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Application of an Innovative SMA Ring Spring System for Self-Centering Steel

Frames Subject to Seismic Conditions

Article  in  Journal of Structural Engineering · August 2018

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002127

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 Application of an Innovative SMA Ring Spring System for
Self-Centering Steel Frames Subject to Seismic Conditions
Cheng Fang, M.ASCE 1; Wei Wang, M.ASCE 2; James Ricles, P.E., M.ASCE 3; Xiao Yang 4;
Qiuming Zhong 5; Richard Sause, P.E., M.ASCE 6; and Yiyi Chen 7

Abstract: This paper presents an innovative shape memory alloy (SMA) ring spring system used for high-performance steel beam-to-
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Tongji University on 10/22/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

column connections. The ring spring system, which includes a series of SMA outer rings and high-strength alloy inner rings stacked in
alternation with mating tapered faces, is used in conjunction with high-strength bolts in typical extended end-plate connections to achieve
favorable self-centering and energy dissipation response while ensuring ease of construction. An experimental investigation on three proof-of-
concept connection specimens with varying SMA ring thicknesses and bolt preload levels is conducted first, where the key properties,
including strength, stiffness, ductility, self-centering capability, and energy dissipation, are discussed in detail. Following the experimental
program, a three-dimensional (3D) numerical study is carried out that enables a more in-depth interpretation of the test results and supports
the design of full-scale self-centering connections for a prototype steel moment frame. A system-level time-history analysis is then performed
on the frame with various layouts of the SMA connections, and it is shown that, compared with a conventional steel frame, the structure with
the SMA connections exhibits comparable maximum interstory drifts but significantly reduced residual drifts. The results also reveal that a
reasonable balance between structural performance and cost may be achieved by an appropriate arrangement of the SMA connections within
the structure. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002127. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Shape memory alloy (SMA); Ring spring system; Self-centering connection; Cyclic performance; Numerical study;
Time-history analysis.

Introduction the development of low-damage and high-performance alternatives

The extensive damage to steel beam-to-column connections after
the 1994 Northridge and 1995 Kobe earthquakes resulted in signifi-
cant repair efforts and related economic losses (Miller 1998;
Nakashima et al. 1998). After the 2011 Christchurch earthquake,
hundreds of buildings in the affected zone were either completely
or partially demolished, and it has been estimated that the total cost
of the rebuild will be as much as NZ$40 billion (Wood et al. 2016).
Lessons drawn from these major earthquakes provide impetus for
1
Assistant Professor, State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in
Civil Engineering, Dept. of Structural Engineering, Tongji Univ., Shanghai
200092, China.
2
Professor, State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil
Engineering and Dept. of Structural Engineering, Tongji Univ.,
Shanghai 200092, China (corresponding author). Email: weiwang@tongji
.edu.cn
3
Professor, Advanced Technology for Large Structural Systems Engi-
neering Research Center, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, PA 18015.
4
Graduate Student, Dept. of Structural Engineering, Tongji Univ.,
Shanghai 200092, China.
5
Graduate Student, Dept. of Structural Engineering, Tongji Univ.,
Shanghai 200092, China.
6
Professor, Advanced Technology for Large Structural Systems Engi-
neering Research Center, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, PA 18015.
7
Professor, State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil Engi-
neering and Dept. of Structural Engineering, Tongji Univ., Shanghai
200092, China.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on August 30, 2017; approved on
March 1, 2018; published online on June 4, 2018. Discussion period open
until November 4, 2018; separate discussions must be submitted for indi-
vidual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engineering,
© ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445.
to conventional structural systems, and one of the promising
concepts is to introduce self-centering capabilities into a structure
(Ricles et al. 2001; Garlock et al. 2005; Lin et al. 2013a, b). The
goal of self-centering structural design is to minimize postearth-
quake structural damage and to eliminate permanent (residual)
interstory drift. One way of offering such capabilities in a building
frame is to utilize a unique class of smart metals, i.e., shape
memory alloys (SMAs).
SMAs have attracted great attention in various fields, including
aerospace, automotive, medicine, and robotics (Jani et al. 2014). As
a result of a solid-to-solid phase transformation, SMAs can exhibit
two important macroscopic phenomena, namely, the shape memory
effect (SME) and superelastic effect (SE) (Lagoudas 2008). When
loaded at a relatively low temperature, i.e., that below the marten-
sitic finish temperature (M f ) of the material, SMA is transformed
from the twinned martensitic phase to the detwinned martensitic
phase. This transformation leads to residual strain upon unloading,
but heating the deformed SMA can promote strain recovery. This
phenomenon is known as SME. When loaded at a relatively high
temperature, i.e., above the austenitic finish temperature (Af ), SMA
exhibits SE, allowing it to undergo 8–10% recoverable strain
immediately upon unloading. The potential for utilizing SMAs
in civil engineering applications was not recognized until the ini-
tiation of two pioneering research projects, i.e., the Manside and
Istech projects, in the 1990s (Chang and Araki 2016). These re-
search programs led to successful implementation of SMA devices
in retrofitting several historic masonry structures. Since then, sig-
nificant research efforts have led to the development of SMA-based
braces (Yang et al. 2010; Massah and Dorvar 2014; Qiu and
Zhu 2017a, b), base isolators (Bhuiyan and Alam 2013; Gur
and Mishra 2013), dampers (Jennings and van de Lindt 2014;
Silwal et al. 2015), displacement restrainers (Guo et al. 2012),

© ASCE 04018114-1 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114

 concrete structures (Tazarv and Saiid Saiidi 2015; Billah and Alam
2016; Chen and Andrawes 2017), and steel connections (Fang et al.
2014; Moradi and Alam 2014). Among the two properties of SMA,
SE (which is also the focus of the current study) seems to be more
appealing to the seismic research community due to the inherent
benefits of hysteretic damping, self-centering, and stable cyclic
repeatability.
In particular, providing beam-to-column connections with a SE
property is considered to be one feasible approach to promote self-
centering behavior. The main concept is to utilize SMA compo-
nents to meet the ductility and energy dissipation requirements
at the connection zone, while maintaining the adjacent members
(e.g., beams and columns) within the elastic range. SMA bolts
are the most widely considered candidate for such connections.
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Abolmaali et al. (2006) found that T-stubs, which are typical sub-
assemblies forming the entire steel connection [Eurocode 3 (CEN
2005)], have satisfactory self-centering properties when equipped
with SMA bolts. Speicher et al. (2011) further demonstrated the
benefit of using SMA bolts for shear tab connections through a
series of physical tests. Ma et al. (2007) studied an end-plate
SMA connection type through a numerical investigation, and the
feasibility of these connections was later verified experimentally
by Fang et al. (2014, 2017). It was shown that these connections
have excellent self-centering capability with moderate energy
dissipation. With initial confidence gained by these studies, more
diverse SMA-based steel connection types were proposed and ex-
amined, including H beam-to-tubular column steel connections
(Wang et al. 2015b), combined SMA bolt and steel angle connec-
tions (Wang et al. 2015a, 2017), and SMA bolt-washer hybrid con-
nections (Yam et al. 2015). Apart from studies of individual
connection performance, the overall structural behavior was also
investigated (DesRoches et al. 2010; Sultana and Youssef 2016).
However, the current SMA-based self-centering connections
may also have limitations. A number of studies have warned that
the SMA bolts are susceptible to fracture in the threaded area
(Tamai et al. 2004; Abolmaali et al. 2006; Fang et al. 2015b),
and the resulting loss of connection load carrying capacity may
greatly increase the risk of building collapse under strong earth-
quakes. Decreasing the stress demand over the threaded area by
increasing the net threaded-to-shank area ratio can improve the bolt
ductility, but the associated material waste from the machining pro-
cess is considerable, and therefore the resulting connection design
may be uneconomical. In addition, a certain level of prestrain needs
to be applied to the SMA bolts, but this procedure can be difficult
for slender bolts due to unwanted twisting effects during preload-
ing. Moreover, a more efficient energy dissipation mechanism may
be desirable for SMA connections. In order to address the issues
identified above, a novel type of self-centering connection, which
employs a SMA ring spring system, is proposed in this paper. The
study commences with an experimental investigation on three
proof-of-concept connection specimens, and a numerical study
is subsequently carried out to calibrate the test results and to facili-
tate the design of full-scale self-centering connections for a typical
steel moment frame. Finally, a system-level time-history analysis is
performed that reveals some key engineering demand characteris-
tics of the structure under a suite of seismic excitations.
Experimental Program
Basic Design Concept
In order to achieve the required connection performance while en-
suring ease of construction, the proposed connection is modified
© ASCE 04018114-2
J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114
from the conventional extended end-plate connection type. The
SMA ring spring system is the key part that constitutes the pro-
posed connection. As shown in Fig. 1(a), each ring spring system,
typically used in conjunction with a high-strength bolt, includes a
series of SMA outer rings and high-strength alloy (HSA) inner
rings stacked in alternation with mating tapered faces. When the
connection rotates, the bolt rows further away from the center
of rotation of the connection tend to be pulled, leading to expansion
of the SMA outer rings as the HSA inner rings are compressed.
This wedging action can generate a large force from the axial com-
ponent of the contact force between the outer and inner rings, a
mechanism that significantly contributes to the moment resistance
of the entire connection. It should be noted that the HSA inner rings
have to be sufficiently stiff and strong such that the main deforma-
tion occurs in the SMA outer rings. The shear resistance of the con-
nection is provided by the high-strength bolts as well as the friction
between the end plate and the column face.
The superelastic characteristic of SMA causes the ring spring
system to exhibit a strong deformation recovery tendency during
unloading, resulting in deformation recovery of the entire connec-
tion. When cyclic load is applied to the connection, energy is dis-
sipated by the hysteretic damping characteristic of the SMA
material, as well as the friction between the outer and inner rings,
where the friction depends on the treatment of the contact surfaces.
The required number of SMA outer rings depends on the required
deformation of the connection, e.g., based on the maximum ex-
pected drift for the considered earthquakes. For typical moment-
resisting connections, only a small number of SMA outer rings
are required due to their pronounced deformability. This enables
a compact design of the connection, and hence spatial interference
can be minimal. When the deformation capacity of the ring spring
system is reached, the gaps between the inner rings are closed,
and further deformation occurs in the adjacent steel members. This
“locking” mechanism can effectively prevent damage to the SMA
outer rings when the connection deformation demand is unexpect-
edly large.
The behavior of individual SMA outer rings can be understood
by conducting uniaxial cyclic compressive tests on a simple ring
spring system. Utilizing the test setup shown in Fig. 1(b), the typ-
ical hysteretic response of the SMA outer rings used in this study is
obtained. The SMA outer ring was fully loaded with 30 repeated
loading cycles, and it shows satisfactory self-centering capability,
full flag-shaped hysteretic loops, and good repeatability. The geo-
metric details of the SMA outer ring are given in Fig. 1(a).
Test Specimens
A total of three proof-of-concept beam-to-column connection spec-
imens were designed and tested. The test parameters are (1) the
thickness of the SMA outer rings and (2) the bolt preload level.
Two groups of SMA outer rings, with two ring thicknesses (T)
of 3 and 5 mm, were produced for this test program. These rings
were machined with a permissible geometric tolerance of 0.05 mm
from commercial Ti-50.8at.%Ni (i.e., 50.8% atomic percentage of
nickel with the balance from titanium) SMA raw tubes, and the
rings were then heat treated at 400°C for 30 min, followed by water
quenching. The dimension of the SMA outer rings, as detailed in
Fig. 1(a), was determined based on a preliminary numerical study
conducted by the authors and coworkers (Fang et al. 2015a) such
that an effective utilization of the SMA material can be achieved.
The inner rings were made from 38CrMoAl alloy and were de-
signed to fit the tapered angle of the SMA outer ring. Grease was
applied between the outer and inner rings.
J. Struct. Eng.
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(a)

50
T = 3mm

40

First cycle
Load (kN)

30

20
Last cycle

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Deformation (mm)

(b)

Fig. 1. Connections with SMA ring springs: (a) geometric configurations and dimensions of test specimens; and (b) typical behavior of individual
SMA outer ring.

Each connection specimen consists of a Q345 (nominal
f y ¼ 345 MPa) H180 × 120 × 12 × 16 built-up steel beam, a
Q345 H300 × 250 × 16 × 20 built-up steel column, a series of
beam and column stiffeners, and a connection with eight high-
strength bolts, i.e., four external ones and four internal ones. For
each external bolt, the associated ring spring system includes three
SMA outer rings. As the deformation capacity of one SMA outer
ring is 5 mm, this arrangement results in a total deformation capac-
ity of 15 mm before bolt preload. Each internal bolt, which is ex-
pected to have lower deformation demand, is equipped with a ring
spring system containing two SMA outer rings, leading to a 10-mm
deformation capacity before preload. To study the initial stiffness of
the connection, two levels of bolt preload were considered, namely,
P1.5 and P2.0, corresponding to precompression deformations of

© ASCE 04018114-3 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114

 Table 1. Details of test specimens
Specimen Δp per SMA Number of SMA rings Number of SMA rings
code ring (mm) per external bolt per internal bolt
P1.5T3 1.5 3 2
P2.0T3 2.0 3 2
P1.5T5 1.5 3 2
Note: Δp = value of precompression deformation via bolt preload.
1.5 and 2.0 mm for each SMA outer ring, respectively. After de-
ducting the precompression deformations, the ring spring systems
are expected to provide a connection rotation capacity correspond-
ing to at least 4% drift. For easy reference, each specimen is des-
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ignated with a specimen code, starting with the precompression for
each SMA outer ring, and ending with the thickness of the SMA
outer ring (e.g., P1.5T3), as detailed in Table 1. It is worth men-
tioning that the current test specimens were not designed based on
any prototype building. They are proof-of-concept connections
used to verify the feasibility of the proposed connection concept.
Test Setup, Instrumentation, and Loading Protocol
The test setup is schematically shown in Fig. 2(a). The steel column
was oriented horizontally and fixed to the strong floor. The column
was slightly oversized to remain elastic for repeatable use. The steel
beam was oriented vertically and attached to the steel column using
the proposed connection. The load was applied near the free end
of the beam at a distance of 1.35 m from the column face. The out-
of-plane movement of the steel beam was prevented by a lateral
brace located in the region between the load and column face.
The typical instrumentation layout is shown in Fig. 2(b). A series
of strain gauges and rosettes were placed on the key structural com-
ponents, including the steel beam, steel column, end plate, and stiff-
eners. The beam tip displacement, column end displacements, local
concentrated connection rotation, and shear slippage between the
end plate and the column face were measured via a suite of linear
variable differential transformers (LVDTs).
The loading procedure for the specimens involved two steps.
Bolt preload was first applied by tightening the high-strength bolts,
and this step was aided by placing temporary LVDTs at the bolt nut
to ensure an appropriate level of precompression applied to the ring
spring system. Subsequently, a cyclic load was applied onto the
connection by a 200-kN hydraulic-servo actuator, where the load-
ing sequence is given in Table 2. The drift value is calculated by
θ ¼ Δ=Lr , where Δ is the displacement of the loading point, and
Lr is the lever arm, i.e., the distance between the loading point and
the column flange face (1.35 m). The ambient temperature during
the tests ranged between 22 and 28°C. In addition, tension coupon
tests, conforming to ISO 6892-1 (ISO 2009), were conducted to
obtain the material properties of the steel members, and the results
are given in Table 3. The fracture elongation percentage was ob-
tained based on a gauge length of 100 mm.
Test Results and Discussions
Test Observations
In general, the three test specimens exhibited anticipated deforma-
tion modes of behavior. The main inelastic deformation occurred in
the connection, while the beam, column, and end plate remained
elastic, suggesting that minimal postearthquake repair would be re-
quired. As shown in Fig. 3, the deformation of the connection fea-
tured a gap opening between the end plate and column face as the
© ASCE 04018114-4
J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114
Total Δp per Total Δp per Thickness of SMA
external bolt (mm) internal bolt (mm) ring (mm)
4.5 3.0 3.0
6.0 4.0 3.0
4.5 3.0 5.0
ring spring system was subjected to compressive deformation.
According to visual observations, the ring spring system in the
specimens was almost fully compressed at 4% drift. No damage
to the ring spring system was observed at the end of the test,
and the high-strength bolts remained tightened when the specimens
returned to their initial centered position. These observations imply
that the connection may be well prepared for aftershocks or future
earthquakes. In addition, no shear slippage was observed between
the end plate and column face during the entire loading history.
When the tests were completed, the ring spring systems were re-
moved from each specimen for a more detailed inspection. Minor
wearing scratches were observed over the greased contact surfaces
of both the inner and outer rings. The scratches may be attributed to
an imperfect uniaxial compression state of the ring spring system,
since an inclined gap exists between the end plate and column face
during the rotation of the connection. The wear of the greased con-
tact surfaces may gradually increase the friction force, but it is be-
lieved that the minor scratches should have limited influence on the
overall connection behavior. It is noted that if wearing scratches
are severe, which is likely to occur when grease is not applied,
the self-centering capability of the ring spring system would be
compromised, and the resulting material imperfection may also
cause premature fracture of the SMA outer ring. In addition, severe
wearing scratches should be avoided from a reusability point of
view.
The moment-drift curves of the specimens are shown in Fig. 4.
The moment is calculated through multiplying the beam tip load by
the lever arm Lr . Flag-shaped hysteretic responses are observed
with negligible residual deformation. The moment-drift curves first
follow a linear ascending curve, and the initial yield moment ranges
between 12 and 20 kN-m, depending on the size of the SMA outer
rings or the preload level. In particular, because of an increase in
bolt preload, the yield moment of specimen P2.0T3 is increased
compared with that of specimen P1.5T3. Under the same bolt pre-
load level, the yield moment seems to be proportional to the thick-
ness of the SMA outer ring. After the linear ascending branch, a
nonlinear moment-drift response occurs with wide hysteretic loops.
With a combination of forward transformation of the SMA and fric-
tion action, pronounced hardening is exhibited after attaining the
yield moment. At 4% drift, the peak moment of the specimens
ranges between approximately 40 and 60 kN-m, which largely
depends on the size of the SMA outer rings. The hysteretic re-
sponse is generally stable, although a decrease in the reverse pla-
teau is observed with an increase in drift, which could be caused by
transformation induced fatigue (TIF), a phenomenon commonly
observed in SMA (Lagoudas 2008).
The behavior of the specimens is also reflected by the strain
gauge readings (readings from the rosettes are presented using
von Mises equivalent strains). As shown in Fig. 5, the strains of
the beam flanges near the connection are lower than the yield strain,
indicating that the beam remained elastic throughout the entire test-
ing procedure. Similar results are observed in the other parts of the
beam and the steel column. However, Fig. 5 shows that the beam
stiffeners experienced yielding at larger drifts. This is due to the
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Fig. 2. Test arrangement: (a) test setup; and (b) instrumentations.

large thrust force applied onto the stiffeners when the associated
beam flange is the center of compression during the rotation of
the connection. Nevertheless, the local yielding of the stiffeners
seems to have a limited influence on the overall connection behav-
ior. Generally speaking, the connection behavior satisfies the initial
design intention that the SMA ring spring system provides the
deformation capacity, while the main structural members remain
almost undamaged during earthquakes.
Further Discussion on Test Results
Stiffness and strength are two fundamental characteristics for steel
beam-to-column connections. In Eurocode 3 (CEN 2005), connec-
tion stiffness is classified through comparisons with the rigidity of
the adjacent steel beam EI b =Lb , where E is the Young’s modulus
and I b and Lb are the second moment of area and span of the beam,
respectively. A connection can be classified as rigid provided that
its initial stiffness K ini is greater than 25EI b =Lb and 8EI b =Lb for

© ASCE 04018114-5 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114

 Table 2. Loading protocols for test specimens nominally pinned, partial-strength, or full-strength connection.
Sequence Drift level (%) Number of cycles per drift level The criteria for nominally pinned and full-strength connections
are Mmax =M b;pl < 0.25 and M max =Mb;pl > 1.0, respectively, and
1 0.375 3
a partial-strength connection is that with Mmax =M b;pl in between.
2 0.5 3
3 0.75 3
Based on these limits, it can be seen that the test specimens are all
4 1.0 4 partial-strength connections. It should be noted that, in practice, the
5 1.5 2 classes of the connections are adjustable by ensuring an appropriate
6 2.0 2 match between the connection stiffness/strength and beam size.
7 3.0 2 In addition, no degradation of moment resistance is observed by
8 4.0 2 the end of the tests. This indicates that the specimens exhibit a duc-
tility capacity of at least 4% drift under the cyclic loading, and
therefore, they can be potentially employed for ductility class high
(DCH) structures and special moment frames (SMFs), as required
Table 3. Typical steel material properties from coupon tests by Eurocode 8 (CEN 2004) and AISC (2010), respectively. Apart
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Yield strength Ultimate strength Fracture from the favorable ductility performance, the specimens also show
Sample plate f y (MPa) fu (MPa) elongation (%) a satisfactory self-centering response with no induced residual de-
Beam web and 364 502 26.9 formation after cyclic loading to 4% drift. The self-centering ten-
stiffeners dency of the specimens can be further evaluated by the restoring
Beam flange 392 514 25.9 moment M rst , as illustrated in Fig. 6(a). A positive value of M rst
End plate 405 513 27.0 indicates no residual deformation, whereas a negative value means
that residual deformation is developed; in addition, the higher
M rst is, the greater the self-centering tendency that the structure ex-
hibits (but possibly with reduced energy dissipation). As shown in
moment-resisting frames and nonsway braced frames, respectively.
Fig. 6(a), the restoring moments of the three specimens follow a
A connection is considered as nominally pinned when K ini ≤
similar trend, i.e., a decrease with an increase in drifts. However,
0.5EI b =Lb . For the cases where 0.5EI b =Lb ≤ K ini ≤ 25EI b =Lb
the values of M rst are always kept above zero, indicating a reliable
(or 8EI b =Lb ), the connection can be defined as semirigid. The ini-
self-centering response. Moreover, it is found that increasing the
tial stiffness K ini of the current specimens is summarized in Table 4,
precompression level of the ring spring system leads to increased
in which the values of K ini are obtained based on the concentrated M rst at early stages of loading, but due to more rapid TIF-induced
connection rotation response rather than the overall drift response. degradation under a higher strain level, the reverse transformation
The concentrated connection rotation is defined as the rotation con- plateau decreases more quickly, and as a result the influence of in-
tributed by the connection only, i.e., that excluding the beam de- creasing precompression on M rst becomes less at larger drifts.
formation. Assuming a beam length of 3.6 m, i.e., span-to-depth The flag-shaped self-centering response is accompanied by
ratio = 20, the test specimen connections fall into the categories energy dissipation. A common index used to reflect the energy dis-
of semirigid and rigid connections for moment-resisting frames sipation capacity of a structure/member is equivalent viscous
and nonsway braced frames, respectively. The results also show damping (EVD) ξ eq , which is expressed by
that K ini could be increased by increasing either the bolt preload
level or the size of the SMA outer rings. WD
ξ eq ¼ ð1Þ
A similar approach for the classification of strength is given in 2πW E
Eurocode 3 (CEN 2005). By comparing the connection maximum
moment resistance (M max ) against the plastic moment resistance of where W D = energy loss per cycle, i.e., the area enveloped by each
the connected beam (Mb;pl ), a connection can be classified as a complete moment-drift hysteretic cycle; and W E = energy absorbed

Fig. 3. Typical deformation and failure modes of specimens.

© ASCE 04018114-6 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114

 50 connections equipped with normal SMA bolts (Fang et al. 2014,
P1.5T3
40 2017), where the typical EVDs at small drifts are much lower.
30
It is believed that the improved EVD for the current specimens
is attributed to the friction effect over the tapered face.
20
Moment (kNm)

10

0
Numerical Study of SMA Connections
-10
3D Modeling Strategy and Validation
-20
Following the experimental study, a 3D numerical study was per-
-30
formed to serve two main purposes: (1) to enable a more in-depth
-40 Test result interpretation of the test results and (2) to support the design of full-
-50
FE prediction scale self-centering connections for a typical SMF. The overall
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-0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 dynamic response of the SMF subjected to seismic excitations will
Drift (rad) be discussed later in the next section.
The specimens were simulated using the nonlinear finite-
50
P2.0T3 element (FE) analysis program ABAQUS (2012). Except for the
40 SMA outer rings, which were modeled by 3D eight-node linear
30
brick elements (C3D8 elements), the other structural components
were discretized by reduced integration C3D8R elements with
20 hourglass control. For the greased tapered faces, a friction coeffi-
Moment (kNm)

10 cient of 0.15 was provisionally assumed, and no penetration was

allowed in the normal contacting direction. For the remaining con-
0
tact pairs, e.g., that between the end plate and the column face, a
-10 general friction coefficient of 0.3 was considered. It should be
-20 noted that these coefficients were taken based on typical values
[Eurocode 3 (CEN 2005)], which were not fully justified. A more
-30
detailed numerical investigation on the influences of friction on the
-40 Test result behavior of ring spring systems is available from Fang et al.
FE prediction (2015a), which is beyond the focus of this study. The welds at the
-50
-0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 beam, column, and stiffeners were all simulated via tie interactions.
Drift (rad) Taking advantage of symmetry, only one half-side of the specimens
was modeled for computational efficiency, as shown in Fig. 7.
80
P1.5T5 For the material properties, idealized multilinear stress-strain re-
60 sponse with the von Mises yield criterion was considered for the
steel components and the HSA inner rings. An integrated Auricchio
40 model (Auricchio 2001) was used to capture the superelastic behav-
ior of the SMA outer rings. The key uniaxial material property for
Moment (kNm)

20 SMA is illustrated in Fig. 7. It should be noted that it is very dif-

0
-20
-40
-60
Test result
FE prediction
-80
-0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Drift (rad)
Fig. 4. Moment-drift responses of specimens.
in a linear system undergoing the same positive and negative maxi-
mum deformations and forces as those of the considered nonlinear
system. As shown in Fig. 6(b), the EVD first increases with an in-
crease in drifts and is then stabilized between 12 and 16% when the
drift exceeds 1%. It is also found that even at the first cycle, a rea-
sonable amount of energy has been dissipated, leading to EVDs of
up to 10 at 0.375% drift. The result implies that these connections
could start contributing to energy dissipation at small structural
deformations. This behavior is quite different from that of the
ficult to conduct material tests of coupons directly extracted from
the SMA outer rings; therefore, the material properties used in this
study were based on the relevant test data on SMA bars, which
were provided by the same supplier, with the same composition
(commercial Ti-50.8at.%Ni), and had experienced the same heat
treatment procedure. The uncertainty of the material properties
might be a source of modeling discrepancy. Another issue associ-
ated with the Auricchio model is its incapability of simulating the
possible TIF phenomenon of the SMA material. This was ad-
dressed by a simple yet effective approach, namely, the SMA-steel
hybrid modeling strategy. In each SMA outer ring, a thin layer of
steel cylindrical sheet was embedded, which was expected to ex-
pand synchronously with the surrounding SMA. This steel part has
the same Young’s modulus and yield strength as that of the SMA,
but exhibits plasticity, which mimics the TIF behavior that induces
residual deformation. The thickness of the steel cylindrical sheet is
adjustable to ensure reasonable agreement between the FE predic-
tion and test result. In this study, the thickness of the steel part is
taken as 12% of the overall thickness (T) of the SMA outer ring
such that the ring spring behavior can be well simulated.
The testing procedures used for the test specimens were consid-
ered in the numerical study. Bolt preload was first applied to enable
the required precompression of the ring spring system, and sub-
sequently a displacement controlled load was applied at the end

© ASCE 04018114-7 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114

 2000 5000
P1.5T5:
1500 Beam stiffeners
Yield microstrain = 1784 4000 T7

Equivalent Microstrain
1000 T8

3000
Microstrain

500

0
Yield microstrain = 1705
2000
-500

-1000 1000

P1.5T5: Steel beam

-1500 Yield microstrain = 1784
S1 0
S2
-2000
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-0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Drift (rad) Drift (rad)

Fig. 5. Typical strain gauge readings at key locations.

Table 4. Stiffness and strength of test specimens

Stiffness Strength
Specimen K ini K ini =ðEI=LÞ a
Classification b
M max M max =M b;pl Classification
P1.5T3 22,341 13.5 Semirigid 39.8 0.28 Partial strength
P2.0T3 29,034 17.5 Semirigid 45.6 0.32 Partial strength
P1.5T5 27,483 15.6 Semirigid 58.3 0.40 Partial strength
Note: The unit for K ini is kNm=rad, and the unit for Mmax is kNm.
a
L=Db ¼ 20 is assumed.
b
Based on the criterion for moment resisting frames.

10 20
Equivalent viscous damping (%)
Restoring moment M rst (kNm)

8 16

6 12

4 8

2 4
P1.5T3 P1.5T3
P2.0T3 P2.0T3
P1.5T5 P1.5T5
0 0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
(a) Drift (rad) (b) Drift (rad)

Fig. 6. Discussion on test results: (a) self-centering ability; and (b) energy dissipation ability.

of the beam. The typical deformation modes of the model at two Reasonable agreement is also found between the FE-predicted
representative stages, namely, immediately after bolt precompres- and experimental moment-drift responses, as shown in Fig. 4. The
sion and at 4% drift, are shown in Fig. 7. The predicted deformation initial stiffness and moment resistance of the specimens are well
modes are consistent with the test observations, and it is reaffirmed predicted, and the general hysteretic response and self-centering
that the main contribution to the connection rotation is from com- properties are sufficiently captured. In particular, the decrease of
pression of the ring spring system. Consistent with the test results, the reverse transformation plateau with increasing drift (caused
the von Mises stress contour suggests that at 4% drift, the beam and by TIF) is reasonably reflected by the steel cylindrical sheet.
column remain elastic, but the beam stiffeners experience minor Because of certain limitations of the modeling technique, however,
yielding. the predicted loading and unloading curves do not exactly follow

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J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Tongji University on 10/22/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 7. Representative FE model and typical deformation mode (Specimen P1.5T5).
the test results. For instance, the predicted peak moment at 4% drift
tends to be slightly lower than the test result. It is believed that this
discrepancy may be caused by variations of the friction effect over
the tapered faces at different compression states of the ring spring
system, and it is deduced that a more pronounced friction force,
leading to increased moment resistance, may exist over the tapered
faces when the ring spring system approaches the fully compressed
condition. The variation of friction effect may also explain the
slight discrepancy of the unloading response, especially the
descending branch when the model is initially unloaded (i.e., at
reversal of friction). This variation is difficult to reflect in the
FE model, but its influence on the overall connection behavior
is acceptably small.
Prototype Building
Following the validation study, self-centering connections were de-
signed for a prototype building. The conventional (original) proto-
type steel frame is a five-story, 4 × 3 bay office building (located at
ground type B soil) designed by Dimopoulos et al. (2013) accord-
ing to Eurocode 8 (CEN 2004). In the longitudinal direction, the
structure includes four identical moment-resisting frames (MRFs),
and along the transverse direction, the lateral load is resisted by
braced frames. The yield strengths for the steel beams and steel
columns are 300 and 350 MPa, respectively. The typical plan
and elevation views of the building are shown in Fig. 8, and the
analysis performed in this study is based on a typical 2D MRF
in the longitudinal direction. Being slightly different from the
frame considered in Dimopoulos et al. (2013), the roof beam in
this study is considered to be the same as that for the lower floor.
© ASCE 04018114-9
J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114
All the connections of the conventional MRF are rigid/full-strength
connections. Following the strong column–weak beam rule, first
yielding is expected to occur over the beam section near the
beam-to-column connection region. The panel zones are reinforced
by doubler and continuity plates to ensure adequate yield resis-
tance. The sections selected for the beams and columns at different
floor levels are noted in Fig. 8.
The conventional prototype steel frame building (hereafter,
frame-STL) is modified in this study to enable the use of the pro-
posed SMA self-centering connections. Two types of modified
frame buildings are considered, namely, frame-SMA1 and frame-
SMA2. The two modified frame buildings have the same framing
arrangement and member sizes as frame-STL, but differ in connec-
tion arrangement. For frame-SMA1, all the conventional rigid con-
nections are replaced by SMA connections, where this strategy
aims to minimize the damage to the main frame and to maximize
the self-centering performance of the structure. Perhaps as a more
economical solution, frame-SMA2 adopts partially distributed
SMA connections, as illustrated in Fig. 8. This arrangement sheds
light on the potential for obtaining desirable system-level behavior
with a well-balanced cost of construction through a proper alloca-
tion of the SMA connections.
SMA Connection Design
As currently there is no codified recommendation available for de-
signing self-centering connections, the following rules are prelimi-
narily considered: (1) the initial stiffness of the SMA connections
prior to decompression is comparable to the rigid connection
criterion such that the conventional and modified buildings could
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Fig. 8. Conventional and modified prototype buildings and typical SMA connection responses.
have similar initial elastic stiffness as well as fundamental period
of vibration; (2) the yield moment of the SMA connection is taken
as approximately 80% of the yield moment resistance (M e ) of the
steel beam in order to ensure that the inelastic deformation first
occurs in the connection while the steel beam is still elastic; (3) the
ring spring system is designed to provide a concentrated connection
rotation capacity of at least 0.04 radians; and (4) at 0.03-radian
concentrated rotation, the corresponding moment resistance of the
connection approaches the plastic moment resistance (Mp ) of the
steel beam, which means that a certain level of beam yielding is
expected at large structural deformations.
Based on these basic design rules, the self-centering connections
with SMA ring spring systems were designed to match the section
properties of the IPE400 and IPE450 beams used for the prototype
building. As shown in Fig. 9(a), a connection typically consists of
six bolt rows to provide an adequate level of moment resistance,
where each bolt includes one ring spring system. Taking the
SMA connection for IPE400 beams for instance, the external diam-
eter (De ) and thickness (T) of the SMA outer rings are 65 and
6 mm, respectively, which are larger than those used for the test
specimens. Each SMA outer ring provides a deformation capacity
of 11 mm, and the precompression for each outer ring is 3 mm.
The newly designed connections were simulated with ABAQUS
(2012), where the same material property and modeling strategy
as those considered in the validation study were adopted. However,
caution should be exercised when applying the same SMA material
parameters to SMA outer rings with different sizes, since these
rings may behave differently; i.e., there may be a size effect.
Although it has been found that SMA bars with different diameters
may have similar stress-strain responses after appropriate heat treat-
ment (Wang et al. 2016), no test data are available for the SMA
rings. This uncertainty in stress-strain response is not considered
in the current study, but should be kept in mind when interpreting
the analysis results. Nevertheless, the ABAQUS predictions (with
the modeling approach validated) for the connections should be
adequate for demonstrating the fundamental system-level seismic
behavior of steel frames with SMA connections. Employing this
© ASCE 04018114-10
J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114
modeling assumption, the typical moment-concentrated rotation
response of the designed connections is shown in Fig. 8.
System-Level Analysis
System-Level Modeling
To facilitate nonlinear dynamic analysis of the prototype frame
buildings, a simplified model for the SMA connections was devel-
oped using the nonlinear dynamic analysis program OpenSees
(Mazzoni et al. 2006), as schematically illustrated in Fig. 9(b).
The beam and column members were simulated via nonlinear
force-based beam-column elements with fiber sections, such that
the development and distribution of plasticity along the length
and depth of the members are included. Each fiber was modeled
using Steel01 material with a postyielding stiffness ratio of 0.01.
For the SMA connection, rigid elements were used to represent
the end plate and the corresponding column flange, while the gap
opening response was simulated by applying appropriate spring
sets in between. For each side of the connection, six rows of
zero-length spring element sets, representing the associated SMA
ring spring systems, were arranged along the height of the beam-to-
column interface according to their positions. The zero-length
spring elements for each row of SMA ring springs include
two parallel elements with different hysteresis models, namely,
a flag-shaped hysteresis model and steel hysteresis model. A
SelfCentering material was used for the flag-shaped hysteresis
of the SMA ring springs. A Hardening material was used to supple-
ment the flag-shaped hysteresis model, so that the aforementioned
TIF phenomenon of the SMA material can be included. In order
to reasonably match the ABAQUS results, the steel hysteresis
model was assumed to contribute to 20% of the total strength.
In addition, two zero-length contact spring elements were added
to the top and bottom of the interface to allow simulation of the gap
opening mechanism. These springs have a linear elastic response in
compression, but deform freely in tension (i.e., without force). The
value of the compression stiffness was taken as 20 times the axial
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Fig. 9. Full-scale SMA connections: (a) detailed design; and (b) OpenSees model.

© ASCE 04018114-11 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114

 stiffness of the beam, a value that provides sufficient accuracy and
ensures good numerical convergence. A spring element with a large
elastic stiffness was added at the midheight of the model to provide
the shear resistance of the connection. The panel zone of the col-
umn includes two vertical and two horizontal rigid elements, where
the nodes at the intersection point are connected by a zero-length
rotational spring element to reflect the bilinear elastoplastic shear
force-deformation panel zone behavior.
Ground Motions
Each of the three prototype buildings was subjected to a suite of 20
earthquake ground motions recorded at locations with site class B
conditions, with an average shear wave velocity between 360 and
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The maximum interstory drift (MID) and residual interstory
drift (RID) responses are considered as two major engineering
demand parameters for assessing the overall dynamic response
of the prototype frame buildings subjected to the 20 ground mo-
tions. The median and 84th percentile values of the two quantities
over the heights of the frames are shown in Figs. 10(b and c). It is
observed that, although the SMA frames typically have less energy
dissipation than frame-STL, all three frames exhibit similar MIDs,
with median values of approximately 1.5 and 2.5% under the DBE
and MCE, respectively. The comparable median MID values are
attributed to the nonaccumulation of deformation for the SMA
frames with flag-shaped hysteretic responses, whereas the inelastic
deformations of frame-STL, which are not as easily recovered, ac-
cumulate during the seismic response. In addition, it is found that,

800 m=s [Eurocode 8 (CEN 2004)]. These earthquake records were
taken from 9 events in different countries and regions. The event
magnitudes Mw of the ground motions range from 6.53 to 7.62. The
ground motions were scaled to the design basis earthquake (DBE)
level using the scaling procedure recommended by Somerville
(1997), and they were further scaled by 1.5 to represent the maxi-
mum considered earthquake (MCE) level. The details of the scaled
ground motions are given in Table 5.
Seismic Response Results and Discussions
Prior to the dynamic time-history analysis, a static push-pull analy-
sis, employing an inverted triangularly distributed lateral force, was
performed to understand several key system-level hysteretic char-
acteristics of the prototype frames, as shown in Fig. 10(a), where V
is the base shear and W is the seismic weight. As anticipated,
frame-STL exhibits a full hysteretic loop response with a large
static residual drift upon unloading. Frame-SMA1 and frame-
SMA2 tend to have less static residual drift. The static lateral re-
sistance of the two SMA frames is slightly less than that of the
conventional frame, because the yield moments of the SMA con-
nections are designed to be less than the yield moments of the steel
beams, as mentioned before. The three frames have a similar initial
stiffness, and as a result the natural periods of the corresponding
prototype buildings are close, ranging between 1.070 and 1.094 s.
during the numerical simulation using the 20 ground motions, the
largest displacement that the bolt row springs experience is approx-
imately 15 mm (corresponding to a maximum hoop strain level of
around 4.5% according to the 3D ABAQUS model), which is
smaller than the maximum deformation capacity of 24 mm for
IPE 400. This indicates that the SMA ring springs are not fully
compressed when the MID is achieved.
For the RID response, frame-SMA1 and frame-SMA2 have es-
sentially no residual drift under the DBE, whereas frame-STL has
median and 84th percentile RIDs of 0.07 and 0.24%, respectively.
Under the MCE, the median and 84th percentile RID values for
frame-STL increase to 0.21 and 0.56%, respectively. In addition,
the RID values for frame-STL have a much larger dispersion than
the MID values (although individual ground motion responses are
not shown in the figure). On the other hand, both SMA frames have
small RID values under the MCE, with the median values generally
smaller than 0.05%, and the 84th percentile values below 0.15%.
It is of interest to note from Fig. 10(c) that frame-SMA1 and frame-
SMA2 have comparable residual drift levels, although the number
of the SMA connections used for the latter is half of that for the
former. This phenomenon can be explained by the principle of
probabilistic self-centering (Eatherton and Hajjar 2011), where
the dynamic residual drift of any system is often less than the maxi-
mum possible static value achieved after load is slowly decreased
from the peak drift. In other words, as long as the static reversal

Table 5. Information on selected ground motions

Scale factor
Earthquake name Station Component Magnitude (Mw ) Distance (km) DBE MCE
Imperial Valley 1979 Cerro Prieto H-CPE237 6.53 15.19 2.05 3.08
Loma Prieta 1989 Hollister-S&P HSP000 6.93 27.67 0.72 1.08
Loma Prieta 1989 Woodside WDS000 6.93 33.87 3.49 5.24
Loma Prieta 1989 WAHO WAH090 6.93 17.47 1.20 1.80
Manjil 1990 Abbar ABBAR-T 7.37 12.56 0.70 1.05
Cape Mendocino 1992 Fortuna-Fortuna Blvd FOR000 7.01 15.97 2.47 3.71
Cape Mendocino 1992 Rio Del Overpass-FF RI0360 7.01 14.33 1.25 1.88
Landers 1992 Desert-Hot Springs LD-DSP000 7.30 21.78 2.37 3.56
Northridge 1994 LA-W 15th St W15090 6.69 25.6 2.86 4.29
Northridge 1994 Moorpark-Fire Sta MRP180 6.69 16.92 1.94 2.91
Northridge 1994 N Hollywood-Cw CWC270 6.69 7.89 1.33 2.00
Northridge 1994 Santa Susana Ground 5108-360 6.69 1.69 1.95 2.93
Northridge 1994 LA-Brentwood VA 0638-285 6.69 12.92 2.12 3.18
Northridge 1994 LA-Wadsworth VA 5082-235 6.69 14.55 1.54 2.31
Kobe 1995 Nishi-Akashi NIS090 6.90 7.08 1.19 1.79
Kobe 1995 Abeno ABN090 6.90 24.85 2.49 3.74
Chichi 1999 TCU105 TCU105-E 7.62 17.18 2.39 3.59
Chichi 1999 CHY029 CHY029-N 7.62 10.97 1.32 1.98
Chichi 1999 CHY041 CHY041-N 7.62 19.83 1.40 2.10
Hector 1999 Hector HEC090 7.13 10.35 1.04 1.56

© ASCE 04018114-12 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114

 0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

V/W

V/W
V/W

0.0 0.0 0.0

-0.2 -0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4 -0.4

Frame-STL Frame-SMA1 Frame-SMA2
-0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04
Roof drift (rad) Roof drift (rad) Roof drift (rad)

(a)
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5 DBE level 5 MCE level

4 4
STL (med.)
STL (med.)
STL (84p.)
STL (84p.) SMA1 (med.)
Story

Story
SMA1 (med.)
3 3 SMA1 (84p.)
SMA1 (84p.) SMA2 (med.)
SMA2 (med.)
SMA2 (84p.)
SMA2 (84p.)
2 2

med. = median med. = median

th th
1 84p. = 84 percentile 1 84p. = 84 percentile
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Maximum inter-story drift (rad) Maximum inter-story drift (rad)

(b)

5 5 MCE level
DBE level

4 4
Story

STL (med.)
Story

STL (med.)
3 3
STL (84p.) STL (84p.)
SMA1 (med.) SMA1 (med.)
SMA1 (84p.) SMA1 (84p.)
2 SMA2 (med.) 2 DS1 DS2 SMA2 (med.)
SMA2 (84p.) SMA2 (84p.)
med. = median med. = median
th th
1 DS1 84p. = 84 percentile 1 84p. = 84 percentile
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Residual inter-story drift (rad) Residual inter-story drift (rad)

(c)

Fig. 10. System-level analysis results: (a) static push-pull response; (b) maximum interstory drift response; and (c) maximum residual interstory drift
response.

force necessary for pushing back the deformed structure is rea-
sonably decreased (i.e., as in frame-SMA2), the self-centering
response can be significantly improved during dynamic loading.
The finding suggests that the SMA connections can be selectively
used in critical regions to achieve satisfactory self-centering re-
sponses with reduced cost.
From a codified assessment point of view, a set of RID limits are
stipulated in FEMA P-58 (FEMA 2012). A total of four classes
are defined, where the first class, DS1, requires the RID to be less
than 0.2%, such that “no structural realignment is necessary for
structural stability, but the building may require adjustment and
repairs to nonstructural and mechanical components.” A more re-
laxed second class, DS2, requires RID to be less than 0.5%, such
that realignment of structural frame and related structural repairs
are economically feasible, and degradation in structural stability
is limited. The analysis results show that frame-SMA1 and
frame-SMA2 satisfy class DS1 under almost all the MCE-level
ground motions. For frame-STL, however, 5 out of 20 DBE-level

© ASCE 04018114-13 J. Struct. Eng.

J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114

 ground motions result in RID values that exceed 0.2%. For the
MCE, 35% of the ground motions result in RID values greater than
0.5%, and thus frame-STL fails to satisfy the DS2 limit for these
ground motions. The results clearly demonstrate the positive role of
the SMA connection in reducing RID for steel frames.
Summary and Conclusions
This paper presents a new type of self-centering connection that is
equipped with an innovative SMA ring spring system. An exper-
imental investigation on three proof-of-concept connection speci-
mens was conducted first, where the ring thickness and bolt preload
level were the main testing parameters. The experimental investi-
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gation was followed by an extended numerical study providing a
basis for the design of full-scale self-centering connections in a typ-
ical steel moment frame. A system-level time-history analysis was
then performed, which demonstrated the seismic performance of
prototype structures with different arrangements of the proposed
SMA connection. The main findings and conclusions are summa-
rized as follows:
• The test specimens showed desirable flag-shaped hysteretic re-
sponse with negligible residual deformation. Inelastic deforma-
tion of the test specimens occurred in the SMA ring spring
systems of the connections, while the beam, column, and end
plate remained elastic, suggesting that minimal postearthquake
repair would be required.
• The test specimen connections are classified as semirigid con-
nections in terms of stiffness, although they could be considered
to be rigid connections in nonsway braced frames; from a
strength point of view, the specimen connections are classified
as partial-strength connections.
• The test specimens exhibited a deformation capacity of at least
4% drift, with no degradation of moment resistance under cyclic
loading, and therefore they can be potentially employed for duc-
tility class high (DCH) structures and special moment frames
(SMFs), as specified by Eurocode 8 (CEN 2004) and AISC
(2010), respectively.
• The test specimens showed a satisfactory self-centering re-
sponse, with no residual deformation after load cycles up to
4% drift, and reasonably good energy dissipation capacity with
an equivalent viscous damping of up to 16%.
• A detailed 3D numerical investigation was performed to enable
a more in-depth interpretation of the test results and to facilitate
the design of self-centering SMA connections prototype build-
ings. Compared with a conventional steel frame building, the
frame buildings with SMA connections had comparable maxi-
mum interstory drifts but significantly decreased residual drifts
under seismic loading.
• Employing some SMA connections in a steel frame, along with
conventional connections, can lead to satisfactory self-centering
capability for the frame. This finding suggests the possibility of
optimizing the use of the SMA connections to achieve desirable
system-level behavior balanced against the cost of construction.
It is worth mentioning that the full-scale SMA ring spring sys-
tems in the system-level building models were simulated based on
the SMA material parameters obtained from small-scale SMA ring
spring specimens. There could be a size effect as SMA rings with
different sizes may behave differently, and this is worth future in-
vestigations. In addition, varying environmental temperatures may
have certain influence on the SMA behavior, and in particular, the
transformation temperature must be lower than the working temper-
ature to ensure superelasticity. The influence of temperature was
not examined in detail in this study.
© ASCE 04018114-14
J. Struct. Eng., 2018, 144(8): 04018114
Acknowledgments
The financial support from the Natural Science Foundation of
China (NSFC) with Grant Nos. 51778456 and 51778459 is grate-
fully acknowledged. The study was also supported by the
Collaborative Research Project under International Joint Research
Laboratory of Earthquake Engineering at Tongji University and by
the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities.
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