m e t e r a l o n g the s h o r e 2 0 0 0
m X 2 0 m = 4 0 , 0 0 0 m ' / m is r e q u i r e d . (The factor 2 0 m in the calculation is f o u n d by a s s u m i n g a
lower limit of M S L -15 m a n d an upper limit a b o v e M S L of 5 m.) W i t h a longshore e x t e n s i o n over
2 0 k m , the total v o l u m e of s e d i m e n t supply r e a c h e s a v o l u m e of 8 0 0 million m ' . T h i s is a really
h u g e project!
W i t h the zero option the n e w coast hasa f o u n d a t i o n that is identical to the old coast. A large part
o f the c a l c u l a t e d v o l u m e is n e e d e d to m a k e t h e n e w f o u n d a t i o n . In o r d e r to restrict t h e v o l u m e
of s e d i m e n t n e e d e d for r e c l a m a t i o n in the zero o p t i o n , o n e could c o n s i d e r a n a l t e r n a t i v e . For
e x a m p l e , the u p p e r part of the c r o s s - s h o r e profile after r e c l a m a t i o n is ' s u p p o r t e d ' with t h e help
of a s u b m e r g e d b r e a k w a t e r . T h e t o e of the profile c a n t h e n be a v o i d e d ; a large r e d u c t i o n of t h e
v o l u m e of s a n d is a c h i e v e d in this w a y . T h i s solution is called a " h a n g i n g b e a c h " .
182
10.5 Solutions without structures to problems a s mentioned
10.5.1 Q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s for t h e s a n d
10.5.2 O r i g i n of t h e s a n d
W h e n m a r i n e material is u s e d it m u s t be d r e d g e d at a sufficient d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e s h o r e t o
p r e v e n t e x t r a e r o s i o n d u e to the p r e s e n c e of t h e b o r r o w pits. S p e c i f i c a l l y w h e n material is
d r e d g e d f r o m the s e a b e d , the question arises of w h e t h e r it is better to d r e d g e the material f r o m
s m a l l e x t r e m e l y d e e p b o r r o w pits, or to d r e d g e thin layers of t h e material f r o m a very e x t e n d e d
b o r r o w area. D r e d g i n g thin layers m e a n s disturbing the biologically active surface layer in a l a r g e
a r e a , w h e r e a s c r e a t i n g d e e p b o r r o w pits e n h a n c e s t h e risk of s t a g n a n t w a t e r of poor q u a l i t y
r e m a i n i n g in the d e e p e r parts. A l t h o u g h r e s e a r c h into the effects of s a n d w i n n i n g is being carried
out, t h e r e is n o clear c o n c l u s i o n yet. In the N e t h e r l a n d s , s o m e s a n d is obtained by m a i n t e n a n c e
d r e d g i n g in the a c c e s s channels to R o t t e r d a m a n d IJmuiden. T h e remaining a m o u n t of sand t h a t
is r e q u i r e d is e x t r a c t e d by d r e d g i n g thin layers at a d i s t a n c e of at least 2 0 k m f r o m t h e s h o r e .
183
10.5.3 P l a c e s w h e r e s u p p l e t i o n is u s e d
S a n d supplied to the coastal system can be placed at different locations in the cross section. T h e
decision d e p e n d s o n the p u r p o s e of the n o u r i s h m e n t a n d s o m e t i m e s o n the s o u r c e of t h e
m a t e r i a l . T h e basic c h o i c e s are (see Figure 10-6):
1. O n t h e inner s l o p e of the d u n e s
2. O n the outer slope of t h e d u n e s
3. O n the dry b e a c h
4. O n the f o r e s h o r e
F i g u r e 10-6 L o c a t i o n s of s a n d s u p p l e t i o n
If the n o u r i s h m e n t is required to c o u n t e r a c t o n g o i n g e r o s i o n , t h e m o s t c o m m o n p l a c e of
application is t h e dry b e a c h . S a n d is placed b e t w e e n the L W line a n d the d u n e foot. Eventually,
the quantity s u p p l i e d will be evenly distributed o v e r the full height ( a n d length) of t h e f o r e s h o r e
s l o p e , following t h e equilibrium rules dictated by w a v e climate a n d grain size. T h i s m e a n s that a
large quantity of freshly supplied material will d i s a p p e a r u n d e r w a t e r s o o n after the n o u r i s h m e n t
o p e r a t i o n . T h e public t e n d s to call this e r o s i o n , t h o u g h w e m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t it is initially n o
m o r e t h a n a re-distribution of the material within t h e natural c r o s s s e c t i o n of the coast.
184
F i g u r e 10-7 B e a c h s u p p l e t i o n u s i n g a pipeline that c r o s s e s the b r e a k e r z o n e
185
11.1 Introduction and definitions
Dredging is such a powerful tool of coastal engineering that it deserves special attention in lecture
notes o n c o a s t a l e n g i n e e r i n g . T h e c a p a c i t y of m o d e r n d r e d g e s is s o large that n o w a d a y s it is
possible to c o p e with a l m o s t every situation. T r a n s p o r t rates of far over a million cubic m e t r e s p e r
weel< c a n be achieved without too m u c h of a p r o b l e m . Still, it m u s t be e m p h a s i s e d that it mal<es
no s e n s e to w o r k a g a i n s t n a t u r e , a l t h o u g h the d r e d g i n g c a p a c i t y m a y be sufficient to d o t h i s . It
is m u c h wiser to try to w o r k with nature, and to try to adapt goals and w o r k i n g m e t h o d s to a c c o r d
with natural p r o c e s s e s .
D r e d g i n g c a n be c o n s i d e r e d f r o m t h e point of v i e w of t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s of e q u i p m e n t that a r e
u s e d in t h e d r e d g i n g industry. H o w e v e r , it is also p o s s i b l e to d e s c r i b e t h e d r e d g i n g cycle, f r o m
t h e digging of the earth to t h e deposition of the d r e d g e d material at t h e final location. W h e n t h i s
a p p r o a c h is f o l l o w e d , it is practical to split the cycle into a n u m b e r of p r o c e s s e s that c a n b e
scientifically e x a m i n e d . W h e n d o i n g this, it m u s t not be forgotten that in reality it is a c o n t i n u o u s
c y c l e , a n d that e a c h p r o c e s s in this cycle is directly c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g a n d t h e
following elements.
187
11.2 T h e world of dredging
A c c o r d i n g to ttie definitions, given above, wtiether or not t l i e y are very satisfactory, dredging plays
a part in the c o n s t r u c t i o n or m a i n t e n a n c e of m u c h public infrastructure s u c h as rivers, ports a n d
h a r b o u r s . This m e a n s that dredging operations are often controlled or carried out by or o n behalf
of public entities like Public W o r k s D e p a r t m e n t s , and Port Authorities. T h e s e bodies either act as
e m p l o y e r and contract the dredging w o r k s out to private parties (i.e. dredging contractors), or t h e y
d e c i d e to c a r r y out the w o r k s t h e m s e l v e s a n d u s e their o w n staff a n d d r e d g i n g e q u i p m e n t .
M u c h has been said about advantages and disadvantages of in-house dredging. Here it is m e r e l y
c o n c l u d e d , t h a t m a n y countries that u s e d to f a v o u r i n - h o u s e d r e d g i n g (e.g. U S A , F r a n c e ,
G e r m a n y ) , have to a large extent privatised their operations, mainly for reasons of cost efficiency.
Insofar as t h e y h a v e d e c i d e d not to privatise to a 1 0 0 % , t h e y h a v e at least a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y
s e p a r a t e d the responsibility for maintaining the infrastructure (client/employer f u n c t i o n ) f r o m t h e
a c t u a l e x e c u t i o n of t h e w o r k s (contractor function).
W h e n o n e is c o n s i d e r i n g t h e d r e d g i n g w o r l d as a m a r k e t place w i t h sellers a n d b u y e r s , it is a s
well to realise that it is a s m a l l m a r k e t only. T h e r e are a limited n u m b e r of sellers a n d a limited
n u m b e r of b u y e r s , a n d t h e s e a r e m o r e or less c o m p e l l e d to w o r k with o n e a n o t h e r .
188
11.3 Dredging p r o c e s s and dredging equipment
11.3.1 General
Dredging e q u i p m e n t is often classified according to its mobility (stationary vs. non-stationary) and
according to one aspect of tlie dredging process (i.e. suction dredge). This classification ends with
n a m e s s u c h as "stationary plain suction dredge". It is possible to d i s c u s s dredging technology o n
the basis of a description of t h e types of d r e d g e s .
F l o w i n g water
W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f o r c e of flowing water, it is evident that this f o r c e m a y be d e r i v e d f r o m
s u c t i o n or f r o m p r e s s u r e related flow conditions. T h e soil generally disintegrates into l u m p s or
particles that are carried a w a y by the current. This m e a n s that a u t o m a t i c a l l y w a t e r is m i x e d w i t h
t h e soil. T h e erosive action of suction is limited to an area very c l o s e to the s u c t i o n m o u t h , a n d
t h e r e f o r e t h e s y s t e m is not u s e d frequently a n y m o r e . T h e a r e a i n f l u e n c e d by a jet f l o w i n g f r o m
a nozzle is m u c h larger. O n e is not always certain, however, of the direction the j e t - i n d u c e d f l o w
will t a k e w h e n it m e e t s o b s t a c l e s like a n u n d i s t u r b e d s e a b e d . For this r e a s o n , plain s u c t i o n
d r e d g e s or d u s t p a n d r e d g e s are often e q u i p p e d with nozzles in the vicinity of the suction m o u t h .
Both types of dredge disintegrate the soil structure w h e n the suction m o u t h is p u s h e d forward into
t h e s e a b e d . T h e plain s u c t i o n d r e d g e leaves a m o o n crater like l a n d s c a p e ; t h e d u s t p a n d r e d g e
leaves a flat bottom. Another e x a m p l e of the application of erosion by suction is the California type
o f d r a g h e a d . In this c a s e , free suction is a v o i d e d by creating a thin cleft b e t w e e n d r a g h e a d a n d
s e a b e d . All t h e s e types of suctton d r e d g e h a v e difficulty in w o r k i n g in c o h e s i v e soils.
189
Mechanical forces
W h e n m e c h a n i c a l m e a n s of disintegrating the soil structure are u s e d , steel b l a d e s (teeth) a r e
c o m m o n . T h e y a r e p u s h e d t h r o u g h the soil in a m a n n e r similar to the m o v e m e n t of a c h i s e l in
steel or w o o d . Subsequently, w e will s e e that the theory behind the chiselling action has m a d e a
great impact on the insight of this m e t h o d in dredging. Even s o m e o n e w h o l<nows little or n o t h i n g
a b o u t d r e d g i n g will r e c o g n i s e o n e similarity, w h i c h is that: blunt chisels d o not w o r k w e l l . W h e n
this t e c h n i q u e is u s e d , considerable forces are exerted on the chisel-type blade that has t o f o r c e
its w a y t h r o u g h the g r o u n d . T h e s e forces m u s t be mobilised externally, either having a n e x t r e m e
weight of the dredge part or via a sophisticated anchoring s y s t e m . E x a m p l e s of dredges using this
m e t h o d a r e t h e g r a b d r e d g e , the b u c k e t ladder d r e d g e , the b a c k h o e , the cutter s u c t i o n d r e d g e ,
a n d e v e n the trailing h o p p e r d r e d g e , at least w h e n the d r a g h e a d is fitted with cutting b l a d e s or
t e e t h . In all c a s e s it is useful to realise h o w the external f o r c e s are m o b i l i s e d , a n d h o w t h e y a r e
g u i d e d t o w a r d s the t o o t h . A striking d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m e c h a n i c a l a n d all hydraulic m e a n s of
disintegration is the fact that little or no w a t e r is a d d e d to the soil s t r u c t u r e at this s t a g e .
11.3.3 V e r t i c a l t r a n s p o r t
11.3.4 H o r i z o n t a l t r a n s p o r t
190
C o n v e y o r belts are not c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d in d r e d g i n g projects either, t h o u g h Japanese
c o n t r a c t o r s h a v e s u c c e s s f u l l y u s e d t h e m o n r e c l a m a t i o n j o b s in S i n g a p o r e a n d J a p a n .
11.3.5 D e p o s i t i o n
11.3.6 B a c k to o n e p r o c e s s
Example:
W h e n a trailing suction dredge has two dragheads e a c h 2.5 m w i d e , o n e can select the cutting
d e p t h of the d r a g h e a d a n d the sailing s p e e d d u r i n g d r e d g i n g .
191
In d r e d g i n g t e c l i n o l o g y , s o m e special a s p e c t s of soil m e c f i a n i c s a n d fluid m e c h a n i c s require
special attention. W i t h regard to soil m e c h a n i c s , it is no longer stability that is important, but rather
the loss of stability. W i t h regard to fluid m e c h a n i c s , flow in closed circuits and flow with e x t r e m e l y
high s e d i m e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e s u b j e c t s j u s t outside the traditional field that are n e v e r t h e l e s s
very important.
12.1 Soil m e c h a n i c s
12.1.1 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s o i l s
12.1.2 P o r o s i t y a n d b u l k d e n s i t y
Granular soil consists of a mixture of grains, air a n d water. A n important p a r a m e t e r is the porosity
{n), indicating the v o l u m e of the pores (Vp) divided by the total v o l u m e (V^). T h e estimated porosity
usually v a n e s b e t w e e n 35 a n d 4 5 % with 4 0 % . In s o m e c o u n t r i e s the ratio e=VplVg\s used,
w h i c h relates easily to the void ratio: e = n I (1 - n ) .
T a k i n g t h e density of the grains as 2 6 5 0 k g / m ' , a n d a s s u m i n g n = 4 0 % , it is e a s y to s e e that t h e
bulk d e n s i t y of dry soil is a b o u t 1 6 0 0 k g / m ' . If the v o i d s a r e s a t u r a t e d with w a t e r this i n c r e a s e s
to 2 0 0 0 k g / m ' .
193
12.1.3 P e r m e a b i l i t y
T i i e voids in a granular soil a r e linl<ed witli e a c l i other. This m e a n s that under t h e influence of a n
external f o r c e , w a t e r c a n f l o w t h r o u g h t h e voids. In fine-grained material, this is a l a m i n a r flow,
b e c a u s e t h e friction of t h e flowing w a t e r is mainly d e t e r m i n e d b y viscosity. T h e r e f o r e , t h e D a r c y
e q u a t i o n c a n be u s e d :
u, = k-i (12.1)
in w h i c h
Uf = filter velocity ( m / s )
/ = gradient of t h e static h e a d in t h e direction of flow (-)
k = p e r m e a b i l i t y coefficient ( m / s )
194
/, = 1 / 5 £ _ ^ l l _ £ ( ^ e x p 4 - l / 4 / A 7 ^ W | (12.2)
in whiicii:
dx = cliaracteristic v a l u e s f r o m grain size distribution ( m )
V = k i n e m a t i c viscosity of v\/ater (m^/s)
n = porosity (-)
g = a c c e l e r a t i o n of gravity (m/s^)
A s t h e f l o w i n g fluid e x p e r i e n c e s a friction w h e n p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e v o i d s , o n e m u s t e x p e c t
(action = reaction) that c o n v e r s e l y t h e s a m e f o r c e is e x e r t e d by t h e fluid o n t o t h e m e d i u m . T h i s
f l o w f o r c e is e q u a l to:
12.1.4 Stresses
T e r z a g h i has treated stresses in soil extensively. He defines a vertical stress level in t h e soil t h a t
is e q u a l to t h e total w e i g h t of t h e overlying soil (i.e. grains + v o i d w a t e r ) [N] d i v i d e d by t h e a r e a
[m^] that carries t h e l o a d . T h i s s t r e s s is called t h e total s t r e s s atot, or s i m p l y a. H o w e v e r , part of
t h e vertical f o r c e m u s t be t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e hydrostatic (water) p r e s s u r e , part by f o r c e s
c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e contact points b e t w e e n the grains. If the w a t e r pressure is p, this m e a n s t h a t
t h e fictitious effective s t r e s s or "grain p r e s s u r e " a-p,or.
a = a'+p (12.4)
7 „ , , = (T'?an^ + c (12.6)
T h e a b o v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a p p l y for g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l w h e r e friction f o r c e s d o m i n a t e . In f i n e r
m a t e r i a l like silt, and in particular clay, other f o r c e s ( s u c h as electrostatic l o a d s ) d o m i n a t e t h e
inter-grain behaviour. T h i s l e a d s to a n e x t r e m e situation, w h e r e the s h e a r s t r e n g t h no l o n g e r
d e p e n d s o n t h e n o r m a l s t r e s s , but e x h i b i t s a c o n s t a n t v a l u e : t h e c o h e s i o n (c). E q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 6 )
then becomes:
195
In m o s t e x a m p l e s in tliis course, w e simplify the behaviour of material with grain sizes larger t h a n
0.06 m m to a condition with c = 0 a n d (j) = 30° (non cohesive material), a n d t h o s e with g r a i n size
< 0.002 m m to c = c o n s t a n t a n d </>=0.
12.1.5 D e f o r m a t i o n s
F i g u r e 12-2 L o o s e l y p a c k e d material
F i g u r e 12-3 D e n s e l y p a c k e d material
(dilatant)
196
will be e a s y to f o r m a plane w h e r e particles c a n slide along e a c h other. If the grains are d e n s e l y
p a c k e d (Figure 12-3), grains h a v e to m o v e a w a y f r o m e a c h other before sliding c a n t a k e p l a c e .
T h i s m e a n s that the void ratio n is i n c r e a s e d . In s a t u r a t e d soil this m e a n s that w a t e r h a s to f l o w
into the slide plane. If this is h a m p e r e d by low permeability, c o n s i d e r a b l y lower p r e s s u r e m a y
o c c u r locally t h a n the original v a l u e s or the hydrostatic v a l u e .
12.1.6 Stability of s l o p e s
F i g u r e 12-4 S l i d e p l a n e c a l c u l a t i o n
197
12.2 Hydraulics
12.2.1 G e n e r a l
12.2.2 S e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t in o p e n c h a n n e l s
T h e friction that water encounters w h e n it flows along a wall must be equal to the shear f o r c e that
is e x e r t e d by t h e flowing w a t e r o n that w a l l . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the value of the b o t t o m s h e a r stress
To, or the shear velocity L/., m u s t play a role in considerations of s e d i m e n t transport. Shields found
that t h e r e is a t h r e s h o l d s h e a r stress, b e l o w w h i c h virtually no s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t t a k e s place.
T h e critical v a l u e of the Shields p a r a m e t e r y/= U*^l Agd appears to be a function of the Reynolds
n u m b e r related to the grain size U- DI v{See Figure 12-5). N o t e : A is the relative d e n s i t y of the
b o t t o m m a t e r i a l : (pgrain - Pwater)/pwater-
S,=BmU" (12.8)
in w h i c h :
6 = width of t h e c h a n n e l [m]
m = coefficient
n = coefficient (as high as 3 to 5)
U = a v e r a g e velocity [m/s]
Sb = bulk s a n d t r a n s p o r t [ m ' / s ]
F i g u r e 12-5 S h i e l d s ' c u r v e
198
0.CO02
O.CXXll
O.COOG5
0.010
0.0O9 0.00001
0.008 4 6 8^^B 2 4 6 B ^ ^ . . 4 6B^^e
- Re- UD/\>
F i g u r e 12-6 IVloody D i a g r a m
12.2.3 F l o w in c l o s e d c o n d u i t s
AU =X—— (12.9)
/IH. / t ^ 2 g ^ '
in w h i c h :
AHv = d r o p of the e n e r g y level over a d i s t a n c e L [m]
X = friction coefficient [-]
L = pipeline length u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n [m]
D = pipeline d i a m e t e r [m]
U = a v e r a g e velocity [m/s]
199
/IH, (12.10)
pipe characteristic
12.2.4 S e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t in c l o s e d c o n d u i t s
W h e n s e d i m e n t is a d d e d to w a t e r f l o w i n g in a pipeline, it is i m p o r t a n t to d e f i n e p a r a m e t e r s in
addition to t h o s e given a b o v e . T h e d i a m e t e r of the s a n d grains is t a k e n as d ( m ) , their density as
Pg, their fall velocity as w. T h e velocity of t h e m i x t u r e is defined as U^,, a n d the pipeline d i a m e t e r
a s D. T h e t r a n s p o r t c o n c e n t r a t i o n Cj is d e f i n e d as Qsand I Qtotai, in w h i c h Qsand a c c o u n t s for t h e
grain v o l u m e only. S o m e t i m e s the volumetric concentration C ^ i s u s e d . Since there is often s o m e
slip b e t w e e n t h e lowing w a t e r a n d the s l o w e r m o v i n g s a n d particles Cv m u s t be larger t h a n Cj.
T h e ratio b e t w e e n t h e t w o is called the t r a n s p o r t factor aj = C r / < 1.
200
Example:
Total
1.198 k g
or r o u n d e d off 2 0 0 kg
w h i c h is 2 0 % extra ( c o m p a r e d to the d e n s i t y of t h e w a t e r )
201
d(mm) Uarit ( m / s )
0.1 3.2
0.15 3.6
0.2 4.3
0.3 5.0
0.4 5.5
T a b l e 12-1 C r i t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s for a pipeline D = 0.65 m
S« = 2 . 5 9 - l O ^ d , - 0 . 3 7 (12.13)
and
, _d<0+d20'*' •*"d9o (12.14)
rl
For coarse sand (d>2 mm), the D u r a n d f o r m u l a s e e m s to fit better with field o b s e r v a t i o n s . T h e
g e n e r a l f o r m of this f o r m u l a is:
i^ = i^ + 1 7 6 C r - f - ( ^ r - ( ^ r (12.15)
Um ^JQO
1 5~
= \ l - ^ 2 9 4 ( ^ ] (12.16)
V Um J
202
13.1 General
13.2 Disintegration
13.2.1 S u c t i o n
13.2.2 J e t s
13.2.3 B l a d e s
203
Extensive research has been done, but only little has b e e n published (Meijer, 1976 and M i e d e m a ,
1 9 8 7 ) . It has i n d e e d b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d that it is possible to m o d e l dilatancy a n d the resulting
water under pressures and to calculate the horizontal and vertical forces on the blade (Figure 13¬
1). Results of this l<ind of r e s e a r c h c a n be applied to all kinds of chiselling tools like d r a g h e a d s ,
cutterheads, b u c k e t s , and bucket w h e e l s . It is important to note that in the c a s e of cavitation the
w a t e r depth in the d r e d g i n g a r e a largely d e t e r m i n e s the required f o r c e s a n d energy.
F i g u r e 13-1 C u t t i n g b l a d e w i t h c o n t o u r s of (neg.) w a t e r p r e s s u r e
F i g u r e 13-2 F o r c e s o n cutting b l a d e
13.3.1 M e c h a n i c a l t r a n s p o r t
13.3.2 H y d r a u l i c t r a n s p o r t
204
F i g u r e 13-3 Definition sicetch of t e r m s u s e d in tlie s u c t i o n e q u a t i o n
Pm (13.1)
(P*+4)-Pw
205
Example:
A d r e d g e with a suction pipe of 0.7 m diameter and its p u m p at the water level is dredging
at a d e p t h of 20 m . T h e m a x i m u m v a c u u m of the p u m p is 7.5 m w c , the d e n s i t y of t h e
w a t e r is 1 0 0 0 k g / m ' . W h a t is t h e o p t i m u m p r o d u c t i o n ?
U s i n g e q u a t i o n (13.1) and substituting the d a t a , w e f i n d :
1/4 7 1 * ty * Ce * 3 6 0 0 ( s e c o n d s per h o u r ) .
2.5 32 1090
3.0 29 1180
3.5 26 1250
4.0 23 1260
4.5 19 1170
13.4.1 P i p e l i n e
206
influence. T h e intersection of p u m p curve and pipeline curve gives the worl^ing point of the s y s t e m
(see F i g u r e 1 2 - 7 ) .
13.4.2 B a r g e
F i g u r e 13-4 S e t t l i n g p a r t i c l e s in s a n d trap
207
Is it wortliwhile to continue p u m p i n g to achieve a small increase in payload? This latter q u e s t i o n
c a n n o t be considered on its o w n . W h e n the barge has to sail a short distance it is easier to accept
a poor load t h a n w h e n it has to m a k e a long trip. Generally, the cycle t i m e analysis will b e u s e d
for this p r o b l e m . Note that this m e t h o d is often applied in the w r o n g w a y , taking the e m p t y vessel
as a basis for o p t i m i s a t i o n . I n s t e a d , o n e should b a s e the o p t i m i s a t i o n o n t h e v e s s e l w h e n fully
l o a d e d with w a t e r only.
13.5 Disposal
208
water. Ttiis m e a n s (see s e c t i o n 12.1.6) ttiat ttie equilibrium slope will be r e d u c e d f r o m cpXo V^^,
or if (fs= 30°, a slope of a b o u t 1:4. In m a n y c a s e s , a n a t t e m p t is m a d e to create steeper retention
b u n d s . T h e y are stable only if s e e p a g e of w a t e r c a n be p r e v e n t e d , i.e. by applying plastic
m e m b r a n e o n the inner side.
209
i
14.1 General
W o r k h o r s e s of t h e m o d e r n d r e d g e fleets are:
• trailing suction h o p p e r d r e d g e s
® cutter suction d r e d g e s .
14.2 T y p e s of dredges
14.2.1 T r a i l i n g s u c t i o n h o p p e r d r e d g e
211
14.2.2 C u t t e r s u c t i o n d r e d g e
The cutter suction d r e d g e is a stationary dredge. It is a pontoon fitted at o n e end witti a ladder that
s u p p o r t s the suction pipe a n d o n the other e n d with two s p u d s . T h e s p u d s are a n c h o r poles that
play a n i m p o r t a n t role in a n c h o r i n g the hull a n d m o v i n g it f o r w a r d d u r i n g the d r e d g i n g p r o c e s s .
T h e output of a cutter suction dredge can be approximated by looking at the p u m p power a n d the
d i a m e t e r of s u c t i o n a n d delivery pipelines. T h e larger d r e d g e s h a v e pipelines up to 0.9 m
d i a m e t e r a n d c a n p r o d u c e a w e e k l y output of up to 4 0 0 0 0 0 m ' per w e e k .
14.2.3 G r a b d r e d g e
Little can be said about grab d r e d g e s , mainly b e c a u s e they are so simple. In general the capacity
is low, a n d in a d d i t i o n , s o is t h e ability to w o r k in bad w e a t h e r .
T h e a c c u r a c y o f w o r k i n g is m o d e r a t e . A l t h o u g h the g r a b c a n b e p o s i t i o n e d a c c u r a t e l y , it is not
p o s s i b l e to finish a horizontal bed A n a d v a n t a g e is the a l m o s t unrestricted d r e d g i n g d e p t h .
14.2.4 B a c k h o e dredge
212
14.2.5 B u c k e t l a d d e r d r e d g e
T h e bucket ladder dredge is a pontoon m o o r e d on six anchors (one bow anchor, one stern a n c h o r
and four side a n c h o r s ) . It s w i n g s a r o u n d the b o w a n c h o r that is placed up to 1 k m in front of t h e
d r e d g e . W h i l e the d r e d g e is s w i n g i n g , the bucket chain turns r o u n d a n d the b u c k e t s at the l o w e r
end of t h e ladder cut t h e m s e l v e s full of soil. T h e full buckets m o v e up a l o n g t h e ladder until t h e y
d i s c h a r g e their load a s t h e y t o p p l e o v e r at t h e upper e n d . T h e soil then f l o w s by gravity a l o n g a
chute into a b a r g e m o o r e d a l o n g s i d e t h e d r e d g e .
14.2.6 P l a i n s u c t i o n d r e d g e
T h e plain suction d r e d g e is again a pontoon equipped with a ladder that supports the suction pipe.
Unlike t h e cutter s u c t i o n d r e d g e , it h a s no m e c h a n i c a l tool to disintegrate t h e soil in front of t h e
suction m o u t h a l t h o u g h m o s t m o d e r n plain suction d r e d g e s a r e e q u i p p e d with p o w e r f u l j e t
nozzles.
T h e d r e d g e is f i x e d b y 4 to 6 a n c h o r s a n d s o f o r m s an o b s t r u c t i o n to n a v i g a t i o n . B e c a u s e t h e
suction pipe m o v e s a r o u n d in a n a r e a with liquefied s a n d , the risk that the suction m o u t h hits t h e
b o t t o m is not t o o great, a n d its vulnerability to w a v e action is m o d e r a t e .
D i s c h a r g e of d r e d g e d material is m o s t l y by pipeline, s o m e t i m e s by b a r g e .
T h e w e e k l y o u t p u t is c o m p a r a b l e to t h e o u t p u t of the cutter s u c t i o n d r e d g e .
14.2.7 B a r g e u n l o a d i n g d r e d g e
213
15.1 C o s t
15.1.1 G e n e r a l
M e t h o d s u s e d to d e t e r m i n e p r o d u c t i o n h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d ; h o w e v e r , m e t h o d s for t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e cost of e q u i p m e n t h a v e not yet b e e n t r e a t e d .
® D e p r e c i a t i o n a n d interest
e M a i n t e n a n c e a n d repair
e Labour
® Fuel a n d lubricants
• Insurance
• S u r c h a r g e for c o m p a n y o v e r h e a d s
• S u r c h a r g e for profit a n d risi<
15.1.2 D e p r e c i a t i o n a n d i n t e r e s t
A n y organisation that invests in dredging e q u i p m e n t will be faced with the payment of interest o v e r
the i n v e s t m e n t cost. W h e n the p u r c h a s e of e q u i p m e n t is for a o n e - t i m e a c t i v i t y the o r g a n i s a t i o n
m u s t also recover the cost of that i n v e s t m e n t in that worl<, w h e n it is a c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n , t h e
o r g a n i s a t i o n n e e d s to replace the e q u i p m e n t after its e c o n o m i c or t e c h n i c a l life h a s e n d e d .
215
15.1.3 M a i n t e n a n c e a n d r e p a i r
15.1.4 L a b o u r
15.1.5 F u e l a n d l u b r i c a n t s
15.1.6 I n s u r a n c e
15.1.7 O v e r h e a d s
15.1.8 Profit a n d r i s k
W h e n the contractor feels that a project involves m o r e than the s t a n d a r d risks, he will a s s e s s the
extra risks and include a provision in his tender offer. O n e m a y not e x p e c t that the c o n t r a c t o r will
deliberately u n d e r e s t i m a t e the risk, certainly not if he feels that the e m p l o y e r is t r a n s f e r r i n g risks
that are completely beyond the influence of the contractor. E x a m p l e s of risks beyond the influence
of t h e c o n t r a c t o r are:
• siltation d u r i n g e x e c u t i o n of the w o r k s
• rate of e x c h a n g e
216
® c h a n g e s in sales tax or cost of fuel
® issuing of certain licenses, etc.
In s u c h c a s e s the e m p l o y e r m u s t carefully c o n s i d e r w h i c h risks h e w a n t s to t r a n s f e r to t h e
contractor, a n d w h i c h risks h e is willing to bear himself. If the b u d g e t e s t i m a t e by the e m p l o y e r
a n d the l o w e s t offer b y a t e n d e r e r differ considerably, d i s c u s s i o n m a y r e v e a l that the d i f f e r e n c e
is c a u s e d by o v e r - e s t i m a t i o n of certain risk a s p e c t s in the v i e w of the e m p l o y e r . A solution m a y
be f o u n d by re-writing the conditions of contract that give rise to the d i f f e r e n c e . O n the a v e r a g e ,
a n e m p l o y e r will be better off if he d o e s not transfer too m a n y risks to the contractor, unless t h e
contractor h a s a n influence o n the matter.
15.1.9 O t h e r c o s t e l e m e n t s
Apart f r o m the w e e k l y operating cost of the direct equipment, there are c h a r g e s for the site office,
including s u r v e y e q u i p m e n t , s u r v e y crew, project m a n a g e m e n t , provisional i t e m s for the
employer.
15.1.10 R e v i e w
15.2 Contracts
A s dredging work is a very international activity and d e m a n d s a highly specialised type of contract-
ing, t h e u s e of s t a n d a r d national conditions of contract d o e s not a l w a y s lead to s a t i s f a c t o r y
results. T h e r e f o r e , FIDIC conditions of contract are often u s e d for international dredging projects.
W h e n u s i n g t h o s e g e n e r a l conditions of contract, o n e m u s t realise that t h e s e conditions i m p o s e
v e r y strict a n d specific t a s k s a n d roles on the s h o u l d e r s of e m p l o y e r , e n g i n e e r a n d contractor.
T h o u g h specially written for large international c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t r a c t s , the F I D I C c o n d i t i o n s a r e
not always e a s y to apply to d r e d g i n g j o b s . T h e International Association of D r e d g i n g C o m p a n i e s
h a s t h e r e f o r e p r o d u c e d a n u m b e r of useful hints for u s e r s of the FIDIC c o n d i t i o n s of c o n t r a c t
(Anonymous, 1990).
217
LECTURE BOOKS
Tectinology.
of T e c h n o l o g y .
Technology.
OTHER PUBLICATIONS
219
A n o n y m o u s (1995), " B a s i s r a p p o r t Z a n d i g e K u s t " (in Dutch), T e c h n i s c h e A d v i e s c o m m i s s i e voor
de Waterl<eringen, c/o Rijl<swaterstaat D W W , Delft, T h e N e t h e r l a n d s .
220
M e h a u t e , B. Le (1969), "An Introduction to H y d r o d y n a m i c s a n d W a t e r W a v e s " , W a t e r W a v e
T h e o r i e s , V o l . II, T R E R L 1 1 8 - P O L - 3 - 2 , US D e p a r t m e n t of C o m m e r c e , E S S A , W a s h i n g t o n D.C.
M i c h e , R. ( 1 9 4 4 ) , " M o u v e m e n t s O n d u l a t o i r e s d e la m e r e n p r o f o n d e u r constante ou
d e c r o i s s a n t e " , A n n . D e s Ponts et C h a u s s e e s , 114, Paris.
S t e i n , W . ( 1 9 7 4 ) , " W e e r k u n d e v o o r z e i l e r s en m o t o r b o o t s c h i p p e r s " ( T r a n s l a t e d in D u t c h by
De Bruin a n d T e n K a t e ) , Hollandia b.v., B a a r n , the N e t h e r l a n d s
221
Appendix 1 H I S T O R Y O F O U R S O L A R S Y S T E M
Interstellar s p a c e contains v a s t a m o u n t s of g a s , of w h i c h 9 9 % c o n s i s t s of h y d r o g e n a n d h e l i u m
a t o m s T h e s e g a s e s f r e q u e n t l y a c c u m u l a t e into m o r e or less c o h e r e n t c l o u d s or n e b u l a e (Latin
f o r clouds or mist). O n e s u c h nebula is believed to h a v e c o l l a p s e d in r e s p o n s e to gravity to f o r m
o u r solar s y s t e m . Its initial m a s s w a s p r o b a b l y slightly greater t h a n t h e p r e s e n t m a s s of o u r s u n
( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2*1 o ' ° k g ) .
W h i l e the proto-sun w a s undergoing the final stages of contraction, the flat disc of g a s , solids, a n d
liquids s p i n n i n g a r o u n d it, w a s f o r m i n g into planets. T h e p l a n e t s a r e believed to h a v e g r o w n
t h r o u g h a steady process of accretion in w h i c h dust particles, m o l e c u l e s , and a t o m s at first j o i n e d
t o g e t h e r to f o r m larger b o d i e s , w h i c h in t u m c o a l e s c e d into larger a n d larger b o d i e s . In t i m e ,
223
t h r o u g h collision a n d gravitational attraction, t h e s e bodies d e v e l o p e d into w h a t w e call p l a n e t s .
R e a s o n s to regard this scenario as plausible are many. T h e orbits of the planets lie in roughly the
s a m e plane (except Uranus, Figure A 1 - 2 ) , and they revolve a r o u n d the sun in the s a m e direction
a n d in virtually circular orbits ( e x c e p t Pluto). It s e e m s lil<ely that t h e s e highly regular orbital
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g the c o l l a p s e of the n e b u l a , before the planets f o r m e d .
grnvitalioml
forces
simUer bodies
condense, heal up,
become spherical
local eddies
and in$tabilities
Venus
Mercury a O
Phiio '
planetoids—lacking enough
mass to get together
224
W h e r e did the w a t e r n o w c o n t a i n e d in the Earth's o c e a n s a n d a t m o s p h e r e c o m e f r o m ? T h e
a n s w e r lies in the a s s u m p t i o n that v o l c a n o e s w e r e a b u n d a n t early in t h e Earth's history a n d t h a t
i m p a c t s by m e t e o r s c a u s e d g a s e s to e s c a p e f r o m t h e Earth's s u r f a c e . V o l c a n i c g a s e s c o n s i s t
m a i n l y o f w a t e r v a p o r , nitrogen g a s , a n d c a r b o n dioxide. If the s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e of the early
Earth h a d b e e n a b o u t the s a m e a s it is now, the w a t e r v a p o u r w o u l d h a v e c o n d e n s e d to liquid
w a t e r a n d the nitrogen g a s a n d c a r b o n dioxide w o u l d h a v e f o r m e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e .
F i g u r e A 1 - 2 P l a n e t a r y o r b i t s a r o u n d the s u n ( G r o t e B o s a t l a s )
W a t e r v a p o r m a y a l s o h a v e b e e n r e l e a s e d w h e n t h e i m p a c t of m e t e o r s r a i s e d t h e s u r f a c e
t e m p e r a t u r e of the early Earth high e n o u g h to melt the outer layers. If t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h o s e
layers w e r e similar to that of m e t e o r i t e s , w h i c h c o n t a i n a b o u t 0 . 5 % w a t e r , m e l t i n g w o u l d h a v e
r e l e a s e d large a m o u n t s of w a t e r vapor. A s t i m e p a s s e d , t h e f r e q u e n c y o f i m p a c t s w o u l d h a v e
d e c l i n e d , s i n c e the m e t e o r s n e a r t h e Earth w o u l d h a v e c o l l i d e d w i t h it early in its history. T h e
Earth w o u l d have s u b s e q u e n t l y c o o l e d , a n d the water v a p o r w o u l d h a v e c o n d e n s e d , contributing
to the f o r m a t i o n of the o c e a n . V o l c a n i c activity has p r o b a b l y c o n t i n u e d to increase the v o l u m e of
w a t e r in the o c e a n . Still, it is not c o m p l e t e l y clear h o w t h e o c e a n s got their p r e s e n t v o l u m e .
225
C o p i e d f r o m J . P . d e n Hartog "IVlechanics"
C H A R T E R XVI
54. Introduction.
228
of the m o v i n g c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m and lay the x ' a n d y ' a x e s f i x e d in the vehicle (Fig. 2 6 2 ) . T h e n
t h e O'x'y' c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m m o v e s parallel to itself in a c u r v e d path w i t h the vehicle. Let t h e
d i s t a n c e 1 - 1 ' be the d i s t a n c e traveled by the vehicle point 1 in t i m e At in its c u r v e d path. If At b e
m a d e small the piece of path 1-1' b e c o m e s a l m o s t straight, and the d i s t a n c e 1-1' c a n be written
as v^At w h e r e is t h e a v e r a g e velocity of point 1 of t h e v e h i c l e d u r i n g t h e t i m e At.
Similarly t h e d i s t a n c e 1-2 c a n be written VrAt a n d 1-2' b e c o m e s VeAt. W e h a v e s e e n that t h e s e
d i s p l a c e m e n t s satisfy the vector e q u a t i o n
V, + v „ = v „
or in w o r d s :
For a non-rotating vehicle the a b s o l u t e v e l o c i t y is the v e c t o r s u m of t h e relative a n d v e h i c l e
velocities.
o
Fig.262. The v e h i c l e and i t s v a r i o u s v e l o c i t i e s shown
i n two c o n s e c u t i v e p o s i t i o n s , a t t = 0 and a t t= A t
229
totally different f r o m t h e directions o f t h e velocities. F r o m the g e o m e t r y o f Figs. 2 6 2 a n d 2 6 3 w e
d e d u c e that At is t h e v e c t o r s u m of At a n d At, by the following p r o c e s s :
+
(^n + + i^K = {Vr2' + K2')
Therefore
and
'^a = Vr+Vv (31)
FiQ. 263. The velocities of Fig. 262 reassembled into one figure.
Before p r o c e e d i n g , t h e reader should satisfy himself that the validity of this proof d e p e n d s o n t h e
f a c t that in F i g . 2 6 2 t h e vehicle velocities of points 1 ' a n d 2' are t h e s a m e . If t h e s e velocities a r e
different, w h i c h is t h e c a s e f o r a rotating v e h i c l e , t h e f o r m u l a ( 3 1 ) is f a l s e .
or in w o r d s :
230
N e w t o n ' s l a w m a y b e a p p l i e d to the relative a c c e l e r a t i o n s of a m o v i n g , non-rotating
c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m , if only w e a d d to e a c h m a s s e l e m e n t d m a fictitious or s u p p l e m e n t a r y
f o r c e of m a g n i t u d e -v,^i d m .
N e w t o n ' s l a w s a p p l y w i t h o u t a n y c o r r e c t i o n to c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s m o v i n g at u n i f o r m
v e l o c i t y , b e c a u s e t h e vehicle a c c e l e r a t i o n f or s u c h a c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m is z e r o .
231
to the velocity pole of a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l motion only w h e n the a c c e l e r a t i o n v e c t o r of that
v e l o c i t y pole p a s s e s t h r o u g h the c e n t e r of gravity.
W e c a n d e s c r i b e the motion with reference to a vehicle or coordinate s y s t e m with its origin in the
c e n t e r of gravity of the plane a n d with its x y z - a x e s pointing n o r t h , w e s t , a n d up. W i t h r e s p e c t to
this s y s t e m N e w t o n ' s laws hold, p r o v i d e d that s u p p l e m e n t a r y f o r c e s 5g d m a r e applied
centrifugally. T h e center of the plane a p p e a r s at rest, a n d the plane t u r n s with r e s p e c t to o u r
c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m . It is only w h e n w e insist o n c h o o s i n g a c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m with t h e a x i s
directions fixed to the plane instead of to s p a c e that t h e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h e o r y of t h e next
article m u s t be a p p l i e d .
56. R o t a t i n g V e h i c l e s ; C o r i o l i s ' L a w .
232
y
233
F I G . 266. Toward the proof
of Coriolis' theorem. A point
F I G . 265. The first special moving along a radial track
case of the proof of Coriolis' on a rotating table is shown in
theorem: a rotating table with two consecutive positions 1
a radial track. and 2 ' with all its velocity
components.
and
Av 2
— = -co r
At
S O that
,. Av 2
1/
^radial
.. . =
= Mm
lim— = - CO T
At
In t h e direction p e r p e n d i c u l a r to 0 1 2 w e h a v e
and
I'.ang = l i m — = 2C0V^
T h e a b s o l u t e a c c e l e r a t i o n is t h u s s e e n to c o n s i s t of t w o c o m p o n e n t s : an o u t w a r d radial o n e of
m a g n i t u d e - ö ^ r (which is a centripetal o n e of +ö^r), a n d a t a n g e n t i a l o n e to t h e right of 2ca/r- T h e
first of t h e s e is the v e h i c l e a c c e l e r a t i o n ; t h e s e c o n d o n e is s o m e t h i n g new; it is k n o w n a s t h e
"Coriolis acceleration," after its inventor Coriolis ( 1 7 9 2 - 1 8 4 3 ) . T h u s , w e see that this special c a s e
satisfies t h e f o l l o w i n g rule:
234
T h e a b s o l u t e a c c e l e r a t i o n is the v e c t o r s u m of three c o m p o n e n t s : the relative a c c e l e r a t i o n ,
the v e h i c l e a c c e l e r a t i o n , a n d the C o r i o l i s a c c e l e r a t i o n . T h e C o r i o l i s a c c e l e r a t i o n h a s t h e
m a g n i t u d e 2(0Vri, w h e r e v,x i s the c o m p o n e n t of the relative v e l o c i t y p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e
a x i s of v e h i c l e rotation. T h e C o r i o l i s a c c e l e r a t i o n is directed p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the v^ v e c t o r
a n d a l s o p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the © v e c t o r of the v e h i c l e .
F i g . 2 6 8 . The t h i r d s p e c i a l
c a s e o f C o r i o l i s ' theorem: a
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t r a c k on a
rotating table
T h e reader should n o w repeat the reasoning for the three special cases (Figs. 2 6 5 , 2 6 7 , a n d 268),
d r o p p i n g the a s s u m p t i o n that © a n d i/^, a r e c o n s t a n t s , a n d introducing the a c c e l e r a t i o n s m a n d
, in addition to the velocities co a n d . He s h o u l d v e r i f y that the results in all c a s e s c o n f o r m
to the general rule of t h e previous p a g e .
236
For a n o n - r o t a t i n g v e i i i c l e of w t i i c h ttie origin m o v e s , t h e g e n e r a l rule of p a g e 9 r e d u c e s to t h e
special o n e of p a g e 4 , b e c a u s e t h e Coriolis a c c e l e r a t i o n is z e r o . For a v e h i c l e w h i c h not o n l y
rotates, but of w h i c h t h e origin m o v e s at t h e s a m e t i m e , w e h a v e a s u p e r p o s i t i o n of t h e t w o
p r e v i o u s c a s e s a n d t h e g e n e r a l rule of p a g e 9 still h o l d s , a l t h o u g h w e will not p r o v e it h e r e .
F i g . 270.
x = Xg. + x'cos(f>-y'sin<l)
Differentiation gives
E x a m i n i n g t h e b r a c k e t s o n t h e right of t h e x a n d y e x p r e s s i o n s , w e s e e that t h e y m e a n t h e
a b s o l u t e velocities of a point P, w h e n P is f i x e d with r e s p e c t to O'x'y'. These then are what w e
h a v e called t h e "vehicle velocities," by t h e definition of p a g e 2 9 6 . T h e p a r e n t h e s e s in t h e a b o v e
e x p r e s s i o n s a r e t h e velocities of point P w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e c o o r d i n a t e s O'x'y'. Thus the a b o v e
e q u a t i o n s state in w o r d s that t h e a b s o l u t e v e l o c i t y c o m p o n e n t s are t h e s u m s of t h e v e h i c l e a n d
relative v e l o c i t y c o m p o n e n t s .
237
Rearranging,
+ (x'cos^^-y'sin^*) +
- 2 ( y ( x ' s i n ( * + y'cos(d)
57. Applications
a. E a s t e r l y a n d W e s t e r l y D e v i a t i o n s of P r o j e c t i l e s .
Imagine a vertical m i n e shaft a mile d e e p , located near t h e equator. If a p l u m b line is h a n g i n g in
t h e shaft a n d a s t o n e is d r o p p e d f r o m rest n e x t to it, t h e s t o n e will n o t fall parallel to t h e p l u m b
line, but will deviate in an easterly direction. T h e r e a s o n for this a p p e a r s in Fig. 2 7 1 , w h i c h s h o w s
t h e earth w h e n l o o k e d d o w n u p o n f r o m t h e N o r t h P o l e . T h e s u n a p p e a r s to us to run f r o m e a s t
to w e s t ; h e n c e t h e earth rotates f r o m w e s t to east.
4 Only example a has been copied here, since it is the only example relevant to the theory of Coriolis
applied to the earth rotation
238
Equator
L o o k i n g o n t i i e p t i e n o m e n o n f r o m a n o u t s i d e or a b s o l u t e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m , w e s e e that t h e
s t o n e , before failing, m o v e s easterly with the peripheral s p e e d of the equator. T h e b o t t o m of t h e
m i n e pit m o v e s a little slower, being closer to the center of the earth. W h e n the stone is d r o p p e d ,
the only force acting o n it is m g d o w n w a r d , so that the (absolute) acceleration in any direction but
t h e d o w n w a r d o n e is z e r o . H e n c e t h e stone k e e p s ; o n going easterly at its original s p e e d a n d
o v e r t a k e s the b o t t o m of t h e pit.
y = IcoQt
a n d integrated t w i c e
y = « g — + C , f + C2 = (og—
239
a westerly velocity. O n reactiing ttie eartti again ttiere will be a westerly deviation. T t i e calculation
is exactly lil<e that of the falling s t o n e , only -v = v,-gt, instead of v = gt.
240
A3.1 T h e first s t e p s
T h e high f l o o d s of the late m i d d l e a g e s c h a n g e d the m a p of the N e t h e r l a n d s c o n s i d e r a b l y . In
m a n y p l a c e s , the p e a t f o r m a t i o n s w e r e e r o d e d a n d large inland lakes a n d tidal b a s i n s w e r e
f o r m e d . Peat w a s also extensively u s e d for the w i n n i n g of salt a n d for heating p u r p o s e s , leaving
s c a r s on the l a n d s c a p e . In addition to that, the local rural population had b e e n working
continuously to reclaim f a r m l a n d f r o m t h e s e a by building an infrastructure of dikes a n d d r a i n a g e
facilities.
241
F i g u r e A3-1 K l o p p e n b u r g a n d P a d d e g o n , 1848 (left) a n d V a n D i g g e l e n , 1849 (right)
242
F i g u r e A 3 - 4 W e n m a e l ^ e r s , 1 8 6 3 - 1 8 8 3 (left) a n d B u m a , 1 8 8 2 - 1 8 8 3 (right)
A 3 . 2 L e i y a n d the Z u i d e r z e e v e r e n i g i n g
T h e i n t e r e s t e d individuals, k e p t alive t h e idea f o r a c l o s u r e a n d c o m m e r c i a l r e c l a m a t i o n of t h e
Z u i d e r z e e a n d t h e y e s t a b l i s h e d the Z u i d e r z e e v e r e n i g i n g ( Z u i d e r z e e A s s o c i a t i o n ) . T h i s w a s a
private a s s o c i a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d in 1886 for the p u r p o s e of studying the t e c h n i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c
feasibility of a c l o s u r e and partial or c o m p l e t e reclamation of the Z u i d e r z e e , the W a d d e n z e e a n d
243
the L a u w e r s z e e . M e m b e r s of the association w e r e individuals, politicians and representatives of
p r o v i n c e s a n d municipalities. It w a s quite difficult to raise the f u n d s r e q u i r e d for the studies, but
by t h e e n d of 1886, the A s s o c i a t i o n could a p p o i n t t w o e n g i n e e r s : ir. J . V a n der T o o r n , a s e n i o r
e n g i n e e r f r o m Rijkswaterstaat and the m u c h y o u n g e r ir. C. LeIy. S o o n , V a n d e r T o o r n r e s i g n e d
f r o m the f u n c t i o n , to leave the supervision of the studies to LeIy ( s e e Figure A 3 - 5 ) .
F i g u r e A 3 - 5 Ir. C . L e I y at o l d e r a g e
A s to the exact location of the closing dike, the report indicated that the tidal inlet near Den Helder
w a s too d e e p to close. T h i s being so, it w o u l d be logical to c o n n e c t t h e closing d i k e to t h e s h o r e
of N o o r d Holland in the vicinity of the island W i e r i n g e n . T h e report a l s o c o n s i d e r s w h e t h e r t h e
River IJssel s h o u l d be p e r m i t t e d to d i s c h a r g e into the n e w l y f o r m e d b a s i n , or to c o n s t r u c t t h e
c l o s i n g d a m in s u c h a position that the river could still flow into t h e o p e n s e a . O n the b a s i s of
o b s e r v a t i o n s it w a s c o n c l u d e d that the s e d i m e n t carried by the IJssel w o u l d not p o s e a p r o b l e m
for t h e basin, on the contrary, the fresh water w o u l d be an asset. F u r t h e r m o r e the n e w inland lake
w o u l d protect t h e c o a s t l i n e of the land a r o u n d the lake a n d p r o v i d e better d r a i n a g e facilities.
L a k e s between the n e w polders a n d the historic land should prevent an u n w a n t e d lowering of the
g r o u n d w a t e r table in the old land. T h e option to construct a railway line f r o m A m s t e r d a m to
L e e u w a r d e n via t h e e n c l o s i n g dike w a s m e n t i o n e d . T h e only d i s a d v a n t a g e that w a s f o r e s e e n
w a s the d a m a g e to the till then flourishing fisheries in the Z u i d e r z e e . T h e report c o n c l u d e d t h a t
244
the cost of the r e c l a i m e d land w o u l d be in the order of Dfl 1000 per h e c t a r e , w h i c h w a s
c o n s i d e r e d very r e a s o n a b l e .
S u m m a r i s i n g , the anticipated a d v a n t a g e s w e r e :
• C r e a t i o n of g o o d quality f a r m l a n d
• I m p r o v e m e n t of the protection against flooding
® E n h a n c e m e n t of traffic c o n n e c t i o n s
• C r e a t i o n of a f r e s h w a t e r b a s i n
a n d the d i s a d v a n t a g e s :
9 loss of fisheries
245
by the Nobel prize winner in physics, Prof. Lorentz w a s charged with the conduction of a study into
t h e e f f e c t s of the closure o n the future tide levels a n d s t o r m s u r g e levels north of the Afsluitdijl<.
L o r e n t z d e v e l o p e d a m a t h e m a t i c a l t e c h n i q u e for tidal calculations b a s e d on linearisation of the
q u a d r a t i c t e r m s in the equation of m o t i o n , a m e t h o d that r e m a i n e d in use for m a n y y e a r s . T h e
results w e r e u n e x p e c t e d in the s e n s e that the calculations s h o w e d an i n c r e a s e in the c u r r e n t
velocities in t h e tidal inlets to the W a d d e n S e a , w h e r e a s a d e c r e a s e w a s e x p e c t e d . A f t e r
c o m p l e t i o n of the w o r k s , the predictions by Lorentz p r o v e d surprisingly a c c u r a t e .
T h e progress of the w o r k s w a s slow. S o o n after the start on the w e s t side of the closure d a m , the
e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s d e t e r i o r a t e d , a n d the w o r k s w e r e s u s p e n d e d . Only t h o s e activities that
s e r v e d to protect partially c o m p l e t e d s e c t i o n s of the w o r k could be c o n t i n u e d , w h i c h m e a n t that
in f a c t only t h e d i k e c o n n e c t i n g the island of W i e r i n g e n to the m a i n l a n d w a s built. T h i s situation
lasted until 1 9 2 5 , w h e n again a decision w a s taken to g o a h e a d . In 1926, a contract w a s s i g n e d
with a joint venture of four of the largest contractors in the country, the Maatschappij tot Uitvoering
d e r Z u i d e r z e e w e r k e n ( M U Z ) . T h e M U Z also w o n the contract for the polder dike a r o u n d t h e first
p o l d e r in L a k e IJssel: the W i e r i n g e r m e e r p o l d e r . Partners in the M U Z w e r e :
• V a n H a t t u m e n B l a n k e v o o r t (later Stevin G r o u p a n d t h e still w o r k i n g C o m p a n y of V o l k e r
Wessels Stevin)
• H o l l a n d s c h e A a n n e m i n g M a a t s c h a p p i j (working c o m p a n y of H B G )
« Bos
e L. V o l k e r . (later A d r i a a n V o l k e r a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y V o l k e r W e s s e l s Stevin)
246
In 1932, the Afsluitdijk w a s closed. T h e reclamation of the NE polder (Noordoostpolder) continued
slowly during W o r l d W a r II, giving shelter to m a n y refugees and m e m b e r s of the resistance. It w a s
e n v i s a g e d that the s e q u e n c e of land reclamation should continue with the reclamation of the S E
polder ( n o w n a m e d Flevoland). B e c a u s e of the t r e m e n d o u s size of this polder, it w a s d e c i d e d to
split it in t w o parts, building a separation d a m f r o m Hardenwijk to the present location of Lelystad.
T h e Eastern part w a s c o m p l e t e d in 1957. A t that t i m e there w a s a discussion about the s e q u e n c e
of the remaining works. It w a s considered advantageous to c o n s t r u c t the SW polder
( M a r k e n w a a r d ) first, s o t h a t the r e m a i n i n g part of the S E polder c o u l d be c o n s t r u c t e d in its l e e .
Actually, a start w a s m a d e with t h e dikes a r o u n d the M a r k e n w a a r d , but in 1959, for r e a s o n s of
spatial p l a n n i n g it w a s d e c i d e d that Flevoland s h o u l d be c o m p l e t e d first. T h e S o u t h e r n part o f
Flevoland could thus help and r e d u c e the need for s p a c e in the region b e t w e e n A m s t e r d a m a n d
A m e r s f o o r t . T h e c h a n g e of plans c a n clearly b e s e e n in the l a n d s c a p e : t h e dike on the N W s i d e
of Flevoland (from Lelystad to A m s t e r d a m ) consists partly of the dike that w a s m e a n t to s u r r o u n d
t h e M a r k e r w a a r d . T h e locks at Lelystad (Houtribsluizen) w e r e also c o m p l e t e d , anticipating t h e
creation of an inland w a t e r w a y f r o m A m s t e r d a m to the o p e n part of L a k e IJssel. After c o m p l e t i o n
of S. F l e v o l a n d in 1 9 6 8 , t h e priorities had c h a n g e d s o m u c h that the M a r k e r w a a r d w a s not
r e c l a i m e d at all. T h e dike f r o m Enkhuizen to Lelystad w a s still built, the p u r p o s e being to i m p r o v e
the water m a n a g e m e n t in Lake IJssel rather than reclamation of the polder. From time to t i m e t h e
d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t the M a r k e r w a a r d a n d its r e c l a m a t i o n is r e s u m e d , usually in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
finding a n e w location for A m s t e r d a m Airport.
F i g u r e A 3 - 6 C r o s s - s e c t i o n of the Afsluitdijk
247
F i g u r e A 3 - 8 C l o s u r e Afsluitdijk w i t h B o u l d e r C l a y
248
F i g u r e A 3 - 9 Afsluitdijk, final s t a g e
A 3 . 5 T h e w o r k s in hindsight
If the p l a n s of 1891 a r e c o m p a r e d to t h e final layout as built, it is r e m a r k a b l e h o w well t h e s e
d e s i g n studies w e r e carried out. W i t h r e s p e c t to t h e anticipated a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e s
in h i n d s i g h t , it c a n b e c o n c l u d e d that the project h a d a t r e m e n d o u s positive i n f l u e n c e on s a f e t y
a n d o n t h e traffic c o n n e c t i o n s . D u e to global e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t s , the c r e a t i o n of armland
is no longer c o n s i d e r e d s o important, although the s p a c e c r e a t e d has b e e n u s e d to solve m a n y
planning d i l e m m a s in t h e country. T h e availability of a large f r e s h water basin has b e c o m e m o r e
i m p o r t a n t than w a s e v e r f o r e s e e n . Eventually, t h e fishing industry did not suffer as m u c h as v.as
feared b e c a u s e f i s h e r i e s c o n t i n u e d in t h e f r e s h - w a t e r lake. C o m p l e t e l y u n f o r e s e e n w a s t h e
p r e s e n t role of L a k e IJssel for r e c r e a t i o n . It is interesting to s e e h o w t e c h n i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s in
mobility of p e o p l e (bike - m o t o r bike - car) influence the spatial planning c o n c e p t s in the v a r i o u s
polders.
249
Appendix 4 D E L T A P R O J E C
A4.1 History
During the night of 31 January to 1 February 1953, a severe storm passed over the N o * S e a a n d
c a u s e d h a v o c along the coasts of the s o u t h e r n North S e a . In the N e t h e r l a n d s , o v e r 1800 p e o p l e
died a n d large a r e a s ( 1 3 4 0 km^) of the S W part of the c o u n t r y w e r e f l o o d e d . A t sonrie locations
including t h e vulnerable dike of the H o l l a n d s c h e IJssel that protects t h e h e a r t of the country,
b r e a c h i n g of the dikes could j u s t b e p r e v e n t e d .
A 4 . 2 D e s i g n of the D e l t a P r o j e c t
T h e s t o r m disaster m a y not in itself h a v e b e e n entirely u n e x p e c t e d , a n d t h e r e a f t e r , swift a c t i o n
w a s t a k e n A f e w w e e k s after the e x t e n s i v e f l o o d i n g , the Delta C o m m i t t e e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d , its
t a s k s being to advise the Minister a b o u t m e a s u r e s to be taken in connection with the disaster a n d
to i n d i c a t e the w a t e r levels a n d other b o u n d a r y conditions t h a t s h o u l d b e u s e d w h e n u p g r a d i n g
the coastal d e f e n c e s in the entire country. Closure of tidal inlets w a s not e x c l u d e d , although it w a s
a c c e p t e d t h a t the e n t r a n c e s to t h e ports of R o t t e r d a m a n d A n t w e r p s h o u l d r e m a i n o p e n .
251
M a y 1953 C o n s t r u c t i o n of a s t o r m s u r g e barrier in the H o l l a n d s c h e IJssel
February 1954 C l o s u r e of the tidal inlets (Delta Project)
J a n u a r y 1955 T h r e e Island Plan ( C l o s u r e of V e e r s e Gat a n d Z a n d k r e e k ) .
A l t h o u g h the final report did not a p p e a r before 1960, the interim reports f o r m e d the basis for the
legislation c o m p r i s i n g the c l o s u r e of the inlets in the S W part of the country. T h e Delta L a w
p a s s e d t h r o u g h P a r l i a m e n t ( T w e e d e K a m e r ) on N o v e m b e r 5, 1957, a n d w a s published o n M a y
8, 1 9 5 8 .
252
(Rhine) w a t e r . Last but not least, n e w lock c o m p l e x e s in the V o l k e r a k ^^^ZilTnoZZTe
w o u l d facilitate the inland fairway from Rotterdam to A n t w e r p , honouring an already long o v e r d u e
c o m m i t m e n t to B e l g i u m .
1955 18 000
Haringvliet .
1955 2.4 30 000
Brouwerhavense Gat
1955 2.8 90 000
T a b l e A4-1 T i d e data of c l o s u r e s in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s
T O r e d u c e the current velocities during the final closure, it w a s advised that the f c h a r g e sluices
s h o u l d b e built prior to t h e actual closures a n d that t h e capacity of the sluices should b e u s e d to
divert s o m e of the w a t e r in t h e final critical s t a g e s .
253
Finally, t h e C o m m i t t e e s t r e s s e d the n e e d to a p p l y n e w t e c h n o l o g y a n d to carry out r e s e a r c h by
u s i n g all m o d e r n m e a n s .
M
A- ^
.jr. ^
W
L i e ! - U
254
H o l l a n d s c h e llssel
V e e r e g a t en
kreek
Grevelingen
Volkerak
Haringvliet
Brouwers-
havensche G a t
Oosterschelde
F i g u r e A 4 - 2 T i m e s c h e d u l e c o n s t r u c t i o n Delta W o r k s
A 4 . 3 T h e e x e c u t i o n of t h e w o r k s
For the m a n a g e m e n t of the Delta project, a s e p a r a t e entity the Deltadienst within Rijkswaterstaat
w a s f o r m e d : . Within this d e p a r t m e n t , units w e r e established for the design and supervision of t h e
w o r k s , a n d for t h e r e s e a r c h that h a d to be carried out to m a k e the w o r k s f e a s i b l e . For m a n y
y e a r s , t h e " W a t e r l o o p k u n d i g e A f d e l i n g " g u i d e d the long t e r m r e s e a r c h , v a r y i n g f r o m field
o b s e r v a t i o n s to all kinds of m o d e l tests a n d calculations.
Following the s e q u e n c e of the w o r k s , highlights that are characteristic for e a c h closure, along with
t h e s p i n - o f f that w a s g e n e r a t e d , will be m e n t i o n e d .
® S t o r m s u r g e barrier H o l l a n d s c h e IJssel
Flow profile 8 0 x 6.5 m ; s p a n of 8 0 m v e r y large in 1956
Lock 120m X 2 4 m
• Zandkreek
Lock: 140m x 2 0 m
C l o s u r e : Unit c a i s s o n s ( c l o s e d type)
255
® Veerse Gat
S e a d i k e : e x t e n s i v e u s e of a s p l i a l t - c o n c r e t e r e v e t m e n t in p e r m a n e n t structure
C l o s u r e : first e x p e r i e n c e witli (7) d i s c h a r g e c a i s s o n s ( d o o r l a a t c a i s s o n )
First large scale application of geotextile for s c o u r protection
® Grevelingen
Lock 125m x 16m
Closure:
N. g a p : e x p e r i m e n t a l g r a d u a l vertical c l o s u r e with cable cars
S. g a p : Unit c a i s s o n s ( c l o s e d type)
• Volkerak
D a m f r o m O v e r - F l a k k e e to Hellegatsplein: first e x p e r i m e n t a l s a n d c l o s u r e s
2 locks e a c h 3 2 6 m x 2 4 m !
C l o s u r e : (12) d i s c h a r g e c a i s s o n s ( d o o r l a a t c a i s s o n )
® Haringvliet
D i s c h a r g e sluice
C o n s t r u c t e d in situ in a n artificial d o c k island 5 6 0 X 1 4 0 0 m
Pile f o u n d a t i o n
17 o p e n i n g s of 56.5 m w i d t h e a c h
Visor g a t e s s u p p o r t e d by triangular ( N a b i a ) girder
G a t e s d e s i g n e d after e x t e n s i v e study of w a v e i m p a c t f o r c e s
Sill a n d s c o u r protection d e s i g n e d after e x t e n s i v e m o d e l testing
L a r g e s c a l e u s e of a s p h a l t a n d s a n d a s p h a l t for s l o p e protection
Lock 124m x 16m
C l o s u r e (with sluices o p e n ) :
N. g a p : g r a d u a l vertical c l o s u r e with cable cars
S. g a p : s a n d c l o s u r e
9 Brouwershavense Gat
Closure:
S. g a p : g r a d u a l vertical c l o s u r e with cable cars
N. g a p : (20) d i s c h a r g e c a i s s o n s ( d o o r l a a t c a i s s o n )
• high c a p a c i t y d r e d g i n g ;
• n e w techniques for scour protection, replacing costly and labour-intensive fabrication of willow
m a t t r e s s e s ( z i n k s t u k k e n ) by geotextiles a n d p r e f a b r i c a t e d asphalt m a t s ;
• n e w t e c h n i q u e s for r e v e t m e n t s , replacing labour intensively placed b l o c k s t o n e ( z e t w e r k ) by
asphalt-concrete;
• c l o s u r e t e c h n i q u e s , using o p e n sluice c a i s s o n s or, alternatively, g r a d u a l vertical c l o s u r e .
In this way, in 1969, the f o r m a l decision to close the Eastern Scheldt could be t a k e n . After careful
c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e d e c i s i o n w a s t a k e n to u s e the t e c h n i q u e of g r a d u a l vertical c l o s u r e b y c a b l e
car. This m e t h o d w a s p r e f e r r e d to the u s e of c a i s s o n s to avoid t h e inherent risks of p l a c i n g the
c a i s s o n s . T h e w o r k s on t h e E a s t e r n S c h e l d t started with the construction of w o r k h a r b o u r s a n d
d a m sections over the s h o a l s . A h u g e factory w a s constructed for pre-fabricated geotextile m a t s
to be used as scour protection. T h e w o r k s w e r e well underway, but in the public opinion there w a s
256
a g r o w i n g c o n c e r n a b o u t t l i e e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s of ttie large s t a g n a n t w a t e r b a s i n s . T h e
potential loss of the oyster b e d s near Y e r s e k e also c o n t i n u e d to c a u s e c o n c e r n . C l o s u r e of t h e
Eastern Scheldt even b e c a m e an issue in the parliamentary elections of 1973. After the f o r m a t i o n
of a n e w coalition cabinet, it w a s d e c i d e d to r e - c o n s i d e r the c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e Delta Project.
P r e p a r a t i o n of the n e w d e s i g n w a s not a t a s k of R i j k s w a t e r s t a a t a l o n e , a d e s i g n t e a m w a s
established with strong participation of the contractor. During the design phase, serious p r o b l e m s
w e r e e n c o u n t e r e d that f o r c e d t h e d e s i g n e r s to a m a k e radical c h a n g e s e v e r a l t i m e s . First, t h e
idea of using the caissons w a s a b a n d o n e d to m a k e place for a d e s i g n with piers cast in situ a n d
a f o u n d a t i o n d e e p in the P l e i s t o c e n e d e p o s i t s , w i t h t h e aid of cellular rings. C o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e
piers a n d their f o u n d a t i o n w o u l d t a k e place in s e p a r a t e steel c o f f e r d a m s . T h i s idea w a s a l s o
a b a n d o n e d , a n d eventually the c h o i c e fell on p r e f a b r i c a t e d c o n c r e t e piers that w o u l d b e p l a c e d
on m a t t r e s s e s c o n s i s t i n g of a g r a n u l a r filter.
257
IIIIIIP»*"' •• ••ïfl
fiiiill'
mm
'1 A
F i g u r e A 4 - 3 C o m p a r t m e n t d a m s in Z e e l a n d
in between ttie piers, a sill w a s to be constructed consisting of a sill b e a m and heavy quarry stone.
T h e sill b e a m w o u l d b e the lower s u p p o r t for the steel g a t e s that w o u l d m o v e in b e t w e e n t h e
piers. In total, 6 6 piers had to be placed with a heart-to-heart d i s t a n c e of 4 5 m , distributed o v e r 3
m a i n c h a n n e l s , t h u s f o r m i n g 6 3 o p e n i n g s . T h e soil, consisting of loosely pactced, fine s a n d h a d
to b e densified b e f o r e the f o u n d a t i o n m a t t r e s s e s could be p l a c e d . A c c u r a c y w a s essential while
w o r k i n g u n d e r e x t r e m e l y difficult conditions in w a t e r d e p t h s up to 35 m a n d current velocities of
o v e r 4 m/s.
e Eastern S c h e l d t
F o u n d a t i o n : c o m p a c t i o n of s a n d by vibration to a d e p t h of N A P - 6 0 m
P l a c e m e n t of f o u n d a t i o n m a t t r e s s e s c o n s i s t i n g of 3 layers of granular material
Lifting a n d a c c u r a t e positioning of piers in w a t e r depth of 3 5 m a n d velocities up t o 4 m / s
Installation of sill a n d sill b e a m s in high c u r r e n t velocities
Installation of ( m o v a b l e ) gates b e t w e e n t h e p r e f a b r i c a t e d piers
E x t e n s i v e s c o u r protection w o r k s
® Philipsdam (Krammer)
258
S a n d closure (due to manipulation with the gates of the E a s t e m Scheldt barrier to reduce
current velocities
8 Markiezaatsl<ade
D a m construction o n very poor subsoil
C l o s u r e : g r a d u a l horizontal c l o s u r e using b a r g e s a n d t r u c k s
® Oesterdam , ,
S a n d c l o s u r e ( d u e to m a n i p u l a t i o n with Eastern S c h e l d t barrier to r e d u c e c u r r e n t
velocities
. accurate handling of very large and h e a v y concrete structures in extremely difficult conditions
at s e a
• probabilistic m e t h o d s
e t e c h n o l o g y of g r a n u l a r filters
e s c o u r a n d s c o u r protection
A 4 . 4 T h e Delta P r o j e c t In hindsight
T h e Delta Project w a s originally d e s i g n e d in a period w h e n a w a r e n e s s of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d
of the e c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s of civil e n g i n e e r i n g w o r k s s c a r c e l y e x i s t e d . M o r e o v e r , the d e c i s i o n s to
c a r r y out the project w e r e t a k e n in an e m o t i o n a l c o n t e x t i m m e d i a t e l y after a m a j o r disaster t h a t
t o o k over 18 00 lives. It is therefore not surprising that during the execution of the project pnorities
c h a n g e d . T h i s w a s s t r e n g t h e n e d by the g r o w i n g level of prosperity a n d t h e g r o w i n g attention for
the quality of life.
W i t h o u r p r e s e n t a p p r e c i a t i o n of e c o l o g y a n d e n v i r o n m e n t , w e m i g h t d o u b t w h e t h e r w e s h o u l d
carry out t h e Delta project again if w e had to face that q u e s t i o n . W e w o u l d certainly consider t h e
loss of tidal w e t l a n d s a n d w e w o u l d certainly c o n s i d e r the d a m m i n g of the Haringvliet in relation
to the large quantities of polluted s e d i m e n t that are being d e p o s i t e d t h e r e . H o w e v e r , e v e n t o d a y
it is not e a s y to i m a g i n e w h a t w o u l d h a v e h a p p e n e d to t h o s e s e d i m e n t s w i t h o u t the Haringvliet
c l o s e d T h e s e d i m e n t s w o u l d h a v e b e e n d i s c h a r g e d in a n u n c o n t r o l l e d m a n n e r into the N o r t h
Sea a n d t h e y w o u l d certainly h a v e c o n t a m i n a t e d the W a d d e n S e a . In the a b s e n c e of t h e
V o l k e r a k D a m , the s a m e contaminated s e d i m e n t s w o u l d also have r e a c h e d the Grevelingen a n d
E a s t e r n S c h e l d t b a s i n s t h a t a r e relatively c l e a n at present.
259
national water m a n a g e m e n t m u s t be rated as positive. W i t h the aid of the Haringvliet Sluice it has
b e c o m e p o s s i b l e to control the R h i n e d i s c h a r g e , to r e d u c e salt intrusion, a n d to s a f e g u a r d
drinking w a t e r r e s o u r c e s .
260
A5.1 Introduction
M a p s are a very important source of information for coastal engineers. Ttiis is true for botti, m a p s
of the land adjacent to the coast a n d charts of the s e a s a n d o c e a n s . W e expect that t h e s e m a p s
will give a c c u r a t e information a b o u t the t o p o g r a p h y of the a r e a , but often additional i n f o r m a t i o n
relating to land u s e , infrastructure, elevation, etc is p r o v i d e d . For the coastal e n g i n e e r , charts of
the s e a s a n d o c e a n s are of particular interest. S u c h c h a r t s h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d for m a n y
centuries to provide information to seafarers. T h e production of these charts w a s originally in the
hands of private enterprises that had an interest in the trade b e t w e e n Europe a n d the East Indies
a n d W e s t Indies. In the early d a y s of this t r a d e , t h e m a p s a n d charts r e p r e s e n t e d a g r e a t
c o m m e r c i a l value a n d t h e y w e r e kept s e c r e t by institutes like V O C and t h e British East India
C o m p a n y . Later, f r o m a r o u n d the start of t h e 19th century, with the f o r m a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e
c o l o n i e s the role of t h e g o v e r n m e n t s in v a r i o u s countries b e c a m e m o r e i m p o r t a n t . T h e t a s k of
m a k i n g proper m a p s of the sailing routes a n d the ports w a s then transferred to the various navies.
U p to t o d a y in m o s t countries the national n a v y h a s a h y d r o g r a p h i c d e p a r t m e n t that is
responsible for providing up to date information for the o c e a n navigation. A n important part of that
i n f o r m a t i o n is c o n t a i n e d in h y d r o g r a p h i c c h a r t s that give an i m p r e s s i o n of t h e local situation,
including t o p o g r a p h y , b o t t o m m a t e r i a l , d e p t h s , s e a levels, c u r r e n t s etc.
S u c h h y d r o g r a p h i c c h a r t s a r e i n d i s p e n s a b l e to sailors, a n d t h e p r e s e n c e of u p d a t e d c h a r t s is
m a n d a t o r y o n board of e a c h s e a g o i n g v e s s e l . W h e n p e o p l e c a n n o t easily s e e w h a t is b e l o w t h e
s u r f a c e of the w a t e r , m a p s a n d charts p r o v i d e the only w a y for navigators to find out w h e r e it is
s a f e for the ship to g o a n d w h e r e it w o u l d be u n w i s e to v e n t u r e . Hydrographic charts are also a n
i m p o r t a n t tool for the coastal e n g i n e e r , b e c a u s e t h e s e c h a r t s give reliable i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e
conditions of the coastal z o n e . For e n g i n e e r s , h o w e v e r , it is not only the latest charts that a r e of
interest but certainly also t h e older m a p s that c a n still be o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e a r c h i v e s of t h e
v a r i o u s h y d r o g r a p h i c institutes. A s e q u e n c e of m a p s gives a g o o d i m p r e s s i o n of t h e l o n g - t e r m
m o r p h o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . Historic m a p s c a n be o b t a i n e d f r o m the r e l e v a n t h y d r o g r a p h i c
services.
A 5 . 2 U n i t s a n d their b a c k g r o u n d
Hydrographic charts w e r e m e a n t to provide assistance to the navigators on board sailing v e s s e l s
w h o h a d little m o r e in the w a y of i n s t r u m e n t s t h a n a c l o c k a n d a sextant. Positions w e r e
d e t e r m i n e d with r e s p e c t to the position of the s u n a n d t h e stars. T h e grid of t h e h y d r o g r a p h i c
chart is t h e r e f o r e t h e grid of t h e d e g r e e s latitude a n d longitude as d r a w n o n the g l o b e .
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n of this spherical g n d to a plane m a p c a u s e s distortions, either in t h e centre o r in
the c o m e r s of the m a p . This m e a n s that the coordinates of the grid as indicated along the b o r d e r s
of t h e m a p a r e not linear.
261
m e t r i c s y s t e m . Ttieir scales ttierefore a p p e a r u n u s u a l to p e o p l e w h o are f a m i l i a r only w i t h the
m e t r i c s y s t e m of m e a s u r e m e n t .
T h e s p e e d s of vessels a n d the velocities of current are often e x p r e s s e d in nautical miles per hour
(also called k n o t s ) , w h i c h is slightly m o r e than 0.5 m/s.
262
F i g u r e A 5 - 2 C h a r t D a t u m i s not H o r i z o n t a l !
263
Place Lat. Long. Heights in meters/feet above datum Datum of Remarks
N/S EM MHWS MHWN MLWN MLWS
T a b l e A5-1 T a b u l a r s t a t e m e n t of s e m i - d i u r n a l or d i u r n a l t i d e s
CD Chart Datum
LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide
HAT Highest Astronomical Tide
MLW Mean Low Water
MHW Mean High Water
MSL Mean Sea Level
MLWS Mean Low Water Springs
MHWS Mean High Water Springs
MLWN Mean Low Water Neaps
MHWN Mean High Water Neaps
MLLW Mean Lower Low Water
MHHW Mean Higher High Water
MHLW Mean Higher Low Water
MLHW Mean Lower High Water
Sp Spring tide
Np Neap tide
T a b l e A 5 - 2 T e r m s related to tidal l e v e l s
• Tidal s t r e a m s / c u r r e n t s a r e s o m e t i m e s s h o w n .
• Dates of publication a n d d a t e s of s m a l l e r or larger c o r r e c t i o n s .
A 5 . 4 T h e m a p itself
O n c e familiar with this information the m a p itself m a y be s t u d i e d . A s u m m a r y of f r e q u e n t l y u s e d
s y m b o l s is s h o w n in T a b l e A 5 - 3 . A c o m p l e t e list of s y m b o l s m a y b e f o u n d in " S y m b o l s a n d
Abbreviations used on Admiralty Charts".
Natural features
S t e e p c o a s t , cliffs
Flat c o a s t
' —
Sandy shore
264
Sand Dunes
Mangrove
S w a m p , salt m a r s h
••• - • •••
Cultural Features
Buildings
k •
Bridges
^ r
-I s r
Cables
Pipelines
Landmarks
E x a m p l e s of l a n d m a r k s
. # Factory « Hotel
Artificial Features
Dykes
Seawall
Causeway
Breakwater
\
Groyne
Mole
Wharf
Pier, jetty
Pontoon
265
Dolphins
'-^ . ••••••• Q "•
Ramp
M Mud
Cy Clay
Si Silt
St Stones
G Gravel
P Pebbles
Cb Cobbles
R Rock
Co Coral
Sh Shells
A 5 . 5 Interpretation
M a p s also m a y provide direct information a b o u t coastal p r o c e s s e s like w i n d a n d w a v e directions
a n d h e a v y breaking of w a v e s . M a n y other p h e n o m e n a c a n be d e r i v e d by interpreting the c o a s t a l
f o r m s on the m a p : a spit indicates the direction of the longshore transport, a n d thus the d o m i n a n t
w a v e direction, a n d river s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t is s h o w n by the p r e s e n c e of shoals a n d b a r s . If the
m a p s h o w s only a long straight s a n d y s h o r e , y o u c a n s a y little a b o u t w a v e / w i n d d i r e c t i o n a n d
intensity. Only w h e n there is s o m e kind of interruption to this s h o r e is it possible to d e t e r m i n e the
prevailing wave/wind direction and possible s e d i m e n t transport. For e x a m p l e at a river m o u t h o n e
m a y find out w h e t h e r the river is d o m i n a n t or the s e a . T h e m a g n i t u d e a n d direction of l o n g s h o r e
s e d i m e n t transport a n d river s e d i m e n t transport m a y be d e d u c e d . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is f o r m e d by
protruding rocks or artificial features like groynes or breakwaters o n a s a n d y coast. Here a l s o o n e
m a y find indications of the p r e s e n c e of l o n g s h o r e s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t ( m a g n i t u d e a n d d i r e c t i o n )
a n d s o the w i n d / w a v e direction. D e t a c h e d o b s t a c l e s (rocks, or d e t a c h e d b r e a k w a t e r s ) m a y give
e v e n m o r e exact information about w a v e direction. In the sheltered side s e d i m e n t tends to settle.
S o t h e position of the s h o a l s indicate t h e sheltered side a n d s o t h e w a v e direction.
266
A5.6 Limitations
A l t h o u g h hydrographic charts provide a very valuable contribution to o u r k n o w l e d g e t h e p u r p o s e
o t h e s e charts ?s to assist navigators, rather than engineers. Soil data - - ^ - - ^ ^ ^ ^/^f^^^^^
generally only a n indication of t h e s u r f a c e of t h e s e a b e d , t h e y c a n n o t b e ^ ^ ^ ^ m ^ e s i g . g a
oundation. T h e charts, a n d certainly the portions close to t h e shore, are m e a n t o w a r n h e s a i b r s
a g a i n s t running a g r o u n d . Relatively m o r e attention is t h e r e f o r e paid to s h o a l s a n d l o w v^^ater
n i t t s , r a t h e r ' t h a n to gullies a n d e x t r e m e l y high w a t e r levels, ^ - - e , h e sea e^^ t^^^^
charts is generally unsuitable f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k . For t h e specification in t e n d e r s a n d project
d r a w i n g s , m o r e detailed m a p s a r e required.
267
A p p e n d i x 6 T H E C E N T R I F U G A L PUM
The centrifugal pump is the most common piece of equipment that is u s e d to bu.ld up pressure
in c i o s e T S i n e in'order to overcome the pipeline resistance. In its s i m p l e s t - r n P - p
consists of a pump casing v^ithin which there is a rotating impeller (see Figure A 6 - 1 ) . T h e impeller
is driven by means of an electric drive or a combustion engine.
s l a k k e h u i s
p o m p h u i s
waaier
F i g u r e A6-1 C r o s s - s e c t i o n of a c e n t r i f u g a l p u m p
anS mus l i e s in the channel In the periphery of the pump casing and m o v e s from. .h,s v,a the
p r e s s u r e side.
T h e f l o w in t h e p u m p c a n be c o n s i d e r e d to c o m p r i s e t h e s u m of t w o i n f l u e n c e s :
• t h e f l o w t h r o u g h t h e s t a t i o n a r y impeller
. t h e rotation of t h e liquid in t h e impeller ( s e e Figure A 6 - 2 )
F i g u r e A 6 - 2 R o t a t i o n of t h e liquid
269
the c e n t r e . T h r o u g h this m e c h a n i s m , e n e r g y is t r a n s f e r r e d to the liquid. V e l o c i t y is t r a n s f o r m e d
into p r e s s u r e . It will be clear that the circumferential velocity of the impeller d e t e r m i n e s the h e a d
of the p u m p .
T h e liquid flows t h r o u g h the impeller at a velocity of Vre, the direction of w h i c h is the s a m e as the
direction of the impeller blades. T h e entry a n d exit angles are p, a n d pu respectively. O w i n g to the
rotation of t h e impeller, the liquid also has a velocity mr, in the tangential d i r e c t i o n .
Vrel
Vt
/
/
/
\
\
\
Figure A 6 - 4 Rotating m a s s
In w h i c h
T = Impulse m o m e n t of the particle in relation to the centre
J = polar inertial m o m e n t of the particle in relation to the c e n t r e = m^r^
m = m a s s of v a n t h e w a t e r particle
r = d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the w a t e r particle a n d the centre
t = unit of t i m e
(17.2)
dt dt
270
T h e m a s s m is c o n s t a n t in t i m e a n d a m o u n t s io m = b B <p ^ r ^ dr {b = blade w i d t h ) The
rotational velocity is d e t e r m i n e d by the rotational s p e e d of the impeller a n d t h e s h a p e of t h e
blades.
Thus:
in w h i c h :
CO = rotational velocity of the impeller
Thus:
VrV„-b-p-<p-r'
in w h i c h :
Vn = radial c o m p o n e n t of t h e resultant velocity of the w a t e r particle
Now:
For t h e o u t e r r i m :
T h e i m p u l s e b a l a n c e is:
M =T -T. (17-7)
in w h i c h :
Thus:
= p-Q-V,-r,-p-Q-\/„-n = p-Q-iV,-cos(aJ-r,-Vr0os(a,)-r,) (17.8)
= AH).
F r o m this f o l l o w s :
271
in w l i i c t i :
AH= head [m]
F r o m tfiis f o l l o w s :
In a d d i t i o n :
and
(17.12)
sin(p)
and
Q
K = (17.13)
27t-rb
Tlius:
QcosiP,) (17.14)
co-r, co-r„ -co-r, co-r, —
2n-r,-b-sin{l3J 27t-r,-b-sin(l3,)
AH = C.-C^Q (17.16)
T h i s relation is s h o w n in Figure A 6 - 5 .
A H
F i g u r e A 6 - 5 T h e o r e t i c a l Q-H-relation
272
H
A
Correctie voor het niet
schoepen congruent zijn van
Q
Figure A6-6 Actual Q-H-curve
273
Figure A6-7 Pump characteristics
9l..ni. (17.17)
Q2
2. T h e m a n o m e t r i c head Hman almost directly proportional with the s q u a r e of the exit velocity, t h u s :
274
(17.18)
(17.19)
275
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