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Overview[edit]

Galileo Galilei. Phases of the Moon. 1616.

Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression within the visual arts. It is generally
concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the
accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon a plane surface.[3] Traditional
drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour,[4] while modern colored-pencil drawings
may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology,
drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks.
Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings.
Drawing may be done with a liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens. Similar supports
likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared
canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support.

Drawing is often exploratory, with considerable emphasis on observation, problem-solving and


composition. Drawing is also regularly used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their
distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called studies.
Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

There are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling,
and freehand. There are also many drawing methods, such as line drawing, stippling, shading, the
surrealist method of entopic graphomania (in which dots are made at the sites of impurities in a
blank sheet of paper, and lines are then made between the dots), and tracing (drawing on a
translucent paper, such as tracing paper, around the outline of preexisting shapes that show
through the paper).

A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch.

In fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other
things are often called "drawings" even when they have been transferred to another medium by
printing.

History[edit]
Drawing in communication[edit]
Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression, with evidence for its existence preceding
that of written communication.[5] It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of
communication before the invention of the written language,[5][6] demonstrated by the production
of cave and rock paintings around 30,000 years ago (Art of the Upper Paleolithic).[7] These
drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts.[8] The sketches and
paintings produced by Neolithic times were eventually stylised and simplified in to symbol
systems (proto-writing) and eventually into early writing systems.

Drawing in manuscripts[edit]
Before the widespread availability of paper, 12th-century monks in European monasteries used
intricate drawings to prepare illustrated, illuminated manuscripts on vellum and parchment.
Drawing has also been used extensively in the field of science, as a method of discovery,
understanding and explanation.

Drawing in science[edit]
In 1609, astronomer Galileo Galilei explained the changing phases of the moon through his
observational telescopic drawings.[9] In 1924, geophysicist Alfred Wegener used illustrations to
visually demonstrate the origin of the continents.[9]

Drawing as artistic expression[edit]


Drawing is used to express one's creativity, and therefore has been prominent in the world of art.
Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as the foundation for artistic
practice.[10] Initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their
drawings.[11] Following the widespread availability of paper in the 14th century, the use of drawing
in the arts increased. At this point, drawing was commonly used as a tool for thought and
investigation, acting as a study medium whilst artists were preparing for their final pieces of
work.[12][13] The Renaissance brought about a great sophistication in drawing techniques, enabling
artists to represent things more realistically than before,[14] and revealing an interest in geometry
and philosophy.[15]

The invention of the first widely available form of photography led to a shift in the hierarchy of
the arts.[16] Photography offered an alternative to drawing as a method for accurately representing
visual phenomena, and traditional drawing practice was given less emphasis as an essential skill
for artists, particularly so in Western society.[9]

Notable artists and draftsmen[edit]


Drawing became significant as an art form around the late 15th century, with artists and master
engravers such as Albrecht Dürer and Martin Schongauer (c. 1448-1491), the very first Northern
engraver known by name. Schongauer came from Alsace, and was born into a family of
goldsmiths. Albrecht Dürer, a master of the next generation, was also the son of a goldsmith.[17][18]

Old Master Drawings are often reflect the history of the country in which they were produced,
and the fundamental characteristics of a nation at that time. In 17th-century Holland, a Protestant
country, there were almost no religious artworks, and, with no King or court, most art was bought
privately. Drawings of landscapes or genre scenes were often viewed not as sketches but as highly
finished works of art. Italian drawings, however, show the influence of Catholicism and the
Church, which played a major role in artistic patronage. The same is often true of French drawings,
although in the 17th century the disciplines of French Classicism meant drawings were less
Baroque than the more free Italian counterparts, which conveyed a greater sense of movement.[19]

In the 20th century Modernism encouraged "imaginative originality"[20] and some artists' approach
to drawing became less literal, more abstract. World-renowned artists such as Pablo Picasso, Andy
Warhol and Jean-Michel Basquiat helped challenge the status quo, with drawing being very much
at the centre of their practice, and often re-interpreting traditional technique.[21]

Basquiat's drawings were produced in many different mediums, most commonly ink, pencil, felt-
tip or marker, and oil-stick, and he drew on any surface that came to hand, such as doors, clothing,
refrigerators, walls and baseball helmets.[22]
Modern-day artists such as Tracey Emin observe the legacy and importance of drawing, engraving
and print making techniques in their vast array, passed down through millennia.

The centuries have produced a canon of notable artists and draftsmen, each with their own distinct
language of drawing, including:

 14th, 15th and 16th: Leonardo da Vinci[23] • Albrecht Dürer • Hans Holbein the
Younger • Michelangelo • Pisanello • Raphael
 17th: Claude • Jacques de Gheyn II • Guercino • Nicolas Poussin • Rembrandt • Peter Paul
Rubens • Pieter Saenredam
 18th: François Boucher • Jean-Honoré Fragonard • Giovanni Battista Tiepolo • Antoine
Watteau
 19th: Aubrey Beardsley • Paul Cézanne • Jacques-Louis David • Honoré Daumier • Edgar
Degas • Théodore Géricault • Francisco Goya • Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres • Pierre-
Paul Prud'hon • Odilon Redon • John Ruskin • Georges Seurat • Henri de Toulouse-
Lautrec • Vincent van Gogh
 20th: Max Beckmann • Jean Dubuffet • M. C. Escher • Arshile Gorky • George Grosz • Paul
Klee • Oscar Kokoschka • Käthe Kollwitz • Alfred Kubin • André Masson • Alphonse
Mucha • Jules Pascin • Pablo Picasso • Egon Schiele • Jean-Michel Basquiat • Andy Warhol
• Frank Auerbach
 21st: Tracey Emin • Banksy • Hayao Miyazaki

Materials[edit]
The medium is the means by which ink, pigment or color are delivered onto the drawing surface.
Most drawing media are either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastels, Conté, silverpoint), or use a
fluid solvent or carrier (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary
pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have
drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink. Metalpoint drawing usually employs either of two
metals: silver or lead.[24] More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint.

Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade up to high
quality and relatively expensive paper sold as individual sheets.[25] Papers vary in texture, hue,
acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy"
paper holds the drawing material better. Thus a coarser material is useful for producing deeper
contrast.
Newsprint and typing paper may be useful for practice and rough sketches. Tracing paper is used
to experiment over a half-finished drawing, and to transfer a design from one sheet to
another. Cartridge paper is the basic type of drawing paper sold in pads. Bristol board and even
heavier acid-free boards, frequently with smooth finishes, are used for drawing fine detail and do
not distort when wet media (ink, washes) are applied. Vellum is extremely smooth and suitable
for very fine detail. Coldpressed watercolor paper may be favored for ink drawing due to its
texture.

Acid-free, archival quality paper keeps its color and texture far longer than wood pulp based
paper such as newsprint, which turns yellow and becomes brittle much sooner.

The basic tools are a drawing board or table, pencil sharpener and eraser, and for ink
drawing, blotting paper. Other tools used are circle compass, ruler, and set square. Fixative is
used to prevent pencil and crayon marks from smudging. Drafting tape is used to secure paper to
drawing surface, and also to mask an area to keep it free of accidental marks, such as sprayed or
spattered materials and washes. An easel or slanted table is used to keep the drawing surface in a
suitable position, which is generally more horizontal than the position used in painting.

Technique[edit]

Raphael, study for what became the Alba Madonna, with other sketches
Antoine Watteau, trois crayonstechnique

Almost all draftsmen use their hands and fingers to apply the media, with the exception of some
handicapped individuals who draw with their mouth or feet.[26]

Prior to working on an image, the artist typically explores how various media work. They may try
different drawing implements on practice sheets to determine value and texture, and how to apply
the implement to produce various effects.

The artist's choice of drawing strokes affects the appearance of the image. Pen and ink drawings
often use hatching – groups of parallel lines.[27] Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more
different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, form
lighter tones – and controlling the density of the breaks achieves a gradation of tone. Stippling uses
dots to produce tone, texture and shade. Different textures can be achieved depending on the
method used to build tone.[28]

Drawings in dry media often use similar techniques, though pencils and drawing sticks can
achieve continuous variations in tone. Typically a drawing is filled in based on which hand the
artist favors. A right-handed artist draws from left to right to avoid smearing the
image. Eraserscan remove unwanted lines, lighten tones, and clean up stray marks. In a sketch or
outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking
like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position.

Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder. The
shape of the area to preserve can be painted with masking fluid or cut out of a frisket and applied
to the drawing surface, protecting the surface from stray marks until the mask is removed.

Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on fixative to the surface.
This holds loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevents it from smearing. However the
fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can harm the respiratory system, so it should be
employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors.

Another technique is subtractive drawing in which the drawing surface is covered with graphite
or charcoal and then erased to make the image.[29]
Tone[edit]

A pencil drawing with hatching and shading

Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the
material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows and
highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image.

Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes. Blending is most
easily done with a medium that does not immediately fix itself, such as graphite, chalk, or
charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects. For shading
and blending, the artist can use a blending stump, tissue, a kneaded eraser, a fingertip, or any
combination of them. A piece of chamois is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing
material to lighten the tone. Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface
without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a
somewhat blunt point.

Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing include hatching and stippling. A
number of other methods produce texture. In addition to the choice of paper, drawing material
and technique affect texture. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next
to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture is more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended
area. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones close together. A light edge next
to a dark background stands out to the eye, and almost appears to float above the surface.

Form and proportion[edit]


Proportions of the human body

Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in
producing a realistic rendition of the subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the
angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then
rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative
sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing
implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be
used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions.

Variation of proportion with age

When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to
represent the form with a set of primitive volumes. Almost any form can be represented by some
combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic volumes have been
assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form.
The lines of the primitive volumes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. Drawing the
underlying construction is a fundamental skill for representational art, and is taught in many
books and schools. Its correct application resolves most uncertainties about smaller details, and
makes the final image look consistent.[30]
A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of
anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint
location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during
movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff.
The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject,
particularly when drawing a portrait.

Two-point perspective drawing

Perspective[edit]
Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink
with distance. Each set of parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table,
follows lines that eventually converge at a vanishing point. Typically this convergence point is
somewhere along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple
structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and
bottoms of the structures typically converge at a vanishing point.

When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side
converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a two-
point perspective.[31] Converging the vertical lines to a third point above or below the horizon then
produces a three-point perspective.

Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above.
Objects of similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the
back wheel of a cart appears slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through
the use of texture. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and
busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by
reducing the contrast in more distant objects, and by making their colors less saturated. This
reproduces the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn
in the foreground.

Chiaroscuro study drawingby William-Adolphe Bouguereau


Artistry[edit]
The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic
merit. The artist plans element placement in the art to communicate ideas and feelings with the
viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that
is aesthetically appealing and stimulating.

The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay
of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light
sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple
light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful
appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any
texture or interesting features.

When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the
silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important
in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear
properly placed wherever they can be viewed.

A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be
used to determine the appearances of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting
with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a
piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study.

Process[edit]

A person drawing the Barberini Faun in Munich


Individuals display differences in their ability to produce visually accurate drawings. [32] A visually
accurate drawing is described as being "recognized as a particular object at a particular time and
in a particular space, rendered with little addition of visual detail that can not be seen in the object
represented or with little deletion of visual detail”.[33]

Investigative studies have aimed to explain the reasons why some individuals draw better than
others. One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: perception of objects being
drawn, ability to make good representational decisions, motor skills required for mark-making
and the drawer's own perception of their drawing.[33]Following this hypothesis, several studies
have sought to conclude which of these processes are most significant in affecting the accuracy of
drawings.

Drawing process in the Academic Study of a Male Torso by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1801, National
Museum, Warsaw)

Motor control

Motor control is an important physical component in the 'Production Phase' of the drawing
process.[34] It has been suggested that motor control plays a role in drawing ability, though its
effects are not significant.[33]

Perception

It has been suggested that an individual's ability to perceive an object they are drawing is the most
important stage in the drawing process.[33] This suggestion is supported by the discovery of a
robust relationship between perception and drawing ability.[35]

This evidence acted as the basis of Betty Edwards' how-to-draw book, Drawing on the Right Side of
the Brain.[36] Edwards aimed to teach her readers how to draw, based on the development of the
reader's perceptual abilities.

Furthermore, the influential artist and art critic John Ruskin emphasised the importance of
perception in the drawing process in his book The Elements of Drawing.[37] He stated that "For I am
nearly convinced, that once we see keenly enough, there is very little difficult in drawing what we
see".

Visual memory

This has also been shown to influence one's ability to create visually accurate drawings. Short-
term memory plays an important part in drawing as one's gaze shifts between the object they are
drawing and the drawing itself.[38]

Decision-making

Some studies comparing artists to non-artists have found that artists spend more time thinking
strategically while drawing. In particular, artists spend more time on 'metacognitive' activities
such as considering different hypothetical plans for how they might progress with a drawing

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