American Journal of ORTHODONTICS

Founded in 1915 Volume 81, Number 5 May, 1982

Copyright 0 1982 by The C. If. Moshy Cornpuny

ORIGINAL ARTICLES

The biologic signijkance of the divine

proportion and Fibonacci series
Robert M. Ricketts, D.D.S. Dr. Ricketts
Pacijic Palisades, Calif.

This article shows the application of basic mathematical and geometric principles to the normal morphology of
structures regularly involved in orthodontics and dentistry. For appreciation of beauty, it has been suggested that
the human mind functions at the limbic level in attraction to proportions in harmony with the Golden Section. This
is a proportion of 1.618 and its reciprocal 0.618 in geometry. Fibonacci numbers express precisely the same ratio
and are mathematically unique and mysterious. Questions arose regarding these geometric and mathematical
relationships in our living patients. Studies were conducted from measurements of models of the teeth of
nonal-occlusion subjects, the photographs of the faces of commercial models, and conditions found in lateral
and frontal cephalometric head films. Variations of the beautiful photographic models were analyzed together with
computerized composites of patients with ideal occlusions. Several key relationships were found. The
investigation yielded useful relationships for all aspects of dentistry and particularly for orthodontics and
orthognathic surgery. The normal face and the occlusion of the teeth have a majestic beauty. The study strongly
suggests that esthetics can indeed be made scientific rather than the need to resort to subjective perceptions as
in the past.

Key words: Golden section (1.618-0.618), phi, golden rectangle, logarithmic spiral, Thompson’s law
of growth

F unction, from an evolutionary standpoint,
always precedes form.’ The mesenchymal cell is acted
upon by its local physical environment to produce a
given type of tissue as connective tissue cells elaborate
materials through the cell wall which are formed in tiny
ropelike fibers, arranged to protect the cell from forces
in the surrounding medium.2 This “negative feedback”
is a process for production of morphology of the struc-
tures of the body as the system is monitored constantly
with the physical and chemical qualities of the nervous
system.
Cellular division takes place rapidly during growth,
but growth processes are not terminated when maturity
of the organism is reached. In addition, during devel-
opment, a reservoir of cells must be laid aside for per-
formance rather than reproduction. Therefore, a certain
regulation or control of mitosis is operative. Repair to
injury and replacement for worn-out cells in the adult is
also a function of mitosis and the growth phenomenon .3
This monitoring and feedback arrangement pro-
duces structures that are marvelously economical in
function. Biologists and morphologists speak of this in
terms of “laws. ” There is first the “law of conserva-
tion of energy,” interpreted to be maximum per-
formance with minimum effort. Second, they refer to
the “law of conservation of tissue. ” This is intepreted
to mean a minimum amount of material to be employed
to perform the needed task. A third law, not often dis-
cussed, is a combination of the first two. It is an ar-
rangement to provide profound efficiency. Efficiency is

OOOZ-9416/82/050351+20$02.00/0 0 1982 Tbe C. V. Mosby Co. 351

352 Ricketts

FIBONACCI SERIES

Add:
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233
1 -1 2 2 r 2. I2 21 34 5s 144 233 377
r 2-Y 5 8 13 21 Ti ss ss 144
L9 -233 -377 --b19

Divide:
0G.I l 0 zr+ 21 - 1.61904

1
7
l 1 - 1 ss+ 34 - 1.6176

7_ -; 1 - 2 89 +ss - 1.61818

3 gz l 1.5 144 +89 l 1.61797

5+-s - 1.666 233+144 - 1.61805

8+-s - 1.6 377G-233 - 1.6lA02

1st 8 - 1.625 blO&-J77 - 1.61803

21+13 - 1.615 987G-610 - 1.61803

1597f 987 - 1.61803

Fig. 1. A summation series. Note that the last number is a total of the previous two terms; the fifth
addition divided by the fourth number is already a figure of 1.66. After this has been repeated fifteen
times, the number 1.616 does not change thereafter.

required for individual survival. Those most efficient
are favored in natural selection. Long-term competition
in the primitive state promotes the finest in the applica-
tion of the physical and chemical world. Integration of
all the functioning units of a living body finally in-
volves ionic electrical and magnetic forces. This pro-
cess of unification relates to the basic cellular level, and
tissues ultimately behave under certain mathematical
and geometric laws of space itself.4
Bone in disuse becomes osteoporotic. Muscle that
is not used undergoes atrophy. Skin under use becomes
calloused. The brain responds to use, apparently even
to the development of enlarged neurones in active
thinkers. The monitoring with loops, circuits, and gate
systems is continuously in operation as the body is
harmonized for beauty, order, organization, and econ-
omy for the purpose of maximum function and mini-
mum waste of energy and material.
Certain underlying physical laws operate in order to
produce the most efficient arrangements and maintain
them. How does growth take place to ensure a change
in size without a change in shape (gnomonic growth)?
What are the underlying factors that contribute to the
continued allometric form? How does a control exist to
keep related functional parts from becoming incongru-
ous? What happens in severe dysplasia, dysfunction,
and pathology? What are the factors of beauty and the
causes of the disasters of ugliness?
ESTHETICS
Esthetics is the study of beauty and, together with
ethics, logic, politics, and metaphysics, is a branch of
basic philosophy. It has been said that beauty is in the
eye of the beholder, but a thing is said not to be truly
beautiful until it arouses the senses to an emotional
level of pleasure. This level of perception is not in the
cognitive part of the brain (neocortex) but is thought to
be located within the subconscious or primitive portion
of the brain referred to as the reptilian complex or the
limbic system. The limbic system is thought to contain
the instincts. It is considered capable of conditioned
reflex so that, in the appreciation of beauty and art, a
factor of discipline and previous exposure exists.”
However, with the capacity to select beauty bj, instinct
and with the natural laws favoring economy of tissue
and energy, there probably is a natural connection with
the sensation of beauty and efficiency. Mankind’s mind
is attracted to precision; hence, survival and improve-
Volume 81 Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 353
Number 5

ment in the species biologically. This probably oc-

curred together with the development of the large brain
in man and the ability to think and reason.
The normal human face is possibly the most beauti-
fully perfect structure in all of the animal kingdom. The
purpose of this article is to take up the subject of struc-
ture, harmony, balance, and proportion from mathe-
matical and geometric aspects as they are associated
with the biology of growth and form.

FIBONACCI NUMBERS
In 1202 Filius Bonacci (alias Leonardo of Pisa)
published his work, Liber Abaci, which was to change
the Roman numerical world to the Hindu-Arabic nu-
meral system. He proposed that the numbers could be
demonstrated in the multiplication of rabbits. Because
each month a rabbit matured to gestation potential,
each pair of rabbits would add to the total in a way that
an increase in numbers would not occur in an ordinary
geometric progression. As it ended up, the increase
occurred as if by adding the last two numbers together
in a series. Hence, starting with 0 and 1, the total is 1.
Adding those last two gives the sum of 2. Two and 1
are 3, 2 and 3 total 5, and thus the numbers increase as
follows: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, etc.
When about this level is reached, each new addition is
precisely I .618 times the previous number, and this
ratio of addition continues on to infinity (Fig. 1). The
Fibonacci numbers have been studied .extensively by
mathematicians, and groups and societies have been
formed by scholars of this unique relationship of num-
bers. Please remember that it applies to biology.
THE GOLDEN SECTION
That which is known as the golden section has been
known at least since the time of the Egyptians and was
popular in the art and architecture of the Greeks. It
starts with a basic proposition that enters many of our
minds as children. Where is there a place to section a
line so that the small portion is a ratio, compared to the
larger part, as the larger part would be to the complete
line? This can be arrived at geometrically quite easily.
By bisecting the line and erecting a vertical from one
end, a 90 degree angle is constructed. The connection
of the two ends forms a triangle. By marking off the
dimension of original bisection on the hypotenuse and
swinging an arc of the remaining distance down to the
original line, a ‘ ‘golden section ” is constructed (Fig. 2).
THE PROPERTIES OF PHI
This golden sectioning seems to have some marvel-
ously unique properties. It is a quality which, for some
A B
= ,618
Fig. 2. The geometric method of arriving at the golden section.
Notice above that line AB is bisected and that distance is
erected perpendicular for B as a new line AD is formed. The
bisection of AD, in turn dropped down to the beginning line,
produces a golden section which is 0.618 the total length of the
line AB. AC, in turn, is 1.618 times the length of CB.
reason, attracts the attention and is recorded in the
limbic system as beauty, harmony, and balance. Static
symmetry consists of absolute even balance on both
sides and will be monotonous or become boring. There
is a certain quality of the golden section which stimu-
lates the viewer, and this value has been called
“dynamic symmetry, ’ ’ meaning that it portrays action
and a continuum.6 Examples of this relation can be
found throughout nature, which has always attracted
the art, satisfaction, serenity, and euphoria of mankind.
The artist almost always is taken by the beauty of na-
ture and tries to put it on canvas.
Actual measurement of the line division for the cut
results in the longer section being 1.618 times the
length of the shorter one! The shorter line is 0.618 the
length of the larger (Fig. 3). This astonishing number is
the only one in mathematics which, when subtracted by
unity (l.O), yields its own reciprocal. Strangely, this
quality is exactly the same as the Fibonacci quantum
jump! Because a famous Greek sculptor, Phidias, used
the golden proportion so much, it was called phi, the
Greek letter for the first part of his name. The label phi
 Am. J. Orthod.
354 Ricketts May 1982

Fig. 4. The golden rectangle and its method of construction. By

bisecting the line AB of a square and swinging an arc from that
line to the parallel of AB at F, the golden rectangle can be
1.0 constructed. The altitude of this rectangle being taken as 1, the
I.C base is 1.618. This particular rectangle is pleasing to the eye
and to the senses.

I.618
.6i t

A B

Fig. 3. The respective lengths of the three meaSUrementS CL%

AC, and AV. Below: If the length CB is taken as 1, AC is 1.618
times that length, whereas if the longer length is taken as 1, the
shorter length is 0.618; 1.618 is referred to as phi and given the
Greek symbol 6.

is so common that it is used similarly to pi which, as

any grammar school student knows, is for the analysis
of circles and spheres. Phi was related to so many as-
pects of beauty that Kepler, in about 1600, called it the
“divine proportion. ” Thus, we see the relation of Fig. 5. An analysis of the pentagon. When two corners of the
Fibonacci to the golden section. Of final charm for the pentagon are connected and crossed with two other corners,
intellect, a measurement of the sound waves also corre- the lines are sectioned in the golden section. It will further be
sponds to the phi value in harmonic chords picked up noted that the repeated procedure will cut the original AB line
again into a golden section on the opposite side; this leaves the
by the ear.
area PQ being the congruent area and can serve reciprocally
for the golden section to both ends. These two connections will
THE GOLDEN RECTANGLE
also form a 36, 72”, 72” triangle which is called the golden
If the altitude of a rectangle is constructed in the triangle.
proportion as 1.O, and the base is made 1.618 times the
altitude, this is called the golden rectangle (Fig. 4). It cards are known to be most popular. For example, ex-
was on such a scale that the Parthenon was built, and it amine the typical credit card. The golden section even
has endured for two millenniums as a world attraction. entered commercial design and became a part of art, if
It is rare to see a square picture frame. Golden not directly, certainly intuitively, probably since man
rectangular stationery, writing pads, and 3 by 5 inch first started to scratch forms on the walls of caves. It
Volume 81 Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 355
Number 5

0.6 I 8
I.6 I8

1.0

1.0
Fig. 7. This shows another method of producing a golden
I triangle. By taking the original AC line and dropping the dis-
tance from point C and 19, a triangle can be constructed with the
72”, 72”, 36” isosceles relationship.

‘3
4 f#f*.3619 @ .236
This produces a smaller section in the middle that is a
- kY.618 common smaller divine proportion to both ends. It is an
overlapping “area of congruence” balanced between
other parts.
H I.0
THE GOLDEN TRIANGLE

7 Further analysis of the intersected pentagon reveals

0 1.618
t $‘2.618
I series.7 Starting with a value represented by 1.0, the 4’
@ 9.236
a5 = 6.854
ff = II.089
Fig. 6. The label phi is given to the 1.618. If the original unit is
taken as 1, then a 0.618 value is a r#~‘; the 0.3819 is the 4’; and
the value 0.236 is the I#J”. 1.618 is the value of phi; @ is 2.618,
and a multiple in this way forms a progressive series.
has harmony and balance yielding comfort and pleasure
to the senses.
THE PENTAGON ANALYSIS
The five-pointed star has also been a striking sym-
bol. The base of this star is the pentagon (Fig. 5). If two
corners of the pentagon are connected with a line and
two more are connected to cross the line, each line will
be sectioned in a golden section, that is, 1.0 and 1.618
lengths proportionately. When a third line is connected
to two comers, one of the crossing lines will be sec-
tioned from both ends in a sort of reciprocal division.
that the sections are the same length as the sides and a
unique triangle is formed by the construction.
In mathematics phi is given its Greek symbol 4,
and a series of phi relations has been called an additive
is 0.618, c#J’~is 0.3819 and $‘3 is 0.2360, going to
smaller dimensions. Larger numbers are I#J”at 2.6189,
4” at 4.2358, and 4” at 6.853. The value 1.618 plus
0.618 equals 2.236, which is the square root of 5. The
mathematical formula is
x+1.0
~=- x
X 1.0
Solving for X leads to X = (1.0 +2 fi) = 1 61803
(Fig. 6). These numbers form a natural progression,
with each value a multiple of the phi proportion.5
Measured geometrically, the golden triangle is a
72” 72” 36” isosceles triangle and also has several
unique properties. It can easily be constructed from the
golden section (Fig. 7). When the longer section of the
golden sectioned line is marked off from each end of
the short section, a point is found to which each end of
the shorter section is connected. This forms the golden
triangle.
If one of the base angles is bisected (72” = 36” +
36”), the bisection will intersect the opposite side and,
in so doing, will section that side into the golden sec-
 Am. J. Orthod.
356 Ridwrts May 1982

Fig. 8. With a series of bisections of the 72 degree angle, a

series of identical triangles can be formed.

Fig. 10. The logarithmic spiral has long been appreciated as a

beautiful structure in nature as exemplified by the cross section
of the “spira nautilus.”

Fig. 9. When the three corners of the triangle are connected in a

smooth curve, an equi-angular or a logarithmic spiral can be
constructed.

tion (Fig. 8). The areas produced likewise are golden to

each other. Thus, an infinite series of triangles can be
constructed by adding 36 degrees to each 36 degree
angle.’ When the base of each triangle is connected to
each succeeding base with a smooth tangent, the con-
nection forms a logarithmic spiral (Fig. 9).
GENETIC IMPLICATIONS OF THE LOGARITHMIC
SPIRAL AND THE GOLDEN SECTION
The logarithmic spiral is found in the simplest of
primitive life forms, the snails.g The nautilus has long
been selected for adornment and amusement (Fig. 10).
The same pattern may be found in the sunflower, with
two reversed spirals to make it more intriguing. It is
Fig. 11. On the left will be seen a schematic drawing of a flower;
notice the pentagonal shape and the expression from a polar
center. On the right is the same kind of geometric expression,
but seen in seashells.
interesting to find the three-leafed clover, the five-
petaled daisies, and so many flowers with eight or thir-
teen petals illustrating the interesting Fibonacci num-
bers in nature (Fig. 11).
Of even greater interest is the proportion of the
fingers and toes of species of animal, being 1, 2, 3, and
5. Man’s usual five fingers and toes are significant, but
Volume 81 Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 357
Number 5

Fig. 12. By taking the phi relationships of the two inside dimensions, a golden divider can be con-
structed which, when expanded, will maintain the phi relationship continuously.

of even greater interest is the relation of the phalanges
in the hand and fingers in the span. By the construction
of a ‘ ‘golden divider, ’ ’ an increase will always occur in
the exact same proportion (Fig. 12). When examined
with the golden divider, it is observed that each pha-
lange is a 4 relation to the next, and each two are a C$
relation to the last two segments in the fingers (Fig.
13). In fact, the body as a whole has been studied,7 and
the total height can be sectioned into the golden pro-
portion and it comes out to be the umbilicus (Fig. 14).
With all these relations, it causes one to ponder the
possible link with basic cellular phenomena.
FACIAL ANALYSIS WITH THE GOLDEN
PROPORTION
With the foregoing biologic facts in mind, it was
only natural to examine faces for alternative 4 relation-
ships. With calculator handy, several photographs of
male and female models were explored and a hypothesis
was formed relative to proportions of facial components.
358 Ricketts Am. J. Orthod.
May 1982

Fig. 13. As the golden divider is applied to the hand, it will be seen that each of the phalanqes of each
finger is golden to the next in all five of the fingers.

-- r

Fig. 14. The top of the head to the chin relation (T-M) to the two cheeks forms a golden rectangle. The
height of this rectangle is quite similar to the distance from the umbilicus to the pubic triangle (UP). The
umbilicus (U) is golden from the top of the head (T) to the toes (4. The shoulders(S) and outstretched
arm (Ii) are golden to the total height (Tf). The shoulders to the umbilicus to the top of the head also
forms another golden rectangle.
Volume 81 Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 359
Number 5

Fig. 16. Taking the width of the nose as 1, the width of the
mouth is 1.618 or phi. The next progressive phi is the lateral
width of the eyes at the lateral canthus as $J~; I$~ is the width of
the head at the temporal soft tissue. 4’ is the interdacryon width
between the two eyes.

Fig. 15. The points used in the study. TRI = Trichion; TS = the
width of the head at the temporal soft tissue above the ears at Table I. Divine proportion study, frontal-
the level of the eyebrow (EB); dacryon is noted at the inner transverse dimensions (N 10 photographic
border of the orbit = DA; LC = the lateral canthus of the eye;
ZP = the zygomatic prominence; AL = alar rim; LN = the lat-
models from magazines)
eral side of the nose; CH = the point cheilion at the corner of Factor x
the mouth; ST = the break between the lips or stomion; measurement Actual Predicted C/I or 4’
ME = soft-tissue menton.
1. LN-LN 28.4 6 = 45.9 & = 74.35 Q = 120.30
2. CH-CH 45.4 c#? = 28.06 I$= 73.46 Q = 118.85
Material 3. LC-LC 75.3 4’ = 46.54 I$’ = 28.76 c$ = 121.83
In order to verify the hypothesis, a random selection 4. TS-TS 118.2 I#J’ = 73.05 @ = 45.14 @ = 27.90

of ten photographs in the frontal view were taken from
advertisements in magazines. Because proportions were
to be studied, variations in size made no difference. In
order to include races, seven were chosen as Caucasian,
two appeared to be Oriental, and one appeared to be of
the black race. A variety of facial types were present and
all were allegedly selected for outstanding beauty for
examples of products advertised.
Method and findings
Width relations. Points for measurement in the hy-
pothesis are seen in Fig. 15. For the frontal transverse
analysis, points were selected as follows: LN = the
lateral rim of the ala of the nose; CH = chilion, a point
at the angle of the mouth; LC = a point at the lateral
canthus of the eves; NB = a point at the base of the
Prediction TS-TS from LN-LN = 98.25% or 1.75% error (for mean
values) (and these photos about 80 percent actual).
Prediction CH-CH from LN-LN = 98.80 percent.
Prediction LC-LC from LN-LN = 98.75 percent.
nasal bridge; and TS = a point at the lateral border of
the temple at the level of the eyebrows (EB).
The findings confirmed the hypothesis (as seen in
Table I). A progressive phi relationship was found,
with the golden proportion having the four parts in
series and in “dynamic” relationship (Fig. 16). Start-
ing with the nose, the mouth is golden and, in turn, the
eyes are golden to the mouth, making the eyes 4’ to the
nose. The head width at the temple was also golden to
the eyes’ width which made the head 4” to the nose.
360 Ricketts
t
s -7-
I
-7
--L
Fig. 17. The explanation for these measurements
Model: Becky Storey Adele.)
Height relations. Attempts to find vertical relations
using nasion in conventional cephalometrics broke
down immediately. For facial esthetics the face, includ-
ing the forehead or the total face, needed to be ac-
counted for. Hence, use of a point at the top of the
forehead began to bring fruit. This point was selected at
the point of intersection with the vertical and horizontal
planes of the skull. More precisely, it came to be a
point at the hairline in the young or the point at the
beginning of the wrinkling that took place with the
lifting of the eyebrows. Research in the literature sug-
gested such a point to be trichion, or a point at a
triangle where the aponeurosis of the skullcap starts
(Fig. 15). A similar point, labeled point Fr, had been
studied on Italian subjects by Maj. lo Points for vertical
analysis were as follows: trichion = point at top of
forehead at junction of facial and skull fascia; EB =
point at lower border of superior curve of eyebrow;
LC = lateral canthus of the eye; AL = superior border
of the alar curve of the nose; St = stomion selected on
Am J. Orrhod.
May 1982
6
T!
5
i L i
is in the text. (Courtesy of Merle Norman Cosmetics
a level with chilion (CH); M = soft-tissue menton-
lower border of soft-tissue chin.
These findings also sensibly confirmed the hypoth-
esis drawn. Three reciprocal golden sections were dis-
covered, with three areas of congruence noted. Fig. 17
demonstrates these relationships, and Table II shows
the data analysis.
The first golden proportion taken from the total face
height was the forehead to the eye, represented as a
value of 1.O or 4 in Fig. 17 and the eye to menton (2),
being 1.6 18 or 4. A reverse measurement from menton
upward showed to the ala of the nose as 1.O; 5 was also
golden to the forehead to the nose (3). This made nose
length (from the eye to the ala) the area of balance or
congruence. It could give the orthodontist and the or-
thognathic or plastic surgeon a starting reference!
A second set of divine proportions was discovered
from the eye to the chin border or soft-tissue menton.
From the eye to chin downward, the ala of the nose
represented by 1.O(8) and the nose to the chin is 1.6 18
Volume n1
Number 5
Divine proportion and Fihonacci series 361

Table II. Values in divine proportion study (N 10 photographic models

X Measurement

Actual I ,618 proportion

1. TR-M 144.3 + 89.18 + 55.12 t 34.06 + 21.05

2. LC-M 89.3 89.3 x 1.618 = 144.48
89.3 + 1.618 = 55.19
3. TR-AL 88.6 88.6 x 1.618 = 143.35
88.6 t 1.618 = 54.15
4. TR-LC 52.1 52.1 x 1.618 = 84.29 136.38
52.1 + 1.618 = 32.2
5. AL-M 54.5 54.5 x 1.618 = 88.18 142.67
54.5 t 1.618 = 33.68
6. LC-CH 55.6 55.6 x 1.618 = 89.96 145.55
55.6 t 1.618 = 34.36
7. CH-M 33.7 33.7 x 1.618 = 54.52 88.22 142.74
33.7 + 1.618 = 20.82
8. LC-AL 34.7 34.7 x 1.618 = 56.14 90.84 146.98
34.7 t 1.618 = 21.4
9. AL-CH 21.3 21.3 x 1.618 = 34.46 55.76 90.22 145.98

5 points: Trichion, lateral canthus, alar rim, chilion (lip embrasure), menton.

or 4 (5). The reverse of this finds the mouth or stomion
to menton to be 1.0 (7) with the mouth to the eye
representing 1.618, or 4 (6). Thus, the distance be-
tween the nose and the mouth, or actually the upper lip
length, represents the balance or the area of congruence
in this set of measurements. Again, the surgeon may
find this length useful as a guide, and the orthodontist
may also use this for planning treatment orthopedically.
A third set of measurements was found in the anal-
ysis of the eye-nose-lip-chin proportions. Given the
upper lip length from ala to stomion (measurement 9 in
Fig. 17) as a value of 1.0, the eye to nose was 4 to it (8)
and the mouth to chin was $ to it (7).
Therefore, three values in these faces were approx-
imately even. They were the forehead to the eye, the
eye to the mouth, and the nose to the chin (mea-
surements 4, 5, and 6).
Discussion
In the final analysis, in the frontal view a natural
progression takes place in the face (if it is beautiful)! A
face will have rhythm! Ghyka’ has said, “Rhythm is
produced by the dynamic action of proportion on a
uniform recurrence. ” The word rhythm comes from
“rhythmos-arithmos,” and from “rhein,” which means
to flow. Rhythm is seen in time, dimension, music, and
poetry. It is pleasing to the ear, the eye, and the psyche.
The beautiful human face has rhythm, both transversely
and vertically or in width and height. The basic width 4
unit is the nose at the ala as it flows rhythmically or
gracefully to the mouth, to the eyes, to total facial width.
Vertically (or in facial height), the progression or
rhythm starts with the upper lip length from the ala of
the nose and flows downward to the chin and upward to
the eye. The progression involves the nose-chin,
mouth-eye, and eye-to-forehead dimensions. These
three dimensions are all similar in gloriously beautiful
faces. The flow continues to the chin-eye and the
forehead-nose dimensions as the next progression.
Probably the total head to top of the head would find a
flow from eye-chin to eye-head-crown height (to
bregma). When these are all in harmony (or in tune),
the rhythm is a delight to the senses!
This rhythm is seen in the data in Table II. Given
one value, the C#J
relationships were predicted almost to
a measurement error. The only real problem in the
study was the obvious difficulty of selecting trichion in
commercial photographs.
Analysis of facial depth on the profile view
Because of hair styles and the availability of frontal
views only, it was impossible to measure the previously
studied sample in profile for facial depth. Therefore,
one female patient at maturity, whose occlusion had
been corrected orthodontically, was selected. It was
immediately apparent that the vertical points employed
for the frontal analysis were useful. However, a unit of
depth was needed in order to establish an organization
of observations. This was found in the nose tip to the
base of the tragus of the ear. Oriented to Frankfort
plane, there emerged three golden rectangles. The same
trichion-eye, eye-mouth, and nose-chin were found
with the overlapping area of congruence the nose-lip
area. Furthermore, the lateral canthus of the eye sec-
 Am. J. Orzhod.
362 Ricketts Mav 1982

Fig. 18. Tracings of a beautiful woman patient after treatment.

Breakdown with three golden rectangles: from trichion to the
eye; the eye to the mouth; and the nose to the chin. The over-
lapping area is the distance from the nose to the mouth. Ana-
lyzed in this manner, the lateral canthus of the eye is also
golden to the nose length and tragus of the ear.

tioned the rectangles into smaller golden rectangles, as

Fig. 19. The method of arriving at the prominence of the cheek.
seen in Fig. 18. This analysis showed why extremely By taking the eyebrow to the nose, the cheek is located at the
long noses or very short noses are so undesirable for 1.618 relationship. In turn, the eye is broken down in a similar
absolute beauty, despite the fact that unusual noses may manner so that the lateral canthus of the eye is golden to the
give the face so-called “character,” and also explain eyebrow to the aforementioned line. Below is seen the golden
rectangle formed from the two eyebrows to the ala of the nose
why many peoples are so unhappy with the nose esthet-
which also helps to locate the cheek prominence.
ically .

CHEEK LOCATION AND EYE RHYTHM
Looking still further at oblique views of beautiful
faces, a pattern soon emerged for a hypothesis for loca-
tion of the cheek prominence (or malar eminence on the
zygoma). When the points at the lower border of the arc
of the eyebrow were taken, together with the lateral
canthus of the eye (at the limits of the eyelid), a golden
rectangle was formed with the ala of the nose (Fig. 19).
The cheek prominence appears to be in golden propor-
tion. Thus, with zygomatic prominence (Zp) to alar rim
height used as 1.0, the eyebrow to Zp is 4. This will
not only help the plastic surgeon with the location of
cheek augmentation (often with Proplast) but also can
help properly locate the site for plastic reconstruction or
cosmetics for the eyebrow (given normal eyes and nose
and cheek).
Finally, the value of eye balance in width entered
the exploration. Hypertelorism and hypotelorism are
problems in congenital deformities, and eye cosmetol-
ogy is a great art. Given the width of one eye (lateral
canthus to dacryon at the medial border of the orbit) as
a unit 1.0, it was found that the bridge of the nose
added to the width of the other eye came to be a 4
relationship. Thus, as in nose width for the face, the
nasal bridge between the two eyes represents an area of
congruence or an area of overlapping golden sections!
DIVINE PROPORTIONS IN THE HUMAN DENTITION
With the foregoing findings, it was natural to seek
divine proportions in the dentition. Data were available
for consideration from several sources. Personal mea-
surements made on thirty ideal normal subjects collected
Volume 81 Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 363
Number 5

X 8.82X2 =I?-
p’=Kii
x 5.42 X 2 = 10.84 mm.
g : 17.53

--I
Fig. 20. Tables from research on the tooth size indicate that the 57.0
value for the width of the lower central incisor is golden to the
width of the upper incisors.

17.5
by me had been measured in arch dimensions. Gard-
28.3
ner’s12 findings in 104 stable, long-term, treated patients 0 ’ 45.7
were available. Data were taken from G. V. Black’s
tables from standard dental anatomy texts. Finally, the Fig. 21. From Fig. 20, it will be seen that a progressive series
values found by Hamilton for tooth mass correlation obtains. A line from the lower and central incisors to the upper
charts, distributed by Dental Corporation of America, and central incisors to the distal apse& of the upper lateral
incisors across the arch and then on to the width of the upper
were used as reference. Thus, not just tooth size but
first premolars forms a progressive golden series.
“arch form in perspective” data were analyzed. Fig. 22. Another progressive series. The width of the four lower
The studies immediately began to show promise. incisors is golden to the upper canines which, in turn, are gold-
The lower incisor became a basic unit. The upper in- en to the width of the upper second molars. Another relationship
cisor was golden to the width of the lower incisor (Fig. is seen from the distal aspect of the lower canines to the buccal
groove of the lower first molars.
20). Taking both the upper and lower central incisors as
a unit, the r#~relationship is a mark of dynamic sym-
metry. A progression is seen as the two upper incisors is harmony from the lower to the upper arch and har-
are compared to the four upper incisors-not in a mony within the upper arch itself.
straight line, but as they appear to the eye in the chord A third golden proportion was seen from the distal
of the arc of the arch form (Fig. 21). Taking data from aspect of the lower canines. This measurement as a
charts, the next progression is the width of the upper base revealed the lower first molars at the mesial cusps
first premolars as also viewed from the anterior (Fig. to be in the 4 relationship. Thus, the normal human
21). Thus, a rhythm is seen in the natural normal ideal dentition represents a concert of harmony-undoubt-
occlusion with the lower incisor as a basic unit and $J edly a factor in natural selection at the subliminal level.
for the upper central incisors, $9 for the lateral incisor
widths, and $3 for premolars. It can be imagined what ASSOCIATION OF DIVINE RELATIONS WITH
happens to esthetics and beauty with teeth missing and DENTURE AND FACE
collapsed arches in the first premolar areas. Any magazine will show smiling faces to portray
A second series of divine proportions was dis- happiness with the product advertised. Ten photo-
covered in the teeth. Starting with the widths of all four graphs were studied to test possible association. By
lower incisors (across the arch) as 1.0 value, a 4 rela- dropping vertical lines from the lateral margin of the
tion to the tips of the upper canine widths was found nose during the smile, the nasal width was found al-
(Fig. 22). A 4” relationship to the four lower incisors most consistently to be the same as the upper inter-
was found at the widths of the upper second molars. canine width at the canine tips (Fig. 23). However, the
Therefore, the molar width for the upper molars is ala are drawn slightly outward in a broad smile. If this
2.618 times the width of the arc of the four lower is true (and ten patients do not prove a complete
incisors in great beauty. Thus, in the broad smile, there theory), then the four lower incisors form a basic unit
364 Ricketts
Fig. 23. Direct photocopies from current magazines.
in each of nine different subjects. Note the strong
canines. During the smile the nostrils are spread
of 1.0 with C#J relations going to the nose to the mouth
@ to the eyes C#I~ and the head +4. Lower incisor width
would be 0.2360 the width of the eyes. Who would
ever have suspected that upper intercanine width could
be related to the distance between the outer canthus of
the eyes (0.3819)? Who would have suspected that
anyone could measure the width of the eyes to deter-
mine a possible indication for stripping and positioning
of the four lower incisors? Who would believe that the
width of the eyes could be used to help determine the
Am. J. Orrhod.
May 1982
A line was drawn from the ala of the nose vertically
relationship from the ala of the nose to the tip of the
slightly.
need for removal of a lower incisor? Or who would
have believed that prediction of the orbit would be re-
lated in any way to an indication for arch expansion?
ANALYSIS OF THE CELHALOMETRIC MATRIX
Extensive computer research and clinical analysis
kept pointing to the use of certain points and planes for
reference, not only for convenience but also for bio-
logic significance. With all these golden associations
in the soft-tissue face and hard-tissue teeth. the next
 Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 365

PM

Fig. 25. A golden relationship between the corpus axis (XiPm)

and the condylar axis (XiCo) which makes the mandible a
beautifully pleasing structure.
PERUVIAN COMPOSITE
Fig. 24. A composite of thirty Peruvian nationals showing the
relationships in the Ricketts summary analysis. The breakdown
of these will be seen in Figs. 25, 26, and 27.

issue was the possible skeletal and dental relations.

By now I was using “golden calipers” constructed
in such a way as to expand or contract, maintaining the
golden section relationship.8 It was, therefore, rather
easy to start exploring computer composites made from
samples of normal occlusions. We had already estab-
lished the normal composites for the computer pro- t3A
gram. In addition, in 1979 a sample of thirty ideal
normal, thirty-two-tooth, racially unmixed adult males
from Peru in South America was sent for analysis by
Dr. Maria Castro. These were perhaps the most be-
witchingly beautiful examples of ideal occlusions it had
even been my experience to examine. All were traced
in detail by me and digitized and processed by the
technicians of Rocky Mountain Data Systems. The re-
sult was the composite shown in Fig. 24. Eight divine
proportions have been discovered so far and seem to
match three other normal composites available for
Fig. 26. Two golden relationships-Z&V to SBA and CCN to CC
comparison. articulare.
It will be remembered that the large unit used as a
unit of 1.0 will show the smaller unit as 0.618 or 61.8 2. Anterior cranial fossa length SN to posterior
percent of the length of the original dimension. It is still cranial fossa length S Ba (Fig. 26).
a golden relation, but termed a negative value. It may 3. Basal or cranial anterior base length (cc to NO $
be more convenient to describe the longer side first. to cranial center to articulare [ar]) (Fig. 26).
The findings are as follows: 4. Length of the hard palate ANS-PNS 4 to depth
1. Corpus axis length 4 to condyle axis length (to of nasopharynx (Fig. 27) and point A to PNS to
condyle tip) (Fig. 25). posterior margin of the condyle neck.
366 Ricketts Am J. Orrhod.
Ma> 1982

Q’ADULT COM POSIT E N82 t BOLTON

Fig. 29. An adult composite was made from a combination of

the eighty-two normal patients of the Foundation for Orthodon-
tic Research. Note the points used: Z = zygomatic frontal su-
Fig. 27. Other golden relationships were seen in the distances ture, medial border; AG = antegonial tubercle; J = jugal pro-
from orbit to pter-ygoid vertical and the pterygoid vertical to the cess; PiA = periform aperture; NC = widest portion of the nasal
top of the glenoid fossae. Below will be seen ANS-PS to the cavity; AR = lateral articulare; ANS = anterior nasal spine;
posterior border of the mandible; another relationship is A to the PM = protuberance menti at the convergence of the trigonim
anterior border of the mandible to the outline of the pharynx. mentali.

8. Height of the lower incisor tip from Pm 6 to

distance of incisor tip to point A (Fig. 28).

DIVINE PROPORTIONS IN THE FRONTAL

CEPHALOMETRIC VIEW
The frontal proportions were determined from a
computer composite of the adult sample of eighty-two
normal occlusions collected by the Foundation for
Orthodontic Research. The width of transverse dimen-
sions would apply for the teeth except for greater en-
largement in structures more distant from the film in the
posteroanterior exposure (Fig. 29). Certain golden re-
lationships were found in the upper, middle, and lower
face.
Fig. 29. Three vertical relationships were seen to be golden in
In the upper face, the distance from point Z at the
cephalometrics. On the left will be seen the Frankfort plane to lateral border of the orbit at the zygomatofrontal suture
point A to PM as a golden structural relationship. In the center to the medial border of the orbit (or point dacryon) was
will be seen the eye to the floor of the nose to menton as golden to the interdacryon distance. This makes the
another golden relationship. However, the most useful is seen bridge of the nose a congruent area between the two
on the right, where the lower incisor is golden to point A and to
point PM.
orbits (Fig. 30).
In the midface the distance between the widest
5. Anterior length of Frankfort plane (PtV to or- points on the piriform aperture (at the anterior rim of
bitale) 4 to PtV to glenoid fossa (GL) (Fig. 27). the nasal cavity) formed a congruent area between the
6. Vertical height of point A to Pm 4 to A to the width of the mandible at a level which was called lat-
Frankfort plane (Fig. 28). eral articulare (Lar), at the crossing of the condyle
7. Palate at incisive canal to menton $J to canthus neck with the outline of the zygoma. Thus, a 4 rela-
of eye (Fig. 28). tionship was found from the nose to each lateral part of
Volume 81 Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 367
Number 5

Fig. 31. The molar width is golden to the AG in this adult com-
posite. Note also the same vertical relations seen in the lateral
head film. Note also that from foramen rotundum through the
lower first molar to the border of the mandible a golden relation-
ship is seen in the oblique direction.

Fig. 30. The golden relationship of the orbit to the nasal width at
dacryon. Below will be seen the golden relationship from the
periform aperture to the distance to lateral articulare. A 4’ rela-
tionship is seen at the jugal process, and a 4” relationship is
seen at the lateral articulare. The height of the nasal cavity to its
width forms, essentially, a golden rectangle.

the face (Fig. 30). In turn, the maxilla between J points

was @ or 2.618 to the piriform aperture, which made
the interarticulare distance $3 or 4.236 times the nasal
width. A golden rectangle was observed from the max-
imum width of the nose (NC) as related to the floor of
the nose to the zygomaticofrontal suture line which
approximates dacryon and is close to nasion.
In the lower face the width between the buccal sur-
face of the crowns of the lower first molar was found
golden to the mandibular width at the antegonial points
(Fig. 31). Vertically, the golden relation from anterior
nasal spine to the lower incisor and then to the top of
the trigonum mentali or protuberance menti was also
reconfirmed. Laying the golden dividers on the tracing
on foramen rotundum and the first molar, a 4 relation-
ship was found to the mandibular border in that oblique
line.
DISCUSSION OF CLINICAL APPLICATION
DIVINE PROPORTIONS
Any cephalometric investigator soon discovers that
all structures, both hard and soft, vary in size and
shape. The important question has regarded the manner
in which individual parts come together for a functional
harmony or the mechanisms which involve dysplasia.
Various angles and linear measurements in cephalo-
Fig. 32. Observations on normal, growing children at the ages
of 3, 8, and 13 and adult males at 18. Composites at 3, 8, and
13 represent both sexes. Note the explosion from the area at
the base of the sinoid bone near the foramen rotundurn.
metrics have served as excellent guides for the under-
standing of planning for both orthodontic treatment and
surgical correction. With the findings of the golden
relationship, however, still another approach can aid
OF the clinician in determining the area most out of har-
mony and balance and hence determine the best ap-
proach to achieve “harmonic unity” in esthetics,
which in most instances leads to functional unity and
efficiency.
Of great delight in the lateral cephalometric image
was the biologic verification of Xi point (Fig. 25). In
every normal composite of mandibles studied, the cor-
366 Rickett.5 Am. J Orrhod.
May 1982

Fig. 33. A semipolar phenomenon is seen in the frontal as

exhibited. Note the downward and outward movement of the
AG point and the downward and outward movement of the J
point. The polar phenomenon is not exhibited exactly because
of the two halves of the face converging, and each half would
have its own separate alometric expression.

pus axis was in the divine proportion to the condyle

axis when measured to the top of the condyle. This
approach makes an excellent tool to determine man-
dibular dysplasia becasue the relationship is irrespec-
tive of age; hence, a predictor! Fig. 34. Alometric shapes and essentially gnomic growth as
The divine proportions, found in normal compos- seen in the mandible and the downward movement of the oral
ites, point to the “dynamic symmetry” method as capsule. Lower tracing shows the development of the oral cap-
being a convenient guide for the diagnosis of structural sule and the eruption of teeth as viewed from Xi point to inter-
nasal spine and point PM. These represent continuing rela-
craniofacial dysplasia. The golden relation of SN and
tionships.
SBa may serve as a guide for analysis of the nasophar-
ynx and naso-oro airway and the proportionality of the
anterior and posterior cranial base and protrusion of the treated patients were observed to be incongruous in jaw
maxilla. This, together with palatal length and naso- relation before treatment, they were seen to be cor-
pharyngeal depth golden proportions, adds to estimates rected to golden proportion after treatment. Not only
of functional desirability and surgical planning of the individual patients but treated composites showed cor-
palate. rection to golden proportions in Class II, Division 1
Quite interesting was the remarkable 4 relationship cases treated with cervical Kloehn headgear traction.
on the basion-nasion plane from cc, the cranial center Of greater significance, since it has been debated at
point.13-15 Nasion and articulare were found in golden great length for three decades in orthodontics, is the
proportion from the cc point. Theoretically, this finding height of the lower incisor. It was found to relate also to
yields a slight improvement in long-range predictions point A and Pm in the golden cut. From point A, if the
of the cranial base. distance to lower incisor tip is 1.O as a unit, the ratio of
The most immediately useful cephalometric pro- the height of the lower incisor is 1.618, or phi. Maybe
portions were found in the vertical relations of the jaws this will settle once and for all the argument of the need
and teeth. From the true Frankfort plane point A, in the for intrusion of the lower incisor (See Fig. 29)!
maxilla, and Pm, in the mandible, were found to be These relationships also serve as an excellent plan-
consistently golden in beautiful normal faces. As ning tool for Le Fort and mandibular prognathic surgi-

cal procedures and for genioplasty. At this writing,
several patients have undergone work-ups and opera-
tions to the resulting prescriptions determined by the
divine proportions. r6
NEW FRONTAL FINDINGS
The findings in frontal proportions cephalometri-
tally were at first difficult to find. The findings of the
association of canine width with soft-tissue nasal width
in the smile, and the geometric progression of the nose
to the mouth to the eyes to the head in the soft tissues
were fascinating. The bony nasal width was also found
in a progression through the midface with the lateral
dimensions to the lateral articulare and to the maxilla
width. In addition, the dental arch width (in the adult)
at the first molar was golden to the base of the trihedral
eminences, which would be an important determinant
for adult treatment planning and would also point to the
need for frontal prediction. Finally, the vertical posi-
tion of the lower incisor was verified in the frontal
prediction, and guides to lower molar height and facial
height were also approached in a new manner with
these studies.
CONFORMANCE WITH PREVIOUS WORK
I have published previously the findings of orderli-
ness of growth on the polar grid (Figs. 32 and 33).17
Several changes in size without a change in shape (al-
lometric shapes) were described with respect to some of
the capsules or functional cavities of the face. No better
expression of this growth behavior was seen than the
following quotation from D’Arcy Thompsong:
In the growth of a shell we can conceive no simpler law
than this, namely, that it shall widen and lengthen in the same
unvarying proportions: and this simplest of laws is that which
Nature tends to follow.
The shell, like the creature within it, grows in size but
does not change its shape; and the existence of this constant
relativity of growth, or constant similarity of form, is of the
essence and may be made the basis of a definition, of the
equi-angular spiral.
It would appear that the principle of the golden
section and Fibonacci numbers are basic to this orderly
arrangement and growth of the human face.
The correct proportion is essential for harmony and
facial rhythm. Beauty is found in rhythm and harmony
with all the parts in unison.
These findings bring a consideration to contempo-
rary orthodontics: It is no longer a matter of just fitting
the teeth together but one of harmonizing the whole
dentition to the rest of the structures in the skull (a
theory held by Angle almost a century ago).
There must be some grand plan and controlling
Divine proportion and Fibonacci series 369
Fig. 35. According to research findings, the mandible grows on
an arc and the occlusal plane rises posteriorly with the Xi point.
This arc very closely conforms to the logarithmic spiral which
has as its base the golden section in the divine proportion.
medium for the beautiful face to develop on such an
allometric scale (Fig. 34). Possibly these relationships
go back to basic mathematical relationships. It is quite
convincing that the mandible grows on the logarithmic
spiralla, lg which has as a basis the golden triangle, in
turn, related to the golden section (Fig. 35).
With the harmony of divine proportions, relations
in ideal faces and ideal facial patterns, and especially
with the number of reciprocal areas or areas of congru-
ence in both the lateral and frontal dimensions, the
thought was pondered that perhaps, just perhaps, basic
mitosis and cell division are also monitored by factors
in Fibonacci numbers!
Cellular division occurring in a natural geometric
progression would produce absolute and not dynamic
symmetry. Furthermore, if all cells were designed spe-
cifically for reproduction, there would never be any
workers because all would be delegated for growing.
Do the cells for reproduction or growth of tissue differ
from those cells designated to perform the functional
role of the tissue?
Epigenesis occurs when cells develop past a certain
unreturnable level. When growth is completed, a cer-
tain number of growth cells must be retained for growth
function for the purpose of replacement. Perhaps also
built into the plan itself is a design for ultimate deple-
tion of the replacement reservoir, such as described as
the Hayflick limit. 2o Is this the final problem of aging,
senility, and death?
With this biologic view, death is just as much a part
370 Ricketts Am. J. Orthod.
Mav 1982

of the biologic process as is birth, but the process per- 7. Ghyka, Matila: The geometry of art and life, New York, 1977,
Dover Publications.
mits the sustaining of form of the structure throughout
8. Runion, Garth E.: The golden section and related curiosa,
life. Perhaps, also, the wild proliferation of cells in Glenview, Ill., 1972, Scott, Foresman & Co.
cancer constitutes a disturbance in the ratio of reproduc- 9. Thompson, D’Arcy W.: On growth and form, London, 1961,
ing and working cells. Cambrige University Press.
The key to growth and form and beauty may ulti- 10. Maj, G., Luzi, C., and Lucchese, P.: A new method of
cephalometric analysis suitable for the different constitutional
mately reside in the mathematics of space, time, and
types of head, Dent. Practit. 8: 358. 1958.
rhythm. 11. Ricketts, R. M., et al: An overview of computerized cephalo-
Mankind might be at the end of a chain of an metrics, AM. J. ORTHOD. 61: l-28, 1972.
evolutionary development. Those of religious persua- 12. Gardner, Martin: The second Scientific American book of math-
sion may take comfort from this magnificent and ematical puzzles and diversions, New York, 1961. Simon &
majestic organization of the human face. Any further Schuster, Book 2, chap. 8, pp. 89-99.
13. Ricketts, Robert M: Introducing computerized cephalometrics,
improvement may be only more of the population Denver, Colo., 1969, Rocky Mountain Communicators.
reaching this potential of beauty rather than a major 14. Ricketts, Robert M: New findings and concepts emerging from
change in an already perfect form. the clinical use of the computer. In Transactions of European
Orthodontic Society, 1973, pp. 507-515.
15. Ricketts, Robert M: A four-step method to distinguish orthodon-
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