HISTOLOGY OF LIVER –

1) Liver is covered by a thin membrane of connective tissue called Glisson’s capsule.

2) Glisson’s capsule is not very distinct in man.
3) Internally the liver is made up of hexagonal units called hepatic lobules.
4) Lobules are connected with connective tissue, containing blood vessels and bile ducts.
5) Each hepatic lobule has central vein, around which number of hepatic cells or Hepatocytes are
arranged in single rows forming Hepatic cords.
6) Hepatic cells are large, polygonal cells with distinct nucleus and granular cytoplasm.
7) The cytoplasm stores Glycogen and Fat droplets.
8) Hepatic cells are responsible for secretion of Bile.
9) Bile is collected by bile capillaries which carries it to Bile duct.
10) Bile duct opens in to Hepatic duct. Hepatic Duct the Bile in to the Gall Bladder.
11) Blood Sinusoids are large irregular dilated blood vessels, lying in between the hepatic cords.
12) Around the hepatic cords, large amoeboid Kupffer Cells are present.
13) Kupffer Cells are Phagocytic in nature, they remove toxins from the blood and ingest worn out
& dead R.B.Cs.

FUNCTIONS OF LIVER –
1) Liver secretes bile which emulsifies (Emulsification is the process whereby large globules of fat
are broken down into smaller globules and made water soluble.) fats and make the food
alkaline. (The bile and pancreatic juices change the pH from acid back to basic.).
2) Liver stores excess of glucose in the form of glycogen, which is used during starvation
3) Excess amino acids are converted in to ammonia by the process called deamination.
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4) it synthesizes vitamin A, D, K & B12

5) Blood proteins like Prothrombin and Fibrinogen are formed in the liver.
6) It works as haemopoietic organ by producing red blood cells during early development.
7) Kupffer cells digest old R. B. Cs.
8) Making heparin: this is a substance that prevents the blood from clotting as it travels through
the blood system.

PANCREAS –
1. It is leaf shaped gland lying in the gap between the duodenum and stomach.
2. It is mixed gland; some part of this gland is Exocrine in function i.e. its secretion is carried by
ducts. Other part is Endocrine i.e. its secretion is poured directly in to the blood.
3. The Exocrine part is made up of lobules called acini.
4. Acini are flasked shaped and formed a single layer of large
glandular pyramid shaped cells.
5. These secrets the pancreatic juice.
6. The endocrine part is made up of groups of cells present in
the connective tissue between the acini. These are called as
Islet of Langerhans.
7. Islet of Langerhans is made up of α cells and β cells.
8. α cells secrets Glucagon.
9. β cells secrets Insulin.
10. Both these hormones controls the blood sugar level.
 11. Addition to this delta cells secrete somatostatin, a hormone which decreases glucagon and
insulin secretion.

Physiology of Digestion-

1. All type of physical and chemical changes are studied under physiology of digestion.
2. The mechanical changes include breaking up of the food into smaller finer particles due to
Mastication, churning and peristaltic movements.
3. Chemical changes brought about by the action different enzymes.

Digestion in Buccal cavity –

1. Breakdown of food in to small particles by Mastication, chewing etc.

2. The tongue mixes the food with saliva secreted by the salivary gland which converts the food
into a paste.
3. Saliva contains enzymes called saliver amylase or Ptyalin and maltose ptyalin.
4. Maltose ptyalin acts on starch and convert it into maltose.
5. Enzyme maltase act on maltose and convert it in to Glucose.
6. Then a round food ball is formed which is pushed then in to Oesophagous by the action of
tongue.

Digestion in stomach –

1. The stomach churns the food by the peristaltic movements by this food get properly mixed with
the gastric juice produced in the stomach.
2. as soon as the food enters into the stomach gastric glands starts producing gastric juices.
3. it contains dilute HCl, mucous and pepsinogen (inactive protein digesting enzyme.)
4. HCl -
- stops the action of saliver amalyse.
- provide the acidic medium for conversion of inactive pepsinogen to active pepsin.
- kills food germs.
- helps to soften the food.
5. Pepsin converts protein in to peptones and proteoses.
6. Mucous forms the protective layer on the mucosa of the stomach to prevent the action of HCl.
7. Taste and smell of food slightly controlled .

Digestion in the small intestine –

• In the duodenum the secretions of the liver and pancreas are poured.
• Secretion of liver is bile and secretion of pancreas is pancreatic juice.
• Bile help to neutralize the acidic chime, Bile juice is a yellowish green liquid. It is made up of
water, cholesterol, bile salts and bile pigments.
• Bile salts bring about emulsification of fats.
• Bile pigments bilirubin and biliverdin are produced as a results of breakdown of haemoglobin.
• They give colour to faecal matter.
• Bile also helps to neutralize the acidic chime.
• Pancreatic juice contains water, sodium salts and various enzymes.
 The action of various enzymes presents in the pancreatic juice us as follows:

1. At the end of digestion chyme is converted into a liquid form called chyle which
contains amino acids, glucose, fructose, fatty acids and glycerol.
2. All these are the digested forms of carbohydrates, protein and fats.

Absorption:
1. The digested forms of food enter the blood in the inner lining of the digestive tract. This is
called absorption.
2. Water, inorganic salts and some glucose is absorbed by the inner wall of the stomach.
3. Rest of the absorption is done by the small intestine.
4. The villi increase the area of absorption.
5. Glucose and fructose are absorbed into the blood vessels.
6. They are absorbed by osmosis, diffusion and active absorption.
7. Amino acids are absorbed by the blood vessels. Fatty acids and glycerol get absorbed in the
lymph capillaries or lacteals.
8. They enter the lacteals and get absorbed in the lymph. Lacteals open into blood vessels.

Assimilation: the absorbed food material becomes a part of the protoplasm. This is called
assimilation. The mitochondria oxidize food to liberate energy in the form of ATP.

Egestion:
• After the process of digestion in the small intestine its soluble and useful part is absorbed, while
the undigested, unwanted residue is sent to the large intestine.
• Water us reabsorbed in the large intestine and semisolid waste called faeces is thrown out of the
body through the anus.