Chapter 17.

5
HOISTING SYSTEMS
F RED A. E DWARDS

17.5.1 INTRODUCTION
After a detailed technical feasibility study has indicated the
commercial viability of exploiting an ore body using under-
ground methods, an adequate planning and design process for
mine access should begin. Two general types of access should be
considered: (1) vertical to near-vertical shafts using hoists and
cable-suspended conveyances, or (2) horizontal or inclined open-
ings using rail, trucks, conveyors, or cable-operated conveyances.
Because a shaft often provides the most direct access over
the longest period of time, there is an advantage to designing a
shaft for maximum duty, consistent with economy. The current
trend in shaft design is to provide multipurpose shafts. These
shafts contain facilities for handling ore, waste, materials, per-
sonnel, services, manways, and ventilation.
During the process of identifying the purpose of the shaft, it
should be realized that once a shaft is excavated and equipped,
it cannot be enlarged easily in the future. Therefore, the shaft’s
initial and ultimate requirements must be defined during the
design phase.
This chapter presents the information and criteria necessary
to design or select a mine shaft hoisting system. Specific topics
such as hoist selection, hoist rope details, headframe design, shaft
furnishings and equipment, as well as shaft lining design, are
included in the discussion. Ramps and tunnels are dealt with in
a similar fashion in Chapters 17.4 and 24.1. Fig. 17.5.1. Shaft hoisting system.
A system is defined as a group of units so combined as to
form a whole and to operate in unison. Thus, when designing a
shaft hoisting system, one must consider not only each part of dip, plunge and depth of the ore body, and (3) hydrogeology of
the system separately but the interrelationships among the parts the strata to be penetrated. With the above information, the
of the system in its entirety. For the purpose of this discussion, engineer is in a position to prepare conceptual designs and order-
the shaft hoisting system has been divided into five main compo- of-magnitude cost estimates.
nents: (1) hoist, (2) conveyance, (3) rope, (4) shaft, and (5) Outside influences on the cost of any new project must be
headframe (Fig. 17.5.1). taken into account. These are (1) the geographic location of the
Following a description of each of the five main hoisting project, affecting cost of materials; (2) climatic conditions at the
components, a segment describing a systematic procedure that site, especially heavy rainfall, snow, extreme cold and high
can be used to design a shaft hoisting system is presented. winds; and (3) availability of skilled manpower to carry out the
work, noting labor relations in the area. While these items do
17.5.1.1 Design Parameters for Evaluating not generally affect the design considerations, they affect the
development costs for the access system.
Alternative Modes of Access After the above terms have been defined, trial calculations
and alternate designs can be considered. During this process, the
The first step in evaluating an access system for a mine is to
interrelationships among the major components of the system
determine the principal purpose of the opening. The opening
can be examined. Each trial design must be evaluated to ensure
could be used for production, service, ventilation, exploration,
that it meets the design objectives. These objectives are con-
development, or a combination of these. Next, duty requirements
cerned with capital costs, operating costs, dependability, effi-
for the opening must be established. Questions include: how
ciency, flexibility, suitability to the mining plan, and time to
much ore and waste? how many personnel? how much material
construct. This procedure of defining, examining alternate de-
and supplies? how much air?
signs, and conducting evaluations is continued until an optimum
With this information, the basic design parameters, includ-
solution is reached.
ing the size of the opening, configuration, ground support, and
inclination can be developed. This allows preliminary designs
and comparative capital and operating cost estimates to be made 17.5.2 SHAFT HOISTING SYSTEMS
between alternative systems.
Detailed cost analysis for the mine access cannot be carried In this chapter, the major components associated with verti-
out without additional design consideration involving the follow- cal to near-vertical shafts using hoists and cable-suspended con-
ing items: (1) geology of the ground to be excavated, (2) strike, veyances are described briefly. The term shaft hoisting system is

1646
 HOISTING SYSTEMS
used to describe collectively the openings and the equipment
being considered.
In addition to the five major hoisting components, Edwards
(1988) has identified an additional 277 subcomponents. The
number of subcomponents and their interrelationship with the
main components are indicative of the complexity involved with
the design of shaft hoisting systems.
A brief description of each of the above main components is
now presented. In the following segments, information on the
design and technical considerations to be examined when select-
ing a particular component is presented in more detail.
17.5.2.1 Hoists
There are two basic types of hoists in common use today.
These are the drum hoist in which the hoist rope is stored on the
drum, and the friction hoist in which the rope passes over the
wheel during the hoisting cycle. Within each category there are
several variations.
Drum hoists are usually located at some distance from the
shaft and require a headframe and sheaves to center the hoisting
ropes in the shaft compartment. Friction hoists may also be
located directly over the shaft and, depending upon the wheel
diameter, may require deflection sheaves to center the rope in
the shaft compartment.
17.5.2.2 Conveyances
Conveyances used in mining operations are classified ac-
cording to their use. Those for handling personnel and material
are generally termed cages. Conveyances for handling broken
ore or coal and waste are termed skips. Combination skip-cages
are used in some areas. A counterweight may also be considered
a conveyance.
17.5.2.3 Rope
When considering the complete shaft hoisting system, there
are three common uses for steel ropes, with a particular construc-
tion applicable for each use. A list of ropes by use and most
common construction follows:
Rope Use Rope Construction
1. Hoist rope Round strand
Flattened strand
Locked coil
2. Balance rope Non-rotating
3. Guide and rubbing rope Half-locked coil
17.5.2.4 Shaft
Brucker (1975) has provided two definitions that can be
used to describe shafts for mining purposes: (1) a vertical, deep,
restricted cross-section excavation, and (2) a vertical or inclined
primary opening in rock that gives access to and serves various
levels of a mine.
Primary openings can be further defined as those that are
considered to be permanent and require a high degree of safety.
Although the above definitions can be used to describe any type
of shaft, they are somewhat general and do not provide sufficient
information to allow the design and construction of a shaft as a
useful structure for mining purposes.
There are several classifications that can be used to differenti-
ate shafts by type. For the purpose of this discussion, four com-
monly used classifications are presented. Shafts can be classified
1647
(1) by purpose, (2) by configuration, (3) by ground support, and
(4) by excavation method.
SHAFT PURPOSE. One of the first items to be examined when
designing a shaft is to identify its intended purpose. When de-
fined by purpose, shafts usually fall into the following categories:
1. Production: ore and waste handling.
2. Service: personnel and materials handling.
3. Ventilation: upcast or downcast airflow.
4. Exploration: for defining mineral deposits.
5. Escape: for emergency.
6. Combinations of the above.
SHAFT CONFIGURATION. Shafts may be classified according
to their size and configuration. The most common shaft configu-
rations for any size shaft are circular, rectangular, and elliptical.
Size of a shaft can be small (32 to 160 ft2, or 3 to 15 m2), medium
(160 to 2150 ft2, or 15 to 200 m2), or large ( > 2150 ft2, or 200
m2), depending upon its service.
SHAFT GROUND SUPPORT R EQUIREMENTS. Shafts may be
classified according to the type of ground support to be used to
maintain the stability of the shaft structure, for example, a timber
shaft or concrete-lined shaft. Ground support applied to the shaft
structure can be classified as temporary support or permanent
support. Ground support requirements are thoroughly discussed
in Chapter 17.4.
SHAFT EXCAVATION METHODS. Shafts may be classified by
the excavation method used during construction. There are two
types of excavation methods: conventional and bored. Conven-
tional shafts are excavated with standard drilling, blasting, and
mucking methods, in combination with various methods of
ground support. They may be of any configuration or inclination.
Bored shafts are excavated using a mechanical shaft boring ma-
chine (SBM). Several boring methods are available. Most meth-
ods remove cuttings from the collar of the hole. Some methods
drop cuttings from the machine into the mine. All bored shafts
are circular in configuration, with various methods of ground
support. They may be of any inclination. Shaft excavation tech-
niques are discussed in Chapter 17.4 and Section 9.
17.5.2.5 Headframe
Headframes may be constructed of wood, steel, or concrete.
They are generally divided into two types:
A. With backlegs
1. A-frame
2. Four-post
3. Six-post
4. Other
B. Tower
1. Ground-mounted hoist
2. Tower-mounted hoist
17.5.3 HOISTS
Generally, the mine hoist selected and installed at a mine
remains in position for the life of the operation. It is therefore
imperative that the proper hoist be selected. In order to select
the proper hoist, it is important to understand the basic design
parameters, the various types of hoists available, and the relation-
ship between the mine hoist and the other components of the
hoisting system. Each major type of hoist is now considered
separately (Fig. 17.5.2).
17.5.3.1 Types of Hoist
SINGLE DRUM. The single drum hoist may be used for bal-
anced or unbalanced operation. When used for unbalanced
1648
Fig. 17.5.2. Arrangements of various hoists.
hoisting, the cost of the electric drive becomes quite high for long
hoisting distances and high tonnages. This is because the motor
must have sufficient torque to handle the weight of the rope,
conveyance, and payload.
In a balanced hoisting system, one rope winds off the drum
as the other winds on. When used with a skip or cage in balance
with a counterweight, a single drum hoist can service one or
more levels since the location of the counterweight is not impor-
tant. When used with two skips in balance, the single drum hoist
is best used for single-level hoisting. Any rope adjustments to
locate the conveyance must be done manually. For shallow shafts
with one layer of rope, no dividing of the drum is required. For
deeper shafts, the drum must be divided.
DIVIDED SINGLE DRUM. This type of hoist is used for deeper
shafts with balanced hoisting when several layers of rope must
be stored on the drum. Peak horsepower is less than with unbal-
anced hoisting because the skip weights are balanced. Since the
payload and weight of the rope is not balanced, the maximum
unbalanced load occurs when the loaded conveyance is at the
bottom of the shaft.
SPLIT D IFFERENTIAL D IAMETER D RUM. The third type of
single drum hoist available is the split differential diameter drum.
This type of hoist is used with a conveyance and counterweight
in balance. If the counterweight is wound on the smaller diameter
drum, it moves less than the main conveyance, and rope adjust-
ment problems are reduced.
D OUBLE D RUM, ONE D RUM C LUTCHED. Although more
expensive than a single drum hoist, the double drum hoist with
one drum clutched has certain advantages. With this type of
hoist, it is possible to make quick adjustments to the ropes due
to initial stretch. As a service hoist with cage and counterweight,
this type of hoist can serve several levels efficiently. As a produc-
tion hoist with two skips, the ropes can be adjusted to maintain
balanced hoisting at any level in a multilevel operation.
D OUBLE D RUM , B OTH D RUMS C LUTCHED . The double
drum hoist with both drums clutched has the added feature
of allowing hoisting to continue in one compartment should
something happen to the other compartment. This is an excellent
feature if there is only one hoist available. This type of hoist is
also favored during shaft sinking operations.
MULTIPLE D RUM, BLAIR T YPE. With this type of hoist,
each conveyance is suspended from two hoist ropes that are each
coiled on a drum. The advantage of this is that smaller diameter
ropes and drums may be used. This type of hoist was developed
in South Africa. There are no Blair-type hoists in use in North
America. However, for very deep mines, they should be con-
sidered.
FRICTION H OIST , S INGLE R OPE , AND M ULTIROPE . The
Koepe or friction hoist was developed by Frederick Koepe in
1877. It consists of a wheel with a groove lined with friction
material to resist slippage. The hoist rope is not attached or
stored on the wheel. In early installations, the hoist was mounted
on the ground, and a single rope was wound around the drum
and over the headsheaves to the conveyances, in a balanced
arrangement. In addition, a tailrope of the same weight per unit
length as the headrope was suspended in the shaft below each
conveyance. Thus the only out-of-balance load was the payload.
As hoisting loads became larger, the number of headropes
and headsheaves increased to the point where it became more
practical to install the hoist in the headframe directly over the
shaft. In North America, many friction hoists are mounted in
this way. In order to bring the rope centers in line with the
compartment centers, deflection sheaves must also be installed
in the headframe below the hoist.
17.5.3.2 Comparison of Friction and Drum Hoists
A friction hoist system differs from a drum hoisting system
in performance as well as components. Therefore, when at-
tempting to decide which type of hoist to use, it is necessary to
compare the two complete systems rather than the two hoists
alone. In addition to comparing the total capital costs of the
hoist, headframe, ropes, conveyances, and shaft, it is necessary
to consider operating costs, maintenance costs, reliability, power
supply system, local custom, and individual preference.
Brucker (1975), Schulz (1973) and Tudhope (1973), among
others, have discussed drum hoist and friction hoist applications.
The following general statements help distinguish between these
two hoisting systems: (1) double-drum hoists are the preferred
hoist for shaft sinking; (2) double-drum hoists are the best choice
for hoisting in two compartments from several levels; (3) drum-
type hoists are best suited for high payloads from shallow depths;
(4) the limitation on a drum hoist employing a single rope is the
ultimate strength of the rope, because large ropes are difficult to
manufacture and handle; (5) the depth capacity of drum hoists
can be extended by using two ropes per conveyance (Blair-type
hoist), and with this arrangement, Blair hoists can be used for
depths exceeding those of either single-rope drum hoists or fric-
tion hoists); (6) friction hoists with multiple ropes can carry a
higher payload and have a higher output in tons per hour than
drum hoists within a range of depths from 1500 to 5000 ft (460
to 1520 m); (7) friction hoist mechanical operation is very simple,
has a low rotational inertia, and is less costly than a drum hoist;
(8) friction hoists have a lower peak power demand than drum
hoists with the same output; and (9) the friction hoist can operate
on a relatively light power supply.
 HOISTING SYSTEMS
17.5.3.3 Hoist Component Considerations
When selecting (or comparing) hoists, the components to be
considered during the evaluation process include (1) drum, (2)
bearings, (3) gearing, (4) brakes, (5) drive motor, and (6) control.
DRUM. For drum hoists, the drum must be designed to store
the required length of rope, meet the statutory requirements
concerning fleet angles and rope ratios, and must be sufficiently
strong to withstand bending and crushing forces. The design of
drums is well documented (Atkinson, 1973) but beyond the
scope of this Handbook.
Drums may be plain faced or grooved. With plain-faced
drums, a section of the drum is unavailable for carrying live
turns of rope. However, with grooved drums, the entire face can
be utilized.
There are three types of drum grooving available: (1) helical,
(2) parallel, and (3) Le Bus (or antisynchronous). Helical groov-
ing is a continuous spiral providing smooth winding with a single
layer of rope. It can also be used with multilayer winding. Paral-
lel grooving is made up of individual grooves evenly spaced over
the drum width. This grooving is used for single layer winding
only. Le Bus grooving is a combination of parallel and helical. It
is deeper than helical and parallel grooves, thus providing better
support. It is most suited for multilayer winding as it reduces
rope whip at the crossover points.
For friction hoists, the drum must be sized to meet statutory
requirements for rope-to-drum ratios and must be wide enough
to carry the required number of ropes.
The tread of a friction hoist drum is lined with a friction
material to resist slippage. In the past, this material was wood
or leather. At present, polyurethane, PVC, or combination
blocks are used.
BEARINGS. When there is a relative motion between two
members of a machine, one of which supports the other, the
supporting member is called a bearing. Bearings are classified
into two general types: sliding bearings and roller bearings. Slid-
ing bearings are those in which the surfaces are in sliding contact,
and the supported member runs on a cylindrical, conical, or flat
surface. Roller bearings have surfaces that are in rolling contact,
and the supported member runs on hardened steel balls or rollers.
In some hoists, sliding bearings lined with babbitt are used
for the hoist drum shaft, pinions, and headsheaves. During oper-
ation, the bearing surfaces are separated by an unbroken film of
oil. Although sliding bearings are, in principle, the perfect type
of bearing, they are being replaced by roller bearings. The advan-
tages of roller bearings are their low coefficient of friction, econ-
omy of space, simplicity of lubrication, practical elimination
of wear due to roller point contact, maintenance of accurate
alignment, and their consistency in design and manufacture. For
a hoist, roller bearings having a rated life of 300,000 hours are
generally selected.
GEARING. The hoist may be driven by either ac or dc electric
motors. Depending upon the hoisting speed, these motors may
be connected to the shaft directly or through a gear drive. Low-
speed motors may be connected directly; high-speed motors re-
quire a gear reducer drive.
With high-speed motors (300 to 900 rpm), power is transmit-
ted from the motor to the hoist through coupling-connected
single or multiple-stop, helical gear reduction drives. Beerkircher
(1975) recognizes the following as consideration for the design
and selection of a suitable gear drive: (1) size, type, speed, loca-
tion, and number of motors; (2) size, type, speed, torque require-
ments, and location of hoist; (3) type of operating cycle; and (4)
physical restrictions.
BRAKES. The braking system is required to decelerate, stop,
and hold the hoist drum. This may be accomplished using electri-
1649
cal and mechanical braking systems, which must operate both
under normal and emergency conditions.
Electric braking may be accomplished through regenerative
braking, counter-torque braking, or dynamic braking. In regen-
erative breaking, the motor, when connected to a hoist operating
on an overhauling load, performs as an induction generator,
developing braking torque and returning energy to the system.
With counter-torque and dynamic breaking, there is no energy
returned to the system; instead, it is consumed and dissipated in
the secondary resistance as heat.
When electric braking is used, and during normal operating
conditions, the mechanical brake serves two purposes. Firstly, it
helps to slow down the drum after the speed has been greatly
reduced electrically, and secondly, it holds the drum at rest.
Under these conditions, the mechanical brake does little work,
and its design and operating characteristics can be fairly simple
and straightforward. Under emergency conditions, however, the
hoist must be stopped with the mechanical brake as quickly as
possible, without damaging the hoist, brake, or conveyances.
In North America, there are three main types of brakes used:
(1) the jaw, (2) the parallel motion, and (3) disk brakes. Disk
brakes are used mainly on friction hoists, whereas jaw and paral-
lel motion brakes may be used on both drum and friction hoists.
With the “caliper-type” brakes, two shoes are pressed against
the periphery of the brake drum through the pull of a single or
double draw bar acting through a series of linkages. The source
of force can be a brake weight or a nest of springs. When not in
use, the weight or springs are held open by a hydraulic oil
cylinder. When the brakes are applied, oil flows from the cylinder
to allow the force of the weight or springs to apply the brakes.
The control of this flow is extremely important, as it determines
the speed and amount of force to be applied.
The use of disk brakes, particularly with friction hoists, has
increased. Two types of disk brakes are used. In one type, the
brake is operated via a lever system and during emergency stops
via a falling weight. This is similar to conventional post brake
systems. With the other type of system, hydraulically operated,
spring applied units are used. These units are mounted around
the brake disk. The required number of units is determined by
the total braking force required by the particular hoist. The
braking control unit is similar to that used in drum hoists. The
advantages of disk brakes are their relatively small dimensions,
light weight, and ease of replacement.
CLUTCHES. Drum hoists used for unbalanced hoisting, or
when operating from several levels, should have at least one of
the drums clutch-connected to the drum shaft. With such a hoist,
the clutched drum(s) is supported on the shaft through a sleeve
bushing and the clutch is used to transfer the motor torque to
the drum. In order to prevent the drum from rotating when it
is unclutched, it is necessary that the clutch operating mecha-
nism and the drum brake be interlocked.
The clutch is operated through a two-, three-, or four-arm
spider that is attached to the turning drum shaft. These arms are
perpendicular to the shaft and are shifted parallel to the axis of
the drum shaft. A clutch ring with matching teeth on its entire
periphery is bolted to the inside of the drum, and as the spider
is moved, these two sets of teeth are free to engage at any point
on the circumference of the drum. Driving torque is then trans-
mitted from the clutch to the drum through the bolts used to
hold the clutch ring to the drum flange.
D RIVE MOTOR. Staley (1936) describes four methods of
providing power to drive the hoist: (1) electric power, (2) steam,
(3) compressed air, and (4) internal combustion engine. Electric
power is by far the most common method and is the only one
treated here.
1650 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 17.5.1. Capital and Operating Cost Comparison
Between M-G Set and Static Drive
The choice of electric motor drives lies between alternating-
current motors and direct-current motors, with direct current
being supplied from either a motor-generator (MG) set or from
a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). The correct choice for a
particular application is complex and requires advice from per-
sons expert in this field. The principal factors to be considered
in selecting a motor are the mechanical configuration, electric
power system, and economics.
The ac motor has the advantage of having the lowest initial
cost and can use the power normally supplied. However, it has
a higher starting torque and is difficult to automate. The ac
motor generally requires a gear train to drive the hoist.
The dc motor provides accurate and sensitive control, is
easily automated, and has a lower starting torque. The dc motor
may be directly connected to the hoist, thus eliminating the gear
drive and the space requirements of such a drive.
The choice of power-conversion equipment is affected by the
quality of the power system available, the ratio of the hoisting
load (electrical) to the total plant load, and personal preference.
Table 17.5.1 shows an operating and cost comparison of motor-
generator sets and static drives for a mine hoist.
HOIST CONTROL. Control systems are required to monitor
the speed and location of each conveyance moving in the shaft.
Whenever a conveyance exceeds a preselected, safe, speed-
distance profile, the control systems initiates an action to prevent
the moving conveyance from striking a permanent obstruction
regardless of its speed or direction of travel. In addition, control
systems may be used to shut down equipment due to high op-
erating temperatures, excess brake wear, rope slip, slack rope,
loss of power, etc. Discussion with hoist manufacturers reveals
that the control systems for friction hoists are more numerous
and complex than for drum hoists.
Because a full discussion of all of the systems (and their
variations) is beyond the scope of this presentation, it may be
more useful to discuss the factors to be considered when re-
viewing various systems presented by suppliers. The three most
important factors to be considered, according to Eastcott (1977),
are (1) reliability, (2) simplicity, and (3) ease of adjustment.
17.5.3.4 Hoist Selection
The size of a hoist is expressed by the drum dimensions,
horsepower rating of the motor, and rope pull. The following
segments show how these factors are calculated.
Both drum hoists and friction hoists consist of two separate
machines, each of which must be designed to produce the desired
result. These types of machines are as follows: (1) mechanical
(drum, drumshaft, gears, brakes), and (2) electrical (drive motor,
controls). The mechanical portion of the hoist is designed to
support the hoisting rope and its loads. The electrical portion of
the hoist is designed to provide sufficient torque to turn the drum
and raise or lower the rope, conveyance and payload.
In order to design and build a hoist, certain basic duty
information is required, namely, (1) hoisting distance, (2) pro-
duction rate (tons per hour), (3) maximum loads, and (4) types
of guides (wood, steel, rope). It can be shown that for a given
depth and production rate, there is an optimum load that results
in the lowest cost for the hoist.
Due to competition among suppliers and the tendency for
owners to purchase on the basis of lowest cost, it is possible that
the selected hoist will not have any excess capacity for the drum
and motor. This may mean that any change in the future, how-
ever slight, could not be accommodated. It is thus important that
the purchaser provide the supplier with the following additional
information: (1) ultimate use of shaft (men, materials, ventila-
tion, exploration, proposed phasing of expansion); (2) surface
plant layout (type of headframe, bin location, etc.); (3) under-
ground layout (levels, station, loading pocket); and (4) type of
power distribution system available.
Although the complete detailed design of a hoist is not possi-
ble here, the following segments provide sufficient information
to allow the reader to determine the best type of hoist for a
particular set of conditions, together with some indication as to
the power and current consumptions involved.
In order to determine the dimensions, capacity, and size of
the mechanical components, the designer must determine certain
basic criteria. These include:
1. Hoisting speed, including acceleration, deceleration, and
maximum speed.
2. Production rate, in tons per hour.
3. Maximum load to be hoisted.
4. Hoisting distance.
5. Weight of payload and conveyances.
6. Diameter of hoisting rope.
After this information is determined, the designer can then
determine the capacity of the electric motor required to raise
and lower the loads in the required time.
The order in which the data should be generated is as follows:
(1) duty cycle times, (2) hoisting rate, (3) payload and convey-
ance weight, (4) rope size, (5) drum dimensions, and (6) RMS
horsepower requirement.
These items are discussed in more detail in the following.
DUTY CYCLE. The duty cycle describes the total time it takes
to move a conveyance from the bottom of its wind to the top. It
is often depicted graphically as a time-speed diagram. In order
to be complete, the duty cycle must include periods of time
for initial creep, acceleration, full speed, deceleration, dumping,
loading, and rest. The physical laws of uniformly accelerated
motion are used to determine the time required and the distance
traveled once values for acceleration rate, final velocity, and
shaft depth are known.
The relationships between maximum speed, length of wind,
and running time are summarized as follows (Fig. 17.5.3).
Accelerating time, seconds:
(17.5.1)
Accelerating distance, ft or m:
(17.5.2)
 HOISTING SYSTEMS 1651
Friction Hoist (English units)
Cycle time = 0.359 L + 21.266
Friction Hoist (SI units)
Cycle time = 0.651 L + 22.294
The maximum velocities used above should not exceed the
following values for different types of guides:

Wood guides 35 ft/sec (10 m/s)

Steel guides 50 ft/sec (15.25 m/s)
Rope guides 70 ft/sec (20 m/s)

In addition, the designer should check any statutory restric-

tions on velocity and acceleration in the jurisdiction (country or
state) in which the hoisting system will operate.
P RODUCTION R ATE . The required production rate (or
Fig. 17.5.3. Time-speed diagram.
hoisting rate as it is sometimes termed) for a skip hoist is ex-
pressed in terms of the average tons per hour hoisted. If the mill
Decelerating time, seconds: operates on a different schedule to the mine, the production rate
must be adjusted to reflect the difference between hoisted tons
per day and milled tons per day. In addition, the moisture con-
(17.5.3) tent of the ore must be taken into consideration and included in
the quantity of material to be hoisted.
At this stage the concept of hoist utilization factor should
Decelerating distance, ft or m:
be introduced. In certain well-organized shafts, the utilization
factor can be as high as 0.92 but a more normal figure is 0.70.
(17.5.4) SKIP SIZE. After the cycle time and production rate are
known, the payload requirements for the skip are derived simply
as:
Full-speed time, seconds:
production rate production rate (tons/hr)
Payload p = =
(17.5.5) no. of trips/hr cycle time (s) × 3600 (s/hr)

Full-speed distance, ft or m: The approximate weight of the skip can be derived from one
of the following relationships:

(17.5.6) = 0.5 payload + 1500 in lb (17.5.8)

(0.5 payload + 680, in kg) (17.5.8a)

where a is acceleration in ft/s2 or m/s2, r is retardation in ft/
sec2 or m/s2, t1 is acceleration time in sec, t 2 is full speed time in
set, t3 is retardation time in sec, V is maximum speed in ft/sec
or m/s, and L is length of wind in ft or m. Now if we call tr the
time at rest (loading and dumping),
Cycle time in seconds = t1 + t2 + t3 + tr
(17.5.7)
For initial estimating, the following assumptions may be
used:
or roughly, skip weight = payload.
Conveyance manufacturers should be consulted for more
accurate figures.
ROPE SIZE. After the weights of the payload and the convey-
ance are known, the correct size of rope can be selected by
applying the required (usually specified by statute) safety factor.
The type of rope must also be considered and is covered in more
detail in 17.5.5.
For initial estimating purposes, the size of the rope required
may be selected by using the following relationships (de la Ver-
gne, 1978).
1. For a depth of 4500 ft (1370 m) or less:

(17.5.9)

(17.5.9a)
Substitution of the above values in Eq. 17.5.7 gives the total
cycle time for the hoisting operation:
Drum Hoist (English units) where W is rope weight in lb/ft or kg/m, P is payload in tons
Cycle time = 0.337 L + 21.388 or tonnes, s is mass of skip + mass of payload, Lu is maximum
Drum Hoist (SI units) rope length that can be suspended in ft or m, and Ls is Lu/5 in
Cycle time = 0.612 L + 22.439 ft or m.
1652 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
2. For depths greater than 4500 ft (1370 m):

(17.5.10)

(17.5.10a)

D RUM SIZE. Having determined the rope diameter, it is

possible to establish a hoist drum diameter. Minimum allowable
drum diameters are usually covered by legislation. In the United
States, drum and sheave diameters must be
1. Not less than 60 times the hoist rope diameter for slope
or inclined shaft applications.
2. Not less than 80 times the rope diameter if the hoist ropes
are 1 in. (25 mm) in diameter or greater, or not less than 60
times the rope diameter if the hoist ropes are less than 1 in. (25
mm) in diameter for vertical shaft applications.
3. Not less than 100 times the diameter for locked coil ropes.
For drum hoisting, the drum width and center to center
distance of the drums (for double drum hoists) must be calcu-
lated. The drum width may be determined from the following
equation:

(17.5.11)
Fig. 17.5.4. Horsepower constant (Anon., 1948). Conversion factor:
1 ft = 0.3048 m.
where capacity is length of rope to be stored in ft, W is drum
width in in., N is number of layers, D is drum diameter in in.,
and d is rope diameter in in. In SI units,

(17.5.11a)

where capacity is length of rope in meters, W is drum width in

cm, N is number of layers, D is drum diameter in mm, and d is
rope diameter in mm.
The center-to-center distance of the drums can be calculated
using the requirements for proper fleet angles (covered later) and
knowing the center-to-center distance of the hoisting compart-
ments being serviced.
In the case of tower-mounted friction hoists, the center-to-
center distance of the compartments must be equal to or less
than the drum diameter. If it is less, a deflector sheave must be
installed below the hoist wheel to deflect the ropes on one side
of the hoist into their correct position. In addition, the tail rope
also has a natural bending radius that must be considered.
POWER REQUIREMENTS. After the duty cycle and rope size
have been determined, it is possible to calculate the hoist motor
power requirements. A quick, approximate method follows.
(17.5.12a)
Since the efficiency of the hoist varies according to depth, a
graph has been developed from calculated data showing the
variation in the constant for different depths (Fig. 17.5.4).
A more exact method of calculating the hoist motor horse-
power is presented for both drum hoists and friction hoists as
follows (Harmon, 1973).
Drum Hoist Horsepower Calculations— The equations
needed to calculate horsepower at all points A through F, as
shown on the horsepower vs. time cycle graph in Fig. 17.5.5, are
as follows (in English units only):
1. Horsepower HP, required to accelerate the hoist system
(motor inertia not included):
(17.5.13)

where TSL is total suspended load and mass of hoist rotating

parts to be accelerated TSL = EEW (refer to Fig. 17.5.6) + SL
+ 2SW + 2R, SL is skip load, SW is skip weight, R is rope
weight, V is rope speed in fps, and Ta is total acceleration time
(i.e., ta to creep + ta from creep to full speed).
2. The horsepower HP, regenerated into the electrical power
system by suddenly decelerating is shown as a negative horse-
(17.5.12) power as it is created by energy pumped back into the power
system (all terms the same as in Eq. 17.5.13):
 HOISTING SYSTEMS 1653
bottom when traveling at full speed at that particular point in
the shaft:

(17.5.15)

4. Running horsepower at the end of acceleration to full

speed:

(17.5.16)

where SLB is suspended load at shaft bottom =

5. Running horsepower at the end of full-speed-run period

and start of deceleration:

(17.5.17)
Fig. 17.5.5. Horsepower vs. time cycle, drum hoist (Harmon,
1973, p. 15-54).
where SLT is suspended load at shaft top =

6. Running horsepower at the end of deceleration:

(17.5.18)

7. The horsepower correction factor for motor and gearing

efficiency is less than 100%:

(17.5.19)

a. Peak accelerating horsepower of the hoist system:

(17.5.19a)

b. Full-speed horsepower at the end of acceleration period:

(17.5.19b)

c. Full-speed horsepower at the start of deceleration period:

(17.5.19c)

Fig. 17.5.6. Equivalent effective weight chart (EEW) (Harmon, 1973, d. Deceleration horsepower:
Fig. 15-39). Conversion factors: 1 ft = 0.3048 in., 1 lb = 0.4536 kg.

(17.5.19d)

(17.5.14) (1) Horsepower required to accelerate motor rotor (or ar-

mature):
where TR is total retard time, i.e., from full speed to creep speed
to stop. (17.5.20)
3. Running horsepower at the shaft bottom without acceler-
ation, that is, the horsepower to hoist a full skip load at the shaft
1654 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
(2) Horsepower required to decelerate motor rotor (or ar-
mature):

(17.5.21)

e. Total horsepower to accelerate the hoist system and mo-

tor rotor (or armature):

E = A + HP8 (17.5.19e)

f. Total horsepower to decelerate hoist system and motor

rotor (or armature):

F = D + HP9 (17.5.19f)

8. Finally, equations to calculate the RMS horsepower re-

quirement are as follows: Fig. 17.5.7. Horsepower vs. time cycle, Koepe hoist (Harmon,
a. dc motors: 1973, p. 15-54).

The equations used to calculate horsepower requirements at

all points (in English units only), A through E, as shown on the
(17.5.20a) horsepower vs. time cycle graph in Fig. 17.5.7, are as follows:
1. Acceleration horsepower:

b. ac motors:
(17.5.23)

where TSL = EEW + SL + 2SW + R, and R = (depth ×

rope weight) per ft × 2 × no. of ropes.
(17.5.20b) 2. Regeneration horsepower:

9. As a check on calculations, the following equation can be (17.5.24)

solved:
3. Running horsepower at shaft bottom:

(17.5.21)
(17.5.25)

4. Running horsepower at end of acceleration:

The relation should agree to within 1 or 2% with the RMS (17.5.26)

horsepower calculation. This check is simply an approximation
of the area under the horsepower vs. time-cycle diagram (Fig. The efficiency of the motor and drive system is greater than in
17.5.5) and represents work done, which is load times depth the drum hoist:
divided by 550 ft-lb/set-hp with an efficiency factor of 0.85
incorporated.
For unbalanced hoists, the only change is in the total sus-
pended load TSL. In this case,
5. Summary calculations:
TSL = EEW + SL + 1SW + 1R. (17.5.22) a. Acceleration peak of Fig. 17.5.7

Friction Hoist Horsepower Calculations—Horsepower calcu- (17.5.27a)

lations for friction hoists are similar to those for drum hoists but
a little simpler (several are identical). This is because the running b. Full-speed running horsepower:
horsepower after initial acceleration does not change as a result
of a constant rope weight (head rope plus tail rope) during travel (17.5.27b)
up the shaft.
 HOISTING SYSTEMS 1655
c. Total retardation horsepower:

(17.5.27c)

(1) Running horsepower at end of full-speed run:

(17.5.28)

(2) Horsepower required to retard motor rotor:

(17.5.29)

d. Total horsepower to accelerate hoist and motor rotor:

(17.5.27d)

e. Total horsepower to retard hoist and motor rotor:

(17.5.27e)

6. RMS horsepower
a. dc motors:

(17.5.30a)

b. ac motors:

(17.5.30b)

The check for Eqs. 17.5.23 through 17.5.30b is the following:

Example 17.5.1. Drum Hoist Calculation (Harmon, 1973)

(in English units): Determine RMS hp of a hoist system using
an ac motor and hoisting two 10-ton skips in balance in a 1000-
ft shaft. Rope speed is 20 ft/sec. Skip-weight/skip-load ratio =
0.75. Acceleration rate is 2.0 ft/sec2; deceleration, 2.0 ft/sec2;
rest period is 10 sec. The hoist uses two l-in. dia. round-strand
ropes at 3.78 lb/ft. The hoist is a 15-ft dia. single-drum unit. The
hoist duty cycle, in seconds, is

1. Accelerate to creep ........................................................... 1.0

2. Creep at 2.0 ft/sec2 .......................................................... 2.0
3. Accelerate to full speed .................................................... 9.0
4. Travel at full speed........................................................... 39.4
5. Decelerate to creep speed................................................. 9.0
6. Creep at 2 ft/sec2 ............................................................. 4.0
7. Decelerate to stop ............................................................. 1.0
8. Rest (load and dump) .................................................... 10.0
1656 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Check:

(17.5.21)

Then

Therefore, the check indicates that the solution will be accu-

rate to within 2%.
The RMS hp for the ac motor

or approximately 1000 hp or a difference of 1.78%, which is within the allowance of 1 to

Hence, for the skip load, skip weight, rope, and rope speed 2%; therefore, the solution is accurate.
used in this example, a 1000-hp ac motor would be sufficient for
this duty cycle.
Example 17.5.2. Friction Hoist Calculation (Harmon, 1973)
(in English units): Determine the RMS hp for an ac drive running
a friction hoist operating 5-ton skips in balance in a 1000-ft shaft
with the following given information:
Given: 1. Hoist uses four l-in. dia. F.S. ropes at 1.80 lb/ft
2. Rope speed = 20 fps
3. Wheel diameter = 10 ft
4. Skip-weight/skip-load ratio = 1.2 17.5.3.5 Number of Hoists Required
5. Duty cycle Ta = 10 sec
T F S = 39.75 sec Since most shafts are designed to be multipurpose (i.e., for
Tr = 8 sec ore, waste, personnel, materials), one of the first items to be
Rest = 10 sec considered is the number of hoists required to meet all the
 HOISTING SYSTEMS
hoisting requirements. The best approach is to list all require-
ments, determining the daily hoisting time required for each. If
the total is more than 24 hours, two hoists must be employed;
or if close to 24 hours, compromises made. The items to be
included in the list are as follows: (1) number of ore hoisting
trips per day, (2) number of waste hoisting trips per day, (3)
number of material trips per day, (4) number of man trips per
day, (5) time required for hoist, shaft, rope, and conveyance
inspections as required by law and good maintenance practices,
(6) time required for internal movement of personnel, and mate-
rials, and (7) idle time, per day, per week.
After the number of trips has been determined, it is then
necessary to calculate the length of time or duty cycle for each
trip (see 17.5.3.4).
ORE HOISTING TIME. In order to determine the number of
hours per day required to hoist ore, the following should be
known: (1) planned tonnage to be hoisted daily, and (2) produc-
tion rate for the skip hoist in tons per hour. This may be ex-
pressed as follows:
time required for ore hoisting (hours/day)
daily ore production (tons/day)
= (17.5.32)
hoist production rate (tons/hour)
WASTE HOISTING TIME. Waste hoisting time is calculated
in a similar manner as for ore hoisting. When calculating daily
waste production, consideration should be given to using waste
underground as backfill as this will reduce the daily waste
hoisting requirements:
time required for waste hoisting (hours/day)
daily waste production (tons/day)
= (17.5.33)
hoist production rate (tons/hour)
MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES H OISTING T IME . In order to
determine the number of hours per day required to hoist materi-
als and supplies, the following information should be known: (1)
number of material and supplies trips per day, and (2) hoist duty
cycle, defined as the total time it takes for the hoist to move a
conveyance from one elevation to the next:
time required for materials and supplies (hours/day)
N × T
= (17.5.34)
3600
where N is number of material trips, and T is cycle time per trip
in sec.
PERSONNEL HOISTING TIME. The projected daily employee
requirement that must be lowered and raised through the
hoisting facilities is either known or calculable. Using the daily
manpower data, the hoisting time required for transporting per-
sonnel to and from underground is calculated after determining
the cycle time, using Eq. 17.5.7.
In estimating the cycle time, consideration is given to the
following: (1) cage capacity, (2) number of working levels under-
ground to which personnel are to be transported, (3) hoisting
speed to the first level, then between each level to conform with
the mining regulations, (4) loading and unloading time (per
level), and (5) idle time (per cycle).
MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION TIME. Although statutory
maintenance, inspections, and test requirements, as regulated by
1657
Table 17.5.2. Hoisting Time Used For Maintenance and
Inspection of Shaft and Equipment
Time
Items (h) Remarks
Shaft, conveyance & rope inspection & signal
bell test Weekly
Sheave wheels inspection W eekly
Hoist inspection W eekly
TOTAL WEEKLY:
Rope maintenance (lubrication) Monthly
TOTAL MONTHLY:
Electromagnetic test to ropes and attachments Quarterly
Drop test Quarterly
TOTAL QUARTERLY:
Note: If the above is interpreted as unavailability of the hoists for
production hoisting, then the average time lost per day at the typical
hoisting facility can be taken as one hour.
federal or local authorities, vary for each country and jurisdic-
tion, the following procedures are carried out on most hoisting
facilities:
1. Shaft and conveyance (including shaft signal) inspec-
tion—once per week.
2. Hoist (electrical and mechanical components) inspec-
tion—once per week.
3. Rope and rope attachments inspection—once per week.
4. Rope maintenance (including attachments)—once per
month.
5. Electromagnetic test to ropes—once every three months.
6. Conveyance drop test—once every three months.
In order to allow maximum time for ore hoisting, it is normal
practice at most major mines to carry out maintenance and
repairs of a major nature on the weekend when the requirements
for lowering personnel and material is at a minimum, unless
such repairs are deemed necessary for the safe running of the
facilities. However, statutory maintenance and inspections con-
sume some of the time which would have been available other-
wise for hoisting. For a typical mine, the average time lost for
this activity can be approximated, as shown in Table 17.5.2.
INTERNAL HOISTING TIME. In some mining operations it is
necessary to transfer personnel, materials, and equipment be-
tween levels using the shaft hoisting equipment. The work re-
quired to carry out these tasks is termed internal hoisting, and
the time required to complete this type of hoisting can best
be obtained through personal experience or by discussion with
operators of similar mines.
IDLE TIME: HOIST UTILIZATION. It is a fact that it is not
possible to plan to operate 100% of the time and that some idle
time must be provided in any hoisting schedule. The amount of
time to be allowed is generally a matter of experience on the part
of the designer. However, the total operating time scheduled
during planning stages should not exceed 70% of the total op-
erating time available, that is, 16.8 hr/day (Harvey 1973a).
The hoist utilization factor Hu is defined as:
No. of trips actually made in a month
Hu =
No. of trips possible on the basis of cycle time
(17.5.35)
In certain exceptionally well-organized shafts, utilization
factors as high as 0.92 have been achieved, but a more reasonable
1658 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
figure of 0.70 should be adopted. With multipurpose hoists, the
utilization factor will be much lower.
SUMMARY. After the daily hoisting time for each of the
above time subcomponents has been calculated and a hoist utili-
zation factor estimated, a total daily hoisting time T can be
determined. If this total is greater than 24 hours, two (or more)
hoists are required:

(17.5.36)

where To is ore hoisting time, Tw is waste hoisting time, Ts is

materials hoisting time, T p is personnel hoisting time, T m is
maintenance hoisting time, Ti is internal hoisting time, and Hu
is hoist utilization factor.

17.5.4 SHAFT CONVEYANCES AND

ACCESSORIES
The most common shaft conveyances considered are skips,
cages, and counterweights. Accessories consist of loading pock-
ets, spill pockets, and arrestor gear.
Skips are used to hoist broken ore and waste from the mine.
Cages are used to raise and lower personnel, material, and equip-
ment. Counterweights may be used in balance with either skips
or cages. Loading pockets can improve the efficiency of hoisting
systems by ensuring that the optimum amount of material is fed
to the skip during each cycle. Arrestor gear is provided in the
headframe and shaft bottom for friction hoist systems to protect
personnel, the hoist, and the conveyances in the event overtravel
occurs at the end of the hoisting cycle.
17.5.4.1 Description of Skip Hoisting
Skipping, as described by Souter (1973), consists of filling,
hoisting, dumping, and returning to be filled again. The ore and
waste may be crushed or uncrushed, filling may be volumetric
or by weight, and the operation may be manual or automatically
controlled. During filling, the skip is subjected to high dynamic
loads, and depending upon depth, a certain amount of rope
stretch occurs. Although chairing of the skip is possible, this
practice can also result in higher impact loading, difficulties with
slack rope, and the danger of leaving the chairs in the shaft,
which could cause collision.
In order to permit hoisting at high speeds, skips are guided
as they travel in the shaft. Difficulties with guides due to mis-
alignment or loosening generally result in lower hoisting speeds
and, correspondingly, reduced production rates.
Skips may be dumped at any point in the shaft, although the
most common location is in the headframe. Dumping is usually
accomplished by means of scrolls located at each side of the skip
compartment at the dump. A roller on the side of the skip body
(for swing-out body skips) or on the door (for fixed body skips)
engages the scroll and causes the skip to be dumped. In the Sala-
type skip, an air cylinder actuates the dump door.
17.5.4.2 Types of Skips
There are three main types of skips in use today: (1) the
overturning, (2) the swing-out body, and (3) the fixed body.
OVERTURNING. The overturning or Kimberley skip consists
of a bail frame, a shaft to support the skip, and the skip body
itself. The skip body rests on the shaft. The skip is dumped
through the action of a bull wheel, mounted on each side (at the
top) of the skip body, engaging a scroll and causing the skip
Fig. 17.5.8. Bottom dump skip, swing-out body (Penning,
et al., 1977).
body to rotate around the shaft as the skip is being hoisted
through the dump. The design of the tipping path is complex
because the payload is being discharged as it moves along the
path. The horizontal and vertical forces to be considered, ac-
cording to Harvey (1973a), are dependent upon the rate at which
the skip enters the dump, the inertia of the skip plus payload,
the horizontal acceleration (which itself is dependent upon the
angle of the tipping path), and the static forces.
The advantages of Kimberley skips are (1) there is less shaft
spillage when handling fine or wet material, and (2) they handle
larger pieces for a fixed cross-sectional area. The disadvantages
are (1) the capacity is limited due to the height-to-width ratio,
(2) the payload ratio is usually lower particularly with sticky
material that tends to build up in the bottom, (3) they generally
impose higher stresses on the headframe and bins, and (4) they
require more headframe height to dump.
SWING-OUT BODY. The swing-out body skip also consists of
a bail frame, a shaft, and the skip body. In this case, the skip
body is suspended from the shaft and the skip dumped by means
of rollers mounted on each side (at the bottom) of the body,
engaging a scroll and causing the body to pivot away from the
bail into the dump. At the same time, a discharge door, which
forms the bottom of the skip, opens and the material is dis-
charged (Fig. 17.5.8).
There are three common types of swing-out body skips.
These are the Jeto, Saunders, and Rollamatic. The differences
among these three types is the mechanism involved with the
opening and closing of the door and the location of the door
hinge. Safety latches have been used on all three types. This is
to prevent the skip from opening in mid-shaft, particularly when
traveling empty.
For bottom-dumping skips in general, the cross-sectional
area is partially determined by the size of material to be handled.
 HOISTING SYSTEMS
Fig. 17.5.9. Bottom dump skip, fixed body (Penning et al., 1977).
The door opening is sized to be at least three times the dimensions
of the largest piece to be handled. This is to prevent possible
bridging. Other factors to be considered are the length of the
skip, the available space, and the hoist rope center-to-center
distance.
The advantages of swing-out body skips are (1) they have
more favorable payload ratio than the overturning type, (2) the
tipping path is less complex than for overturning skips, and (3)
the dumping distance in the headframe is less than for overturn-
ing type. The disadvantages are (1) muck build up at the hinge
point in the door can prevent the door from closing and could
place large forces on the headframe scroll or skip body during
the closing cycle, (2) with wet material, there could be spillage
or dribble from the door lip, and (3) the bottom door mechanism
is more complex than the fixed body type.
FIXED-BODY. In fixed-body skips, the body of the skip re-
mains fixed and does not move out of the confines of the skip
compartment during dumping. Instead, a door at the bottom of
the body swings open to form a chute and allows the material
to discharge into the dump bin. This type of skip may or may
not have a bail (Fig. 17.5.9).
There are several types of fixed-body skips. The most com-
mon are the Rolla-Chute, the Arc-Door, and Sala-type skip. The
difference among these types is the mechanism involved with the
opening and closing of the door. In the Rolla-Chute skip, the
door is held closed by means of a door latch. When the skip
enters the headframe, a latch track releases the latch, allowing
the door to open and the material to discharge. With the Arc-
Door chute, a roller is mounted on each side of the door. When
the skip enters the skip dump, the roller engages a scroll, causing
1659
the door to swing open. In the Sala skip, the door is operated by
means of air cylinders mounted on the skip body. Compressed
air to operate the cylinders is provided through a yoke which is
permanently mounted in the headframe and picked up by the
skip as it enters the dump.
The cross-sectional area of fixed-body skips is determined
by the size of the material to be handled. Since fixed-body skips
can be built without a bail, the cross-sectional area of the skip
can be increased by 10 to 15% when compared to skips with a
bail for the same sized compartment.
The advantage of fixed-body skips are (1) the skip can load
and dump through the guides, (2) the skip has no bail, thus
allowing a larger cross-sectional area to be used for the skip
body (this can reduce the overall length of the skip for a given
capacity), (3) the only moving part is the door that forms its
own dump chute, (4) they are suitable for fixed or rope guides,
(5) a hinged floor at the top can convert the skip to a personnel
and materials cage, (6) the skip requires less travel distance to
open the door, (7) this type of skip places less stress on the
headframe, skip body, and ropes during the dumping operation,
and (8) there is less spillage at the door. The disadvantage of this
type of skip is that its bailess construction requires adequate
design and inspection during operation.
17.5.4.3 Skip Design Considerations
The process of skip design has been well documented by
Penning (1977). When selecting a particular skip, the compo-
nents to be considered during the evaluation process include (1)
design methods, (2) factors of safety, (3) body, (4) door, (5)
crosshead, (6) bail, (7) guide rollers, and (8) guide shoes.
DESIGN METHODS. Skip components may be designed on
the basis of experience and practice or through analytical meth-
ods that define the loading being placed on the various compo-
nents of the skip. The types of loading to be considered are (1)
dynamic loading, caused by filling, hoisting, and dumping the
skip, and (2) static loading. Factors of safety are usually specified
by legislation.
BODY. The skip body is designed as a rectangular box with
stiffeners. The type of material, its thickness, and the stiffener
size and spacing are the variables to be examined. Particular
attention must be given to the area on the back side of the skip
that receives impact and abrasion from loading.
Skip bodies are usually lined with abrasion resistant (AR)
material to increase its overall life. Two types of steel or elasto-
meters have been used for skip liners. AR steels are members of
the high-strength, low-alloy family of steels. Manganese steels
are used because they have the ability to work-harden during
service. Elastometers have the advantage of reduced weight,
less ore sticking and buildup, corrosion resistance and ease of
handling during replacement.
The use of aluminum is also increasing, particularly in drum
hoist applications. Such skips have a lower mass and allow a
higher payload to be hoisted.
D OORS. Both swing-out body and fixed-body skips have
doors at the bottom of the skip. Doors must be designed to
withstand the impact of large pieces falling on the floor during
loading and the static loading of a full skip as well as abrasion
during unloading.
With swing-out body skips, the door is hinged at the back,
and there are several problems associated with leakage paths
between the door and the body. These door leakage problems
may be solved through the use of rubber sheets, flexible materi-
als, or special modification of plates at the door. Fixed-body skips
generally have fewer problems with leakage or door closure. One
situation that may cause problems to both types exists when the
1660 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
skip is loaded on the side opposite the dump site. In this case, a
vertical stop may be placed for the dump roller to react against.
Doors are made and lined with the same material as used in the
body.
CROSSHEAD. The crosshead fastens the bail to the rope. It
must be designed to take all the skip loads, including accelera-
tion, impact and service factors. The location of the crosshead
above the skip is particularly important during loading. It should
not interfere with the flow of muck from the loading pocket. The
rope stretch in deep mines can be several feet and must be
considered. It can be calculated from the following relation:
(17.5.37)
B AIL. During hoisting, the bail supports the body pivot,
prevents the body from moving, and supports the door. At the
dump, the bail is subjected to horizontal loading and supports
the door and is thus subjected to both bending and axial loading.
GUIDE ROLLERS. The purpose of guide rollers is to keep the
guide shoe off the guides. This in turn results in a smoother ride,
reducing dynamic loading between the skip, guide, and buntons
during travelling.
When selecting guide rollers, there is usually a conflict be-
tween a large-diameter tire, adequate shaft clearance, and the
cross section of the skip. Left unresolved, the final design usually
results in a small-diameter tire. Such tires need frequent replace-
ment. The range of tire sizes used are from 6 in. (152 mm) to 14
in. (356 mm) in diameter. Tires are rated on a load-mile per hour
basis.
GUIDE SHOES. Guide shoes are used on vertical conveyances
to keep the main structure from being worn away by the guides.
They are considered as expendable items to be replaced when
they are too worn for further use. Clearance between the guide
and guide shoe varies from ¼ to ½ in. (6.4 to 12.7 mm). Guide
shoes can be made from many materials, such as cast iron, mild
steel, hardened steel, AR steel, brass, or bronze. The amount of
wear to be expected is directly proportional to the load on the
guide shoe and inversely proportional to the hardness of the
softer material.
17.5.4.4 Loading Pockets
At the loading pocket, ore and waste are transferred from
the mine to the skip. The equipment and systems installed can
vary from simple manually operated to complex and automated.
There are two basic types of loading systems available. These
involve measurement by weight or by volume.
The criteria to be considered in the design of all systems
include (1) response time, (2) loading time, (3) accuracy of mea-
suring devices, (4) operating and maintenance costs, and (5)
amount of spillage.
Although details can vary, each system has certain common
elements: (1) pocket chute with control gates, (2) measuring
pocket, and (3) skip feed chute with control gate.
P OCKET C HUTES. Pocket chutes are generally fabricated
from steel with liners. They have an angle of inclination of 45 to
55°. Chute gates can be pneumatically or hydraulically controlled
and may be guillotine, ball and chain, or radial type.
MEASURING POCKET. The measuring pocket construction is
similar to that of the skip body. There are two types of fabricated
pockets available, the swing-out body and the fixed-body. The
fixed-body is preferred because it is faster operating, there are
no large masses to be moved, and it can be easily automated.
The loading pocket is furnished with pneumatically or hy-
draulically controlled gates. The bottom of the loading pocket
is usually inclined at an angle of 60° or greater to ensure rapid
loading and complete clean out.
With balanced skip hoisting, two loading pockets are pro-
vided, one for each skip.
SKIP FEED CHUTE. A feed chute is required to direct the
material from the measuring pocket to the skip. The angle of
inclination of the feed chute is usually 60° or greater.
The clearance between the chute and the skip is approxi-
mately 3 in. (75 mm). It has been suggested that the ratio of the
chute discharge width to the skip width should not exceed 0.7
for skips up to 4.25 ft (1.3 m) wide and 0.8 for skips up to 6 ft
(1.8 m) wide. To reduce spillage, the sides of the chute should
be slightly converged at the lip.
AUTOMATIC LOADING. Automatic loading of skips is used
to improve the efficiency of hoisting systems and to reduce labor
requirements. Efficiency is improved by ensuring that each skip
receives the required load without overloading or underfilling.
Manpower is reduced when automatic loading is used in conjunc-
tion with automatic hoisting. In order that automatic loading
can be accomplished, a minimum of three control systems must
be included (1) a means of measuring the weight and/or volume
of material in the measuring pocket, (2) a means of opening and
closing feed chutes to fill and empty the measuring pocket, and
(3) a logic system to ensure that the above operations are carried
out in the correct sequence to prevent such systems failures as
double loading and dumping into an empty shaft. With auto-
matic hoisting, the logic system extends to the operation of the
hoist.
17.5.4.5 Spill Pockets
Despite the precautions taken to prevent spillage during the
loading and dumping of the skips, a certain amount is inevitable
below the loading pocket. This spillage may be confined to the
hoisting compartment by lining these compartments down to a
spill pocket. According to data collected by Souter (1973) from
a number of mines in South Africa, the amount of spillage,
expressed as a percentage of tons hoisted, varied from 1.5 to 5 %.
The larger amounts of spillage were associated with manually
operated systems handling uncrushed material.
There are two commonly used methods of handling spillage
in modem hoisting systems. One method consists of installing
deflectors in the shaft below the underwind position of the skip.
These deflectors direct spillage into a pocket similar to the load-
ing pocket. The spillage pockets are then cleaned as required.
With drum hoisting, this system can be used at any elevation in
the shaft. With a friction hoist, the spillage pocket must be
located below the tail rope loops, and a second conveyance such
as the cage must be used to handle spill. The second method of
handling spillage consists of developing a ramp from the lowest
elevation to the shaft bottom. In this system, any spillage falls
directly to the shaft bottom, where it can be mucked out. Regard-
less of the system used, particular care is required with friction
hoist systems to ensure that the tail ropes do not become entan-
gled or affected by the build-up of spill in the shaft.
17.5.4.6 Cages
Cages are used primarily to handle personnel and materials
entering and exiting from the mine. In some instances, cages are
used to hoist cars loaded with ore and waste. The design and
construction of cages are similar to those used for skips.
 HOISTING SYSTEMS
A cage is merely an enclosed box, opened by door(s), and
suspended from a hoisting rope. The dimensions and capacity of
the cage are determined by the quantity, volume, weight, and
dimensions of the materials and/or items to be handled.
17.5.4.7 Counterweights
In some balanced hoisting systems, a counterweight may be
used with either a cage or skip. Since counterweights serve no
functional purpose other than to provide for balanced hoisting,
their dimensions are quite variable. They are usually designed
to fit the space available.
17.5.4.8 Safety Devices
In North America, different types of safety devices are used
for drum hoists and friction hoists.
DRUM HOIST. With drum hoists, both excessive overwind
and rope breakage can occur. Of these two types of accidents,
rope breakage is considered the most serious, and provisions to
bring the conveyance to a safe stop in the event of a rope break
is required by legislation.
The most common safety device used is the safety dog. A
pair of dogs is installed at the top of the conveyance at each
guide. During travel, the tension in the hoisting rope keeps the
dogs open. Should the rope break, or become slack, a large spring
and series of levers cause the dogs to penetrate the guide and
stop the conveyance.
FRICTION H OIST. In multiple rope friction hoist installa-
tions, the probability of all hoisting ropes breaking is small.
Therefore, overtravel is considered to be more serious, and provi-
sions to bring the conveyance to a safe stop in the event of
overtravel are required.
The most common device used is arrestor gear, consisting of
steel frames supported in the hoisting compartment and trans-
Fig. 17.5.10. Rope components (Anon., 1980a).
1661
ported by the conveyance as it travels through the arrestor zone.
these devices are located in the headframe and at the shaft bot-
tom. They rely on friction between the device and the guides to
decrease momentum.
17.5.5 ROPES
The basic purpose of the hoisting rope is to connect the
conveyance to the hoist. It is selected primarily on the basis of
safety, compatibility, life, and costs. Safety requirements when
hoisting personnel, or where persons may be endangered by
hoists and their appurtenances, are usually determined by legisla-
tion. The life of a rope is usually expressed as the number of
trips it will make; it is affected by rope construction, hoist and
sheave dimensions, type of loading, shaft atmosphere, and main-
tenance. Costs of initial purchase, maintenance, and costs of rope
changing including lost production are normally considered. In
addition to hoisting ropes, the hoisting systems designer must be
concerned with balance ropes (for friction hoist application),
guide ropes, rubbing ropes, and rope attachments.
The type of rope construction commonly used for various
hoisting applications are as follows:
Rope Use Typical Rope Construction
drum hoist ropes round strand—Lang lay flattened
flattened strand 6 × 27 FC
full locked coil
friction hoist rope locked coil
flattened strand
balance ropes non-rotating 18 × 7 nylon core
non-rotating 34 × 7 nylon core
guide and rubbing ropes half locked coil
shaft sinking non-rotating 18 × 7 IWRC
full locked coil
slings round strand 6 × 25 IWRC
In this segment, a general description of the various types
of ropes, plus the factors to be considered to ensure correct
application and selection, is presented.
17.5.5.1 Rope Construction
In the construction of most wire ropes, a number of individ-
ual wires are wound around a core to form a strand. The strands
are then wound around a core to form the rope. Fig. 17.5.10 is
an exploded view of a rope showing the components.
Some ropes are constructed without strands by winding con-
secutive layers of wire around the inner layers.
The factors to be considered in rope construction are (1) the
wire, (2) strands, (3) cores, and (4) lay. By varying these factors,
ropes with different characteristics can be constructed.
WIRE STRENGTHS AND PROPERTIES. Wire for manufactur-
ing wire rope is available with varying strengths up to 360,000
psi (2480 MPa). It is thus possible to manufacture ropes of
different strengths for the same diameter and the same construc-
tion. Generally speaking, as the wire strength increases, fatigue
life and rope life tend to decrease.
The most common wire used in mining is improved plow
grade 110/120. Wire is also available in different shapes with
round, full-lock and half-lock being the most common. Galva-
nized wire is available for wire ropes and should be considered
if ropes are being replaced due to corrosion.
STRANDS. Individual wires are twisted together to form
strands. There are four common types of strands: (1) round
strands, (2) triangular strands, (3) oval strands, and (4) flat
strands.
1662 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Fig. 17.5.11. Rope lay (Anon., 1980a). (a) Lang lay: wires and strands laid in same direction; (b) ordinary lay: wires and strands laid
in opposite directions.

CORES. The purpose of the core is to take the internal com-
pressive stresses. The largest of these stresses is due to the ten-
dency of the rope to flatten when bent around a sheave or
thimble.
Natural fiber cores (FC) such as sisal and hemp are suitable
for most applications. Synthetic fiber cores such as nylon and
polypropylene are used in conjunction with high-strength wires
and in corrosive applications.
Independent wire rope cores (IWRC) are stronger than fiber
cores. They add to the strength of the rope and reduce the
stretch; fatigue life is reduced, however.
LAY. The lay of a rope is the manner in which the wires are
twisted into the strand and the strands are twisted into ropes.
There are three properties used to describe lay: (1) length (or
pitch), (2) direction (right or left), and (3) type (regular or Lang).
Fig. 17.5.11 illustrates the direction of lay for regular lay
and Lang lay, which are the usual lays used in mining ropes.
The lay length is the distance from one crown to the next of a
particular wire.
Right lay is usually used unless special circumstances require
the use of left lay. Some drums are designed to take left-hand
lay ropes and should be checked prior to purchasing. Fig. 17.5.12
shows how to select the lay of the rope required for a drum.
Regular lay ropes have the wires in the strands laid in such
a manner that the wire crowns run approximately parallel to the
rope direction. Such ropes have good resistance to kinking and
twisting and are able to withstand considerable crushing and
distortion. Regular lay should be used for slings and balance
ropes.
With Lang lay, the wires are on the diagonal of the strand
and are exposed for a greater length. This arrangement gives
greater abrasion resistance and a more flexible rope. Lang lay is
commonly used for hoisting ropes on drum hoists. Ropes with
this lay slide into position on a drum better than regular lay
ropes. Because of the tendency to untwist, these ropes should
not be used with swivels or single-part hoisting without guides.
17.5.5.2 Hoist Ropes
The three types of ropes generally considered for hoisting
ropes are round strand, flattened strand, and locked coil. Typical
properties for these types of rope are given in Table 17.5.3.
ROUND STRAND ROPES. Round strand ropes consist of a
number of strands, each consisting of wires, wound around a
core. The rope designation (e.g., 6 × 27 FC) indicates the num-
ber of strands (6) and the number of wires (27) per strand; FC
 HOISTING SYSTEMS 1663

Fig. 17.5.12. Selection of correct direction of lay for a drum hoist (“Wire Rope Users Manual,” 2nd ed., Committee of Wire Rope
Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute, undated).

Table 17.5.3. General Wire Rope Data for Standard Tensile Wire, Nominal Breaking Load of 120 Long Tons/ln.2

stands for fiber core. The greater the number of wires in a strand,
the greater the flexibility of the rope, but the smaller wires wear
faster and are more easily damaged.
FLATTENED STRAND. The properties of round strand rope
have been improved in flattened strand rope by making the
strands triangular instead of round. The benefits of this are
1. An increase in the number of wires in contact with the
sheaves and drums increases the contact area, thereby reducing
the pressure and lessening wear on ropes, sheaves, and drums.
2. The rope has a greater crushing strength and can be used
in multilayer winding.
3. The wire density in the rope is higher. Thus for the same
diameter, more steel area is available, and the rope has a higher
strength.
FULL LOCKED COIL. This type of rope is completely differ-
ent from both round and flattened strand rope. The center or
core of the locked coil rope consists of a concentrically laid strand
of round wires. Around this core lies one or more layers of
1664 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
shaped wires, the outer layer always being interlocking. The
shape of all shaped wires in a locked coil rope depends on the
rope diameter and its end use.
Locked coil rope construction has some very definite advan-
tages. In a locked coil rope, there is no initial twist in the rope
so the wires do not tend to untwist under load. Locked coil ropes
have a higher breaking strength than stranded rope for equal
diameter and for the same nominal strength grade. Because of
their smooth external surface, reduction in strength caused by
frictional wear on drums or pulleys is much lower. Also, because
of their design, locked coil ropes are less subject to rotation and
stretch than stranded ropes.

17.5.5.3 Rope Selection

For the initial selection, four requirements should be consid-
ered: (1) strength, (2) resistance to being fatigued, (3) abrasion
resistance, and (4) resistance to crushing or distortion. The
choice should be made after correctly estimating the relative
importance of each of the above requirements. Naturally,
strength is the overriding concern.
Design considerations should provide economical and effi-
cient rope service while maintaining the necessary degree of
safety to both personnel and equipment. These objectives are
best met by accepting the following guidelines:
1. Design the hoisting system with good rope life as an
objective.
2. Specify ropes to be compatible with the required factor
of safety to match the design of hoist, shaft, headframe, and
sheave.
3. Design rope storage and handling procedures.
4. Design correct rope installation procedures.
5. Design correct and adequate maintenance procedures.
6. Design and institute an inspection procedure. Fig. 17.5.13. Fleet angle calculation.
R OPE SELECTION FOR D RUM H OIST. This segment dis-
cusses the selection of the size of rope to meet operating condi-
tions for drum hoists for vertical and slope applications. In the
United States, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (Anon., Drum and sheave tread diameters should be (1) not less than
1989) specifies minimum requirements for the following items 60 times the hoist rope diameter for slope or inclined shaft
that are relevant to drum hoisting: (1) factor of safety, (2) ratio applications, (2) not less than 80 times the hoist rope diameter
of drum/sheave diameter to rope diameter, and (3) fleet angles. if the hoist ropes are 1 in. (25 mm) in diameter or greater, or
An example calculation of hoist rope selection concludes this not less than 60 times the hoist rope diameter if the hoist ropes
discussion. are less than 1 in. (25 mm) in diameter for vertical shaft applica-
Factor of Safety—Mandatory requirements by the Mine tions, and (3) not less than 100 times the hoist rope diameter for
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) are covered in CFR. locked coil ropes.
Sections 55/56/57.19-21 and 75/77.1431 for metal and non- Fleet Angles—The mandatory regulation (Anon., 1989)
metal open pit mines, sand, gravel and crushed stone operations, states, “Fleet angles on hoists installed after Nov. 15, 1979, shall
metal and nonmetal underground mines, and underground coal not be greater than ½° for smooth drums or 2° for grooved
mines, respectively, require the following minimum rope drums.” (CFR 56.19-37). However, to increase rope life manu-
strengths, where L is maximum suspended rope length in ft: facturers of hoist ropes commonly recommend a maximum fleet
angle of 1°20' and a minimum fleet angle of 0°30' to insure rope
winding drum ropes less than 3000 ft long: minimum rope will crossback and start a new layer without piling. Computa-
strength = static load × (7.0 – 0.001L). tions of optimum total fleet angle are given in ANSI M 11.1 (Fig.
(17.5.38) 17.5.13).
Size Calculation—The procedure for sizing a rope for a drum
winding drum ropes 3000 ft long or greater: minimum rope hoist consists of the following steps:
strength = static load × 4.0. Step 1. Tabulate operating conditions.
(17.5.39) Step 2. Calculate personnel load.
Step 3. Calculate load with conveyance at collar. (Note: US
practice only requires check of lowest level.)
Drum/Sheave Diameter—Mandatory requirements for Step 4. Calculate load with conveyance at lowest level.
drum and sheave diameters have now been removed from the Step 5. Select rope and check safety factor using ANSI
regulations, but insofar as the old regulations are still common M11.1 or CFR Title 30.
practice in the United States as well as Canada and Europe, they Step 6. Check other hoisting components.
are repeated here. Example 17.5.3. Given the following drum hoisting system:
 HOISTING SYSTEMS 1665
Step 1. Assumed operating conditions. ponents of the hoisting system, the designer may decide to reduce
the weight or payload of the cage in order to use a smaller-
Height, collar to head sheave diameter rope with higher tensile-strength wire. Alternatively, a
Depth of lowest level decision may be made to use a larger-diameter rope and thus
Cage capacity increase rope life.
Cage capacity materials R OPE SELECTION FOR FRICTION H OIST. A friction hoist
Cage weight differs from a drum hoist in that the rope is not wound on and
Weight of rope attachment off the drum but passes around the drum, with the drum friction
providing the force necessary to move the rope. Friction hoists
may be mounted in the headframe tower directly over the shaft,
Select the proper hoisting rope and determine factors of safety or they may be mounted in a hoist house at ground level. The
SF. friction hoist drum is often referred to as a wheel.
Solution. A specific friction hoist application can have a number of
Step 2. Calculate man load. acceptable hoist rope/tail rope alternatives. As the selected num-
60 persons @ 200 lb = 12,000 lb ber of hoist ropes increases, their diameter can become smaller.
Step 3. Calculate load with conveyance at collar. This also means the hoist drum can have a smaller diameter,
(Not required in US practice.) which affects the center-to-center distance of the compartments.
Assume 1-1/2 in., 6 × 27 flattened strand rope. Table 17.5.3 Because of this, it is important that the hoisting system designer
shows the properties of this rope. ensure compatibility with the other components of the hoisting
Assume owner elects to employ factors of safety from 57.19a- system (i.e., shaft, headframe, conveyance).
21 of the CFR when hoisting materials. Regulations and other calculations and considerations in-
Thus suspended load is volved in rope selection for friction hoists are discussed here. An
example that considers factors of safety and other criteria is then
cage weight presented. When an overall hoisting system is designed by a hoist
pay load manufacturer, it is in the owner’s best interest to carefully check
rope attachments the proposal as there have been instances where undue emphasis
130 ft rope @ 3.95 lb/ft has been placed on the capital cost of the hoist at the expense of
Total: higher operating costs of the overall system. These trade-offs in
system selection must be carefully weighed.
Thus minimum breaking strength = suspended load × SF When determining a factor of safety for friction hoist ropes
required = 28,814 lb × (7 – 0.001 in North America, it is common practice to follow the Ontario
× 130) = 197,953 lb. (Canada) regulations:
Step 4. Calculate load with conveyance at lowest level.
factor of safety = 8.0 – 0.0005 d, but not less than 5.5
(17.5.40)
suspended loads
cage weight where d is maximum length of rope in feet
payload Ontario (Canada) regulations require the following factors
rope attachments of safety that may be used as guidance for other ropes in a
5130 ft of rope @ 3.95 lb/ft friction hoist installation:
Total:
1. Balance or Tail Ropes
Thus minimum breaking strength = 48,564 × 4
= 194,256 lb 2. Guide or Rubbing Ropes

Step 5. Select rope and check safety factor.
From steps 3 and 4 above, it can be seen that the loading
condition at the lowest level is critical, and that the minimum
rope breaking strength required is 194,256 lb.
Referring to Table 17.5.3, it can be seen that 1½-in. diameter
6 × 27 flattened strand rope manufactured from 120 long tons/
in.2 wire has an ultimate breaking strength of 235,000 lb.
For this rope the factors of safety are
3. Bending Ratio. The required bending ratios are the same as
for drum hoists. The bending ratio may exceed the regulatory
minimum but for locked coil construction does not normally
exceed 140.
Wire Rope Industries of Canada recommends the following
minimum bending ratios for locked coil ropes, although all such
specifications have been removed from US CFR requirements:

Rope is therefore deemed satisfactory.

Step 6. Check with other hoisting components. In addition to the regulatory requirements for factor of
The designer would normally check hoist drum storage ca- safety, the following items should also be considered when select-
pacity and fleet angles at this stage as well as rope projected ing ropes for friction hoists: (1) T1 / T2 ratio, (2) drum tread, (3)
pressure on the drum grooving. After considering the other com- deflection sheaves, (4) differential rope loads, and (5) tail ropes.
1666 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
T1 / T2 Ratio—T1 / T2 ratio is the ratio of the static rope
tensions on each side of the drum, where T1 is the weight of
loaded conveyance plus weight of ropes, and T2 is the weight
of unloaded conveyance plus weight of ropes. The maximum
recommended value for a particularinstallation is a function of
the coefficient of friction of the tread material, of the acceleration
and deceleration required, and of the angle of lap of the rope on
the drum. A typical maximum value of T1 / T2 is 1.5. This is also
a concern for brake torque application. Should T1 / T2 become
too high, the rope will slip on the drum; when this happens, the
coefficient of friction drops and control is lost. There will also
be tread damage due to friction temperature rise and abrasion.
Drum Treads—Selection of an appropriate tread material
for the drum rope grooves and tread pressure are important. As
the rope passes over the drum, the load, and thus the strain in
the rope changes. This change in strain tends to cause the rope
to creep (as opposed to slip) on the drum. A resilient tread
material such as polyurethane tends to flow with the change in
strain and reduce creep.
Typically, the average tread pressure (i.e., the sum of the
rope tensions/projected rope area on the drum) of 300 psi (2069
kPa) with lock coil, 250 psi (1724 kPa) with flattened strand,
and 200 psi (1379 kPa) with round strand ropes on plastic treads
will give good life.
Deflection Sheaves—Deflection sheaves are used when the
pitch circle diameter of the friction hoist pulley wheel (sitting
above the shaft) is greater than the center-to-center distance of
the compartments. In addition to positioning the hoisting ropes,
the use of deflection sheaves has the advantage of increasing the
angle of contact of the ropes on the wheel, permitting a higher
T1 / T2 ratio before slippage will occur.
However, deflection sheaves have the disadvantage of requir-
ing additional torque during the hoisting cycle, increasing the
height of the headframe, and putting reverse bending into the
ropes, which can reduce their life. One rule of thumb used to
position the deflection sheaves is that the ropes traveling at full
speed should take a minimum of 0.5 seconds to travel from the
drum to the deflection sheave. This rule, it has been claimed,
alleviates the fatigue problem due to reverse bending since it
provides the requisite time for the rope strands and wires to
adjust their position.
Differential Rope Loads—A great concern with multirope
friction hoists is the equalization of loads between the ropes. The
two most common causes of differential loading are a difference
in rope length or in circumferential lengths of each rope groove
on the wheel.
Analysis of this problem and procedures to identify and
correct the effects have been well covered in the technical litera-
ture. In the initial design stage, it is important that steps be taken
to reduce its effects. Since there are no hard and fast rules, the
following rules of thumb have been developed in the industry:
1. The ratio of rope lengths (skip in dump to hoist drum)/
(skip at loading pocket to hoist drum) should be greater than
0.015.
2. The total number of revolutions of the drum on a trip
should be less than 100.
3. The number of ropes should be kept to a minimum. There
will be less difficulty maintaining equal tension on a four-rope
hoist than on a six-rope hoist. In addition, a larger wheel will be
required for a four-rope drum having fewer revolutions per trip,
lower rope bending stresses, and lower sensitivity to tension
variations. This requirement may conflict with rope size choice,
however.
4. Rope attachments should have both fine and coarse
length adjustment.
Hoisting Speed—There are no relationships attributable to
the effect of speed. However, as the speed of hoisting increases,
any inadequacies in the hoisting system are magnified.
Tail Ropes—In friction hoisting, the use of tail ropes makes
it possible to balance the head rope weight and achieve a lower
peak horsepower than for drum hoisting. However, the use of
tail ropes presents some additional problems that must be recog-
nized.
1. Tail Rope Orientation
Any object falling down a mine shaft is affected by the
angular velocity of the earth and will move toward the east wall.
A tail rope behaves in a similar way. If the shaft compartments
are arranged east— west, the tail rope loops will open and close
freely. However, if the compartments are north and south, the
ropes could foul the separators at the shaft bottom. Thus, if tail
ropes are used, then the orientation of compartments should be
considered. The above described action results from a physical
principle known as the Corioli effect and is a function of the
hoist speed.
2. Tail Rope Loop Diameter
A natural loop diameter exists for each type of tail rope
depending upon its construction. This should coincide as closely
as possible to the center-to-center distance of the conveyance.
The bending ratio is defined as the natural bending diameter
divided by the rope size. It is possible to specify different rope
construction and number of tail ropes to satisfy the loop diameter
requirements.
Rope Construction Natural Bending Ratio
34 × 7 Non-Rotating 46:l
18 × 7 Non-Rotating 60:1
6 × 7 Round Strand—Reg. Lay 90:1
3. Tail Rope Loop Dividers
According to Delorme (1977), to avoid mishap and possible
mechanical damage through entanglement, the balance rope loop
area should be well controlled in the sump. One method is by
constructing a loop divider. The balance ropes should be re-
stricted quite closely in the direction of their lateral movement.
Early contact with the dividers between individual ropes will
provide good control in the sump area and also assist in ensuring
that adequate stability through the shaft is maintained. Longitu-
dinal movement, on the other hand, should not overly be re-
stricted. The dividers should be designed to avoid trapping any
material from spillage. Some operators have found that wire rope
covered with rubber hose and placed in the same configuration
(as shown in Fig. 17.5.14) has proved most successful in this
connection. The elevation of the loop divider for good results is
one loop diameter plus approximately 3 ft (0.9 m) above the
bottom of the loop. Some operators have placed such dividers at
several elevations in the sump area to ensure good control.
Calculation—The design of a friction hoisting system, in-
cluding the selection of ropes, involves a knowledge of costs,
shaft design, headframe design, and other factors beyond the
scope of this chapter. However, an example of rope selection is
presented based on previously mentioned technical considera-
tions. The procedure involved in the analysis is as follows:
Step 1. Tabulate data.
Step 2. Calculate rope tensions.
Step 3. Check factor of safety of head ropes.
Step 4. Check factor of safety of tail ropes.
Step 5. Check bending ratio.
Step 6. Check T1 / T 2 ratio.
Step 7. Check tread bearing pressure.
Step 8. Check loop diameter of tail rope.
Example 17.5.4. Given the following friction hoist system:
 HOSTING SYSTEMS 1667
e) The difference between the hoisting distance (1921 ft) and the
suspended rope length (2122 ft) is 201 ft. We will assume 100 ft
of this is in the headframe and 101 ft is in the shaft bottom.
Select the proper hoisting rope and determine factors of
safety.
Solution.
Step 2. Calculate rope tensions.

Wt/ft of 6 head ropes = 6 × 7.8 = 46.8 lb/ft

Wt/ft of 4 tail ropes = 4 × 11.7 = 46.8 lb/ft

Note: It is rare that a perfect balance is achieved, but a close

match is desired.
The maximum rope tension T1 occurs with the loaded skip
at the dump.

T2 = Rope from loading pocket to drum

(1921 + 100) × 46.8
+ Skip weight
+ Tail ropes

Step 3. Check factor of safety of head ropes.

Fig. 17.5.14. Rope loop divider (Delorme, 1977).

Step 1. Assumed operating conditions. This exceeds the requirement of 6.0 (according to CFR 57.19-
21 and ANSI M11.1 standard for friction hoists at a depth of
a) Hoist wheel diameter approximately 2000 ft).
Step 4. Check factor of safety of tail ropes.
From the calculation of T1 the maximum weight of sus-
pended tail rope is 94,630 lb.
b) Suspended loads
Hoisting distance
Suspended ropes
Skip payload
Skip and rope attach-
ments

c) Head ropes This significantly exceeds any regulations. This can be expected
Type because the rope was selected on the basis of weight and not
strength.
Number Step 5. Check bending ratio.
Diameter
Ultimate strength
Weight/ft

d) Tail ropes
Type

Number
Diameter This meets the requirements for good practice according to rope
Ultimate strength manufacturers and some codes that apply.
Weight/ft Step 6. Check T1 / T2 ratio.
1668
This is less than the 1.5 noted earlier as a typical maximum. The
following should be borne in mind:
1. There is no code requirement for T1 / T2.
2. A workable T1 / T2 ratio is dependent on the coefficient of
friction of the actual drum tread material and head ropes used,
as well as angle of contact. The latter considerations enter with
ground-mounted hoists that do not have as much contact as
tower-mounted usually do.
3. Manufacturers apply a factor of safety to actual coeff-
cients of friction to determine the T1 / T2 for a particular appli-
cation.
Step 7. Check tread bearing pressure.
Again there is no code requirement for tread bearing pressure,
and acceptable pressures depend on tread material and rope
construction. Varying the tread pressure changes the mainte-
nance costs but not the safety of the installation.
Step 8. Check loop diameter of the tailrope.
Tailrope size 2.625 in.
Tailrope construction 18 × 7 NR
Bending ratio 60:1
Diameter of natural loop = 2.625 × 60 = 157.4
This is marginally less than the drum diameter and is therefore
satisfactory.
GUIDE AND R UBBING R OPES. Ropes used as guides and
rubbing ropes may be of locked coil or half locked coil construc-
tion. These ropes are manufactured with a core of concentrically
laid round wires covered with one or two layers of shaped wires.
The outer layer of locked coil construction is always composed
of interlocking wires of Z shape.
Some of the advantages of locked coil ropes as guides and
rubbing ropes are as follows: (1) their smooth surface reduces
friction, (2) they have a greater degree of rigidity, and (3) they
have a higher breaking strength in relation to their diameter.
ADDITIONAL R OPE SELECTION C ONSIDERATIONS. In addi-
tion to those factors covered in the previous sections, the follow-
ing four items of importance should be considered in order to
ensure that a particular hoisting rope will meet all of its hoisting
requirements: (1) rope stretch, (2) rope torque, (3) rope harmon-
ics and vibrations, and (4) rope sag. These are discussed in the
following subsections.
Rope Stretch—When a skip is loaded at the loading pocket,
the rope stretches. The amount of stretch, which has a static and
dynamic component, has a number of significant consequences
that must be considered in the design of the hoisting system.
These are as follows:
1. The rope acts as a spring and helps absorb impact loads.
The longer the rope, the greater the stretch, and the greater the
amount of energy that can be absorbed. This is the reason why
the codes permit reduction in the factor of safety with longer
ropes.
2. When a hoisting system is being designed for balance
hoisting using two skips, the amount of stretch must be consid-
ered when designing the overtravel allowance in the headframe.
Under normal loading conditions, one skip will be positioned at
the loading pocket after the skip in the headframe has completed
dumping. If, however, a skip is not loaded, the stretch due to
the payload will not take place. Should the empty skip be hoisted
to the surface, it will be above the headframe dump (by the
amount of rope stretch that did not take place) when the lower
skip is at the loading pocket. For example, a 10-ton (9-t) payload
on a 4000-ft (1219-m) long 1-in. (38-mm) rope would cause a
stretch of about 4 to 6 ft (1.2 to 1.8 m).
3. Due to both the static and dynamic forces, the skip moves
down during loading. Unless this movement is considered in the
design of the loading pocket and the skip, considerable spillage
could occur.
4. The static and dynamic rope stretch at the loading pocket
must be considered in establishing the skip undertravel in the
shaft bottom.
The formula for rope stretch or elongation in ft (m) is
(17.5.41)
where P is load in lb (kg), L is length of rope from the hoist to
the loading point in ft (m), A is nominal rope cross-sectional area
in in.2 (mm2), and E is a constant for a given rope construction in
lb/in.2 (Pa). E is analogous to Young’s modulus. It is determined
experimentally by rope manufacturers and takes into consider-
ation the voids between the wires in the rope and the geometric
change in the rope under load.
Values of E change as the rope stretches with use. Typical
values are tabulated below:
The amount of dynamic stretch that takes place is propor-
tional to the mass and velocity impact of rock feeding into the
skip. These factors may be controlled (to reduce stretch) through
loading pocket design. Dynamic stretch is commonly taken as
equal to the static stretch produced by the load weight.
Rope Torque—Stranded ropes have a tendency to untwist.
In drum hoisting, the rope is fixed at the drum, and at the
conveyance the tendency to untwist is restrained by the guides
and shoes. Consequently torque is developed in the rope. The
counter torque exerted by the conveyance tends to produce wear
on one side of the guides. When disconnecting the rope from the
conveyance, the torque is released, and a dangerous situation
develops if the end of the rope is not restrained and spins out of
control.
Some mining companies are deliberately letting the torque
out of the rope when they take rope end samples for testing.
However, some experimental work, as reported by Dolan (1961),
 HOISTING SYSTEMS
has shown that by allowing a rope to rotate, ultimate strength
is lost.
One formula used for calculating the approximate amount
of torque in a rope is
T = kPd (17.5.42)
where T is torque in ft-lb, P is load in lb, d is nominal diameter
of rope in in., and k = 11 × 10–3 ft/in. for Lang lay and = 7
× 10–3 ft/in. for regular lay.
Rope Harmonics and Vibrations—Vibrations in hoist ropes
can be observed as “yo-yo-ing” at the collar, and in the case of
drum hoists as ropes whip between the hoist and the head sheave.
The causes of these vibrations are (1) jerking operations such as
uneven braking, (2) the horizontal movement of the rope at the
crossover points on the drum, and (3) the vertical movement of
the rope at crossover points on the drum.
These vibrations cannot be avoided and normally do not
cause problems. However, there have been cases where the fre-
quency of the vibrations is a harmonic of the natural frequency
of the hoist rope and severe and dangerous whipping has oc-
curred. Such a situation is most likely with a long, flat span of
rope between the hoist and head sheave. The following rules of
thumb have been developed to assist designers to set up a good
hoist and head sheave arrangement.
1. Keep the vertical rope angle as close to 45° as possible.
2. The slope distance along the rope, between the tangent
points at the drum and the sheave, should not be an even multiple
of the drum circumference.
The hoist designer should analyze the harmonic behaviors
of the ropes and select the type of drum grooving which will
avoid harmonic vibrations. This has been reviewed by Dimitriov
and Whillier (1973). When unacceptable rope movements do
occur, it is necessary to reduce hoisting speed or payload, or to
install an intermediate tower with idler sheaves between the hoist
and headframe.
Rope Sag—A rope between a ground-mounted hoist and a
head sheave sags and takes the form of a catenary. With a
heavy rope and a light load, the sag can be significant and cause
problems at the sheave deck and the hoisthouse wall if not
considered. Such a situation could occur during sinking a deep
shaft when there is an empty bucket at the dump.
INCLINED (SLOPE) HAULAGE. The selection of ropes for an
inclined shaft differs little from selection for a vertical shaft. The
three major differences are (1) calculation of rope tensions, (2)
sizing of sheaves, and (3) abrasive wear.
Calculation of Rope Tension —The tension in the rope is the
sum of the gravitational, frictional, and accelerational forces.
The gravitational force is the sum of the weights of the car(s),
payload, and the rope multiplied by the sine of the angle of the
incline. The friction force is commonly taken as 2.5% of the
weight of the car and payload plus 10% of the rope load. To
allow for acceleration, 10% is added to the gravitational and
friction forces.
Sizing of Sheaves—Because of the space restrictions under-
ground and the need for portability, deflection sheaves are com-
monly smaller than used elsewhere for hoisting ropes. Minimum
D/d ratios are presented in Table 17.5.4.
Abrasive Wear—Abrasive wear is more likely to be a problem
in a slope than in a vertical shaft and this potential problem
should be addressed in rope selection. One approach is to select
ropes with thicker wires such as 6 × 7. Some designers increase
the factor of safety to allow more wear on the rope before it
needs to be replaced.
1669
Table 17.5.4. Minimum Ratio of Drum/Sheave Diameter
to Rope Diameter
Minimum Tread Diameter
Rope Construction of Sheave or Drum
Note: Conditions may exist where further reduction may be neces-
sary. Under such conditions, service life would be affected and due
precautions should be exercised. If possible, the hoist/sheave manu-
facturer should be consulted for guidance. Note that the Jan. 24,
1984, MSHA Standards do not define necessary D/d ratios.
17.5.5.4 Rope Testing Certification and
Acceptance
It is common practice for the purchaser to require the manu-
facturer to certify that the rope will meet the nominal breaking
strength. Certification usually includes a test report providing
full particulars on the wires used to manufacture the rope as well
as breaking strength in a failure load test to ultimate load. A test
to destruction by an independent laboratory can be specified.
However, such a test involves additional costs and is not nor-
mally specified in the United States.
17.5.5.5 Rope Operating Practices
The correct wire rope properly installed on well-designed
equipment maintained in good working condition provides the
foundation for satisfactory rope performance. In order to attain
and sustain the required rope performance, it will be necessary
that the rope be properly operated and adequately maintained.
Well-developed rope operating practices should consider the fol-
lowing: (1) rope storage, (2) rope installation, (3) rope changing
procedures, (4) rope operating practices, (5) equipment mainte-
nance, (6) lubrication, and (7) inspection procedures.
ROPE STORAGE. Whether the rope must be stored temporar-
ily or indefinitely, it should be indoors where it can be shielded
from weather, corrosive fumes, and excessive heat that might
dry the lubricant or fiber core.
R OPE INSTALLATION AND H ANDLING . Ropes should be
wound onto the drum under load. The direction of coiling should
be determined by the accepted rule of thumb method, as shown
in any rope handbook, and the individual turns should be tamped
together using a copper hammer to avoid gaps between coils.
Before cutting, the rope supplier or a technical handbook detail-
ing correct cutting procedures should be consulted (Anon.,
1980).
D RUM H OIST R OPE-CHANGING P ROCEDURE. Rope chang-
ing procedures for drum hoists are relatively easy and are de-
scribed in rope handbooks. Precautions must be taken, however,
to ensure that adequate tensions are applied to provide correct
spooling during installation.
FRICTION H OIST R OPE -C HANGING P ROCEDURE . Rope-
changing on friction hoists can be carried out using one of four
methods.
1. Method 1. A rope-changing station is located midway in
the shaft. Headropes are changed by chairing the conveyances
at mid-shaft, where reels of new cable have also been positioned,
1670 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
disconnecting both ends of the headropes and connecting one
end of the old rope to one end of the new rope. The opposite end
of the old ropes is connected to empty reels. All headropes are
changed at one time by rotating the friction wheel and thus
lifting the new ropes. The old ropes are wound on the empty
reels. After the new rope has been hoisted into position and the
old ropes wound on the spare reels, both ends of the new ropes
are connected to the conveyance. Tail ropes are changed from
the bottom of the shaft (see method 4).
2. Method 2. A portable rope winch located on the surface
removes all head ropes one at a time, winding them on empty
reels. New head ropes are lowered by this winch and installed
on the conveyances. During this procedure, one conveyance is
located at the top of the shaft, and one conveyance is located at
the bottom of the shaft. Tail ropes are changed from the bottom
of the shaft (see method 4).
3. Method 3. Both head ropes and tailropes are changed
from the bottom of the shaft, using the hoist to raise the new
ropes into position.
4. Method 4. In this method, the tail ropes are installed from
the bottom of the shaft, following a five-step procedure: (1)
locate no. 1 conveyance at the bottom of the shaft, (2) locate no.2
conveyance at the top of the shaft, (3) release the rope clamp on
the bottom of no. 1 conveyance and start reeling the rope to be
removed on a spare reel, (4) lower no.2 conveyance and remove
rope clamp on the bottom of no.2 conveyance and complete
winding up the end of the rope removed, and (5) install the new
tail rope with the reverse procedure. The new tail rope will be
hoisted into position.
The head ropes could also be installed by the use of an
auxiliary rope-changing winch located at the collar elevation in
line with the bending rotation of the hoisting ropes. The final
method selected depends upon the amount of room available on
the surface, orientation of hoist ropes, available space in the
headframe, and personal preference.
ROPE OPERATING PRACTICES. Mine ropes are operated and
maintained correctly when the following conditions are met:
1. Drum and sheave groove contours are correct.
2. Filler, starter, and riser strips are used on the drums
where necessary.
3. Rope crossovers on the drum are prevented.
4. Shock loadings and overloads are avoided.
5. Vibration stresses are kept to a minimum.
6. Peening and abrasive actions are minimized.
7. Rope cutbacks are appropriately completed.
8. Cage-end attachments are refastened at regular intervals.
9. The rope is lubricated at regular intervals with the correct
lubricant.
E QUIPMENT M AINTENANCE . Maintenance of equipment
that comes in contact with the rope is important and should not
be overlooked during the design or operating phase. Some items
to be considered are the following:
1. Tight sheave and drum grooves will pinch the rope, re-
stricting wire and strand movement.
2. Incorrectly designed rope crossovers on drum hoists will
crush or flatten the rope, induce the core to pop, and severely
scrub wires. This can be prevented through the correct design
of filler, starter, and riser strips on the drum flange.
3. Faulty bearings can cause vibration stresses, which in
turn cause fatigue fractures that are most likely to concentrate
at the end attachment.
4. Corrugated deflection sheaves, drums and rollers can
cause high unit pressures, aggravated wear, excessive rope vibra-
tion, and early wire fatigue. Correct measuring and trimming of
tread diameters will prevent this problem.
L UBRICATION . Atmospheric moisture, shaft water, and
chemical fumes are a few of the agents that will cause corrosion.
This frequently leads to wire breakage and premature removal
of mine hoist ropes. In mines with very wet and corrosive shafts,
it is distinctly advantageous to apply a lubricant that will pene-
trate the interior of the rope and that contains a corrosion inhibi-
tor. Lubricants with water-displacing properties are also avail-
able and are useful at end attachments.
INSPECTION P ROCEDURES. In order to achieve optimum
rope performance, an inspection procedure that requires findings
to be recorded, fully diagnosed, and translated into appropriate
action should be instituted.
The presence of the foregoing not only allows the operator
to estimate the remaining safe working life of the rope but can
also pinpoint the source causing such damage to the rope. For
example:
1. Marked reduction in diameter may be due to a loss of
rope’s elasticity, excessive abrasion, or corrosion.
2. Broken wires may be due to worn out sheave, or drum
grooves, tight oversized sheaves or gappy coiling.
3. “Kinking” and “birdcaging” of working ropes generally
result from a sudden release of load.
The term “kinking” in rope use describes the snarling back
of a rope on itself in the form of a loop resulting in a bend in the
rope when straightened out, while “birdcaging” is applied to the
springing of strands away from the core or inner strands.
A thorough evaluation of all facts obtained through routine
inspections, examinations and tests, and compliance with statu-
tory mining acts is needed to decide how early a rope should be
discarded for the sake of safety, and how late can it be removed
for the sake of economy.
17.5.5.6 Rope Attachments
Wire rope end attachments are as important as the rope to
which they are fastened. Therefore, the selection of the correct
type of attachments should be based on an understanding of how
they affect ultimate rope serviceability and efficiency.
There are only two ways to attach something to a wire rope:
(1) forming a loop in the rope, and (2) attaching a fitting to the
rope. Loops are made either by splicing the rope to itself, or by
use of clamps or wedges. Fittings secured directly to wire rope
can be applied by cold forming (snagging) of the metal in the
fittings, by pouring a liquid material such as molten zinc, or
by a wedging arrangement. In this section, some of the most
commonly used attachments are described.
FACTOR OF SAFETY. The factor of safety for rope attach-
ments is not specifically covered in CFR Title 30 (Anon., 1989).
However, it is considered good engineering practice to design
the rope attachments to be stronger than the rope, that is, the
rope will fail before the attachments. British codes require a
factor of safety of 10 based on static loads.
When an attachment is made to a rope, the attachment
commonly weakens the rope locally. The efficiency of an attach-
ment is expressed as the percentage of strength left in the rope
after installation of the attachment. The efficiencies to be ex-
pected from the various types of attachments when correctly
installed are presented in Table 17.55
CAPPELS. Cappels are rope fittings attached directly to the
rope. These types of fittings consist of a pair of wedges grooved
to suit the particular rope diameter and interlocked to ensure
complementary movement. A number of bands driven over the
diverging exterior surfaces of the cappel limbs provides the initial
compressive force to ensure that the wedges grip the rope. The
limbs’ internal surfaces have been machined to fit the external
surfaces of the wedges. A safety block is fastened on the end of
 HOISTING SYSTEMS
Table 17.5.5. Rope Attachment Efficiencies
the rope, protruding beyond the bottom of the wedges. Several
types of cappels are used for hoist ropes including the wedge and
loop.
T HIMBLES. In North America, most mine hoist ropes on
drum hoists are terminated with a wire rope thimble and U-bolt
cable clamps. With this type of attachment, a loop is formed in
the rope and the thimble placed within this loop. The free end
of rope is then clamped to the long end to secure the thimble.
Thimbles are made of cast steel, whereas the clamps, shack-
les, and pins are made of 1.5% manganese steel.
SWIVELS. When winding with balance ropes, the lay length
tends to shorten as each conveyance in turn approaches the
bottom landing. It is for this reason that swivels are provided in
order to allow the ropes to spin and regain their normal length.
Shaft conditions and loadings influence the type of swivel used.
ATTACHMENT MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION. It is desir-
able that all types of attachments be installed as recommended
by the manufacturer. If thimbles and clips are to be used, then
the manufacturers’ recommendation for the correct number of
clips, amount of turn back, clip positions, and correct torques
should be followed closely. If a wedge-type connection is being
applied, then care should be taken to properly clean the rope
surface. Frequent applications of cement dust and subsequent
steel brushing will remove all the surface lubricant.
In some jurisdictions, statutory mining regulations requires
that all types of attachments be inspected both visually and non-
destructively on a regular basis. In other parts of the world,
removal criteria for attachments have been established.
17.5.6 SHAFTS
A shaft is a vertical or inclined primary opening in rock that
provides access to and serves various levels of a mine. Primary
openings are those which are considered to be permanent and
require a high degree of safety. Chapter 17.4 discusses design
and construction details.
17.5.6.1 Shaft Design Procedure
A suggested procedure for the design of shafts follows. It is
important that the steps be followed in the given sequence. It
should be noted that the process is iterative and involves working
through the process several times before an optimum design is
achieved. The shaft design procedure involves the following
steps: (1) define purpose of the shaft, (2) identify location and
determine inclination, (3) determine the number of hoists re-
quired, (4) determine the size of conveyances and compartments,
(5) determine the arrangement of compartments, (6) determine
1671
the exterior shape, (7) design interior members (guides, buntons,
etc.), (8) design shaft lining, (9) check ventilation characteristics,
(10) determine ground stabilization and temporary ground sup-
port, (11) determine shaft collaring method, (12) determine shaft
sinking method, and (13) evaluate and modify starting at item 1.
17.5.6.2 Purpose of Shaft
One of the first items to be examined when designing a shaft
is to identify its intended purpose. Shafts usually fall into one of
the following categories: (1) production (ore and waste han-
dling), (2) service (personnel and materials handling), (3) ventila-
tion (upcast or downcast), (4) exploration (for defining mineral
deposits), and (5) combination of the above.
17.5.6.3 Location and Inclination
LOCATION. Generally, the location of a new shaft at the
mine site is determined after establishing the following: (1) mine
surface layout, (2) location, dip, and extent of the ore body, (3)
number of working levels to be considered, (4) location of ore
and waste handling facilities, (5) water collection sump require-
ments, (6) safety and stability of the shaft pillar, and (7) the
future planned expansion of the shaft. The bottom of the shaft,
where possible, must also be in a stable formation and should be
able to facilitate any planned, future redeepening. The location
of the shaft must also avoid adverse surface features and should
satisfy surface layout plus logistics of surface and underground
ore and waste handling facilities.
INCLINATION. The dip of the ore body is the main factor
involved in deciding to sink either a vertical or inclined shaft. A
secondary factor is the relative ground strength and geologic
formations to be encountered by the proposed shaft.
The main advantages associated with vertical shafts are (1)
hoisting speeds are greater, (2) shaft maintenance costs are lower,
(3) sinking can be carried out faster, and (4) sinking can be
achieved in almost any type of ground.
Inclined shafts (slopes) are generally associated with inclined
(dipping) ore bodies where the length of crosscutting to reach
the ore body from a vertical shaft becomes longer with the
increase in depth of the shaft. They have the advantage of min-
imizing development to reach the ore from the shaft and are
used frequently in coal mines.
17.5.6.4 Number of Hoists
The number of hoists (and conveyances) required to meet
hoisting demands has a major impact in the design of a shaft
(see procedure, 17.5.3.5).
17.5.6.5 Compartment Size
The cross-sectional area of a particular compartment (hori-
zontal area) is dependent upon its use. In order to determine the
most appropriate size, it is necessary to list the items to be
transported in the compartment, determine their approximate
dimensions and weight, indicate their direction of flow and their
approximate quantities. Another important factor to be consid-
ered is the size of the shaft sinking bucket. After having deter-
mined the size of compartments for cage, counterweight, and
skips, the remaining area is then divided to accommodate ventila-
tion, manway, and pipe facilities.
SIZE OF SKIP COMPARTMENT. The skip capacity is deter-
mined by such variables as the hoisting capacity, material den-
sity, lump size, and vertical height available in the headframe.
Generally speaking, the skip dimensions and cross-sectional area
1672 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
are determined by the skip supplier. Good design practice allows
the following clearances:
Skip compartment size:
face to face on guides = outside dimension of skip guide
shoes + 1 in. (25 mm)
front to back = outside dimension of skip + 3 in.
(75 mm)
SIZE OF CAGE COMPARTMENT. Cages are generally used to
transport personnel and materials. The following clause of CFR
Title 30 (57.19-66 Mandatory) applies in the United States:
“In shafts inclined over 45°. . . . Each person shall be
provided a minimum of 1.5 ft2 (0.14 m2) of floor space.”
The cage capacity is determined by the cage supplier based
on a knowledge of the following factors (1) the amounts of
material to be transported, (2) the dimensions and weights of the
major pieces of equipment to be lowered and raised, (3) the
number of personnel to be lowered and raised per shift, and
(4) type of conveyance preferred (i.e, single deck, double deck,
combination skip/cage, etc.)
After establishing the cross-sectional area for the cage, the
cage compartment is sized the same way as the skip compartment
to provide similar clearances.
S IZE OF M ANWAY C OMPARTMENT . From CFR Title 30
(57.11-37 Mandatory): Ladderways constructed after November
15, 1979 shall have a minimum unobstructed cross-sectional
opening of 24 by 24-in. (610 by 610 m) measured from the face
of the ladder.
(57/11-41 Mandatory): Fixed ladders with an inclination of
more than 70° from the horizontal shall be offset with substantial
landings at least every 30 ft (9.1 m) or have landing gates at least
every 30 ft (9.1 m).
In addition to the above, it is necessary to provide adequate
clearance at the landing platform to allow a person to move from
one ladder to the next offset ladder. Generally, an additional
floor area of 36 by 24 in. (914 by 610 mm) is provided.
SIZE OF C OUNTERWEIGHT C OMPARTMENT. The counter-
weight compartment can be of any size or shape as long as it
provides sufficient space and clearance for the safe passage of
the counterweight with the same clearances as for skips and
cages.
SIZE OF SERVICE COMPARTMENT. There are no hard and
fast design rules for sizing the services compartment except that
the cross-sectional area of the compartment should be adequate
to provide the following: (1) separate locations for communica-
tions (signaling) and power lines, (2) space for locating air, water,
pump, backfill lines, (3) clearance for pipe fittings, and (4) space
for pipe column brackets.
17.5.6.6 Compartment Arrangement
The arrangement of the compartments in relationship to one
another depends upon the surface layout, underground layout,
and the type and size of hoist to be used. Because these design
details are not known precisely during the initial design stages,
one must first make a “best estimate” and be prepared to change
the arrangement as the final design evolves.
On surface, the orientation of the compartments in relation
to the hoist and headframe is of major importance. Good rope
practice for drum hoists requires that the location of the hoist
in relation to the shaft and headframe be in line to provide
acceptable rope fleet angles.
For friction hoists, the center-to-center distance on the com-
partments is a major consideration for determining the size of
the drum, the necessity for deflection sheaves, and the type of
rope construction for the tail ropes.
17.5.6.7 Exterior Shape
The exterior shape of a shaft is established by considering
ground stability factors. A circular shape provides better resist-
ance to deformation by lateral pressure. In fair to competent
formations, an opening excavated in this form is generally self-
supporting. In weak formations, the circular shape is adaptable
to a variety of lining materials, concrete, steel segments, or cast-
in-place concrete. Competent formations can be excavated to a
rectangular shape and be generally self-supporting. An elliptical
shape offers better support than a rectangle but not as good as
a circular one. The geotechnical considerations leading to the
selection of an exterior shape are beyond the scope of this discus-
sion, but their importance in the overall design process cannot
be overstated (see Chapter 10.5). Also shafts may have different
exterior shapes at different depths, reflecting the different strata
encountered.
17.5.6.8 Interior Members
Guides and buntons are the main vertical and horizontal
structural elements in a mine shaft conveyance system. The
primary function of these members is to facilitate running of
the shaft’s conveyances. Their characteristics influence not only
speed of operation and amount of maintenance required, but also
production and ventilation costs. Therefore, the choice of sets
and guides is of great importance to achieving operational cost
savings.
SHAFT GUIDES DESCRIPTION. Shaft guides are used in verti-
cal shafts to keep the skips, cages, and counterweights in proper
shaft position. The two types of guides in use are (1) fixed guides
(wood, rail, and steel), and (2) rope guides.
Wooden Guides—Wooden guides are supported by the hori-
zontal sets installed in the shaft. They are favored where convey-
ances require safety devices. This is due to the fact that the
decelerating characteristics of safety dogs on wood are more
reliable than on steel or rail. When hoisting on wooden guides,
a speed of 2200 fpm (11.2 m/s) with a medium-sized skip is the
practical upper limit. Wooden guides are subject to changes in
dimensions due to changes in moisture content. They are also
subject to wear to a greater extent than steel guides. Wooden
guides generally are not used in shafts where fire hazards exist,
such as in coal mines.
Rail Guides—Rail guides are common in inclined shafts.
These guides vary in size, with the larger rails giving a wider
bearing surface for the wheel. The steel rail provides a harder
surface but presents a smaller wear area; this creates more wear
and maintenance on conveyance guide shoes and wheels.
Steel Guides—Structural steel tubes (SST) sections are be-
coming more popular as guides for production shafts where
higher speeds and heavy loads require a fairly rigid and stable
section. With steel guides, the conveyances are usually equipped
with adequately sized guide roller assemblies to minimize wear
between the guides and shoes on the conveyance. When hoisting
on steel guides, a speed of 3000 fpm (15.2 m/s) is a practical
upper limit.
Rope Guides—Rope guides are also used for guiding convey-
ances in vertical shafts. These are generally used with multirope
hoisting systems where the effect of hoist-rope torque is minimal
or nonexistent. Half locked coil ropes are used for this service.
Rope guides do not require any intermediate support, thereby
eliminating the steel sets required for fixed guides. Since rope
guides are not able to withstand the horizontal forces of loading
 HOISTING SYSTEMS
and unloading, the conveyance must be supported by other
means in these areas. Fixed guides are used at the extremes of
travel, and a retractable guiding system should be considered at
intermediate levels. There are several schemes by which rope
guides are suspended and tensioned, and the selection of any one
of these will depend on the particular installation.
Because rope guides eliminate the need for horizontal bun-
tons, the ability of the shaft to handle airflow is enhanced. In a
large shaft, with multiple conveyances traveling at the same time,
the aerodynamic effects can cause unexpected rope deflections.
These effects should be studied during the design stage. Since
rope guides are the smoothest of all guides, hoisting speeds up
to 4000 ft/min (20 m/s) are feasible.
SHAFT BUNTON DESCRIPTION. Shaft buntons are horizontal
members used to divide the shaft into compartments. They also
support and carry the shaft guides, pipes and cables. Buntons
can be of any cross-sectional shape and can be installed in a
shaft at any spacing. However, the correct design and layout of
buntons and their installation at a suitable spacing minimizes
the air resistance of shafts and hence reduces ventilation op-
erating costs.
G UIDE AND B UNTON S TRUCTURAL D ESIGN . Although
there are no universally accepted loading parameters for the
design of the shaft members, buntons and guides may be designed
using empirical static loadings, generally accepted in the indus-
try, and discussed in the next segments.
Bunton Loading—The static loads considered acting on set
members are
1. The known weight of steel to be supported.
2. The vertical friction load on the guides transferred to the
set members. The friction load is assumed equal to 3% of rope
end load, where rope end load is calculated by adding the weight
of conveyance, the attachments, and the payload in the con-
veyance.
3. A horizontal load transferred from guide members to set
members assumed equal to 10% of rope end load.
Guide Loading—The static loads considered acting on the
guide members are as for buntons. As mentioned earlier, there
is no general consensus on these loading parameters and they
have been challenged by several authors with diverging opinions
(Bently, 1973; Backerberg, 1970; Van Wyk, 1961).
17.5.6.9 Shaft Lining
Shaft lining may be comprised of shotcrete, cast-in-place
concrete, or steel and cast iron tubbing. When a lining is re-
quired, the selection depends on a number of design considera-
tions that relate to the strata being excavated. For further discus-
sion, see Chapter 17.4.
SHOTCRETE. Sprayed concrete, 5 in. (125 mm) or more in
thickness, may be used to control immediate raveling and weath-
ering of the shaft walls. To date, shotcrete has not been used
extensively to provide long term support, nor as the only means
of lining in shafts.
CONCRETE. The use of concrete for permanent support is
becoming more common. Shafts may be fully lined or partially
lined with “concrete rings” with areas of open ground between
the rings. Common spacing used for ringed shafts is 4-ft (1.2-m)
high concrete rings with a 4-ft (1.2-m) open area between, re-
sulting in an 8-ft (2.4-m) set interval. Concrete is generally placed
12 in. (305 mm) in thickness, with a minimum of 10 in. (254
mm).
STEEL OR CAST IRON TUBBING. Although the use of con-
crete as a lining material is becoming more common, there are
certain geologic conditions where steel or cast iron tubbing is
a more appropriate material. Concrete is suitable when water
1673
pressures are less than 250 psi (1724 kPa) and when the stress
field is uniform and compressive in nature. Steel is more suitable
for a completely water-tight lining and is capable of withstanding
tensile stresses. These stresses could arise if the shaft is subjected
to bending loads caused by subsidence or buckling loads caused
by a non-uniform horizontal stress field.
Steel lining can be butt-welded to give permanent water-
tightness and has a higher buckling safety factor than tubbing.
Steel is particularly useful as a lining for shafts sunk by drilling
methods. Cast iron tubbing consists of several segments bolted
to form a ring and requires a lead gasket to be placed between
segments.
D ESIGN C ONSIDERATIONS FOR SHAFT LINING. The design
requirements for lining a structure is governed by the required
duty of the shaft and environmental conditions in which it is
constructed. Careful consideration of the following points should
be made in the design of structural lining: (1) precise behaviour
of the rock mass in situ, (2) self-supporting action of the rock
itself, (3) effect of separation of the lining due to certain vertical
and horizontal movements of the surrounding rock formation,
(4) construction of watertight linings, and (5) economics of the
lining structure.
The design of steel or cast iron linings is a much more
complex process, since the buckling characteristics of an elas-
tically embedded hollow cylinder with external pressure must be
evaluated. Although the details of such a design are not discussed
here, several reports on the subject are available in the technical
literatures (Ostrowski, 1972; de la Vergne and Cooper, 1983;
DeHart, 1983).
17.5.6.10 Ventilation Characteristics
The shaft is generally the largest single contributor to total
mine air resistance when it is equipped with rigid guides for
hoisting purposes. The resistance consists of two components:
(1) frictional resistance, caused by viscous drag in the thin air
layer at the shaft walls and the periphery of the vertical elements
(guides, pipes, cables, ropes, etc.) of the shaft; and (2) shock
resistance, due to the transverse sets (buntons and dividers),
completely immersed in the airstream, thereby obstructing the
flow, and recurring at intervals throughout the shaft.
These transverse elements create turbulence in the airstream
with corresponding loss of flow energy. The turbulent waves
below buntons and conveyances often contribute very much
more to the total shaft resistance than the skin friction of the
shaft walls. The forces caused by the buntons are parallel to the
airstream, and proportional to velocity pressure, frontal area,
surface texture, and shape. Because the frontal area of all the
buntons in a shaft is likely to be more than the frontal area of
the cages and skips, the aerodynamic design of the bunton is of
importance in the design of a mine shaft.
A reduction in the shaft resistance can be achieved through
(1) improving the aerodynamic effect of horizontal obstructions
such as buntons, (2) minimizing the frontal area of the set mem-
bers, and (3) increasing the spacing between the horizontal ob-
structions. Practical experience has indicated that there is little
ventilation advantage to be gained from spacing greater than 15
ft (4.6 m).
General treatment of mine ventilation theory and practice is
offered in Chapters 11.6 and 11.7.
17.5.6.11 Ground Stabilization and Temporary
Support
Table 17.5.6 identifies three types of ground support problem
encountered in shaft sinking and their corresponding solutions.
For a detailed discussion of ground control, see Chapter 10.5.
1674 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 17.5.6. Ground Support Problems Encountered in
Shaft Sinking
Problem Solution
Ground is too weak or wet Pre-grout, freeze, drill and
to allow any type of ex- pump water wells.
cavation
Ground requires support Rock bolts, screen, shot-
during excavation crete, limit amount of un-
supported ground.
Shaft requires permanent Install timber sets, steel
protection to allow sets, pour concrete lining
hoisting either partial or rings, in-
stall steel or cast iron
liner.

17.5.6.12 Shaft Collar

Shaft construction begins with the excavation and forming
of the shaft collar. The collar assists in forming the desired shape
for the initial length of the shaft and provides the necessary
stability and alignment for the remaining length of shaft to be
excavated. Completion of the collar also allows erection of the
headframe, sheave deck, and hoisting facilities for the sinking
operation. The collar acts as a barrier to prevent water and soil
from entering the shaft.
Collar construction methods are beyond the scope of this
chapter but include steel sheet piling cofferdam, drilled inter-
locking concrete piles, steel walings with sheeting, drop caisson,
drilling, pregrouting and sinking, open cut and dewater with
well points, and deep well pumping.
17.5.6.13 Shaft Sinking
Following completion of shaft collaring, the actual shaft
sinking is carried out usually by one of the following methods:
(1) conventional methods of drill-and-blast or pilot raising and
slashing, or (2) mechanized methods of raise boring or blind
shaft boring. These are discussed in Chapter 17.4.
17.5.7 HEADFRAMES
The basic purpose of a headframe installed over a shaft is to
support the sheave wheel over which a hoisting rope passes for
raising or lowering conveyances. The construction of a head-
frame is also necessary to allow dumping of hoisted materials
aboveground. Structurally, there are two types of headframes:
(1) headframe structures with backlegs such as an A-frame, and
(2) four-post and six-post and headframe structures of tower
form (Fig. 17.5.15).
17.5.7.1 Construction Materials
Headframes may be constructed of timber, steel, or concrete.
Modern trends to high-capacity hoisting have necessitated the
construction of very large headframes, which effectively preclude
the use of timber as a construction material.
COMPARISON—STEEL VS. CONCRETE. Butler and Schneyd-
erberg (1981) outlined the principal criteria that should be used
as a basis for a realistic evaluation of the merits of concrete and
steel for a headframe. A summary of their arguments is given in
Table 17.5.7.
Although the arguments given appear to favor concrete
headframes, it should be noted that both concrete and steel
Fig. 17.5.15. Types of headframe structures.
can produce economically viable, structurally compatible, and
visually appealing headframes for any new development.
Advantages of concrete structures include (1) effective use
can be made of space within the structure for tower-mounted
friction hoists, (2) when used in conjunction with ground-
mounted drum hoists, the hoist may be located at any position
around the headframe, (3) maintenance costs are low, (4) high
damping effect of the massive concrete structure on shock and
vibration, (5) simplicity of collar layout and interconnection with
service buildings, (6) provision for future expansion, and (7)
durability and resistance to corrosion. Disadvantages of concrete
include (1) lengthy construction period, (2) higher capital cost
in comparison with a steel headframe, and (3) no salvage value.
For steel structures, advantages include (1) lighter founda-
tion loads, (2) adaptability to minor changes, (3) salvage value,
(4) capital cost saving in remote areas, (5) can be pre-fabricated
into transportable lengths for on site assembly, and (6) speedy
construction. The main disadvantage of steel is that it is prone
to corrosion, and thus not suitable as a production headframe
for corrosive ore (e.g., salt and sulfides) unless the steel is treated.
17.5.7.2 Headframe Design Considerations
A successful design must be based on an overall integrated
hoisting system design, which involves a critical examination of
the impact of at least the following list of items: (1) loads, (2)
foundations, (3) mine services, (4) sinking provisions, (5) equip-
ment monitoring facilities, (6) conveyance handling and rope
handling, (7) heating and ventilation, and (8) others, such as
local mining regulations.
 HOISTING SYSTEMS 1675
Table 17.5.7. Design Considerations for Concrete and Steel Headframes
Consideration Criterion For Concrete Structures For Steel Structures

Foundation Requires sound bedrock Lighter steel headframe can be erected on

Construction
Accommodation of shaft sinker
Additional facilities
Stiffness and damping effect
Plant layout damping effect
Adaptability to changes and future addi-
tions
Reclamation
Corrosion, durability and maintenance
Aesthetics
Cost
Source: Butler and Schneyderberg, 1981.
Slipformed concrete tower can (in favor-
able weather) cut construction time.
Can accommodate temporary sheave deck
to facilitate shaft sinking.
Provides sufficient enclosed space to
house hoist’s electrics, control room,
and ventilation equipment.
Concrete structure is stiffer to resist vibra-
tion during high speed.
Flexible to logistics, stiffer to resist vibra-
tion during high speed hoisting and in
strong wind environment.
Due to high load-bearing capability, con-
crete towers tend to be more flexible for
future planned expansion.
Concrete headframe has no salvage value.
Virtually immune to corrosion; can be
made air-tight to isolate sensitive equip-
ment from outside corrosive atmo-
sphere.
Visually more appealing to most people.
Depending on location and availability of
the material, concrete headframe can be
less costly.
non-corrosive weak ground formations.
Can be erected in all weather.
Cannot facilitate installation of temporary
head gear without extensive modification
to the permanent structure.
Steel structure usually not capable of car-
rying extra loads.
Steel structure is more prone to vibration
unless design is based on sophisticated
dynamic studies.
Steel structure is more prone to vibration
unless design is based on sophisticated
dynamic studies.
Steel headframe, although amenable to mi-
nor changes, requires costly modification
for major expansion.
Steel headframe can be relocated and re-
used and has good salvage value.
Susceptible to corrosion, thus incurs higher
maintenance cost; requires periodic re-
painting and cladding replacement.
On unbroken flat horizons, large structure
is often an aesthetic problem.
In remote locations a steel headframe con-
struction is usually cheaper.

LOADINGS. All headframes should be designed to withstand
a combination of loads, comprised of the following: (1) dead load
consisting of the weight of the headframe, sheave wheels, ore
bins, and contents; (2) live load from hoisting at maximum ca-
pacity; (3) breaking loads of the ropes when the conveyance is
stopped by the crash beams or if it is jammed in the shaft (break-
ing stresses introduced by an overwind are usually transferred
to the structural system, often through an arrestor gear, and
thus the supporting structure must be critically analyzed with a
thorough understanding of the arrestor mechanism); (4) wind
load, the intensity of which depends on the location, height, and
shape of the structure; (5) snow load; and (6) temperature and
seismic stresses, taken from published data relating to the geo-
graphic area of the shaft location.
FOUNDATION. Simply stated, the foundation should be capa-
ble of withstanding and absorbing stresses imposed by the struc-
ture and associated loads.
MINE SERVICES. The design of the headframe must suit
surface layouts for providing the essential mine services. When
possible, it should be located close to the shaft collar house,
waiting area, lamproom, first-aid room, hoist house, mainte-
nance shop, changing house, and administrative offices. The type
and design of headframe must also take into account the shaft
internal arrangement, position of the hoist with respect to the
shaft, and the position of the sheave steel. Facilities for several
key concerns listed must be considered and adequately developed
during the conceptual design stage: (1) arrangement of skip
dumping area in relation to ore and waste storage and handling
facilities, (2) clearance required for installation, maintenance,
and removal of conveyances, (3) lifting equipment required for
maintenance of conveyances, and (4) access required for mainte-
nance of conveyances, dump areas, etc.
In the case of headframes for drum hoists, provision must
be made for (1) lifting equipment and access for maintenance of
sheaves, (2) access and anchorage facility to support the ends of
hoist ropes, when doubling down for pretensioning drum end
coils, and (3) sub-collar loading access for double deck cages.
According to Cook and Werner (1966), the design of head-
frames for friction hoists should address the following: (1) sup-
porting facility at predetermined elevations for hoist or balance
ropes and conveyances or counterweights during installation and
changes; (2) clearance for installation of conveyance arrestor
gear; (3) provisions for handling shaft ventilation air and for
sealing machinery rooms; (4) arrangement of MG sets close to
hoist motors to minimize runs of heavy bus bars; (5) lifting
equipment access during head and tail rope changing; (6) sup-
port, accommodation, inspection, removal, and replacement
facilities for rope guides where used; (7) ventilation to specific
machines and areas, controlling moisture, dust, and temperature
where required; (8) accommodation of sinking arrangements; (9)
accommodation of all services for air, water, communications,
and power lines to the shaft and to the headframe-mounted
equipment; (10) the accommodation of stairwells and elevators;
and (11) lighting and lightning protection.
SINKING PROVISIONS. After the decision has been made to
sink a shaft, considerations should be given to the type of surface
sinking plant (such as headframe and hoist) that is to be used
for shaft sinking. In particular, it should be determined whether
the sinking plant is to be temporary or is to make use of the
permanent headframe and/or hoist.
Temporary Headframe—Generally, a temporary headframe
is used during shaft sinking by the contractor. These headframes
may be a wood or steel structure in modular form. Some steel
headframes may be fabricated from hollow structural steel,
1676 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
which combines strength with light weight, and facilitates easy
erection and dismantling. Headframes of this type are portable
and have a high resale potential.
Design criteria for a temporary sinking headframe are the
same as for a permanent headframe. Its height depends upon the
method of rock disposal and size of bucket. The sinking head-
frame should embody features for dumping buckets or skips, for
protecting personnel on the surface and in the shaft from falling
pieces of rock while dumping, and minimizing work of top men
in dumping buckets and removing broken rock. The design of
temporary headframe structures should accommodate an ade-
quate-sized storage bin and sufficient clearance for a rock dis-
posal vehicle.
Permanent Headframe—Current trends favor installation of
a permanent headframe for the sinking operation, as it tends to
be more economical and time saving. The permanent main skele-
ton can be designed to facilitate erection and installation of the
sinking sheaves at a suitable elevation. The structure can then
be finished and equipped during the shaft sinking operation. The
use of the permanent structure as a sinking headframe can make
the permanent hoisting facilities available at an earlier date fol-
lowing completion of the shaft sinking program.
E QUIPMENT MONITORING FACILITIES. Two main hoisting
incidents, which can be detrimental to personnel and equipment
and require monitoring, are (1) overtravel at the shaft extremities
(i.e., sump, headframe), and (2) overspeed during the duty cycle.
In order to protect against these incidents, it is mandatory that
monitoring and safety devices be installed in the headframe.
Operation of all hoists are monitored mechanically by con-
trollers, such as the Lilly hoist controller. These are powered off
the hoist drums and check hoisting speed, overtravel at each end
of the wind, and deceleration in the end zones. Additionally,
track limit switches and conveyance arrestors must be incorpo-
rated. The function of track limit switches is to provide indepen-
dent overtravel protection in the headframe. Fig. 17.5.16. Vertical general arrangement of headframe.
Ultimate protection against overwind is provided for all fric-
tion hoists by conveyance arrestors. These are installed at the
ends of travel in each hoisting compartment. The headframe
arrestors are designed to retard an ascending conveyance from quate provisions for a heating system. In tower-mounted friction
70% of full speed at an acceleration of 0.9g. Shaft arrestors are hoisting systems, with all of the hoists, motors, and controls,
designed to retard an empty descending conveyance from full etc., enclosed in the headframe, it is necessary to provide a space
speed at 2g. ventilation system, supplying filtered air for both cooling and
Where applicable, the headframe should accommodate in- heating.
stallations of a crash beam and catch gear. With drum winders, MINING R EGULATIONS. Mining operations, including the
the crash beam is located below the sheaves in the headframe. design and construction of the headframe and shaft facilities, are
In the event of an excessive overwind, it stops the conveyance subject to local, state, and federal regulations that relate to,
from traveling beyond this point. Should a conveyance be in- among other things, safety of permanent structures and environ-
volved in an overwind situation in which the hoist ropes breaks, mental protection. These regulations affect the design and con-
the conveyance and tail ropes will fall down the shaft, causing struction of mine facilities.
damage. To prevent this, catch gear should be provided in the HEIGHT. Due to today’s increasing public awareness of the
headframe to “catch” the conveyance. aesthetic impact of industrial development, the height of the
C ONVEYANCE AND R OPE H ANDLING. In the design and headframe should be considered. This is especially true for loca-
layout of a headframe, provisions must be made for the handling tions in flat terrain where any large structure can be seen for
and changing of conveyances, hoisting ropes, and rope guides (if long distances. The height of a headframe is generally based on
applicable). Friction hoisting often requires the use of very large (1) storage bin capacity requirements for ore and waste, (2)
skips and cages. Because of their size, the service and handling clearance for loading facility under the storage bin, (3) arranging
of these conveyances, and the tying off the head and tail ropes that the resultant force from headframe loadings falls within the
associated with them, considerable problems can arise. In the backleg post, and (4) providing minimum clearance for convey-
friction hoist headframe, these can be facilitated through the ance overtravel beyond its normal travel to the headsheaves.
installation of an adequately sized overhead traveling crane. In Of the above, the determination of the minimum clearance for
the drum hoist headframe, handling and changing of convey- overrun distance is the principal design consideration. This mini-
ances and ropes are relatively easy and are usually achieved mum clearance is obtained after establishing the value of three
through the use of mobile cranes, rope blocks, and tugger hoists. separate allowances (1) operating allowance, (2) rope stretch
HEATING AND VENTILATION. In warm climates, the head- allowance, and (3) stopping allowance (Fig 17.5.16).
frame may be left open. However, in colder climates, it is neces- Operating Allowance—An operating allowance is required
sary to design the headframe as an enclosed structure with ade- to allow for variations in repeatability of the final stop position
 HOISTING SYSTEMS
of the conveyance in the headframe. In multilevel hoisting with
drum hoists, this tolerance compensates for differences in coiling
and rope stretch. In the case of friction hoists, the allowance
compensates for creep during resynchronization and also allows
a reasonable gap for rope adjustment due to permanent rope
stretch.
Rope Stretch Allowance— This is included to avoid contact
with the track limit switch when empty conveyances are hoisted.
The rope stretch allowance generally includes an additional l-ft
(0.3-m) margin as well as the extra travel length during brake
deadtime and because of the effect of deceleration.
Stopping Allowance—A stopping allowance is to ensure that
clearance remains between the top of the conveyance and the
first obstruction in the headframe.
Calculations for Minimum Clearance—In an article describ-
ing hoisting plants at International Nickel Co., calculations for
minimum headframe clearances were presented for both drum
hoists and friction hoists (Albert, Cameron, and Gullick, 1975).
These calculations are summarized in the following.
In computations for minimum clearances, two assumptions
on hoist speed are made: (1) for rope stretch allowance, the hoist
speed is 30 fpm (0.15 m/s); and (2) for the stopping allowance,
it is assumed that the speed has been reduced to 300 fpm (1.5
m/s).
For drum hoists, the minimum clearance from the top of the
hoist rope capping, in its lowest fully dumped position, to the
rim of the headsheave is given by (in English units):
clearance = operating allowance + overtravel to Lilly limit
+ rope stretch allowance + stopping allowance
(17.5.43)
where P is maximum rated payload in lb, L is maximum hoisting
distance in ft, A is equivalent area of rope in in2., E is rope elastic
modulus in psi, V 1 = 0.5 fps, V2 = 0.5 fps, a is hoist deceleration
rate in fps2, and t is brake deadtime in sec.
For friction hoists, the minimum clearance from the top of
the skip in its lowest position to the underside of the arrestor
gear is given by (in English units):
(17.5.44)
The required arrestor travel distance must be added to the
above clearance in order to calculate the total clearance to the
headframe crash beam. The arrestor travel length is given by
(English units):
(17.5.45)
where L is arrestor travel length in ft, V is conveyance speed at
time of entry in fps, a is maximum declaration rate of 0.9g
(= 28.98 fps2), H is height of arrestor gear (assume 4 ft), and the
safety margin is 5 ft.
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anon., 1942, “Electric Mine Hoists,” Westinghouse Electric Corpora-
tion, East Pittsburgh, PA.
1677
Anon., 1948, “The Mechanical Parts of Electrical Mine Hoists,” Domin-
ion Engineer, Vol. 15, No. 8, Part 3, Aug., Fig. 36, p.5.
Anon., 1980a, Ropeman’s Handbook, National Coal Board, 3rd ed.
Anon., 1980b, “Wire Ropes for Mines,” American National Standards
Institute, ANSI M11.1.
Anon., 1981a, “Report On The Efficiency of Hoist Rope End Attach-
ments,” INCO Metals Co., Sudbury, Ontario, Jan.
Anon., 1981b, “Procedures for Hoist and Shaft Inspection and Mainte-
nance,” Vol. I and II, USBM, PB83-148049 and PB83-148056,
Washington, DC.
Anon., 1981c, Wire Rope User’s Manual, Committee of Wire Rope
Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute, 2nd ed.
Anon., 1987, “Occupational Health and Safety Act and Regulations for
Mines and Mining Plants,” Ontario Government, Apr.
Anon., 1989, Code of Federal Regulations, Mineral Resources, Title 30,
Parts 0 to 199, Washington, DC.
Albert, L., Cameron, A.M., and Gullick, J.W., 1975, “Hoisting Plants
of International Nickel,” Proceedings, Hoisting Conference, AIME,
New York, Feb. 21.
Atkinson, L.T.J., and Preator, R.W.T., 1973, “Theoretical and Experi-
mental Techniques Used in the Design of Winding Engine Drum
Structure,” Proceedings International Conference on Hoisting—
Men, Materials, Minerals, South African Institute of Mechanical
Engineers, Oct. 16–24, pp. 253–271.
Backerberg, A.C., 1970, HSS Application Report, ADUSS 27-4119-01,
US Steel Corp., Jan. 22.
Beerkircher, G., 1975, “Proper Selection to Fit the Application,” Pro-
ceedings, Hoisting Conference, AIME, New York, Feb. 21.
Bently, D.M., 1973, “The Equipment of Vertical Shafts—Present South
African Mining Practices and Development Trends,” Proceedings
7th Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgy Congress.
Brucker, D., 1975, “Faster and Deeper—The Sagas of the Times in
Hoisting,” ASEA Info. No AS100-104E, Montreal, Quebec, May 3.
Butler, D.W., and Schneyderberg, A.C., 1981, “Headframe Design Selec-
tion, Steel vs Concrete,” V.B. Cook Co., Ltd., Thunder Bay, On-
tario.
Cook, V.B., and Werner, M.P., 1966, “Layout Design and Construction
of Concrete Towers for Tower Mounted Friction Hoists,” CIM
Bulletin, Vol. 59, No. 649, May, pp. 593–602.
Cummins, A.B., and Given, I.A., eds., 1973, SME Mining Engineering
Handbook, SME-AIME, New York, pp. 15–1 to 15–69.
Dean, D.L., 1962, “Static and Dynamic Analysis of Guy Cables,” Trans-
actions of ASCE, Vol. 127, Pt. II, pp. 382–419.
DeHart, R.C., 1983, “Design of Large Diameter Shaft Liners,” Current
Technology in Drilled Shaft Design and Construction, Vol. 2,
N.M.I.T. and I.S.D.T. Joint Seminar, Golden, CO.
De la Vergne, J., 1978, personal correspondence.
De la Vergne, J., and Cooper, L.O., 1983, “Simplified Procedure for the
Design of the Full Hydrostatic Steel Mine Shaft Line,” Transactions,
AIME, Vol. 274.
Delorme, G., 1977, “Selection and Maintenance of Ropes and Attach-
ments for Use in Mine Shafts,” CIM Mechanical—Electrical Opera-
tors’ Conference, Sudbury, Ontario.
Dimitriov, C., and Whillier, A., 1973, “Vibrations In Winding Ropes,”
Proceedings, International Conference on Hoisting—Men, Materials,
Minerals, South African Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Oct.
16–24, pp. 350–362.
Dolan, H., 1961, “Rope Attachments and Associated Apparatus for
Hoisting and Guide Ropes in Vertical Mine Shafts,” Reliance Rope
Attachment Co., Cardiff, Wales.
Duncan, J.M., et al., 1979, “Materials Handling for Urban Tunneling
in Rock,” Urban Mass Transportation Administration, UMTA-
MA-06-0100-79-7, May NTIS, Springfield, VA.
Eastcott, P., de H., 1977, “Innovations in Hoisting Systems,” CIM Bulle-
tin, Vol. 70, No. 787, Nov., pp. 76–87.
Edwards, F.A., 1988, “A Systematic Approach to the Design of Mine
Shaft Hoisting Systems,” Proceedings International Conference on
Hoisting of Men, Materials and Minerals, Canadian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Vol. 1, June 12–17, pp. 39–73.
Harmon, J.H., 1973, “Hoists and Hoisting Systems,” SME Mining Engi-
neering Handbook, Chap. 15, SME-AIME, New York, pp. 15–54 to
15–59.
1678 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Harvey, T., 1973a, “Automatic Skip Loading—Techniques for Design
and Implementation of Logic Requirements,” Proceedings, Interna-
tional Conference on Hoisting—Men, Materials, Minerals, South
African Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Oct. 16–24, pp. 140–
143.
Harvey, T., 1973b, “The Calculation of Rope Sizes and Power Require-
ments of Winders,” Proceedings International Conference on
Hoisting—Men, Materials, Minerals, South African Institute of Me-
chanical Engineers, Oct. 16–24, pp. 177–186.
Landau, F., and Hedstrom, K., 1973, “Some Aspects of Modern Hoisting
Equipment,” Proceedings International Conference on Hoisting—
Men, Materials, Minerals, South African Institute of Mechanical
Engineers, Oct. 16–24, pp. 200–210.
McCrossan, J.A.J., 1973, “Mine Winder Brake Design,” Proceedings
International Conference on Hoisting—Men, Materials, Minerals,
South African Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Oct. 16–24, pp.
276–284.
Muller, G.F., 1978, “Thyristor Drives Captures Mine Hoist Markets,”
Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. 179, No. 8, Aug., pp. 65–71.
Oakden, H., 1973, “Methods of Controlling Coiling of Multiple Layers
of Wire Rope on Cylindrical Drums with Particular Reference to the
LeBus System,” Proceedings International Conference on Hoisting—
Men, Materials, Minerals, South African Institute of Mechanical
Engineers, Oct. 16–24, pp. 384–388.
Ostrowski, W.J.S., 1972, “Design Considerations for Modern Shaft Lin-
ings,” CIM Bulletin, Vol. 65, No. 726, Oct., pp. 58–71.
Penning, F.A., et al., 1977, “Development of Vertical Shaft Skip and
Guide Design,” USBM 17-4148, Jun., Washington, DC.
Schulz, S.H., 1973, “Shaft Installations of High Winding Capabilities,”
Proceedings International Conference on Hoisting—Men, Materials,
Minerals, South African Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Oct.
16–24, pp. 169–176.
Souter, B.N., 1973, “Ore Handling Arrangements in Shafts of the Repub-
lic of South Africa,” Proceedings International Conference on
Hoisting—Men, Materials, Minerals, South African Institute of Me-
chanical Engineers, Oct. 16–24, pp. 54–84.
Staley, W.W., 1936, “Mine Hoists,” Mine Plant Design, 1st ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 137.
Tiley, G.L., 1957, “Friction Hoist Design Considerations,” CIM Bulle-
tin, Vol. 50, No. 542, Jun., pp. 326–333.
Tudhope, I.S.D., 1973, “Multi-Rope Winders for High Capacity
Hoisting,” Proceedings, International Conference on Hoisting—Men,
Materials, Minerals, South African Institute of Mechanical Engi-
neers, Oct. 16–24, pp. 152–168.
Van Wyk, C.F.B., 1961, “A Review of Progress in the Design of Shaft
Requirement Aimed at a Reduction in Shaft Resistance,” South
African Mechanical Engineer.
Whillier, A., 1976, Computer Aids in the Design of Mine Hoists So As
to Avoid Problems of Rope Whip,” Proceedings, Conference on
Automation in Mining, Mineral and Metal Processing, South African
Council for Automation and Computation, pp. 631–638, Sep.
13–17.