Unit 6 - GEARS

Sub – Topic 1 – SPUR GEARS

Learning Objectives :
By the end of studying this topic, the student must be able to
understand :
 The main advantage of gear drives over the other forms of drives
is that this is a positive drive, and thereby transmits a constant
velocity ratio.
 A friction wheel with Teeth cut on it is termed as a Toothed
Wheel (or) Gear.
 Classification of gears such as Spur gears, Helical, Spiral,
Bevel, and Worm gears.
 Gear tooth terminology of Spur gears.
 Different forms of gear teeth such as Involute and Cycloidal
profiles.
 Law of Gearing, and Condition for constant velocity ratio of
toothed wheels.
 How to compute the velocity of sliding of gear teeth, path of
contact, and arc of contact.
 What is ‘Interference’ in Involute gears, and how to avoid /
reduce it.
 Interference between rack and pinion.
 What is ‘Under – cutting’, and why it is done.
Introduction :
The transmission of motion from one shaft to another can be
achieved by Belt drives, Rope drives, Chain drives, or Gear drives. The
gear drives are especially used to connect two shafts which are at a
short distance apart, while the other types of drives are suitable to
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connect the shafts which are at large distance apart. The main advantage
of gear drives over the other forms of drives is that this is a positive
drive, and thereby transmits a constant velocity ratio. Of course the
manufacture of gears is quite complex, as compared to the other types of
drives, because it involves careful cutting of the gear tooth profiles
accurately on special purpose machines.
Consider two plain cylindrical wheels 1 and 2, with sufficient
rough surfaces – pressed against each other. The wheel 1 is keyed to a
shaft, which is rotating at some speed. The wheel 2 is keyed to another
shaft, which is to be rotated. Then the wheel 2 will be rotated in a
direction opposite to that of 1 -- so long as -- the tangential force
exerted by the wheel 1 does not exceed the maximum frictional
resistance between the wheels. (Refer Fig.1)

Fig.1
When the tangential force exceeds the maximum frictional resistance
between the wheels, slipping occurs between the wheels.
To avoid slipping  a number of projections, called TEETH are
provided on the periphery of the wheel 1, which will fit into the
corresponding recesses on the periphery of the wheel 2
Thus, a friction wheel → with Teeth cut on it → is termed as a
Toothed Wheel (or) GEAR. (Refer Fig.2)

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 Fig.2
Classification of Gears :
(1) According to the position of axes of shafts :
(a) Parallel → Spur gears, and Helical gears. [Refer Fig.3 (a)]
(b) Intersecting → Bevel gears → Straight, and Helical gears. [Fig.3(b)]

Fig.3(a)

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Fig.3(a)

Fig.3(b)
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 (c) Non – Intersecting, and Non – parallel → Skew Bevel gears (or)

Crossed Helical gears (or) Spiral gears. [Refer Fig.3(c)]

Fig.3(c)
(d) Worm gears:[Refer Fig.3(d)] → For connecting non – intersecting (skew)
Shafts.
(a) Two Parallel and Coplanar shafts are connected by  Spur Gears.
In these gears, the gear teeth are parallel to the axis of shafts,
whereas in Helical gears, the gear teeth are inclined to the axis of
the gear wheel.
Helical gears  are again classified into two types :
(i) Single Helical gears.
(ii) Double Helical gears (or) Herringbone gears [Fig.3(a)]
(b) Two intersecting – Non – parallel – but Coplanar shafts are connected
by Bevel gears of either straight teeth (Spur Bevel gears) or of
inclined teeth (Helical Bevel gears)  [Refer Fig.3(b)].
(c) Two non – intersecting, non – parallel, and non – coplanar shafts are
connected by Skew Bevel gears or Spiral gears. [Refer Fig.3(c)].
These gears have curved teeth -- and -- this type of gearing will
have line contact. Rotation of the line of contact about the axes of

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 the mating gears  generates the two pitch surfaces -- which are
hyperboloids.
[A hyperboloid is a solid formed by revolving a straight line about
an axis (which is not in the same plane), such that every point on
the line remains at a constant distance from the axis].
(d) Worm gears are used to connect two non – intersecting (skew) shafts.
They are normally used when high velocity reduction is required
between the driver and driven gears. The pinion (or Worm) has a
small number of teeth (threads) – usually 1 to 4 – and its mating
gear is called the Worm wheel. The worm gears are used where
high loads are to be transmitted.
(2) According to the type of gearing :
(a) External Gearing : In this type of gearing, the larger wheel is
referred to as the (Gear) Wheel, and the smaller wheel is called
Pinion. The direction of rotation of the gear wheels are opposite
to each other.
(b) Internal Gearing : In this type of gearing, the larger wheel is
referred to as the Annular wheel (or) Annulus, and the smaller
wheel is called Pinion. The direction of rotation of the gear
wheels are the same.
(c) Rack – and – Pinion : Here, the pitch circle of the gear wheel is
a straight line (or) the radius of curvature of the pitch circle is
infinite. Such a gear wheel is called Rack. The smaller wheel, as
usual, called Pinion. This type of gearing is used to convert the
linear motion into rotary motion -- or -- vice – versa.
Gear Tooth Terminology
[Refer Fig.4(a) and (b)]

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 Fig.4
(1) Pitch Circle : An imaginary circle -- which, by pure rolling motion --
Would give the same motion as the actual gear.
(2) Pitch circle diameter (or) Pitch diameter (d) : The size of gear is
usually specified by the Pitch diameter (d) in mm.
(3) Pitch Point : The common point of contact between the pitch circles
of two mating gears.

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(4) Pitch Surface : This is the surface of the rolling discs, which
were replaced by the mating gears, at the pitch circle.
(5) Pitch Line : The line of contact of the pitch surfaces of two mating
gears.
(6) Pressure angle (or) Angle of Obliquity (φ) : The angle between
the common normal to the two mating gear teeth at the point of
contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. The standard
values for φ are 14.50 and 200.
(7) Addendum : The radial distance of a gear tooth from the pitch
circle to the top of the tooth.
(8) Dedendum : The radial distance of a gear tooth from the pitch
circle to the bottom of the tooth.
(9) Addendum Circle : The circle drawn through the top of the gear
teeth -- and -- which is concentric with the pitch circle.
(10) Dedendum Circle (or) Root Circle : The circle drawn through the
bottom of the gear teeth -- and -- which is concentric with the
pitch circle.
Root Circle diameter = Pitch circle diameter x cos φ.
(11) Circular Pitch (pc) : The distance measured on the circumference
of a pitch circle -- from a point of one gear tooth -- to a
corresponding point on the next tooth.
d
pc = , where ‘d’ is the pitch diameter and ‘T’ is number of
T
teeth on the gear wheel.
Note : The two meshing gear wheels should have the same
circular pitch for correct meshing.
 d1  d 2 d T d N
∴ pc = =  1 = 1 ; Also  π d1 N1 = π d2N2  1 = 2
T1 T2 d2 T2 d 2 N1
(12) Diametral Pitch (pd) : This is the ratio of the number of teeth to

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 the pitch cir cle diameter in mm.
T  d
∴ pd = =  ( pc = )
d pc T
d
(13) Module (m) : This is the inverse of diametral pitch  ∴ m = .
T
(14) Clearance : The radial distance from the bottom of the tooth in one
gear to the top of the meshing tooth in the mating gear.
(15) Clearance Circle : A circle passing through the top of the teeth in
the mating gear.
(16) Total Depth : The radial distance between the Addendum circle and
Dedendum circle of a gear.
∴ Total Depth = Addendum + Dedendum.
(17) Working Depth : The radial distance between the Addendum circle
and Clearance circle.
∴ Working Depth = Sum of addend of the two meshing gears.
(18) Tooth Thickness : The width of a gear tooth measured along its
pitch circle.
(19) Tooth Space : The width of space between two adjacent gear
teeth measured along its pitch circle.
(20) Face of Tooth : The surface of a gear tooth above the pitch surface.
(21) Top Land : The surface on the top of a gear tooth.
(22) Flank of Tooth :The surface of a gear tooth below the pitch surface.
(23) Face Width : The width of a gear tooth measured parallel to its axis.
(24) Profile : The curve formed by the face and flank of a gear tooth.
(25) Fillet Radius : The radius connecting the Root circle to the tooth
profile.
(26) Path of Contact : The curve traced by the point of contact of the
mating teeth -- from the beginning to the end of their engagement.
(27) Arc of Contact : The path followed by a point on either pitch line

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 of the mating gear teeth -- from the beginning to the end of their
engagement.
The first part of this -- from the beginning of engagement of the
mating gear teeth until the two teeth are in contact at the pitch
point  is termed as  the Arc of Approach.
The second part -- from the pitch point until the end of engagement
of the mating gear teeth  is termed as  the Arc of Recess.
Forms of Gear Teeth
1. Cycloidal teeth.
2. Involute teeth.
1. Cycloidal teeth : [Refer Fig.5(a), (b), and (c)]
A Cycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle
-- which rolls without slipping -- along a straight line, as shown in
Fig.5(a).
An Epicycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a
circle -- which rolls without slipping -- on the outside of a circular arc.
A Hypocloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a
circle -- which rolls without slipping -- on the inside of a circular arc.
An important aspect, which makes the cycloid suitable for the
profile of a gear tooth, is that the line joining the tracing point A to
the point of contact P between the rolling circle and the straight /
curved line is normal to the cycloid.
Cycloidal Profile : [Refer Fig.5(b)]
Let two circles X and Y -- with centers at O and Q respectively --

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Fig.5(a)

Fig.5(b)

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be in contact at the point P. A smaller circle Z with center at R is also
in contact with the circle X at P. Now, if all the three circles X, Y, and
Z turn about their centers -- and roll together without slipping -- then a
point A on the circle Z will trace a hypocycloid on X, and an epicycloid
on Y.
Thus, if the circle X turns clockwise through an angle α, then Y
and Z will turn clockwise through angles β and γ respectively. Now, if
we consider three points A, a, and a1 initially coinciding with the point P
(at the beginning of motion), then  the arcs PA, Pa, and Pa1 will be of
equal length -- and the tracing point A on the circle Z will describe the
portion aA of hypocycloid on X, and the portion a1A of epicycloid on Y.
Thus, A is the point of contact of the cycloids, and AP is the common
normal.
To transmit continuous motion from X to Y, a number of similar
pairs of cycloids are to spaced around the circumferences of X and Y
 so that the contact between the next pair begins before the contact
between the previous pair ends. Therefore, for maintain contact beyond P,
a 2nd generating circle Z1 in contact with the circle Y is considered. And
the tracing point B on Z1 traces the epicycloid portion Bb on X, and the
hypocycloid portion Bb1 on Y.
Construction of the Cycloidal tooth profile : [Refer Fig.5(c)]
 A point on the circle D will trace the flank of the gear tooth T1,
when D rolls without slipping on the inside of the pitch circle of
gear wheel 1.
 A point on the circle D will trace the face of the gear tooth T2,
when D rolls without slipping on the outside of the pitch circle of
gear wheel 2.
 Similarly, a point on the circle C will trace the flank of the gear
tooth T2, when C rolls without slipping on the inside of the pitch
circle of gear wheel 2.

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 Fig.5(c)
 And a point on the circle C will trace the face of the gear tooth
T1, when C rolls without slipping on the outside of the pitch circle
of gear wheel 1.
 The rolling circles C and D need not be of equal diameter.
 The common normal at the point of contact between the mating
cycloidal teeth always passes through the pitch point P. Therefore,
the Law of Gearing is satisfied by the profiles of the mating
cycloidal teeth, and hence a constant velocity ratio can be obtained.
Alternate method of constructing the Cycloidal Tooth Profile : [Fig.5(d)]

Fig.5(d)
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  The circle A, rolling on the outside of the pitch circle of a gear
tooth, generates an epicycloids, which forms the face portion of the
tooth profile.
 The circle A rolls, without slipping, to the right side.
 The circle B, which rolls without slipping to the left side, on the
inside of the pitch circle generates a hypocloid.
 This hypocloid forms the flank profile of the cycloidal gear tooth.
Construction of the Involute tooth Profile : (Refer Fig.6)

Fig.6
Definition of Involute :
The locus of a point on a straight line -- which rolls without
slipping -- on the circumference of a circle -- or -- the locus of a point
on a cord, which is held tout, and unwound from a cylinder.
Constructing the Involute Profile : (Refer Fig.6)

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  Divide the base circle into a number of equal parts -- starting
from the point A -- like A1, 12, 23, ... , etc.,
 Draw tangents to the base circle at the points 1, 2, 3, ... , etc.,
 Set off lengths 1a, 2b, 3c, .... , etc., (from the points 1, 2, 3, ... , etc.,)
equal to the arc lengths of 1A, 2A, 3A, ... , etc., along the tangents.
 Join A, a, b, c, ... , etc., by a smooth curve.
 This is the required Involute curve.
On the involute curve, if a tangent is drawn at any point, say d to
the curve, it will be perpendicular to the corresponding generating line,
i.e., 4d. Therefore, the line 4d will become normal to the Involute. As a
corollary, the normal to the involute at any point will be tangent to the
base circle.
Law of Gearing -- Condition for Constant Velocity Ratio of Toothed
Wheels : (Refer Fig.7)

Fig.7
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  Consider the two portions 1 and 2 -- one on the gear wheel 1,
and the other on the gear wheel 2.
 The portions 1 and 2 are in contact at the point Q.
 The gear wheels 1 and 2 are rotating in opposite sense to each
other -- about the fixed centers O1 and O2 -- and with angular
velocities ω1 and ω2 -- respectively.
 N1N2 is the common normal to both the curves 1 and 2, drawn at
the point of contact Q.
 The line O1O2 -- which is the line of centers -- cuts N1N2 at the
point P.
 Further, the lines O1M and O2N are drawn such that they are at
right angles to the common normal N1N2.
Now  Q is a point common to both the wheels.
∴ When Q is considered as a point on the wheel 1  it moves in the
direction QC  which is perpendicular to O1Q.
But  when Q is considered as a point on the wheel 2  it moves in
the direction QD  which is perpendicular to O2Q.
Thus  v1  is the velocity of Q as a point on the wheel 1 -- and --
v2  is the velocity of Q as a point on the wheel 2.
Now  if the teeth on the wheels are to remain in contact → then,
The component of v1 along MN = The component of v2 along MN.
i.e., v1 cos α = v2 cos β -- (or) -- (ω1  O1Q) cos α = (ω2  O2Q) cos β.
O1M O N ω O N
∴ ω1  O1Q  = ω2  O2Q  2  ω1  O1M = ω2  O2N  1 = 2 -- (1)
O1Q O 2Q ω 2 O1M
O2 N O2 P
Now  from the similar triangles O1MP and O2NP  = -- (2)
O1M O1P
ω1 O 2 N O 2 P
∴ = = ------------------------------- (3)
ω 2 O1M O1P
Thus, the angular velocities of wheels 1 and 2 are in a ratio which is
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inversely proportional to the ratio of distances of the point ‘P’ from their
centers O1 and O2 -- (or) -- The common normal to the two surfaces at
the point of contact Q intersects the line of centers O 1O2 at a point P,
which divides the line O1O2 inversely as the ratio of their angular
velocities.
ω 
∴ To have a constant velocity ratio  1  for all positions of the wheels,
 ω2 
P must be a fixed point for both the wheels.
This fixed point P is called the Pitch point.
In other words  the common normal at the point of contact between a
pair of teeth must always pass through the Pitch point  This is the
fundamental condition to be satisfied while designing the profiles for the
teeth of gear wheels.
This is called ‘The Law of Gearing’.
Note :
(1) If the shape of one gear tooth profile is chosen arbitrarily, and the
profile of the mating gear tooth is designed to satisfy the law of gearing
 then the 2nd gear tooth is said to be Conjugate to the 1st gear tooth.
However, conjugate teeth are not common  because of the difficulty in
manufacturing them, hence higher cost of production.
(2) If the pitch circle diameters of the mating gear wheels are d1 and d2
 d2 
N1 ω1 O2 P  2  d 2 T2
 then      .
N 2 ω2 O1P  d1  d1 T1
 
2
Velocity of Sliding of Gear Teeth :
 Sliding between a pair of gear teeth in contact at Q occurs along
the common tangent TT to the teeth profile curves .
 The velocity of one gear tooth relative to its mating gear tooth
along the common tangent at their point of contact is called the

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 Velocity of Sliding.
Now  The velocity of point Q along TT → as a point on the gerar
wheel 1 → is represented by EC.
EC QC v
From the similar triangles QEC and O1MQ    1  ω1 .
MQ O1Q O1Q
∴ EC = ω1 .MQ
Similarly  the velocity of point Q along TT→ as a point on the gear
wheel 2 → is represented by ED.
ED QD v
Again, from the similar triangles QED and O2NQ    2  ω2 .
QN O2 Q O2 Q
∴ ED = ω 2 .QN
Now  let vs = Velocity of sliding at Q.
∴ vs = (ED – EC) = ( ω 2 .QN - ω1 .MQ) = ω 2 (QP + PN) – ω1(MP – QP)
= (ω1 + ω 2 ).QP + ( ω 2 .PN - ω1.MP).
ω1 O2 P PN
But  From the similar triangles O2NP and O1MP    .
ω2 O1P MP
∴ ω1 .MP = ω 2 .PN  ∴ vs = (ω1 + ω 2 ).QP
Thus, vs is directly proportional to distance of the point of contact Q
from the pitch point P.
Centre distance between the mating Gear wheels : (Refer Fig.8)
 Let O1 and O2  be the fixed centres of base circles of the two
mating gear wheels -- and -- AB and A′B′ be the involute profiles
of the corresponding gear teeth.
 Q is the point of contact between AB and A′B′ at a given instant.
 QM and QN are the tangents drawn at Q to the two base circles.
 TT is the common tangent to the two involute profiles AB and
A′B′.
 ∴ QN is normal to the involute profile A′B′ -- and -- hence normal
to the common tangent TT.
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 Similarly  QM is normal to the involute profile AB -- and --
hence normal to the common tangent TT.

Fig.8
 Thus  both QM and QN are normal to the same line TT --
hence MQN is a single (straight) line, and it is the common
normal to the two involute profiles AB and A′B′.
 ∴ The normal to an involute at a given point is the tangent drawn
from that point to the base circle.
 Thus  the common normal MN at Q to the involute profiles is
also common tangent to the corresponding base circles.
 Further, it can be seen that the common normal MN drawn at Q
intersects the line of centres O1O2 at the fixed point P -- which is
the Pitch point.

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  ∴ The involute profile teeth satisfy the fundamental law of gearing
-- hence a constant velocity ratio can be obtained.
O1M O1P ω2
Now  from the similar triangles O2NP and O1MP  = = 
O2 N O2P ω1
(from the law of gearing).
∴ Radii of the base circles  i.e., O1M and O2N are given by :
O1M = O1P cos φ -- and -- O2N = O2P cos φ  where φ is the Pressure
angle (or) Angle of Obliquity.
O1M O2 N (O1M+O2 N)
Further  the centre distance O1O2= (O1P+O2P) =  
cos cos cos
Length of Path of Contact : (Refer Fig.9)

Fig.9 -
Consider a pinion rotating clockwise driving a gear wheel. The
contact between the two gears begins at K (i.e., at the point where the
addendum circle of the gear wheel meets the common normal MN), and

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ends at the point L (i.e., at the point where the addendum circle of the
pinion meets the common normal).
MN  is the common normal drawn through the points of contact K / L
-- and -- it is also the common tangent to the base circles.
∴ Length of the Path of Contact = KL = (KP + PL)
KP = Path of Approach -- and -- PL = Path of Recess.
Now  From the ∟ triangle O2KN 

KN =  O K -O N 
2
2
2
2
=  O K -O P
2
2
2
2
cos2   = R A
2
- R 2 cos2   .
And -- PN = O2P sin φ = R sin φ .
∴ Path of Approach = KP = (KN – PN) = R A
2
- R 2 cos2   - R sin φ .
Similarly  From the ∟ triangle O1ML 

ML = O L - O M  = O L - O P
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
cos2   = r A
2
- r 2 cos2   .

And -- MP = O1P sin φ = r sin φ .

∴ Path of Recess = PL = (ML – MP) =  r - r cos   - r sin φ .
A
2 2 2

∴ Path of Contact = KL = (KP + PL) =  R - R cos   +  r - r

A
2 2 2
A
2 2
cos2  
- (R + r) sin φ.
Length of Arc of Contact : (Refer Fig.10 and Fig.11))
By definition  Arc of Contact is the path traced by a point on the
pitch circle from the beginning to the end of engagement of a pair of
gear teeth -- or --

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 Fig.10 – Arc of Contact
the distance travelled by a point on either pitch circle of the mating
gear wheels during the period of contact of a pair of gear teeth.
GH, JK, and DL  are the positions of the same involute at different
instants of time.
GH  The position of involute at the beginning of engagement.
JK  The position of involute at the pitch point.
DL  The position of involute at the end of engagement .
P′PP′′  The Arc of Contact = Arc of Approach + Arc of Recess.
(P′P) (PP′′)
Now  let the time to traverse the Arc of Approach = ta -- and --
the time to traverse the Arc of Recess = tr .
Then  Arc of Approach (P′P) = (Tangential velocity of P)  ta = (ω.r).ta
t t
= ω  (r cos φ)  a = (Tangential velocity of H)  a  ( AH = AF)
cos cos
Arc(HK)  Arc(FK)  Arc(FH)
= = .
cos cos 
Now  Arc FK = Path FP  (the point P is on the generator FP which
rolls on the base circle FHK to generate the involute PK).
Similarly  Arc FH = Path FC.
(FP - FC) CP Path of Approach
∴ Arc of Approach =   .
cos cos cos

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Now  Arc of Recess = PP′′ = (Tangential velocity of P)  tr = (ω.r).tr
t t
= ω  (r cos φ)  r = (Tangential velocity of K)  r  ( AH = AF)
cos  cos 
tr Arc(KL)  Arc(FL)  Arc(FK)
= (Tangential velocity of K) x = =
cos  cos  cos 
(FD - FP) PD Path of Re cess
=   .
cos  cos  cos 
CP PD CD
∴ Arc of Contact = P′PP′′ = (P′P + PP′′) = + =
cos cos  cos 

Path of Contact
= .
cos
Alternate approach : (Refer Fig.11)

Fig.11
The Arc of Contact is the arc EPF (or) arc GPH.
Now  consider the arc GPH  This is divided into {arc GP + arc PH}
Arc GP  is the Arc of approach ;Arc PH  is the Arc of Recess.

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The angle subtended by the arc GP at the centre O1 of gear wheel 1 is
termed as the Angle of Approach -- and -- the angle subtended by the
arc PH at the centre O2 of gear wheel 2 is the Angle of Recess.
Path of Approach KP  KP 
Arc of Approach GP = =   cos   .
cos cos  GP 
Path of Re cess PL
Arc of recess PH = = .
cos  cos 
KP PL
∴ Length of the Arc of Contact = (Arc GP + Arc PH) = +
cos cos 
(KP + PL) KL Path of Contact
= = = .
cos  cos  cos
Interference in Involute Gears : (Refer Fig.12)
MN  is common tangent to the two base circles.
KL  Path of contact between the two mating gear teeth.

Fig.12

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  Now  if the radius of addendum circle of the pinion is increased
to O1N  then, the point of contact L moves to N.
 If the radius is further increased  then L will move on to the
inside of the base circle of the wheel  but the point of contact
will not lie on the involute profile of the gear tooth on wheel.
 This results in  the tip of the gear tooth on pinion will undercut
(or dig out the flank of the wheel tooth) the gear tooth on the
wheel at its root -- thereby removing part of the involute profile of
the gear tooth on the wheel.
 This effect  is termed as Interference between the mating gear
teeth.
Definition : The phenomenon of the tip of a gear tooth undercutting the
root of its mating gear tooth  is called ‘Interference’.
 Similarly  if the radius of addendum circle of wheel is increased
beyond O2M  then, the tip of the gear tooth on wheel causes
interference with the tooth on pinion.
 ∴ The points M and N  are called ‘Interference Points’.
 Thus  Interference is avoided  if the path of contact does not
extend beyond the Interference points.
 ∴The limiting value of radius of the addendum circle of pinion = O1N.
-&- the limiting value of radius of the addendum circle of wheel = O2M.
 ∴ To avoid Interference  the point of contact between the two
mating gear teeth should always lie on the involute profiles of both
the gear teeth.
 In other words  the addendum circles of the two mating gears
should the common tangent (to the two base circles) between the
points of tangency (or) the interference points.

25
Effect of changing the centre distance on the Velocity ratio in Involute
Gears : (Refer Fig.13)

Fig.13
 Suppose the centre of rotation of one of the gear wheels is
changed, say from O1 to O1′.
 ∴ The point of contact between the mating gear teeth at a given
instant will shift from Q to Q′.
 Draw common normal M′N′ from Q′ tangential to the modified
base circles.
 The point of intersection of M′N′ with O1′O2 is P′  which is the
new pitch point.
O1M O1P
 Now  from the similar triangles O1MP and O2NP  = .
O2 N O2 P
 Similarly  from the similar triangles O1′ M′ P′ and O2 N′ P′ 
O1' M' O1' P'
= .
O2 N' O2 P '

26
  But  O1M = O1′ M′ -- and -- O2N = O2 N′  (the LHS and RHS
in either equation are the radii of the same base circle).
O1P O1' P'
 ∴ =  Thus, if the distance between the centres of
O2 P O2 P '
rotation of the mating gear wheels is changed -- within limits --
the Velocity ratio remains unchanged  However, the pressur
angle changes from φ to φ′.
 Thus  the possibility to change the centre distance -- without
destroying the correct tooth action (i.e., without violating the law
of gearing) -- is an important advantage with involute profile of
gear teeth.
Important Characteristics of Involute profile gear teeth :
1. The contact between a pair of mating gear teeth starts when the tip
of the tooth of driven wheel touches the flank of the tooth of
driving wheel. The contact ends when the tip of the tooth on the
driving wheel touches the flank of the tooth on driven wheel.
2. The points of contact between a pair of mating gear teeth at every
instant lie on the line of action -- which is the common tangent to
the base circles of the two mating gear wheels.
3. If the direction of rotation of gear wheels is reversed, the points of
contact lie on the other common tangent to the base circles.
4. The initial contact between a pair of mating gear teeth occurs at
the point where the addendum circle of driven wheel intersects the
line of action. The final contact occurs at the point where the
addendum circle of driving wheel intersects the line of action.
To find the Number of pairs of gear teeth in contact at any given
instant of time :
Arc of contact = Length of the pitch circle traversed by a point on it
during the mating of a pair of gear teeth.
27
∴ All the teeth lying in between the arc of contact P′ PP′′ on a gear
wheel will be meshing with the teeth on the other wheel (Refer Fig.10).
Arc length PP
∴ Number of gear teeth within the arc P′ PP′′ = n = .
Circular pitch
Path of Contact 1
∴n=  .
cos  pc
For continuous transmission of motion at any given instant of time  at
least one tooth of one gear wheel should be in contact with another
tooth on the mating gear wheel.
∴ n is always > 1.
If n lies between 1 and 2  the number of pairs of gear teeth in contact
at any given instant of time will be < 1 -- and -- > 2.
Similarly  if n lies between 2 and 3  the number of pairs of gear
teeth in contact at any given instant of time will be < 2 -- and -- > 3,
.... and so on.
e.g., if n = 1.6  it means that  one pair of teeth is always in contact
between the mating gear wheels -- and -- two pairs are in contact for 60%
of the time during their engagement.
To find the Minimum number of teeth to avoid Interference : (Fig.12)
Maximum value of the addendum radius of gear wheel = O2M.
Now  from the ∟ triangle O2NM  O2M2 = O2N2 + MN2
= O2N2 + (MP + PN)2 = (R cos φ)2 + (r sin φ + R sin φ)2
= R2 cos2 φ + r2 sin2 φ + R2 sin2 φ + 2 r R sin2 φ
= R2 (cos2 φ + sin2 φ) + r2 sin2 φ + 2 r R sin2 φ = R2 + (r2 + 2 r R) sin2 φ
1 2   r 2 2r  
φ] = R 1   2   .sin  
2
= R2 [1 + 2
(r + 2 r R) sin 2 2
R  R R 

 r r    r r  2 
= R2 1  .  2 .sin 2    ∴ O2M = R . 1 
 R R .  2  .sin 
 R R      

28
∴ Maximum value of Addendum of the Wheel = (O2M – O2P)
   r r      r  r  
 2   2 
=  R  1  .  2  .sin     R  = R.   1  .  2  .sin     1
   R R        R  R    

.Now  Suppose the adopted value for the addendum of the wheel is
equal to  (aw  module), where aw is addendum coefficient (aw), then
 the addendum of wheel should be < (aw)max  to avoid Interference .
   r  r  
 2 
i.e.,   1  .  2  .sin     1 ≥ (aw  m)
   R  R    
d D 2r 2R mT mt
But  m =     R  ;r  .
t T t T 2 2

mT    t  t    
∴ .   1  .   2  .sin     1 ≥ (aw  m)
2

2    T  T
-- (or) --
    

T    1  1     T

.  1  .   2  .sin 2
    1 ≥ aw  where G =
2    G  G
= Gear Ratio.
     t

2 aw
∴T ≥  In the limit 
   1  1    
  1  .  2  .sin 2     1
   G  G    

2 aw
Tmin =  where Tmin is the
   1  1    
  1  .  2  .sin 2     1
   G  G    

Minimum number of teeth on the Gear wheel to avoid Interference.

Similarly  The minimum number of teeth on pinion to avoid
Tmin
Interference = tmin = .
G
Interference between Rack and Pinion : (Refer Fig.14)

29
 Fig.14
A Rack is a gear wheel of infinite pitch circle radius.
Now  let PN be the line of action  The engagement of rack with the
pinion tooth begins at the point L.
To avoid Interference  Maximum addendum of the Rack = GN.
Now  let the adopted value of addendum of the rack = ar.m  where ar
is the Addendum coefficient of the rack.
Now  from the ∟ triangle GPN, GN = PN sin φ = (r sin φ).sin φ = r sin2 φ.
mt
∴ GN = .sin2 φ.
2
To avoid Interference  GN ≥ ar.m -- or -- ar.m < GN.
mt 2ar 2ar
i.e., . sin2 φ ≥ ar.m -- or -- t ≥  ∴ tmin = .
2 sin φ
2
sin 2 φ
tmin is the minimum number of teeth on pinion to avoid Interference.
Under – Cutting : [Refer Fig.15(a) and (b)]

30
 Fig.15(a)

Fig.15(b)
The situation where a part of the addendum of a pinion falls inside
the base circle is shown in Fig.15(a). The profile of the tooth inside the
base circle is radial. If the addendum of the mating gear exceeds its
limiting value, then it interferes with the dedendum of the pinion,
resulting in the two mating gears getting locked.
However, if a cutting rack with similar teeth is used to cut the
teeth in pinion [see Fig.15(b)], then it will remove that portion of the
pinion tooth which would have interfered with the gear {as shown earlier
in Fig.15(a)}. A gear in which the material is removed like this  to
avoid interference, is said to be undercut, and this process is termed as
Undercutting. When a gear meshes with such undercut pinion,
interference does not occur. However, undercutting is not required if the
gear / pinion teeth are designed to avoid interference.
Methods of Eliminating (or) Reducing Interference :

31
1. The part of the flank of pinion tooth which lies within the base
circle, and the part of the face of gear tooth which engages with it
may be made cycloidal, instead of involute profile in shape.
Effect : The modified involute profile shape or the composite
profile shape (which is partly involute and partly cycloidal) for the
meshing gear teeth has the following disadvantages :
(a) Difficulty in manufacture of the profile shape.
(b) For the cycloidal portions of profiles of the mating gear teeth,
the path of contact includes parts of the rolling circles  hence
correct gearing is obtained only if the centre distance between
the mating gear wheels is maintained exactly  thus the
advantage with regard to changing the centre distance (albeit
within limits) which lies with the involute profile is lost thereby.
2. The addenda of the teeth on the gear wheel and pinion may be
modified  the addendum of the wheel is reduced by the amount
necessary to avoid interference -- and -- that of the pinion is
correspondingly increased.
Effect : (Refer Fig.12)  To avoid interference, the limiting
value of addendum of the wheel is GM -- and -- that of the
pinion is HN. Further, HN > GM  Therefore, if the addendum of
wheel is equal to the addendum of the pinion (as per the standard
practice), since GM < HN, the addendum of the gear wheel would
become the deciding factor for interference to occur or otherwise.
Therefore, to avoid interference  it will be necessary to reduce
the addendum of wheel -- and -- increase the addendum of pinion
by the corresponding amount  so as to retain the same total
working depth.
3. The centre distance between the two mating gear wheels (having
teeth of involute profile) may be made larger than the standard

32
 centre distance  This results in increasing the pressure angle, and
thereby avoiding interference.
Effect : For the wheels of involute profile gear teeth  the
centre distance between the mating gear wheels may be changed
(within limits) -- without destroying the correctness of tooth action.
This has the following advantages :
(a) The radii of addendum circle and dedendum circle of pinion can
be increased  so as to increase the total working depth.
(b) The profile on one of the sides of pinion teeth is shifted
without altering its shape -- until -- it touches the next wheel
tooth profile  in order to eliminate the backlash (i.e., improper
or incorrect meshing), which results from changing the centre
distance between the mating gear wheels.
The above two aspects together -- in effect -- help to increase the
centre distance beyond the standard value for a pair of gear
wheels.
Angle of Action (δ) : The angle turned by a gear from the start of
engagement to the end of engagement between a pair of teeth, i.e., the
angles subtended by the arcs of contact of the wheel (or pinion) at the
centre of the wheel (or pinion) respectively.
∴ δ = (α + β)  where α = Angle of approach -- & -- β = Angle of Recess.
Now  δ for wheel ≠ δ for pinion.
Arc of contact  3600 Arc of contact  3600
δ=  .
Pitch circle circumference d
Contact Ratio : If γ is the Pitch angle (i.e., the angle subtended by the
circular pitch at the centre of the wheel)  then the Contact ratio is :
Angle of Action δ 3600  pc
Contact Ratio = =  γ = .
Pitch angle γ d
Worked Examples
33
1. Two mating involute gears, each having 200 pressure angle are in mesh
with each other. The number of teeth on pinion is 20, and the gear
ratio is 2. Module of the gears is 12 mm, and the pinion rotates at
250 rpm clockwise. If the addendum on each wheel is such that the
paths of approach and recess are half of the maximum possible length,
find the velocity of the point of contact along the surface of each
mating gear tooth at a given instant when the tip of a tooth on the
pinion is in contact with the wheel. Also find the following :
(a) The velocity of sliding at this instant.
(b) The maximum velocity of sliding during approach and recess.
(c) The lengths of path of contact and arc of contact.
(d) The addenda of pinion and gear.
(e) The number of pairs of teeth in contact, and the angle of rotation
of the pinion when any one pair of gear teeth is in contact.
(f) The normal force between the teeth, assuming that  the pinion
transmits 15 HP, there are two pairs of teeth in contact, and the
total force is divided equally between the two pairs, and friction is
neglected.
Solution : (Refer Fig.1-1)
E is the point of contact of the tip of the tooth on the pinion.
∠ PAE = α ; ∠ EBJ = β.
ω1 = Angular velocity of pinion; ω2 = Angular velocity of gear wheel.
∴ At the point of contact E  Linear velocity of pinion = ω1.AE - and -
Linear velocity of gear wheel = ω2.BE.
For the two mating gear surfaces to be in contact with each other, the
velocity components along the common normal must be equal.
i.e., v1 cos (α+φ) = v2 cos β.
EP AE AE AE
Now  from the triangle AEP, = = = .
sin α sin (APE) sin (90+φ) cos φ

34
 Fig.1-1
Path of Recess r
i.e., = A  where rA is the addendum circle radius
sin α cos φ
of pinion.
T
Given that : t = 20; and Gear ratio = G = = 2; ∴ T = 40;
t
Pressure angle = φ = 200.
n T n×t 250  20
Speed of pinion =n= 250 rpm    2  ∴ N=  = 125 rpm.
N t T 40
2 n 2  250 2 N 2  125
∴ ω1 =  = 26.2 rad/s; ω2 =  = 13.1 rad/s.
60 60 60 60
D d
Module of the gears = m = 12 mm = =  ∴ D = 480 mm; d = 240 mm.
T t
∴ R = 240 mm; r = 120 mm.
Now  the paths of approach and recess will be maximum  when
interference is just avoided.
∴ Maximum value of path of approach = r sin φ = 120  sin 200 = 41 mm.

∴ The path of approach = R A

2
- R 2 cos2   - R sin φ = 20.5 mm.

35
(or) R A
2
- R 2 cos2   = 20.5 + R sin φ = 20.5 + 240  sin 200 = 20.5 + 82.1 =

102.6 mm.
∴  R A 2 - R 2 cos 2 φ  = (102.6)2 = 10526.8  ∴ RA2 = 10526.8 + R2 cos2 φ

RA2 = 10526.8 + (240)2  cos2 200 = 10526.8 + 50862.1 = 61388.9 mm2.

∴ RA = 247.8 mm = 24.78 cm.
Similarly  Maximum value of path of recess = R sin φ = 240  sin 200 =
82.1 mm.

∴ The path of recess = r

A
2
- r 2 cos2   - r sin φ = 41.05 mm = 4.105 cm

∴ r
A
2
- r 2 cos2   = 41.05 + r sin φ = 41.05 + 120  sin 200 = 82.1.

 
∴ rA 2 - r 2 cos 2  = (82.1)2 = 6739.2  ∴ rA2 = 6739.2 + r2 cos2 φ = 6739.2 +

(120)2  cos2 200 = 6739.2 + 12715.5 = 19454.72  ∴ rA= 139.48 mm  14 cm.

Path of Recess r 4.105 14
∴ = A  =  ∴ sin α = 0.2755  α = 160.
sin α cos φ sin α cos 20 0

EP BP R
Similarly  from the triangle PEB, = = .
sin(φ-β) sin(90+β) cosβ
EP sin(φ-β) 41.05 (sin φ.cos β-cos φ.sin β)
∴   = 0.171 =
R cosβ 240 cosβ
(sin 200.cos β-cos 200 .sin β)
= = (sin 200 -cos 200 .tanβ)
cos β
= (0.342 – 0.934  tan β).
∴ tan β = (0.342 – 0.171) ÷ 0.934 = 0.183  β = 10.40.
Now  the velocity of the point of contact along the surface of the
pinion tooth, i.e., perpendicular to the common normal = v1 sin (α+φ) =
ω1.r. sin (α+φ) = 26.2  120  sin (16+20)0 = 1848 cm/s = 18.48 m/s.

36
Similarly  the velocity of the point of contact along the surface of the
wheel tooth, i.e., perpendicular to the common normal = v2 sin β =ω2.R. sin β
= 13.1  240  sin 10.40 = 568 cm/s = 5.68 m/s.
(a) The velocity of sliding at this instant = [v1 sin (α+φ) - v2 sin β]
= (18.48 – 5.68) = 12.8 m/s.
(b) Maximum velocity of sliding = (ω1 + ω2)  Maximum distance of the
point of contact from the pitch point
r sin φ
∴ Maximum velocity of sliding during approach =  (ω1 +ω2 )
2
120  sin 200
= (26.2  13.1) = 806.5 mm/s = 0.81 m/s.
2
R sin φ
Maximum velocity of sliding during recess =  (ω1 +ω2 )
2
240  sin 200
= (26.2  13.1) = 1613 mm/s = 1.61 m/s.
2
r sin φ R sin φ
(c) Length of Path of Contact = +
2 2
120  sin 200 240  sin 200
= + = (20.52 + 41.04) = 61.56 mm = 6.2 cm.
2 2
Path of contact Path of contact 6.2
Length of Arc of Contact = = =
cos φ
0
cos 20 0.934
= 6.6 cm.
(d) Addendum of pinion = (rA – r) = (14 – 12) = 2 cm.
Addendum of gear wheel = (RA – R) = (24.78 – 24) = 0.78 cm.
Arc of contact
(e) Number of pairs of teeth in contact = n =
pc
Arc of contact 6.6
= = = 1.75.
d     24 
   
 t   20 
The angle of rotation of the pinion when any one pair of gear teeth
Arc of contact  3600
is in contact = Angle of action = δ = = 31.50.
d

37
 HP×4500 15×4500
(f) Torque on the pinion = Tp = = = 43 kg-m.
2πN 2π  250
T 43
∴ Tangential force on pinion = ft* = p = = 358 kg.
r 0.12
ft* is divided equally between the two pairs of teeth.
f t * 358 f 179
∴ ft =  = 179 kg  ∴ fn = t = = 192 kg.
2 2 cos  cos 200

2. Two spur gear wheels have 30 teeth each of involute profile. The
circular pitch is 25 mm, and pressure angle is 200.. Determine the
addendum of the wheels if the arc of contact is twice the circular
pitch.
Solution :
πd  D
Given that : t = T = 30; pc =  = 25 mm; φ = 200.
t T
25  30
∴d=D= = 238.7 mm; ∴ r = R = 119.4 mm;

Arc of contact = 2  25 = 50 mm.
Path of contact = ( Ra 2  R2 cos2  )  (ra 2  r 2 cos2  )  ( R  r )sin 

= ( Ra 2  (119.4)2 cos2 200 )  (ra 2  (119.4)2 cos2 200 )  (2 119.4)sin 200

Since r = R  ra = Ra 
∴ Path of contact = 2  ( Ra 2  (119.4)2 cos2 200 )  2  (119.4)sin 200

= 2  ( Ra 2 14256.4  0.883)  238.8  0.342 = 2  ( Ra 2 12588.4)  81.67 mm.

Path of contact 2  ( Ra  12588.4)  81.67

2

∴ Arc of contact =   = 50 mm.

cos  cos 200

38
∴ 2  ( Ra 2  12588.4)  81.67 = 50  cos 200 = 50  0.94 = 46.98.

( Ra 2 12588.4) = (46.98 + 81.67)÷2 = 64.33  (Ra2 – 12588.4) = (64.33)2 =

4138  Ra2 = 4138 + 12588.4 = 16726.4  ∴ Ra = 129.33 mm.

∴ R + Addendum = 119.4 + Addendum = 129.33 
∴ Addendum on each gear wheel = (129.33 – 119.4) = 9.93 mm.
3. Two 200 pressure angle involute gears in mesh have a module of 10
mm, and the addendum is equal to one module. The larger gear has
50 teeth, and the pinion has 13 teeth. Does interference occur? If it
occurs, to what value should the pressure angle be changed to avoid
interference?
Solution :
d D
Given that : φ = 200; m = = = 10 mm; Addendum = 1 module = 10 mm;
t T
T = 50; t = 13;

mT   tt   
To avoid Interference  aw (max) =  1    2  sin 2    1 
2   T  T   

where aw is the ‘Maximum value of Addendum of the gear wheel’.

10  50   13  13   
∴ aw (max) =  1    2  sin 2 200   1 = 250   1  0.5876  0.117  1
2   50  50     

= 8.445 mm ˂ m (=10 mm)  ∴ Interference shall occur.

To avoid Interference  aw (max) shall be ≥ m.

10  50   13  13   
∴ aw (max) =  1    2  sin 2  '  1 = 10
2   50  50   

 250   1  0.5876 sin2    1 = 10   1  0.5876 sin2    1 =0.04 

   

 1  0.5876 sin2    = 1.04  (1+0.5876 sin2 φ′) = (1.04)2 = 1.082

 

∴ 0.5876 sin2 φ′ = 0.082  sin2 φ′ = 0.1389  sin φ′ = 0.37265  φ′ = 21.880.

∴ To avoid Interference  The pressure angle must be changed to 21.880.

39
4. A rack is being driven by an 18 – teeth pinion of involute profile and
120 mm pitch circle diameter. The addendum of both pinion and rack
is 6 mm. (i) Find the least pressure angle required to avoid interference.
(ii) With this pressure angle, find the length of arc of contact. (iii) Also
Find the minimum number of teeth in contact at a time.
Solution :
Given that : t = 18; d = 120 mm; Addendum of pinion / rack = 6 mm.
d 120 6
(i) Module =m = = = 6.67 mm  ∴ Addendum coefficient= ar = = 0.9.
t 18 6.67
2a 2a 2  0.9
To avoid Interference  t ≥ 2r  (or) sin2 φ ≥ r = = 0.1.
sin  t 18

∴ sin φ = 0.316  ∴ φ = 18.4350.

(ii) Path of contact =

Addendum of rack
cos 
 ra
2
 r 2 cos 2    r sin 

Now  ra = (r + Addendum) = 60 + 6 = 66 mm.

∴ Path of contact =
6
cos(18.4350 )
  66 2
 602  cos2 18.4350   60  sin18.4350

= 6.325 + 33.407 – 18.974 = 20.76 mm.

Path of contact 20.76
∴ Arc of contact = = = 21.88 mm.
cos  cos18.4350
Arc of contact 21.88
(iii) Number of pairs of teeth in contact at a time= n = =
Circular pitch m
21.88
∴n= = 1.045  1 pair of teeth (or) 2 teeth.
  6.67
Summary
A friction wheel with Teeth cut on it is termed as a Toothed
Wheel (or) Gear. The main advantage of gear drives over the other
forms of drives is that this is a positive drive, and thereby transmits a
constant velocity ratio. Gears are classified as Spur gears, Helical,
Spiral, Bevel, and Worm gears. There are two forms of gear teeth
known as the Involute and Cycloidal profiles. Expressions for the

40
law of gearing for constant velocity ratio of toothed wheels, the
velocity of sliding of gear teeth, path of contact, and arc of contact for
involute profile gear teeth are derived, from first principles. The
phenomenon of ‘Interference’ in Involute gears, and Interference
between involute rack and pinion are explained, and the methods of
avoiding / reducing it have been discussed. What is ‘Under – cutting’,
and why it is done. Further, what is ‘Under – cutting’, and why it is
done, is also explained.
QUIZ
1. The main advantage of gear drives over the other forms of drives is
(a) it forms a higher pair between the mating gear teeth
(b) it is a modified form of friction discs
(c) it is a positive drive, transmitting a constant velocity ratio
(d) it does not give rise to any thrust force (c)
2. The purpose of cutting projections (teeth) on two mating friction discs
is
(a) To avoid slipping (b) to avoid creep
(c) to reduce interference (d) to avoid under-cutting (a)
3. Which of the following gears are used to connect two non–intersecting,
and non – parallel shafts?
(a) Helical gears (b) Spiral gears (c) Bevel gears (d) Spur gears (b)
4. A helical gear which is made of a pair of helical gears secured
together, one with right – hand helix and the other with left – hand helix,
is known as
(a) skew spur gear (b) skew bevel gear
(c) mitre gear (d) herringbone gear (d)
5. A gear wheel, which has the radius of curvature of its pitch circle as
infinite, is called a

41
 (a) mitre gear (b) pinion (c) skew gear (d) rack (d)
6. The size of a gear is usually specified by its
(a) pitch circle diameter (b) number of teeth
(c) module pitch (d) diametral pitch (a)
7. Which of the following relations is correct for a gear tooth of involute
profile? (φ = pressure angle)
(a) Pitch Circle diameter = Root circle diameter x cos φ.
(b) Root Circle diameter = Pitch circle diameter x cos φ.
(c) Pitch Circle diameter = Root circle diameter x sin φ.
(d) Root Circle diameter = Pitch circle diameter x sin φ. (b)
8. With the usual notations of gear tooth terminology, which of the
following relations is not correct?
d
(a) pc = (b) Total Depth = Addendum + Dedendum
T
T Path of contact
(c) m = (d) Arc of contact = (c)
d cos 

9. Which of the following is not a reason as to why cycloidal profile is

not commonly used for gear teeth?
(a) Pressure angle is constant throughout the engagement
(b) Requires exact centre distance
(c) Operation is less smooth than in involute gears
(d) Difficult to manufacture as compared to the involute gears (a)
10. If the shape of one gear tooth profile is chosen arbitrarily, and the
profile of the mating gear tooth is designed to satisfy the law of
gearing, such gear teeth are known as
(a) skew teeth (b) conjugate teeth
(c) involute teeth (d) heeringbone teeth (b)
11. The velocity of one gear tooth relative to its mating gear tooth along
the common tangent at their point of contact is called the

42
 (a) velocity of sliding (b) pitch line velocity
(c) velocity of rubbing (d) tangential velocity (a)
12. The common normal at the point of contact to the mating involute
profiles is also common tangent to the corresponding
(a) addendum circles (b) pitch circles
(c) base circles (d) root circles (c)
13. The distance travelled by a point on either pitch circle of the mating
gear wheels during the period of contact of a pair of gear teeth is
termed as the
(a) path of contact (b) arc of contact
(c) path of approach (d) arc of approach (b)
14. The tip of the gear tooth on pinion digging out the flank of the gear
tooth on the wheel at its root, thereby removing part of the involute
profile of the gear tooth on the wheel, is known as
(a) under – cutting (b) conjugation
(c) change of pressure angle (d) interference (d)
15. Which of the following is not a correct method of eliminating the
interference between mating gear teeth?
(a) making the profiles of mating parts of the gear teeth cycloidal
(b) modifying the addenda of the teeth on the gear wheel and pinion
(c) modifying the centre distance between the two mating gear wheels
(d) modifying the pressure angle of the mating gear wheels (d)
GLOSSARY
Gear : A friction wheel with teeth cut on it.
Spur gears : Gears whose teeth are parallel to the axis of shafts, and
are used to connect two parallel and coplanar shafts.
Helical gears : Gears whose teeth are inclined to the axis of the gear
wheel, and are used to connect two parallel and coplanar
shafts.

43
Double Helical gears : A pair of helical gears secured together, one with
right – hand helix and the other with left – hand
helix, and the teeth of the two rows separated by
a groove for tool run – out.
Herringbone gears : A double helical gear without a groove between
the two rows of teeth.
Bevel gears : The gears used to connect two intersecting, non–parallel,
but coplanar shafts. If the gear teeth are straight (parallel
to the shaft axes), they are called Spur bevel gears, and
if the teeth are inclined to the shaft axes, they are called
Helical bevel gears.
Spiral gears : The gears which have curved teeth, and used to connect
two non – intersecting, non – parallel, and non – coplanar
shafts. They are also known as Skew Bevel gears.
Worm and Worm gears : These are used to connect two non – intersecting
(skew) shafts. The pinion (or Worm) has a small
number of teeth (threads) – usually 1 to 4 – and
its mating gear is called the Worm wheel.
Annular wheel (or) Annulus : The larger of the two mating gear wheels
with internally cut gear teeth. The smaller
wheel is called Pinion, and the directions
of rotation of both wheels are the same.
Rack – and – Pinion : The gear wheel whose radius of curvature of the
pitch circle is infinite is called the Rack, and the
smaller wheel is called Pinion.
Pressure angle (or) Angle of Obliquity (φ) : The angle between the common
normal to the two mating gear teeth at the point of contact and the
common tangent at the pitch point.
d
Module (m) : This is the inverse of diametral pitch  ∴ m = .
T
44
Path of Contact : The curve traced by the point of contact of the
mating teeth -- from the beginning to the end of their
engagement.
Arc of Contact : The path followed by a point on either pitch line of the
mating gear teeth -- from the beginning to the end of
their engagement.
Cycloidal gear teeth : The part of the flank of pinion tooth which lies
within the base circle, and the part of the face of gear
tooth which engages with it may be made cycloidal in
shape.
Involute gear teeth : Gear teeth having involute profile -- which may
be defined as the locus of a point on a straight line --
which rolls without slipping -- on the circumference of
a circle.
Interference : The phenomenon of the tip of a gear tooth undercutting
the root of its mating gear tooth.
Undercutting : If a cutting rack with similar teeth is used to cut the
teeth in pinion, then it will remove that portion of the
pinion tooth which would have interfered with the gear.
A gear in which the material is removed like this to
avoid interference, is said to be undercut, and this
process is termed as Undercutting.
Unit 6 – Sub – Topic 2
Helical Gears, Spiral Gears, Bevel Gears, Worm and Worm Gears
Learning Objectives :
By the end of studying this topic, the student must be able to
understand :
 The helical gears are used to transmit power between two parallel
shafts or two non – parallel and non–intersecting shafts.

45
  When helical gears are used to connect two non – parallel and non
– intersecting shafts, they are termed as Crossed (or skew) helical
gears or Spiral gears.
 For helical gears connecting parallel shafts  the contact between a
pair of mating gear teeth is a line contact through the face width
of the gear teeth. But  in the case of crossed helical gears which
are used to connect two shafts whose axes are not parallel to each
other (i.e., skew shafts)  the contact between a pair of mating gear
teeth will be a point contact only.
 ∴ While the helical gears for parallel shafts are considered stronger
than spur gears, the crossed helical gears (or spiral gear gears) for
connecting skew shafts are not preferred to transmit heavy loads.
 Parallel helical gears have smoother action  hence less noise and
vibration than spur gears.
 Helical gears are more suitable than spur gears for high speed
applications.
 The cutting of gear teeth in helical gears is more difficult than in
spur gears.
 Helical gears are subjected to radial and axial (end) thrust loads,
whereas the spur gears impose radial loads only.
 A worm and worm gear are used when high speed reduction is
required between skew shafts.
 Usually, the Worm and Worm gears are used to connect two skew
shafts whose axes are perpendicular to each other.
 A worm can be a single, double, or triple start worm, if one, two,
or three threads respectively are traversed on the worm for the
advancement of one tooth on the worm wheel.
 Bevel gears are used to transmit drive between two shafts whose
axes are intersecting – but – coplanar.
A helical gear has teeth in the form of a helix around the gear.
On two mating helical gears, if the helix on one gear wheel is right –
handed, that on the other gear wheel may be left–handed [Refer Fig.3(a)]
or right – handed. The helical gears are used to transmit power between
two parallel shafts or two non – parallel and non–intersecting shafts.
When used to connect two parallel shafts, they are called Helical gears,

46
and when used to connect two non – parallel and non – intersecting shafts,
they are termed as Crossed (or skew) helical gears or Spiral gears.
Helical and Spiral gears :
 In helical and spiral gears  the gear teeth may be right – handed
or left – handed.
 (Refer Fig.16)  Here, the gear 1 is a right – handed helical gear
while the gear 2 is left – handed  And when the two mating
gears are mounted on shafts with parallel axes, the helix angles of
the gears must be equal  Thus, ψ1 = ψ2 = ψ.

Fig.16
 [Refer Fig.17(a)]  In this, the same two helical gears are shown,
when viewed from above. Now, if ψ2 is slightly reduced -- and --
it is still desired that the two gears mesh tangentially with each
other  then, the axis of the gear 2 must be rotated through some
angle θ  as shown in Fig.17(b)  such that θ = (ψ1 - ψ2).
 Now  if ψ2 is made equal to zero  the gear 2 will become a

47
 Fig.17 (a) & (b)

Fig.17 (c) & (d)

straight spur gear [Refer Fig.17(c)] -- and -- the angle between the
shaft axes θ = ψ1.
 But  if ψ2 is made negative  [Refer Fig.17(d)]  i.e., the teeth
of gear 2 are made of the same hand helix as that of gear 1 
then, the angle between the shaft axes θ = (ψ1) – (- ψ2) = (ψ1 + ψ2).

48
 Fig.17 (e)
 For helical gears connecting parallel shafts  the contact between a
pair of mating gear teeth is a line contact through the face width
of the gear teeth. But  in the case of crossed helical gears which
are used to connect two shafts whose axes are not parallel to each
other (i.e., skew shafts)  the contact between a pair of mating gear
teeth will be a point contact only  ∴ While the helical gears for
parallel shafts are considered stronger than spur gears, the crossed
helical gears (or spiral gear gears) for connecting skew shafts are
not preferred to transmit heavy loads.
Velocity ratio of Helical gears : [Refer Fig.17(e)]
 The pitch line velocities v1 and v2 of the gears 1 and 2 act in the
directions, as shown in Fig.17(e).
 v12 represents the sliding velocity of the teeth of gear 1 relative to
that of gear 2 -- in magnitude and direction -- parallel to the
common tangent t – t.
 However  the normal components of v1 and v2 (perpendicular to
t – t) must be equal.
v2 cos ψ1
vn = v1 cos ψ1 = v2 cos ψ2  ∴ = .
v1 cos ψ 2

49
 ω2 (v / r ) (v / d ) (d / v )
Now  Velocity Ratio = V.R. = = 2 2 = 2 2 = 1 2 .
ω1 (v1 / r1 ) (v1 / d1 ) ( d 2 / v1 )

d1 cos ψ1 m T cos ψ1 (m / cos ψ1 ) T1 cos ψ1 T

∴ VR = . = 1 1. = n . . = 1.
d 2 cos ψ 2 m2 T2 cos ψ 2 (mn / cos ψ 2 ) T2 cos ψ 2 T2

ω2 N T
Thus  VR = = 2 = 1.
ω1 N1 T2

Advantages of Helical gears over Spur gears :

 Helical gears connecting two parallel shafts have line contact,
which runs diagonally across the face of the gear teeth.
 Parallel helical gears have smoother action  hence less noise and
vibration than spur gears  because the contact between gear teeth
is gradual, beginning at one end of the tooth – and – progressing
across the tooth surface gradually  whereas in spur gears, the
contact occurs simultaneously over the entire face width of the gear
tooth.
 Pick – up of load by the gear tooth occurs gradually in helical
gears  resulting in smooth engagement and quiet operation  even
at high speeds – whereas in spur gears, the application of load is
sudden  hence results in impact conditions  thereby generating
noise, especially under high speed conditions.
 More suitable than spur gears for high speed applications.
 Contact ratio is higher than in spur gears.
Disadvantages of Helical gears over Spur gears :
 Helical gear teeth are cut in the form of a helix on the pitch
cylinder between meshing gears, whereas the spur gear teeth are
cut parallel to the axis of the shaft  hence the gear – cutting
operation is more difficult in helical gears.
 Helical gears are subjected to radial and axial (end) thrust loads,
whereas the spur gears impose radial loads only.

50
Helical Gear Terminology : (Refer Fig.18)

Fig.18
Helix angle (ψ) : The angle between a line drawn through one of the
gear teeth and the centre line of the shaft on which the gear is mounted.
It varies from 150 to 300.
Normal Circular pitch (pn) : The distance between corresponding points
on adjacent teeth  measured in a plane normal to the helix  Thus, it

51
is the perpendicular distance between two adjacent teeth.
For two mating Helical gears  the normal circular pitch must be the
same.
∴ pn = p cos ψ ; Further  p = π.m ; pn = π.mn ; mn = m cos ψ.
d
∴ pn = π m cos ψ, where p = Transverse circular pitch, m = module = , and
T
mn = Normal Module = The module measured in a plane normal to the
helix.
Transverse Circular pitch (p) : The distance between corresponding
points on adjacent teeth  measured in a plane perpendicular to the axis
d
of the shaft on which the gear is mounted  ∴ p = = π m.
T

Fig.19
Normal Diametral pitch (pnd) : The diametral pitch measured in a
p
plane normal to the helix  pnd = .
cos ψ
Transverse Diametral pitch (ptd) : The diametral pitch measured in the
plane of rotation, i.e., normal to the axis of rotation of the shaft 

52
 T 1
ptd =   ∴ ptd  p = pnd  pn = π.
d m
Transverse Pressure angle (ψt) : The pressure angle measured in the
transverse plane (or) plane of rotation.
Normal Pressure angle (ψn) : The pressure angle measured in the normal
plane (or) the plane perpendicular to the teeth.
Axial Pitch (px) : The distance measured in a plane parallel to the shaft
axis between corresponding points on adjacent gear teeth  px = pt.cot ψ.
Lead : The distance measured parallel to the shaft axis  to represent
the distance advanced by each gear tooth per revolution.
Lead angle : The acute angle between the tangent to the helix and a
plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder.
T.mn
Pitch Diameter (d) : The diameter of the pitch cylinder  d = .
cos ψ
Center distance between Helical gears (C) :
1 1
C = (r1 + r2) = (d1  d 2 )  (m1T1  m2T2 ) .
2 2
1 m m 
∴ C =  n T1  n T2   For helical gears connecting parallel shafts
2  cos ψ1 cos ψ2 

mn
 ψ1 = ψ 2 = ψ  ∴C= (T1  T2 ) .
2 cos ψ

Forces on Helical gears : (Refer Fig.20)

 The force exerted by a helical gear on its mating gear  acts
normal to the contacting surfaces (if friction is neglected).
 However  a normal force in the case of helical gears has three
components  Tangential component, Radial component, and a third
component parallel to the axis of the shaft of gear  known as
the Axial (or) Thrust force component.
 Fig.20  shows the normal force and its components  acting on a
driven (helical) gear  which are exerted on it by the driving
helical gear.

53
 Fig.20
Let Fnt = Total normal force ; Ft = Tangential force ; Fa = Axial force ;
Fr = Radial force ; Fn = Normal force in the plane of Ft and Fa ;
φ = Pressure angle ; φn = Normal pressure angle ; ψ = Helix angle.
Then  Fn = Fnt cos φn -- and -- Fr = Fnt sin φn -- and --
Ft = Fn cos ψ -- and -- Fa = Fn sin ψ.
Efficiency of Helical and Spiral gears : (Refer Fig.21)
Two mating spiral gears are shown separately in Fig.21(a) and Fig.21(b)
along with the force acting on them.
 Gear 1 is driver and gear 2 is the driven gear.
Let Ft1 = Tangential force acting on the gear wheel 1,
Ft2 = Tangential force acting on the gear wheel 2,
Fn1 = Fn2 = Fn = Normal reaction force between the two surfaces in
contact.

54
 Fig.21
 The direction of the sliding velocity of gear 2 relative to that of
gear 1 (v21) is shown in Fig.21(c).
 The friction force μ.Fn2 acts in the opposite direction.
 Fn2 and μ.Fn2 combine into one reaction force F2 inclined at an
angle φ with the normal reaction  where φ is the angle of friction.
Now  Ft1 = F1 cos (ψ1 - φ) -- and -- Ft2 = F2 cos (ψ2 + φ).
But  Fn1 = Fn2 = Fn -- and -- μ.Fn1 = μ.Fn2 -- and -- F1 = F2 = F.
∴ Ft1 = F cos (ψ1 - φ) -- and -- Ft2 = F cos (ψ2 + φ).
And  Input torque = Ft1  v1 -- and -- Output torque = Ft2  v2 .

55
 Ft 2  v2 v cos ψ1
∴ Efficiency = η =  But 2 = .
Ft1  v1 v1 cos ψ 2
cos(ψ 2   ) cos ψ1 2 cos ψ1 cos(ψ 2   ) cos(ψ1  ψ 2   )  cos(ψ1  ψ 2   )
∴η= . = =
cos(ψ1   ) cos ψ 2 2 cos ψ 2 cos(ψ1   ) cos(ψ 2  ψ1   )  cos(ψ 2  ψ1   )

cos(θ   )  cos(ψ1  ψ 2   ) cos(θ   )  cos(ψ1  ψ 2   )

= = .
cos(θ   )  cos[(ψ1  ψ 2   )] cos(θ   )  cos(ψ1  ψ 2   )

∴ η will be maximum if the common term in the numerator and denominator,

i.e., cos(ψ1  ψ2   ) is maximum  i.e., equal to 1.
∴ (ψ1  ψ2   ) = 0  ψ1 = (ψ2 + φ)  Now, since θ = (ψ1 + ψ2),
(θ  φ)
ψ1 = [(θ - ψ1) + φ]  2 ψ1 = (θ + φ) -- or -- ψ1 = .
2
cos(θ  φ)  1
∴ ηmax = -------------------------------------------------------------- (1)
cos(θ - φ)  1
Worm and Worm Gearing
 A worm and worm gear are used when high speed reduction is
required between skew shafts.
 Of course, we may use spiral gears for this purpose  but then, a
small driver and large follower are required. Further  the load
transmitted through these gears is limited.
 ∴ To transmit higher loads -- than with the spiral gears -- Worm
and Worm gears can be used.
 This transmission of higher tooth loads is possible with worm and
worm gears  because the contact between the worm threads (teeth)
and the worm wheel teeth is a line contact.
 Usually, the Worm and Worm gears are used to connect two skew
shafts whose axes are perpendicular to each other.
 However  the high sliding velocities give rise to high heating of
the worm  thereby restricting its use.
 A worm can be a single, double, or triple start worm, if one, two,
or three threads respectively are traversed on the worm for the
advancement of one tooth on the worm wheel.

56
Terminology of Worm gears : (Refer Fig.22)

Fig.22
Axial pitch (px) : The distance between corresponding points on adjacent
teeth, measured parallel to the axis of the worm.
Lead (L) : The distance by which a helix advances along the axis of the
gear for one turn around.

57
 In a single – start worm, the axial pitch is equal to the Lead, in a
double – start worm, it is one – half of the lead, and in a triple – start
worm, it is one – third of the lead, and so on.
Lead angle (λ) : The angle at which the teeth are inclined to the normal
to the axis of rotation. Thus  the lead angle is the compliment of the
helix angle  i.e., (ψ + λ) = 900.
Let  1 denote the worm -- and 2 denote the worm wheel.
As the shaft axes of the worm and worm wheel are at 900 to each other
 (ψ1 + ψ2) = 900  ∴ (90 – λ1) + ψ2 = 90  ∴ λ1 = ψ2.

i.e., The lead angle of the worm = Helix angle of the worm wheel.
Also  pn of worm = pn of worm wheel.
i.e., px1 cos λ1 = p2 cos ψ2  But, λ1 = ψ2  ∴ px1 = p2.
i.e., Axial pitch of the worm = circular pitch of the worm wheel.
Velocity ratio :
Assume that  a worm rotates through one revolution about its axis.
∴ The angle turned by the worm = 2π.
Now  The lead of the worm is equal to the axial distance advanced by
a thread in one revolution of the worm.
Also  The lead is the distance moved by the pitch circle of the worm
wheel.
∴ The angle turned by the worm wheel during the time of one revolution
L 2L
of the worm = (or) .
R2 d2

Angle turned by the worm wheel (2L / d 2 ) L

∴ Velocity Ratio = VR = = = .
Angle turned by the worm 2  d2

Centre Distance between the shaft axes of Worm and Worm Wheel :
mn  T1 T2  m2 cos ψ2 1  cos ψ2 
Centre distance = C =     .  .T1  T2 
2  cos ψ1 cos ψ2  2 cos ψ2  cos ψ1 
But  ψ2 = λ1 -- and -- ψ1 = (90 – λ1).

58
 m2  cos 1  m  cos 1 
∴C= .
2  cos (90 - 1 )
.T1  T2  = 2 . 
2  sin 1
m
.T1  T2  = 2 . T1 cot 1  T2 .  
  2

Efficiency of Worm Gears :

Ft 2  v2 v cos ψ1
Efficiency of Worm Gears = η =  But 2 = , where v1 and
Ft1  v1 v1 cos ψ 2
v2 are the pitch line velocities of the worm and worm wheel respectively.
cos(ψ 2   ) cos ψ1
∴η= .  (Refer Fig. 21)
cos(ψ1   ) cos ψ 2

cos(1   ) cos(90  1 ) cos(1   ) sin 1 cos(1   )

= . = . = .tan 1
cos[90  1   ] cos 1 cos[90  (1   )] cos 1 sin(1   )

tan 1
∴η= .
tan(1   )
cos(θ  φ)  1
Now  ηmax =  From Eqn. (1)  where θ = (ψ1 + ψ2).
cos(θ - φ)  1
cos(90  φ)  1 (1  sin φ)
But, since θ = 900 in Worm gears  ηmax = = .
cos(90 - φ)  1 (1  sin φ)

If the worm wheel is the driver, then  it can be deduced that :

tan(1  φ) (1  sin φ)
η= -- and -- ηmax = .
tan 1 (1  sin φ)

BEVEL GEARS
Bevel gears are used to transmit drive between two shafts whose
axes are intersecting – but – coplanar.
Terminology of Bevel Gears : (Refer Fig.23)
Let γg and γp  be the pitch angles of the gear and pinion respectively.
rg and rp  be the pitch radii of the gear and pinion respectively.
The pitch cones for the two mating external bevel gears are shown in
Fig.23(b).
rg rg rg rg
Now  sin γg= = = sin(θ -  g ) (or) sin γg = (sin θ cos  g - cos θ sin  g )
OP ( rp /sin  p ) rp rp
Dividing both sides of the above eqn. by cos γg  we get :
rg rp
tan γg = (sin θ - cos θ sin  g ) -- or -- tan  g = (sin θ - cos θ sin  g ) 
rp rg

59
Legend : x  Root cone ; y  Pitch cone ; z  Face cone ;
β  Root angle ; φ  Pitch angle ; ψ  Face angle ; ∠ a  Addendum
angle ; ∠ d  Dedendum angle ; f  Face width ; a  Addendum ;
∠ d  Dedendum ; CD  Centre Distance ; BCR  Back Cone Radius ;

Fig.23
sin θ rp ωg
tan γg =  Now, since vp = ωg.rg = ωp.rp  = .
 rp  rg ωp
  cos θ 
 rg 
sin θ sin θ
∴ tan γg = -- and -- Similarly  tan γp = .
 ωg   ωp 
  cos θ    cos θ 
ω  
 p   ωg 
Worked Examples
1. The centre distance between two meshing spiral gears is 150 mm, and
The angle between the shaft axes is 600. The gear ratio is 2, and the
normal circular pitch is 10 mm. The driven gear has a helix angle of
250. Determine the (i) number of teeth on each wheel, (ii) exact centre
distance, and (iii) efficiency, if the friction angle is 40.
Solution :

60
 T
Given that : pn = 10 mm; θ = 600; G = = 2; C = 150 mm; ψ2 = 250.
t
Friction angle = φ = 40.
(i) Assuming that both the meshing gears are of the same hand helix 
θ = (ψ1 + ψ2) = (ψ1 + 25) = 60  ψ1 = (60 – 25) = 350.
10 T
pn = π.mn = 10 mm  mn = = 3.1831 mm; And since = 2  T = 2t.
 t

1 m  1 3.1831
C=  n T1  n T2  =  
m 3.1831 t t
 2t   t  =  7.7717  3.5122  = 11.28
2  cos ψ1 cos ψ2  2  cos 350
cos 250
 2 2

2C (2 150)
∴t=  = 26.6  27; ∴ T = 2t = 54.
11.28 11.28

1  mn mn  1  3.1831 3.1831 
(ii) Exact centre distance =  T1  T2  =   54   27 
2  cos ψ1 cos ψ2  2  cos 35 0
cos 25 0


1
∴ Cexact = (209.84 + 94.83) = 152.33 mm.
2
cos(θ   )  cos(ψ1  ψ 2   ) cos(60  4)  cos(35  25  4)
(iii) η = = = 0.92 (or) 92 %.
cos(θ   )  cos(ψ1  ψ 2   ) cos(60  4)  cos(35  25  4)

2. Two left – handed helical gears connect two shafts 700 apart. The larger
gear has 50 teeth, the smaller gear has 20, and the normal module is 4
mm. If the centre distance between the gears is 0.167 m, find the helix
angles of the two gears.
Solution :
Given that : θ = 700; T1 = 20; T2 = 50; mn = 4 mm; C = 167 mm;
1  mn mn  1 4 4   40 100 
C=  T1  T2  =   20   50  =    = 167 mm.
2  cos ψ1 cos ψ2  2  cos ψ1 cos ψ2   cos ψ1 cos ψ2 

 40 100 
θ = (ψ1 + ψ2) = 700  ψ2 = (70 – ψ1)  C =    = 167 mm.
 cos ψ1 cos(70  ψ1 ) 
As the exact solution of the above equation is beyond the scope of the
reader, we try to obtain an approximate solution by hit and trial method,
as shown below :

61
  40 100   1 2.5 
C=    = 167 mm  40    = 167 mm 
 cos ψ1 cos(70  ψ1 )   cos ψ1 cos(70  ψ1 ) 

 1 2.5  167
   = = 4.175.
 cos ψ1 cos(70  ψ1 )  40

ψ1 1 2.5  1 2.5 
cos ψ1 cos(70  ψ1 )   
 cos ψ1 cos(70  ψ1 ) 
(degrees)

25 1.103 3.536 4.639

26 1.113 3.475 4.588

27 1.122 3.418 4.540

28 1.133 3.364 4.497

29 1.143 3.313 4.456

30 1.155 3.264 4.419

35 1.221 3.052 4.273

40 1.305 2.887 4.192

41 1.325 2.858 4.183

42 1.346 2.831 4.177

43 1.367 2.806 4.173

42.5 1.356 2.818 4.1745

∴ ψ1 = 42.50 ; ψ2 = (70 – 42.5) = 27.50.

∴ The helix angles are : 42.50 and 27.50.

3. Two meshing bevel gears are mounted on two intersecting shafts, the
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 angle between the shafts being 480. The velocity ratio of the gears is
2.4. Determine the pitch angles of gears.
Solution:
Given that : θ = 480; Velocity ratio = VR = 2.4.
Since VR ˃ 1, the gear wheel is the driver.
Let γg and γp  be the pitch angles of gear and pinion respectively.
sin θ sin 480 0.743
∴ tan γg = =  = 0.6841.
 ωg   1  (0.417  0.669)
  cos θ    cos 480 
  2.4 
 ωp 
∴ γg = 34.390.
sin θ sin 480 0.743
tan γp = =  = 0.2421.
 ωp


 cos θ 
 2.4  cos 48 
0
(2.4  0.669)

 ωg 

∴ γp = 13.610.
4. A three – start worm has a pitch diameter of 80 mm, and a pitch of
20 mm. It rotates at 600 rpm, and drives a 40 – teeth worm gear. If
the coefficient of friction is 0.05, determine the (i) helix angle of the
worm; (ii) speed of the worm gear; (iii) centre distance; (iv) efficiency;
and (v) maximum efficiency.
Solution :
Given that : N1 = 600 rpm; T2 = 40; p1 = 20 mm; d1 = 80 mm;
μ = tan φ = 0.05  φ = 2.860.
(i) Since it is a three – start worm  Lead = L = 3 p1 = 60 mm.
Lead
If λ1 is the lead angle of the worm  tan λ1 = =
pitch circumference

60
= = 0.2387  λ1 = 13.430; ∴ Helix angle = ψ1 = (90 – λ1) = 76.570.
  80
(ii) Pitch of the worm wheel = Axial pitch of the worm = 20 mm.
 d2  d2 20  40
∴ p2 =  20 =  d2 = = 254.65 mm.
T2 40 

63
 ω2 N 2 L 60
VR =  = = = 0.075  ∴ N2 = 0.075  600 = 45 rpm.
ω1 N1  d 2   254.65

N 2 T1 T 3
Alternately    N2 = N1  1 = 600  = 45 rpm.
N1 T2 T2 40

(iii)Centre distance=C=
m2
2
 p

. T1 cot 1  T2 = 2 . T1 cot 1  T2 =
2
20
2
 3cot 13.430  40 

∴ C = 167.3 mm.
tan 1 tan13.430 0.2388
(iv) η = = = = 0.8172 (or) 81.72 %.
tan(1   ) tan(13.43  2.86 )
0 0
0.2922

(1  sin  ) (1  sin 2.860 )

(v) ηmax = = = 0.905 (or) 90.5 %.
(1  sin  ) (1  sin 2.860 )

SUMMARY
In Spur gears, the gear teeth are cut on the pitch cylinder of the
gear parallel to the axis of rotation of the gear wheel. Therefore, they
can be used only to connect shafts whose axes of rotation are parallel.
But in Helical gears, the gear teeth are cut at an angle of inclination to
the axis of rotation of the gear wheel. This angle is termed as the helix
angle. When helical gears are used to connect two non – parallel and non
– intersecting shafts, they are termed as Crossed (or skew) helical gears
or Spiral gears. When the transmission of drive required is between two
parallel shafts, helical gears are considered to be stronger than spur gears.
Helical gears, when used to connect two parallel axes shafts, they will
have smoother action, hence less noise and vibration than spur gears. So,
helical gears are more suitable than spur gears for high speed
applications. However, the cutting of gear teeth in helical gears is more
difficult than in spur gears. Further, helical gears are subjected to radial
and axial (end) thrust loads, whereas the spur gears impose radial loads
only. A worm and worm gear are used when high speed reduction is
required between skew shafts. Usually, the Worm and Worm gears are

64
used to connect two skew shafts whose axes are perpendicular to each
other. Bevel gears are used to transmit drive between two shafts whose
axes are intersecting – but – coplanar.
QUIZ
1. Which of the following gears are used to connect two non –parallel and
non – intersecting shafts?
(a) Spur gears (b) Helical gears (c) Spiral gears (d) Bevel gears (c)
2. Which of the following statements is not true?
(a) helical gears are considered stronger than spur gears for connecting
parallel shafts
(b) spiral gears are preferred to transmit heavy loads between skew
shafts
(c) helical gears are more suitable than spur gears for high speed
applications
(d) A worm and worm gear are used when high speed reduction is
required between skew shafts (b)
3. Usually, the Worm and Worm gears are used to connect two skew
shafts whose axes are
(a) perpendicular to each other (b) parallel to each other
(c) inclined at any angle other than 900 (d) short in length (a)
4. In a worm and worm wheel, if the worm is a three- start worm, then
(a) three threads are traversed on the worm for the advancement of one
tooth on the worm wheel
(b) three threads are traversed on the worm for the advancement of
three teeth on the worm wheel
(c) one thread is traversed on the worm for the advancement of
three teeth on the worm wheel
(d) One – third of a thread is traversed on the worm for the
advancement of three teeth on the worm wheel (a)
65
5. Bevel gears are used to transmit drive between two shafts whose axes
are
(a) intersecting, and non – coplanar. (b) non – intersecting, but coplanar
(b) non–intersecting, and non – coplanar (d) intersecting, but, coplanar (d)
6. When two helical gears with helix angles ψ1 and ψ2 are used to connect
two parallel shafts, then it is essential that
1 ψ1
(a) ψ1 = (- ψ2) (b) ψ1 = (c) =1 (d) ψ1 = 90 – ψ2 (c)
ψ2 ψ2
7. When two helical gears, both of same hand helix, and with helix angles
ψ1 and ψ2 are used to connect two parallel shafts, and if ψ2 is slightly
less than ψ1, and, it is still desired that the two gears mesh tangentially
with each other, then the axis of the gear 2 must be rotated through
some angle θ such that θ =
(a) (ψ1 - ψ2) (b) (ψ1 + ψ2) (c) (900 - ψ2) (d) (900 – ψ1) (b)
8. When two helical gears, one of right hand helix and the other with left
hand helix, with helix angles ψ1 and ψ2 are used to connect two parallel
shafts, and if ψ2 is slightly less than ψ1, and, it is still desired that the
two gears mesh tangentially with each other, then the axis of the gear 2
must be rotated through some angle θ such that θ =
(a) (ψ1 - ψ2) (b) (ψ1 + ψ2) (c) (900 - ψ2) (d) (900 – ψ1) (a)
9. When two helical gears, with helix angles ψ1 and ψ2 are used to connect
two shafts, and if ψ2 is made equal to zero, then the angle between the
shaft axes is equal to
(a) Zero (b) ψ1 (c) (900 - ψ1) (d) 900 (b)
10. In the case of crossed helical gears which are used to connect two
shafts whose axes are not parallel to each other (i.e., skew shafts), the
contact between a pair of mating gear teeth will be a
(a) straight line contact (b) curved line contact
(c) point contact (d) skew line contact (c)
11. Which of the following gears are not preferred for connecting skew
66
 shafts while transmitting heavy loads?
(a) Bevel gears (b) Helical gears
(c) Worm and worm gears (d) Spiral gears (d)
12. Parallel helical gears have smoother action, hence less noise and vibration
than spur gears, because
(a) they have line contact between the mating gear teeth
(b) the contact between mating gear teeth is gradual
(c) the helical hears are normally used for low speed applications
(d) the contact ratio in helical gears is higher than in spur gears (b)
13. Which of the following is higher in helical gears than in spur gears?
(a) path of contact (b) arc of contact
(c) angle of action (d) contact ratio (d)
14. In the design of helical gears, an imaginary spur gear is considered
in a plane normal to the gear teeth. This gear is called the
(a) design spur gear (b) design spur gear
(c) virtual spur gear (d) formative helical gear (c)
15. In helical gears, the angle between a line drawn through one of the
gear teeth and the centre line of the shaft on which the gear is mounted
is termed as the
(a) helix angle (b) angle of contact
(c) angle of action (d) pitch angle (a)
16. In helical gears, the distance between corresponding points on adjacent
teeth, measured in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the shaft on
which the gear is mounted, is called the
(a) normal circular pitch (b) transverse diametral pitch
(c) normal diametral pitch (d) transverse circular pitch (d)
17. In helical gears, the acute angle between the tangent to the helix and a
plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, is termed as the
(a) helix angle (b) lead angle

67
 (c) pitch angle (d) angle of action (b)
18. When two helical gears with helix angles ψ1 and ψ2, and pressure angle
φ, are used to transmit motion between two shafts, the efficiency will
be maximum when
(a) sin(ψ1  ψ2   ) is maximum (b) cot(ψ1  ψ2   ) is maximum
(c) cos(ψ1  ψ2   ) is maximum (d) tan(ψ1  ψ2   ) is maximum (c)
19. Usually, a worm and worm gear are used when high speed reduction is
required between skew shafts. However, if we want to use spiral gears
for this purpose, then
(a) a small driver and large follower are required
(b) a large driver and small follower are required
(c) a large driver and larger follower are required
(d) a small driver and smaller follower are required (a)
20. The use of worm and worm gear is restricted because
(a) they can be used only to connect skew shafts whose axes are at 900
to each other
(b) the contact between the worm threads and the worm wheel teeth is
a point contact
(c) the transmission of higher tooth loads is not possible with worm
and worm gears
(d) the high sliding velocities give rise to high heating of the worm(d)
21. The ---------------------------- of the worm is equal to the helix angle of
the worm wheel.
(a) pitch angle (b) lead angle
(c) thread angle (d) angle of action (b)
22. In the case of worm and worm wheel, the maximum efficiency will be
equal to (φ being the pressure angle)
(1  cot φ) (1  sin φ)
(a) (b)
(1  cot φ) (1  cos φ)

68
 (1  sin φ) (1  tan φ)
(c) (d) (c)
(1  sin φ) (1  tan φ)

23. In bevel gears, if γg and γp are the pitch angles of the gear and pinion
respectively, ωg and ωp are their respective angular velocities, and θ is
the angle between the shafts on which the gears are mounted, then γg
will be equal to
sin θ sin θ
(a) tan-1 (b) tan-1
 ωg   ωp 
  cos θ    cos θ 
 
 ωp   ωg 
cosθ cosθ
(c) tan-1 (d) tan-1 (a)
 ωg   ωp 
  sin θ    sin θ 
 
 ωp   ωg 
24. In bevel gears, if γg and γp are the pitch angles of the gear and pinion
respectively, ωg and ωp are their respective angular velocities, and θ is
the angle between the shafts on which the gears are mounted, then γp
will be equal to
sin θ sin θ
(a) tan-1 (b) tan-1
 ωg   ωp 
  cos θ    cos θ 
 
 ωp   ωg 
cosθ cosθ
(c) tan-1 (d) tan-1 (b)
 ωg   ωp 
  sin θ    sin θ 
 
 ωp   ωg 

GLOSSARY
Helical gear : A gear which has teeth cut in the form of a helix
around the gear. In these gears, the teeth are inclined
to the axis of the gear.
Spiral gear : This is a crossed helical gear, i.e., the mating helical
gears are mounted on shafts whose axes are not parallel,
but inclined with each other.
Bevel gear : These gears are used to connect two intersecting, but

69
 coplanar shafts. Kinematically bevel gears are equivalent
to rolling cones.
Worm and worm gear : In these gears, there are screw threads on
the worm, and gear teeth cut on the mating
worm wheel.
Helix angle (ψ) : The angle between a line drawn through one of the gear
teeth and the centre line of the shaft on which the gear
is mounted.
Lead of helical gear : This is the distance measured parallel to the
shaft axis to represent the distance advanced by
each gear tooth per revolution.
Lead (L) in worm gears : The distance by which a helix advances
along the axis of the gear for one turn
around. In a single – start worm, the axial
pitch is equal to the Lead, in a double –
start worm, it is one – half of the lead, and
in a triple – start worm, it is one – third of
the lead, and so on.
Lead angle (λ) in worm gears : The angle at which the teeth are
inclined to the normal to the axis of
rotation. Thus, the lead angle is the
compliment of the helix angle  i.e.,
(ψ + λ) = 900.

xxxxx

70