An Experimental and Numerical Investigation of A Turbulent Round Jet Issuing Into An Unsteady Crossflow PHD Thesis PDF

An experimental and numerical investigation of a
Title turbulent round jet issuing into an unsteady crossflow
Author(s) Xia, Liping.; 夏麗萍
Citation
Issue Date 1998
URL http://hdl.handle.net/10722/39555
The author retains all proprietary rights, (such as patent

Rights rights) and the right to use in future works.
AN EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION
OF A TURBULENT ROUND JET
ISSUING INTO AN UNSTEADY CROSSFLOW
XIA LIPING
Ph. D. THESIS
THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG

1998
Declaration
I hereby declare that the present thesis entitled "An Experimental and
Numerical Investigation of a Turbulent Round Jet Issuing into an Unsteady
Crossflow" has not been previously submitted to this or other institutions in
application for admission to a degree, diploma or other qualifications.
Xia Liping
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest thankfulness to Dr. K . M . Lam for

introducing me to the research field of Environmental Engineering. His
patience, inspiration and encouragement throughout the years guided me to
complete this study. I am also grateful to him for his great effort in editing this
manuscript.
My sincere gratitude is due to the staff of the Civil Engineering
Department for their supports. I would like to thank Mr. Y . W. Ng of
Hydraulic Laboratory and Mr. C. H. Tong of the Electronic Section who made
great endeavors in setting up the experiments and helping me solve many
technical problems. Thanks also must be given to the fellow research students
of Hydraulics and Wind tunnel groups, whose care and support are much
appreciated.
I would like to express my special thanks to Prof. G. Q. Chen. His
advice and criticism on the numerical modelling were very constructive and
helpful. Sincere gratitude is also due to Dr. S. H. Kwan. Discussions with him
were very usefiil in developing a part of the experimental set-up.
I would also like to thank my friends who have always given me a hand
and helped me through those difficult times.
FinaUy, very special gratitude is extended to my parents. No words can
express my appreciation for their great support through the years. It is their
encouragement that enable me to be persistent for so many years.
Abstract of the thesis entitled
"An Experimental and Numerical Investigation of a Turbulent Round Jet Issuing into an
Unsteady Crossflow，，
submitted by XIA Liping
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of Hong Kong in August, 1998.
Abstract
The mixing and dispersion of single or multiple jets issuing into a

crossflow is crucial to many engineering applications. Examples in
enviromnental situations are discharge of stack emission into the atmosphere
and of wastewater into receiving water bodies. In many situations, the ambient
flow is unsteady with a periodic oscillating component. This can be caused by
tidal flows in coastal waters or by tidal intrusion into rivers. Unsteady velocity
oscillations can also be introduced into wind flow as a result of vortex shedding
wake of upstream obstacles such as hills and large buildings. Very limited
works were performed on the jet behaviours in an unsteady current. The
present experimental and numerical work is aimed at a parametric study on the
jet mixing and dispersion in an unsteady crossflow.
A series of model experiments were carried out in a laboratory flume.
The flow problem we are looking at is a turbulent momentum jet vertically
issuing into a crossflow which consists of a sinusoidal fluctuation imposed on
non-zero mean current. Since it is difficult to produce this type of flow in
laboratory flume, we developed an experimental technique of oscillating a
vertical jet in a horizontal steady flow to simulate an unsteady crossflow. With
this method, a wide range of time-dependent flows were simulated successfully.
This technique has been validated successfully by performing reference
experiments under the progressive surface water waves in the flume, a near-to-
actual unsteady crossflow.
A computer-aided quantitative flow visualization technique with digital
image processing was adopted in the analysis of the flow images captured in
the experiments. The results show that unsteady crossflow leads to a dramatic
effect on the jet dispersion. Phase-locked flow visualizations reveal that the jet
discharging fluids are organized into regular clouds or patches which bulge
towards the outside of the bent-over jet. The dischargingfluids may accumulate
in individual patches，leading to higher instantaneous concentration levels. On
the other hand，in view of time averaging the jet is widened to a wider width
when compared with an equivalent jet in a steady crossflow. The jet dispersion
is essentially enhanced by the unsteadiness in the crossflow.
As a very important complement to our laboratory experiments,
numerical modelling was also performed for the flow problem. An available
CFD code, FLUENT，was adopted to solve the governing equations. The
computed results on the velocity and scalar fields were compared with the
experimental data. The agreement was quite well. Furthermore, the numerical
solution provides feasibility to examine the 3-D details of the complicated flow
problem. Such important flow features as vorticity, stream ftmction and
pressure were captured.
•
•
J
/
of a Turbulent Round Jet
Issuing into an Unsteady Crossflow
A Thesis presented
in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of Hong Kong
X I A Liping
Department of Civil Engineering

The University of Hong Kong
August 1998
Dedicated to My Parents
Contents
Abstract
Declaration
Acknowledgments
Contents v
List of Tables
List of Figures
Notation jcv
CHAPTER Page
Introduction
1•1 Introduction
1.2 Layout of thesis
1 •3 Physical significance
Review of a Turbulent Jet in Crossflow 4

2.1 Introduction 4
2.2 Review of literature 6
2.2.1 Laboratory works 6
2.2.2 Integral model 10
2.2.3 Numerical calculation 15
Experimental Simulation of Oscillating Crossflow ••••••••••••• 17

3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 Experimental set-up and processing method 17
3.2.1 Oscillating jet method 19
3.2.2 Investigation for theformationof patches 28
3.2.3 Reference experiment 30
3.3 Measurement accuracy 37
33.1 Ambient flow 37
3.3.2 Discharge rate 37
33.3 L D A measurement 38
3.4 Validation of oscillatirig jet method 38
3.4.1 Comparison of jet dispersion patterns 38
3.4.2 Comparison of jet fluid concentration 39
Experimental Results and Discussions 44

4.1 Parametric studies 45
4.2 Analysis method 46
4.2.1 Averaging of turbulent quantity 46
4.2.2 Extraction of scalar field 47
4.3 Experimental observations 48
4.3.1 Phase-averaged dispersion patterns 48
4.3.2 Time-averaged dispersion patterns 55
4.4 Analysis and discussions 58
4.4.1 Phase-averaged concentration 58
4.4.2 Forward motion of coherent patches 62
4.4.3 Time-averaged concentration 63
4.4.3.1 Concentration profile 63
4.4.3.2 Jet width 69
4.4.3.3 Peak concentration 73
4.5 Formation of coherent patch 75
4.6 Summary 76
Numerical Modelling 79
5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 Mathematical model 79
5.2.1 Basic governing equations for laminar flows 80
5.2.2 Governing equations for turbulent flows 81
5.2.3 The ReNormalization Group (RNG) k-8 model .•…82
5.2.4 Numerical solution procedure 84
5.3 Computational domain and boundary conditions 85
5.4 Results and discussions 92
5.4.1 Turbulent jet in a steady crossflow 92
5.4.1.1 Computational parameters and boundary
conditions 93
5.4.1.2 Computational results 94
5.4.2 Turbulent jet in an unsteady crossflow 113
5.4.2.1 Comparison between numerical and
experimental results 117
5.4.2.2 Instantaneous scalar field 122
5.4.2.3 Time-averaged scalar field 128
5.4.2.4 Velocity field 134
5.4.2.5 Other results 151
5.5 Summary 156
6 Conclusions 159
6.1 Summary of present study 159
6.2 Application examples 161
6.3 Suggestions for future work 163
References 165
V
•
J
List of Tables
3.1 Reference experimental parameters 38

4.1 Experimental parameters - Parametric studies 45
4.2 Comparison of
jet in a steady crossflow 61
4.3 Time-averaged jet widths 73
4.4 Time-averaged peak concentration 74
5.1 Jet aspect ratio and maximum concentration ratio 97
vm
List of Figures
2.1 A round jet in steady crossflow with velocity ratio i? = 8 5

2.2 Schematic diagram of a jet in crossflow (reproduced from
Fric & Roshko 1994) 6
2.3 Buoyant jet discharging into a stagnant ambient 11
2.4 Motion of the jet element (reproducedfromChin 1988) 14
3.1 Schematic diagram of eêrimental set-up with oscillating jet method .... 20
3.2 Propeller flow meter; (b) Stepper motor 22
3.3 Derivation of the oscillating velocity of jet-pipe-nozzle assembly •••” 23
3.4 Instantaneous image before and after stretching 26
3.5 Phase-averaged image (Set 9) 27
3.6 (a) Image grabbing procedure; (b) Image processing procedure 27
3.7 Image (a) before and (b) after noise removal 28
3.8 Control system of intermittent dye releasing and image grabbing 29
3.9 Schematic diagram of experimental set-up with progressive surfece water
wave method 31
3.10 Schematic diagram of wave generator 30
3.11 Phase-angle indication unit 33
3.12 Schematic diagram of LDA set-up 33
3.13 LDA measured velocity in waves 36
3.14 Jet discharging velocity in waves 36
3.15 Calibration curve for rotameter 37
3.16 Comparison ofjet dispersion patterns obtainedfromtwo methods (Run S)
(a) oscillating jet method; (b) progressive sur&ce water wave method .... 40
3,17 Conq)arison ofjet dispersion patterns obtainedfromtwo methods (Run 4)
(a) oscillating jet method; (b) progressive surfece water wave method •…41
3.18 Time-averaged images with upper: oscillating jet method;
lower: progressive surface water wave method 41
3.19 Lateral distribution of normalized dye concentrations across the jet width
upper: Run S; lower: Run 4 43
4.1 Coordinator sketch 44
4.2 Time evolution of the jet in unsteady crossflow
Set 1:
Set 2:
Set 3: Up/Ua = 0.25, St = 0.12 50
Set 4 : u/Ua = 0.5, St = 0.0375 50
Set5:w/t/“ = a5，& = 0.082 51
Set 6: u/Ua-0.5, St = 0.12 51
4.8 Time evolution of the jet in imsteady crossflow
Set 7: u/Ua = 1.0, & = 0.0375 52
Set 8: u/Ua = 1.0, St = 0.0825 52
S e t 9 : V ^ = 1.0，» = 0.12 53
Set 10: u/Ua = 1.5, St = 0.0375 53
Set 11: wyU = 1.5, St = 0.0825 54
Set 12: u/Ua = L5, St-=0.12 54
4.14 Correlativity of phase numbers and crossflow velocity 48

4.15 (a) Time-averaged dispersion patterns for all the experimental sets 56
(b) Time-averaged dispersion patterns after enhancement with SOBEL
filter 57
4.16 SOBELfilter kernel 58
4.17 Maximum concentrations at
(at lower frequency) 59
4.18 Maximum concentrations vary with the phases at
and
4.19 (a) Streamwise locations of coherent patches
phase of oscillating cycle 64
(b) Streamwise locations of coherent patches xAw vs.
phase of oscillating cycle 64
(a) Set 7; (b) Set 8; (c) Set 9
(a) Set 4; (b) Set 5; (c) Set 6 67
(a) Set 10; (b) Set 11; (c) Set 12 68
for Sets 1,2 and 3 71
4.24 Self-similar concentrations distributions across the jet width for
Sets 15 2, and 3 72
4.25 Formation of the jet fluids patches. The dye is released at
t* = (a) 0; (b) 1/4; (c) 1/2; (d) 3/4. (as indicated by the arrow heads)
and (e) for continuously released dye 78
5.1 (a) Conqjutational domain and (b) Top view of the domain 85
5.2 Comparison of calculated jet properties using different domain length
(a) jet trajectory; (b) centreline concentration 86
5.3 Con^putational surfece grid (64x22x64) 89
5.4 Time history of normalized residuals
(a) steady case; (b) time-dependent case 91
5.5 Definition sketch of jet in a crossflow 93
5.6 Concentration contours in the symmetric plane ^ = 0 95
5.7 Concentration distributions at transverse cross sections.
Outmost contour level =
5.8 Jet trajectory 98
5.9 Centreline dilution 99
xi
5.10 Jet width 99
5.11 Velocity vector plots for steady case, i? = 8
(a) symmetric plane 少=0; (b) horizontal plane z = 0 101
5.12 Secondary flow at different downstream distances 102
5.13 Sectional streamlines at different transverse sections, tnax/min levels =
±6.7x10"4, ±7.5x10"4, ±6.0x10"4, tS.SxlO-4, ±6.6x10"4, ±7.4x10"4 m2/s
respectively. Contour levels = 10，dash lines stand for negative value .103
5.14 Variations of (a)冗；(b)
5.15 Sectional velocity distributions at jc* = 40. (a) Ue\ (b)
5.16 Increasing of Ue at jet centreline with x* 107
5.17 Decay of the maximum resultant velocity 108
5.18 Maximum velocity decay with downstream distance
(a) lateral velocity
5.19 Sectional streamwise vorticity Q x (s"1) at different transverse sections
max/min levels = 土10.16，±6.36, ±4.73, ±3.68, ±3.05, ±2.07 s"1
respectively. Contour levels = 10，dash lines stand for negative value ]
5.20 Variation ofy/L 2
5.21 Typical sectional distribution of (a) k and (b) vr. Outmost contour
level = kJ2
5.22 Sectional distributions of static pressure p (Pa) 1
5.23 The velocity profile in the crossflow 1
5.24 Scalar field integrated iny - direction for Set 7
A: computed results; B: experimental results 1
5.27 Scalar field integrated in少-direction for Set 5
5.28 Downstream location of patches vs. non-dimensional time 124
5.29 Time evolution of patch I (Set 7)
Outmost contour =
5.30 Time evolution of patch 11 (Set 7)
xii
Outmost contour =
5.31 Sectional scalar contour plots outside the patches
(a) jc* =5 ， = 1/2; (b) x * - 25，t* = 1/4
Outmost contour = Cml2
5.32 Time-averaged scalar field on the x-z plane 131
5.33 Comparison between computational and experimental concentration
profiles across the ensemble-averaged jet 133
5.34 Minimum dilution against downstream distance (Set 7) 135
5.38 Vector plots at the jet symmetric plane j = 0 (Set 7) 141
5.39 Vector plots at the jet symmetric plane ^ = 0 (Set 8) 142
5.40 Vortex structures present at instant = 3/4 (a) Set 7; (b) Set 8 143
5.41 Vector plots at the jet symmetric plane^ = 0 (Set 4) 144
5.42 Vector plots at the jet symmetric planey - O (Set 5) 145
5.43 Time evolution of sectional secondary flows of patch I (Set 7) 146
5.44 Time evolution of sectional secondary flows of patch 11 (Set 7) 147
5.45 Streamlines within patch I
max/min levels = 土 1.22x1 (T3，±1.63xl0-3，±l.lxl(r3，±9.4x1 O^mVs
5.46 Streamlines within patch II
max/min levels = 土S.lxlO" 4 ，±7.68x10" 4 ，±6.3xlO" 4 , ±5,3xl0'4m2/s
5.47 Time variation of locationo f ^ 一 (j * z*) vs.广*
(for the jet patch in Set 7) 150
5.48 Sectional streamwise vorticity within patch I
max/min levels = ±41, ±20，±4.2, ±2.8 s"1 respectively
Contour levels = 10，dash lines stand for negative value 152
5.49 Sectional streamwise vorticity within patch U
max/min levels = ±2.1? ±1.6，±1.2，±0,8 s"1 respectively
Contour levels = 10 dash lines stand for negative value 153
5.50 Time variations of ⑷ m ； (b) (y * z*) (for the jet patch in Set 7)…154
xiu
«i ' * •
5.51 Typical sectional distribution of (a)
respectively 155
5.52 Sectional static pressurep (Pa) within patch I 157
5.53 Sectional static pressurep (Pa) within patch 11 158
6.1 Chimney emission in the wake of tall building 162
6.2 Outfall discharge in river estuary 162
xiv
Notation
-
Overline — averaged value of a property
Overline ' turbulent value of a property
Overline non-dimensional quantity
Subscript a ambient value of a property
Subscript o initial value of a property
Subscript value of a property
Subscript mm value of a property
oscillating stroke of the jet-pipe-nozzle assembly

jet width
horizontal half-width
vertical half-width
initial concentration
centerline concentration
maximum concentration
i,10 maximum concentration at x/D = 10
maximum phase-averaged concentration
nozzle diameter
binary diflRision coefficient
diffiision and source terms in the scalar conservation equation
E = dQ/ds entrainment rate
frequency
external body force in
gravitational acceleration
grey level
water depth
turbulent intensity
turbulence kinetic energy
Keulegan-Carpenter number
eddy scale or wavelength
massfractionof species 1'
M=OW momentum flux
static pressure
O volume flux
radial distance of jet cross section
R^W/Ua jet to ambient velocity ratio
Re Reynolds number
s distance along jet trajectory
S.Sy module of the mean rate-of-strain
Sc minimum dilution
St^fD/Ua Stronhal number
time
time period
non-dimensional time
ambient velocity
jet centerline velocity
excess velocity
amplitude of velocity oscillation
jet relative centerline velocity
lateral velocity
entrainment velocity
maximum lateral velocity
resultant velocity
maximum resultant velocity
vertical velocity
jet discharging velocity
maximum vertical velocity
co-ordinate
non-dimensional distance or
non-dimensional distance
non-dimensional
non-dimensional
shear entrainment coefficient
inverse effective Prandtl numbers for k and s respectively
force entrainment coefficient
dissipation rate of turbulence kinetic energy
ratio of concentration to velocity profile width
angle between relative centerline velocity and jet instantaneous
molecular viscosity
turbulent viscosity
+ |Lri effective viscosity
kinematic viscosity
jet orientation
water density
turbulent Schmidt number
Reynolds stress
angular velocity
^ jet instantaneous
Q, Q*? iQ*m vorticity, normalized vorticity and maximum normalized
vorticity
Qx streamwise vorticity
v j / ， v j / * ， s t r e a m function, normalized stream function and
normalized stream function
Length and time scales

1/2
IUa momentum length scale
//
/w
internal length scale

II
jet evolution characteristic length scale

(Qo/Ua)V2/(Mo/Ua) jet evolution characteristic time scale
Empirical and analytical constants in the numerical model

C\s ~ 1.42
Cê = 1.68
Q = 0.09
(Xo = 1.0
p = 0.012
rio w 4.38
cSjn ^ 0.7
xviii
Abbreviation
CFD computational fluid dynamics
FFT fest fourier transform
LDA laser doppler anemometer
LDV laser doppler velocimetry
LIF laser-induced fluorescence
MDFF momentum dominated far field
MDNF momentum dominated near field
PIV particle image velocimetry
RNG renormalization group
ZEF zone of established flow
ZFE zone of flow establishment
xix
Introduction 1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
The mixing and dispersion of single or multiple jets issuing into a
crossflow is crucial to many engineering applications. Examples in
enviromnental situations are discharge of stack emission into the atmosphere
and of wastewater into receiving water bodies. In many situations，the ambient
flow stream is unsteady with a periodic oscillating component. This can be
caused by tidal flows in coastal waters or by tidal intrusion into rivers.
Unsteady velocity oscillations can also be introduced into wind flow as a result
of vortex shedding wake of upstream obstacles such as hills and large buildings.
As will be described in the literature survey later，there have been studies which
show that, in the presence of unsteadiness in the ambientflow，thebehavior of
turbulent jet is significantly different from a jet in a steady ambient current.
There have been quite a number of investigations on a turbulent round jet
deflected by a steady uniform crossflow，and a good understanding of the
mixing and dispersion of this kind of turbulent shear flow has been achieved by
both theoretical and experimental methods. However，investigations on the
interaction of a turbulent jet with an imsteady or oscillating crossflow are
somewhat limited. Most of these investigations are exploratory in nature,
focusing on the phenomena and qualitative descriptions on the flow problem. A
few integral prediction models appeared in the literature, but they seem being
lack of generality and accuracy. A more systematic and quantitative
investigation on this basic flow problem is lacking.
Introduction
This study aims at an experimental and numerical investigation on the

behavior of a turbulent round jet issuing into an unsteady or oscillating
crossflow. A series of experiments were conducted in the laboratory to study
the flow problem under different flow parameters such as the amplitude and
frequency of the unsteadiness in the crossflow. Numerical solutions on the flow
velocity field and the tracer concentration field were obtained for some
situations of the flow problem using a universally accepted computational fluid
dynamic package. The computational results were used for a comparison with
the experimental results and in addition, to provide more quantitative and
detailed description on the flow structure.
1.2 Layout of thesis

In Chapter
in the literature on a turbulent jet issuing into an unsteady crossflow. Relevant
experimental and numerical investigations as well as integral model studies on
the problem are outlined In Chapter 3，the simulating technique of an
oscillating crossflow in a laboratory flume adopted in our experiments is
described and validated by conducting reference experiments in a wave water
flume. The detailed experimental investigations and results are discussed in
Chapter 4. The mathematical model adopted in the numerical study and the
computational results are presented in Chapter 5, The results of numerical
prediction on the flow problem are compared with those of our experimental
investigations. In Chapter 6，we will give some conclusions of the present study
on the effect of an unsteady crossflow on a vertical turbulent round jet.
Suggestions for future work will also be made in that chapter.
1.3 Physical significance

The experimental results of parametric study presented in this thesis will
Introduction
provide valuable data for engineering design of wastewater and air-pollutant

disposal systems such as ocean outfalls. The study will also throw some light
on the fundamental understanding on the interaction between a turbulent
vertical round jet and an unsteady crossflow. It is interesting to find that the
unsteadiness in the crossflow results in the coherent patches or clouds of the jet
fluid accompanied with the jet development，leading to a significantly different
flow structure from that of an equivalent jet discharging into a steady
crossflow. The numerical investigation makes use of a time-dependent
boundary condition in a CFD code. The agreement between numerical results
and experimental observations provides an encouraging support of the
application of the CFD code to unsteady flow problem.
Review of a Turbulent Jet in Crossflow
Chapter 2
2.1 Introduction
A pure round jet is a turbulent shear flow driven by continuous source of
initial momentum. The momentum flux of the jet is conserved as the scale of
the turbulent motion increases with distance from the source. For 汪 jet in a
stationary environment of uniform density, the turbulence produced by the
momentum source of the jet is characterized by growth in the length scale of
the motion and the shear entrainment of fluidfrom its irrotational surroundings.
Numerous experiments indicate that both the scales of the large eddies which
appear as lumps on the edges of the jet and of the small eddies within them
increase with distance from the source. As the scale of the motion increases,
fluid from the surrounding ambient is drawn into the jet across the larninar-
turbulent interface through a process known as shear entrainment. The effluent
concentration of the jet reduces with distance from the source due to dilution
of the jet fluid by the fluid entrained into the jet from the ambient. Viscosity
affects the small scale mixing process but has virtually no effect on the large
scale entrainment. The velocity profile across a section of the jet may be fitted
by Gaussian distribution:
r2
u{x,r) = uc{x)
b
This is characterized by the half-width^ 6(x), and the centreline velocity，Uc{x). x

is the downstream distance from the source and r is the radial distance from the
jet centreline. The half-width is defined as r a t which w = e" uc.
The spreading and entrainment characteristics change significantly when

the jet is deflected by a crossflow. There is a complex interaction between the
jet flow and the ambient crossflow. Typically, in the absence of the buoyancy,
the jet flow is classified into two limiting regimes: Momentum-dominated near
field (MDNF) and Momentum-dominated far field (MDFF).
Figure 2.1 is an image of a turbulent round jet issuing into a steady
uniform crossflow in laboratory flume. A schematic diagram, Figure 2.2, shows
the complicated nature of the jet deflected by an uniform crossflow. The
incoming parallel stream decelerates and changes its direction as it approaches
the jet boundaries as if its passage were blocked by a rigid obstacle，but the jet
interacts with the deflected flow and entrains fluid from it. Essentially, the
entrainment process in the near field is relatively unaffected by the crossflow.
Figure 2.1 A round jet in steady crossflow

with velocity ratio i? = 8
The near-field structure of the shear layer consists of ring-like or loop-

like vortices which are distorted at the downstream far away from the source.
Finally, the jet flow forms a pair of counter-rotating vortices which seem to
originate in the near field and dominate the flow field far downstream, giving
the bent-over jet section a kidney shape. It is this counter-rotating vortex pair
that induce another entrainment mechanism 一 forced entrainment for a jet in
steady current. The research works on a turbulent jet in a steady crossflow can
be found in Moussa et al. (1977)，Andreopoulos et al. (1984)，Andreopoulos

(1985)，Sherif et al. (1989)，Fric et al. (1994) and Kelso et al. (1996) etc.
The behavior of a jet in unsteady (waves) environment has studied by
relatively few researchers. An overall review of relevant works is presented in
next section.
jet nozzle
counter-rotating vortex-pair jet trajectory
Figure 2.2 Schematic diagram of a jet in crossflow

(reproduced from Fric & Roshko 1994)
2.2 Review of literature

The flow problem of a jet interacting with an unsteady crossflow began
to receive attentions two decades ago. Most of previous works were devoted
to laboratory observations and investigations. An integral model for prediction
of the jet trajectory, width, centreline velocity and concentration was also
proposed by some authors. A few numerical studies were found in the
literature.
2.2.1 Laboratory works

Shuto and Ti (1974) carried out experiments to investigate the dilution
rate of vertically discharged buoyant plume in water where wave motion exists.
The investigators recognized that the entrainment of ambient flow in this case
was caused by both the turbulent shear flow of the plume and the relative
upwards motion of the plume. The experimental results gave the empirical
expressions of dilution rate and entraiiiment coefficient，a. However，a was
larger than unity，which is physically impossible, for very small Froude
numbers. Brocard (1985) studied buoyant jets horizontally discharging into
steady and tidal reversing crossflow with sinusoidal oscillation by experiments.
The surface temperature distribution and plume depth as well as diffiision
coefficient were measured. Dimensional analysis was used to determine a series
of length scales which can define the dominant regions of governing
parameters. For tidal crossflow，a new length scale，alongshore current
excursion^ 入，was introduced. This length scale represents the maximum extent
of the plume on either side of the discharging source. It was observed that very
slow current speed variations, corresponding to large 入，would result in long
periods of time with small current and，therefore, in large ofishore extent. The
offshore extent of the plume was dependent on the time rate of crossflow
variations. Brocard (1985) concluded that the spreading of the plume was
primarily due to buoyancy，while turbulent diffiision would become dominant at
a later time.
Chin (1987) was concerned with the effect of surface waves on ocean
outfall dilution rate. Dimensional analysis was also employed in this work to
yield a non-dimensional equation for dilution of submerged buoyant jet
horizontally discharging into waves. The experimental conditions were relevant
to practical ocean outfalls. For the discharge which was in the horizontal
direction of wave propâtion, the measurement results suggested that the
primary influence of the wave was in the region close to the outfall orifice.
When the wave propagated in the direction against the jet discharging, the jet
“exploded” and became plume-like much closer to the discharging source than
in the case of no wave，while if the wave moved in the same direction as the jet
discharging, the plume-like motion was established far away from the source.
The rising plume was then advected backwards and forwards, thereby
enhancing the dilution rate of jet in waves significantly.
A qualitative observation of the trajectory of submerged buoyant jet in
water waves was described by Sharp (1986). In this laboratory experimental
work，deep water and shallow water waves were considered separately. In deep
water waves，the same dispersion pattern as that in a stationary fluid was
observed in the lower layer of water regardless of discharge port orientation.
As the jet rose to some heights，the jet dispersed significantly in horizontal
direction due to the wave action. However, in shallow water，the jet exhibited a
quite different dispersion pattern. When the jet discharged in the direction
parallel to wave motion, the oscillation caused by wave action pulled or
stretched the jet horizontally as soon as it left the port and dissipated the jet
initial momentum completely. On the other hand，when the jet discharged
perpendicularly to the wave propagation direction, the jet fluid developed into
two clouds associated with the receiving water oscillating back and forth.
Sharp (1986) compared the developed two effluent clouds with the "dumb-bell
effect”，a phenomenon occurring when sewage is discharged into a tidal
estuary，and commented that the two phenomena were caused by the same
mechanism 一 two clouds form at an instant when the wave velocity is equal to
zero and the direction of wave motion reverses.
Further qualitative and quantitative studies of wave action with a vertical
round jet were presented by Chyan et al. (1991) and Chyan & Hwung (1993).
The results of flow visualizations showed that with the effect of waves，a large
amount of fresh water was trapped by the jet fluid as it swings back and forth.
Consequently, an entrainment process other than that induced by the jet
turbulent shear stress, named "enclosing mechanism", arose. As a result，the
dilution of the discharging pollutant was improved by the waves. The detailed
quantitative measurements with LIF and LDV showed that the distributions of
the jet properties on cross sections were non-Gaussian. Particularly, the dual
peak profiles were observed for axial velocity and tracer concentration in the
near field cross sections. It is interesting to relate this dual peak structure to the
"dumb-bell" effect identified by Sharp (1986). Chyan et al. (1991) concluded
that the "enclosing mechanism" caused by waves significantly enhanced the
initial dilution of the jet and that the jet orientation affected the jet mixing
process dramatically since the "enclosing mechanism" was the most effective
for a vertically discharging jet. In addition^ the wake vortex analogous to that
of a jet issuing into a crossflow was observed by Chyan & Hwung (1993)
although it could not be formed completely when the wave period was less than
the shedding period of the wake vortex.
Hwung et al. (1994) also reported the experimental investigations of a
horizontal jet discharging into a crossflow where wave motion was presented.
The photographs of LIF revealed that vortex structures existed due to the wave
motion. Hwung et al. (1994) also found that the jet orientation impacted the jet
mixing process and the dilution at the water surface was enhanced effectively.
This is consistent with the observations of Chyan et al. (1991). However,
Hwung et al. (1994) commented that the horizontal jet discharge was the most
effective orientation in terms of jet dilution, which was different from the
conclusion of Chyan et al. (1991) where the vertical orientation was identified
as the most effective.
Koole & Swan (1994) summarized the previous works of turbulent jet
interacting with a wave environment and reported an experimental investigation
on a two睡dimensional， horizontal, non-buoyancy jet discharging into
progressive waves. The experimental measurements showed that the presence
of waves in the ambient affected both the mean velocity profiles and the
magnitudes of the turbulent fluctuations. The effect was the greatest in the
( , .
vicinity oi the jet orifice. The root-mean-square (RMS) values of the velocity
fluctuations {u\ v，）and the turbulent Reynolds stresses 一 p w V were
significantly increased by the wave motion. Compared to the same jet in a

stagnant environment, the centreline velocity of the jet reduced much more
rapidly and the spreading rate of the jet was promoted greatly by the waves.
This led to significant shortening of the zone of flow establishment (ZFE) and
the mean velocity distribution within the zone of established flow (ZEF) were
no longer Gaussian. In addition, they used a Lagrangian solution to implement
the results of the experiments. This will be further discussed in the next section.
Hsu et al. (1994) studied turbulent/buoyant jets interacting with surface
standing water waves experimentally by flow visualization techniques. They
also found that the waves strongly affected jet dispersion and mixing; the
enhancement of mixing by vertical oscillations (anti-node) and by horizontal
oscillations were different. Hsu et al. (1996) also conducted laboratory
investigations on turbulent jet flow in standing water waves using LDV. Their
measurement data showed some consistent results with those of previous
researches. For example, compared with the same jet without wave effect, the
centreline velocity of the jet decreased more rapidly; the surface wave
deformed the axially symmetric circular jet into elliptic cross sections，which
may be related to the “dumb-beU” effect (Sharp 1986) or dual peak profiles
(Chyan 1991). On the other hand, the data of Hsu et al. (1996) suggested that
the axial velocity profiles at the momentum dominant far field (MDFF) cross
sections were still Gaussian, which was different from the case of jet in
progressive water waves whereby the corresponding profiles were found to be
non-Gaussian by Chyan (1991) and Koole & Swan (1994). Nevertheless, all of
the authors reached the same conclusion: the presence of waves in ambient can
enhance significantly the spreading and mixing of the turbulent jet flow.
2.2.2 Integral model

A jet flow is a type of boundary layer flow. For a turbulent jet in a
stagnant surrounding, within the zone of flow establishment (ZFE), the
turbulent diffusion has not yet penetrated to the potential core and therefore the
velocity profile at cross section within the zone can be fitted by the ‘^top-hat，，
distribution. Beyond the ZFE，in the zone of established flow (ZEF), as the
scale of the motion increases，fluid from the smrouiiding environment is
entrained into the jet across the laminar-turbulent interface. Numerous
laboratory and field data have shown that in this asymptotic flow regime，the
velocity and tracer concentration profiles on the cross sections are self-similar.
Furthermore, the time-averaged profiles are assumed to be Gaussian:
r2
I/O，r) = uc {s) exp(-- ^ ) (2.1)
r2
c{s, r) = cc (s) exp(- (2.2)
where wc and cc are the jet centreline velocity and concentration respectively; s
is the distance measured from the jet exit along the jet centreline; b is the jet
half-width defined as the transverse position where u/uc = l/e and X is the ratio
of the concentration profile width to the velocity profile width.
control volume
以O，PO，CO, 0O，D
Figure 2.3 Buoyant jet discharging into a stagnant ambient
Consider an arbitrary inclined buoyant jet discharging into

ambient as shown in Figure 2.3. A set of conservation equations of the jet
volume flux, the momentum flux and the tracer mass flux can be obtained with
integration of the governing equations for 狂 control volume across the jet.
formulae are written as:
Conservation of volume flux Q:
ju-dA (2.3)
Conservation of momentum flux M:
dM
b % \u{u^dA) (2.4)
Certainly, pa = p for pure jet.

Conservation of tracer mass flux C:
fk-
tw
)/
(2.5)
Simple algebraic analysis gives the trajectory of the jet:

2
.
cos 6
/IV
sin0 (2.7)
In above equations,
represents ambient; 0 is the jet orientation. To estimate the value of E, another
assumption, the entrainment assumption (Morton et al. 1956)，is made. It is
assumed that the inflowing entrainment velocity Ve of the ambient fluid at the
outer edge of the jet，r = b
Ve—CLUc (2.8)
Then, the entrainment rate can be calculated by
where a is the shear entrainment coefficient, which is usually considered as a

constant.
Equations 2.3 to 2.7 can be solved numerically to obtain the jet
properties,
The entrainment hypothesis, mathematically expressed by Equation 2.8,
has been successfully employed for jet flow in 狂 stationary ambient {Ua = 0).
Many investigators have tried to extend this standard integral model to include
cases with an ambient current (JJa* 0) (Lee and Cheung 1990，Chu and Lee
1996) and have obtained satisfactory results. Up to date，the only integral
analysis for describing interaction of a turbulent jet with a wave environment
was made by Chin (1988). In the proposed model, the governing equations
were similar to Equations 2.3 to 2.7，which are applicable for cases without
ambient current，except that the velocity u was replaced by the relative value v,
and a different entrainment formula was proposed Following the idea
previously proposed by Winarski and Frick (1976, 1978) for analysis of the jet
in a steady crossflow, the jet relative velocity was decomposed into two
components that will induce different entrainment mechanisms. The component
parallel to the instantaneous jet axis generates radial entrainment, while the
component perpendicular to the instantaneous jet axis induces forced
entrainment. The additive hypothesis for total entrainment was adopted by Chin
(1988). With these considerations，Equation 2.3 for volume flux conservation
was replaced by the following equation:
where y is the angle that the relative centreline velocity vc makes with the jet
instantaneous axis (see Figure 2.4); a is the radial entrainment coefficient and P
is the forced entrainment coefficient. Chin (1988) assumed that the radial
entrainment coefficient a was almost not affected by waves, while the forced
entrainment coefficient 3( was in the order of 1.0. The model was Lagrangian in
nature and was applied to simulate the mixing of a 3-D submerged buoyant jet.
However，the re-entrainment of the jet，a widely existing phenomenon in wave
conditions, was not accounted for in the model. The model，therefore，was
confined to be applicable for the limiting situation, h/L < 0.05, where h is the
water depth and L is the wavelength, h/L, thus, is the depth-to-wavelength
ratio. Any adjacent elements must have monotonically increasing elevations.
Otherwise，the re-entrainment of the plume should be considered. On the other
hand，the forced entrainment coefficient (3 was assumed a value of larger than
unity which is physically impossible.
Figure 2.4 Motion of the jet element (reproduced from Chin 1988)
Koole & Swan (1994) derived an equivalent Lagrangian model, similar

to the one proposed by Chin (1988) which we have discussed above，for the
study of a 2-D non-buoyant jet discharged beneath progressive surfece waves.
They compared the experimental results with both the standard integral
solutions (Jones & Baddour 1991) and the Lagrangian solutions and concluded
that although neither of these solutions were able to model the flow in the
vicinity of the discharging orifice, the latter provided an improved description
of the mean velocity within ZEF. It is noted that the measurement data of
Koole & Swan (1994) suggested that a may be at least three times larger than
the value applicable to stagnant ambient. However, they did not recommend
this larger value for generally use in different wave conditions.
Hwang et al. (1996) used the same integral model on a horizontal
buoyant jet discharging into a water body with surface waves. They
recommended a linear formula of forced entrainment coefficient within their
experimental range of 0.185 <
results also suggested increased mixing of jet flow in the presence of a wave
ambient.
Using a modified Gaussian dispersion model. Lam (1991) developed a
procedure for predicting the concentration due to a tall chiiimey emission under
unsteady mean wind flow conditions. The calculated results indicated that
compared to that obtained by a constant mean wind assumption, the time
averaged concentration under a meandering wind condition was likely to be a
few times smaller. This implies the enhanced mixing and dispersion of a jet by
an unsteady ambient flow.
2.2.3 Numerical calculation

As one mathematical simulation method，the integral model essentially
simplifies the problem. With the model, the important properties of a turbulent
jet such as centreline velocity，density, tracer concentration, jet dispersion
width and trajectory can be predicted with some satisfactory accuracies.
Actually, the integral model has been applied successfully in such practical
application as submerged outfall design. However, the turbulent jet in an
ambient current, particularly in a wave environment, is a very complex fluid
dynamic probleriL The integral model cannot give detail descriptions of the
flow structure, including velocity field，vortex formulation, concentration as
well as temperature distribution and others. Consequently, a numerical solution
of the complete set of governing equations is greatly required for theoretical
studies and practical applications. Unfortunately, up to date，much limited
studies on the numerical calculation of turbulent jet discharging into an
unsteady cross flow are found in literature, primarily due to the limitation of
computer technique, McGuirk et al. (1977) and Yang et al. (1991) proposed a
2-D depth-averaged model for a side discharge in an unsteady free surface
flow. Yang (1990) used a 2-D k-z turbulent model for the numerical simulation
of a vertical jet discharging into tidal flow. These models neglected the space
variation of water depth, that is so-called rigid-lid approximation, therefore
they can only be applied in the near field of the jet flow. Up to date, no 3-D
numerical calculation on jet in an oscillating flow is found in literature within
the authors knowledge.
At present，with the rapid development of powerful computers，it is
completely possible to solve the governing equations numerically and，hence，
obtain a comprehensive understanding of the complicated flow problem. In the
present study，3-D mathematical computations have been performed. The
relevant theory and mathematical procedure as well as the computational
results will be discussed in Chapter 5.
Experimental Simulation of Oscillating Crossflow 17
Chapter 3
Experimental Simulation of Oscillating Crossflow
3.1 Introduction
Due to the difficulties in producing controllable imsteady flow
oscillations in the main flow stream in a wind tunnel or in a water channel, an
alternative experimental technique is developed to investigate the behavior of a
turbulent jet in an oscillating crossflow. With this experimental method, thirteen
sets of experiments over a wide range of flow parameters are performed in a
laboratory flume. Twelve sets among them are carried out for a parametric
study of how the unsteadiness in a non-zero mean velocity crossflow affects the
mixing and dispersion of a vertical round jet in the far field, while the remaining
one aims at an insight understanding of how the unique dispersion pattern of
the jet is formed under the effect of the imsteady crossflow. The details of
experimental set-up is described in this chapter. The experimental technique
adopted in our parametric studies is validated by the reference ejqperiments
performed in the close-to-actual oscillating crossflow in the presence of
progressive surface water waves.
3.2 Experimental set-up and processing method

The flow problem we are looking at is the discharge of a vertical round jet
into a crossflow which consists of a mean current and a sinusoidal oscillating
conqônent, that is
u{t) = C/fl + Up sin(27t^) (3.1)

where
amplitude of velocityfluctuation respectively;
oscillationfrequency. Actually，it is difficult to produce this type of flow in
laboratory and we adopt an alternative approacL As an analogy to our flow
problem, cylinder wake in an oscillating flow stream of non-zero mean velocity has
received much attentioa A recent review can be found in Griffin and Hall (1991).
Due to the difficulties in producing controllableflow perturbations in the main flow
stream in a wind tunnel or a water channel, the common experimental technique is
to oscillate the cylinder in a steady flow stream (e.g. Tanida et aL 1973，Davies et
aL 1994). Armstrong et al. (1986) actually produced an oscillating flow stream in a
wind tunnel by rotating a set of shutters equipped at the downstream end of the
working section and looked at the cylinder flow problem. This piece of work
suggested that the two flow situations are coirpletely equivalent when the acoustic
wavelength is large corqpared with the diameter of the cylinder.
In reference to these studies in imsteady wake flows，we look at the
possibility of simulating jet dispersion in imsteady crossflow by oscillatmg a vertical
jet in a steady flow stream in a laboratory flume. A con^plication arises here as
compared to the oscillating wake situation in that oscillating the jet has to be
accomplished practically by shaking the jet nozzle. This induces an oscillating
pressure gradientfieldacross traverse sections of the jet-pipe-nozzle assembly. As a
result, the fluid in the jet-pipe-nozzle assembly is given continuous lateral
accelerations and the issuing jet is not strictly vertical at all time. For a jet-pipe-
nozzle assembly under a sinusoidal movement in the lateral direction, the
peak velocity of the assembly isup = 2nfA (this will be shown in Section 3 .2.1) and
the peak acceleration is 2nfUp. The peak pressure gradient induced across a traverse
section of the jet nozzle with diameter D is related to this peak acceleratioa
Assuming the jet exit velocity to be Wj
related to Wf/D. Hence the secondary effect of lateral flow overshooting can be
characterised by the ratio between these two inertia forces or the non-dimensional
2
parameter
广
of interest.
To verify the validity of our modelling technique of oscillating the jet in a
steady crossflow，it is necessary to perform reference experiments under the actual
situation of a stationary vertical jet in an oscillating crossflow. In a laboratoiy flume，
it is difficult to produce an oscillating flow with non-zero mean velocity. The best
we can achieve in our laboratoryflume is to impose progressive surfece waves on a
mean horizontal flow. Under the shallow-water wave condition, the velocity at a
particular location is made up of a mean component plus a sinusoidal coirponent.
The velocity oscillations are grossly independent of height but they are progressive
in nature. However, if we limit our observation over a portion of the wavelength,
the oscillations can be taken to be spatially coherent.
3.2*1 Oscillating jet method

The e^qperiments are carried out in Hydraulics Laboratory of the Civil and
Structural Engineering Department，The University of Hong Kong. Figure 3.1 is
the schematic diagram of experimental set-up of the oscillating jet simulation
method. A steady current Ua is maintained in theflume by a recirculating flow while
the jet-pipe-nozzle assembly is mounted on a trolley and imposed sinusoidal
horizontal motion by means of a craric-yoke mechanism. The crank is driven by a
stepper motor so that the frequency of oscillation, f
oscillation. A, could be precisely adjusted. A phase indicator derives the phase angle
of oscillation from the stepper motor driving signal and displays it in a phase
number representing multiples of 1/20 cycle of a fbll oscillatioiL The velocity of the
main stream is measured using a propeller current meter. A dye. Methyl blue, is
injected through a hole at the pipe connecting to jet nozzle to mark the jet flow. It
will be shown later this sub-section that with this configuration, the oscillating
velocity of the jet-pipe-nozzle assembly can be caressed as To an
observer moving with the jet nozzle, the ambient crossflow is thus described by
Equation 3.1, whereas the peak velocity oscillation is Up— 2%fA,
poqpxu
dumd
jl>a.b£l叻 u
p-cs^5-5
oat-q
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w
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>A I
D--5
jjilojd^
îsoo
psq
Sinple dimensional analysis suggests that the flow problem is governed by

the following parameters: jet-to-current velocity ratio
parameter of the crossflow up /Ua； and non-dimensional frequency or Strouhal
number St —fD/Ua* The secondary effect parameter, fupD/Wf, can be derived from
these three parameters:
(3.2)
We note that the Keulegan-Carpenter number, Kc = Up T/D} is used in some

studies (Davies et aL 1994，Kwan 1997) as the non-dimensional time or frequency
which characterises the vortex shedding of a cylinder in an oscillatmg flow with
zero mean velocity. In the case of a non-zero mean flow being inqwsed, the
Strouhal number St = fD/Ua is alternatively adopted (Armstrong et aL 1986，Barbi
et aL 1986),
Laboratory flume
The laboratoryflume used in the experiments is a 10 m long, 0.3 m wide and
0.45 m deep tilting flume imnufectured by Armfield. The side walls are made of
transparency glass with support bracings. The bed and support bracings are made
of steel. The main flow stream is driven by a recircukting pump with a flow rate
controller. The velocity in the flume is adjusted by controlling the flow rate and
varying the water depth by an adjustable overshot weir at the downstream end.
Jet discharge
A vertical round jet is produced by discharging water through a circular
nozzle of D = 7.5 mm exit diameter at the end of a vertical pipe. For convenience
sake，the discharge is vertically downwards with the nozzle exit about 27 cm above
the channel bed. Jet discharge is fed from a constant head tank with the jet exit
velocity Wj adjusted and metered by a Tokyo Keiso 250 L/hr glass tube type
rotameter. The rotameter is precisely calibrated before using.
Propeller current meter

The velocity of the stream is measured using a Nixon low speed miniature
propeller current meter (Figure 3.2(a))，with which the rotating frequency of the
propeller probe is monitored by a flowmeter using 10 sec. average and the
corresponding velocity of current is obtained with a calihration chart. The
measurement range of this type of current meter is 4 cm/s 〜150 cm/s.
Stepper motor
The stepper motor driving the crank-yoke mechanism is driven by a
controller which is triggered by a pulse signal The rotational speed of the stepper
motor，(o = Inf, can be adjusted by varying the pulsefrequency.A phase indicator
is built in house to drive the phase of rotationfromthe pulse signal With the crank-
yoke mechanism, a lateral sinusoidal oscillation, 2TzfAsm(2nft\ is imposed on the jet
nozzle and the phase angle of oscillating motion is displayed on the phase indicator
in steps of 1/20 cycle (Figure 3.2(b)).
signal
generator
pulse signal
stepper motor phase

controller indicator
propeller calibration crank-yoke

current meter motor mechanism
(a) 0)
Figure 3.2 (a) Propellerflow meter; (b) Stepper motor
Crank-voke mechanism
The crank-yoke mechanism driving the jet-pipe-nozzle assembly is
schematically shown in Figure 3.3. The origin of the coordinates is set at the centre
of the disc which is connected to the stepper motor by a co-shaft At instant
jet-pipe-nozzle
assembly
Figure 3.3 Derivation of the oscillatmg velocity

of jet-pipe-nozzle assembly
crank is at point P. OP = R
is 0. Hence, the position of the jet-pipe-nozzle assembly, xy is expressed as:
x = i? cos 0 + -^/2 — (i?sin0)2 (3.3)
；，hte moving velocity of the assembly along horizontal direction is
-i?sin0 h~ . =
dt 2 # 一
^. ^ co i?2 sin 0 cos 0
-co Asm0
/
2
2
sin
#1
1
where co = — = I n / i s the angular velocity. Equation 3.4a can be rewritten as

dt
u=
A//2 — R2 sin2 0
If/〉〉尺
u
For a uniform angular velocity motion, 0 = = Inft. Thus，

The minus means that when 0 < 0 < 丌，the assembly moves at -JC direction while
when 0 > 丌，ti moves at 十
x direction. Obviously, R is the stroke of oscillation,
A,
To an observer moving with the jet nozzle，the ambient crossflow is thus

described by Equation 3 • L
Digital image processing
Spreading of the jet is analysed with a conûter-aided flow visualisation
technique using digital image processing. With a dye added into the jet discharge
and using back lighting, the jet dispersion pattern is projected onto 汪 tracing paper
mounted along a side of the flume. A parallel light beamfroma 2500 watt strand
lighting is used as iUirniination. A 100 cm x 34 cm plane mirror making 45° to the
flume back wall reflects the parallel light to the working section of the flume.
Another tracing paper is pasted on the back wall to ensure uniform iUumination for
the shadowgraph. Theflow is viewedfrom theflumefrontwall
The shadowgraphs together with the display of the phase-angle indicator are
recorded on video cassettes ofHi-8 format with a Sony 3 CCD camera recorder at
the rate of 25 frame/s. The video images are then played back using a Sony EV-
S1000E video cassette recorder and grabbed into digital image files with a Data
Translation DT3852 frame grabber and a host coirputer. Each image frame is
represented by a 640 x 480 pixel matrix of 8-bit grey level elements. We then cany
out phase-locked eduction of the coherent jet dispersion pattern as follows: First,
each image undergoes a contrast enhancement with the standard histogram sliding
and stretching technique (Lam and Chan 1995). The minimum grey level within the
image is adjusted to grey level of 0 while the maximum grey level is adjusted to
255. The grey levels of all other pixels are adjusted accordingly. If Gmin
Experimental Simulation of Oscillatmg Crossflow 25
represent the minimum grey level, maximum grey level and original grey level at a
pixel respectively, the enhanced grey level
G Gmin
G5s = _ x 255 (3.7)
Gmax- Gm m
w
With this processing, the '"noise" in the image induced by such fectors as
illumination conditions, camera sensitivity and background brightness could be
removed and the image quality is in^roved effectively. Figure 3.4 shows an
instantaneous image before and after performing enhancement. The inq^rovement
of the image quality is quite obvious.
The next step is to deduce the phase-locked coherent jet pattem. The
grabbed image frames are sorted into groups of the same phase angle, with an
ensemble size of 10 frames for each phase. The averaged flow image at the
particular phase is obtained by ensemble averaging of the brightness matrices of all
these frames. This phase-locked averaging technique removes the small-scale
incoherent flow fluctuations and retains the coherent flow patterns. Finally, the
image enhancement with stretching is performed again on the phase-averaged
images to improve the image quality. Figure 3.5 shows a typical phase-averaged
image obtained from experiment Set 9.
Figure 3.6 is a schematic diagram of image grabbing and processing
procedure.
For some images which contain high frequency grids (Figure 3.7(a))，the
forward and inverse Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm is applied. The FFT
transforms image data from a spatial representation to afrequency representation.
A repeating pattern, thefine grids in our case，may be due to the period noise in the
video signal and is represented by a specialfrequency in the resulting spectrum after
performing FFT. By editing the FFT spectrum, thefrequency represented the noise
is rejected so that the noise is removed. The image is retrieved to the spatial
representation by performing an inverse FFT operation. It is noted from
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Figure 3.5 Phase-averaged image (Set 9)
〇〇 H
N
II
reVjor(fer computer DT3852 • Digital
Frame grabber image files
CCD camera
(a)
Image enhancement
Ensemble averaging Stretching averaged
with histogram sliding
今 of all images for îmages at different
and stretching on each
instantaneous image each phase angle phase angles
(b)
Figure 3.6 (a) Image grabbing procedure
(b) Image processing procedure
FigureS.7(b) that the repeatingfine grids are removedfrom the image as observed
in the example shown.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.7 Image (a) before and (b) after noise removal
3.2.2 Investigation for the formation of patches

As we will present in next chapter，the jet fluid is organised into large-scale
coherent patches due to the acceleration and deceleration of theflow velocity in the
ambient stream. In order to reveal the relationship between the formation of the
patches and the oscillation cycle of the crossflow, a special experimental technique
is developed. The experimental set-up for this purpose is basically same as that for
the parametric study shown in Figure 3.1 except for the dye release system Instead
of dying the jetfluids continuously, dye is released into the jet intermittently, so that
the jet is dyed for a fraction of the crossflow oscillation cycle. A microstepping
motor，DAEDAL MS3401 Motor/Drive, is used in the experiments in place of the
mechanical stepper motor to drive the osciUating jet-nozzle-assembly. The motor
operates on a clock signal from a signal generator. The microstepping motor is
equipped with an encoder so that the phase angle of oscillation can be derived and
displayed at a phase indicator in step of 1from number 0 up to 35 within a period,
indicating 10° interval. As shown in Figure 3.8, the phase angle signal is delayed and
then triggers a solenoid valve which switches the dye path on and off. The releasing
time of dye is also controlled by the delay signal and can be adjusted within the
range of 0 〜1.2 second. Eventually, dye is released into the jet at a particular phase
angle and over a particular duration only.
signal
generator
stepper motor shaft、 phase

motor ncode：
controller indicator
delay box
valve unit jet nozzle

solenoid valve
llllilTaal
computer„ DT3852 Digital
个 frame grabber image files
C C D camera
Figure 3.8 Control 办stem of intermittent dye release and image grabbing
In the later stage of our investigation, the image grabbing procedure is

improved with eirploying the external trigger associated with the frame grabber.
Instead of manuallyfinding out the images of a particular phasefrom the volume of
all grabbed images, a phase-triggered image grabbing method is used during the
experiments. A pulse signal after a delay box is derivedfrom the phase indicator
and connected to the "external trigger" port of the DT3852frame grabber. Once
the grabber is triggered by the pulse signal, one image frame is grabbed and
digitised mto an image file. With an updated program^ the procedure can be
automatically repeated and as many digital image files at an identical phase as we
required can be obtained The image files at different phases are grabbed by
adjusting the delay time of the input pulse signal This procedure is also shown in
Figure 3.8.
3.23 Reference experiments

For the reference experiments using progressive surfece water waves，the
vertical jet is held stationary, Surfece waves are generated in the water flume by a
flat，bottom hinged paddle located at the downstream end of theflume (Figure 3.9).
Wave generator
Schematic diagram of the wave generator is plotted in Figure 3.10. A flat，

bottom hinged paddle at the end offlume is driven by a Allspeeds electronic motor
through a crank-yoke mechanism with adjustable frequency and stroke so that a
wide range of progressive waves could be generated The paddle is equ^)ped with
an opening with an adjustable size so that it also serves as a weir over which water
flows to maintain a mean current Ua in theflume.To avoid reflection of wave at the
upstream end of theflume, an energy absorbing beach orientated at the angle of 50°
to the bottom of channel is placed at the upstream of theflume. The beach is made
of a porous wedge with 1.2 m long slope，both sides of which are covered by a
metal mesh plate withfibrousmaterial kno wn as 'liorse hair，’filled inside. With this
beach, the wave energy arrived at the upstream end could be effectively damped
Measurement by wave gauge indicates that the reflection coefficient is less than
progressh/e surface waves
paddle
flow controller pump
Figure 3 .10 Schematic diagram of wave generator

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Phase indication unit
A Churchill Controls wave height gauge is installed at a location near the jet
nozzle to derive the phase of oscillation of the crossflow (see Figure 3.11), The
wave gauge consists of a probe and wave monitor. The input signalfrom the probe,
being a sinusoidal wave in our case，is converted into a 0-5 voltage square wave
electronic signal of the same frequency. The output signal from the monitor is
inputted to a phase indicator. The clock built inside the phase indicator is reset once
the output signal from the monitorfells/risesthrough zero voltage, thus the wave
phase is obtained and displayed as numbers ranging from 0 〜20 within one wave
period. The wave height is obtained by calibration of the square wave signal.
LDA measurement system

The velocity signal at a point in the crossflow is measured by a laser-Doppler
anemometer (LDA). The mean flow component
oscillating component are derivedfrom the measured signal Figure 3.12 shows the
set-up of LDA measurement system. A 60X FiberFlow series from Dantec
Measurement Technology is used with a 300 mW argon-ion laser. The laser
operates in the TEMoo mode and produces a laser beam with wavelength ranging
from 476.5 nm to 514.5 i m The LDA is an one-coirponent transmitter based
probe system of the 60X series，which consists of a transmitter, fibre links, a fibre
probe，a photomultipKer and signal analysis system. The laser beam of blue (488
nm) is split into two beams,frequency unshifted and 40 MHz shifted one，which are
transmitted to a 60X10 one dimensional 60 mm diameter LDA probe through the
opticalfibres.A front lens of focal length 310 mm is used to make the two beams
crossed to form a measuring volume in the flow. The light signal from the
measuring volume is collected by the forward scatter mode with a photomultiplier.
The photomultiplier is supplied with high voltage of 800 V and converts the light
signal into an electric signal. The electric signal is then sent to the DANTEC Flow
Velocity Analyser (FVA) for data processing. With suitable seeding of the flow by
neutrally buoyant particles of 30 |im nominal size，the data san^ling rate is about
Experimented Sifnulcition of Oscillating Crossflow
• wave gauge
^
Qoutput 1 111
— Y 11 , ‘" 11
set output probe
M
phase indicator
Figure 3.11 Phase-angle indication unit
fibre
transmitter
jet nozzle
MANIPULATOR
photo-multiplier
to data acquisition
and processing system
Figure 3.12 Schematic diagram of LDA setup

300 Hz. The data acquisition and subsequent data processing are performed by the
software FLOware developed by DANTEC.
The LDA measurements indicate that a sinusoidaUy oscillating flow velocity

in the horizontal direction is well generated using the wave generator described
above. Figure 3.13 presents the time history of the flow velocity during Run 4，the
reference experiment of experiment Set 4 which we will discuss later，measured at
different positions in the flume. The water depth is 2/ = 36 cm while the
measurement points are at 11，21.5 and 30 cm from the channel bed respectively.
The wavelength i = 3.8 m, thus h/L « 0.09 > 0.05. This type of wave is generally
classified as intermediate water waves (Sorensen 1993). The wave velocity may be
vertically non-iinifoim However, our measurement data within the middle part of
entire water depth, 11 to 30 cm, indicate that the velocity is water-level-
independent at least in this regime of our interest. Moreover, the LDA
measurements show that the vertical velocity induced by waves is much smaller
than the horizontal component induced by waves. The former is less than 10% of
latter. The typical measurements on both the horizontal and vertical flow velocity
are presented in Figure 3.13(b). Therefore，it is reasonable to assume that the effect
of the vertical velocity component on the jet is negligible. Essentially, it can be seen
from the figure that the measured data for the horizontal velocity at each water
level are wellfitted by the following expression:
u(t) = 0.1 + 0.05 sin / = 0.5 Hz (3.8)
up/Ua = 0.5, St^ 0.0375
which has the same flow parameters as the experiment Set 4 (See Table 4.1 in
Section 4.1). The results of the reference e5q)eriinents hence could be used for
validation purpose.
Figure 3.14 shows the measured jet discharging velocity just downstream of
the jet nozzle. It is noted that the discharging velocity is not significantly affected by
Measured point level = 11 cm
LDA measurement
Formuia (3.S)
0.18
0.16
0.14
10
t(s)
Measured point ie\^l = 21.5 cm
LDA mea
Fornrula (
(s/uo
m JO n
(b)
•0.02
t(S)
Figure 3.13 See next page for caption

Measured point level = 3 0 c m
LDA measureme
(c
10
t(s)
Figure 3.13 LDA measured velocity in waves

1
+ h
H• + + ++
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+ + 卄十 +
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a j(•t a r g j r a騰aMaI I IaIt m gwBaiUjaaH
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+
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•>•••_ i •
THT*
t• -
I •
_•!_
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IMHI •
_ « — K i _ u m i a j L >
* T r^ T ^ W T W P w ^ W ^ m r W i e n -
一§
W^TWBIWT" 普 +
• •
++
* 妙
+-HI-
• 營件普 + + ++ + + +
+ + + 十十十
汝 + + + + + 十
•
UD
.
t(s)
Figure 3.14 Jet discharge velocity in waves

the varying wave height in theflume and maintains at a constant within variations of
3.3 Measurement accuracy

3.3.1 Ambient flow
Ambient flow velocity is measured
flowmeter. The designed measurement range of the instrument is from 4 cm/s to
150 cm/s with an error of 5.5% to 0.04% respectively. The instrument is calibrated
by towing the probe in a stagnant waterflume at a uniform speed. It is noted that
the measurement accuracy of the unit is significantly reduced by the contamiDation
in ambient fluids. Therefore, cleaning of water in the laboratoryflume should be
ensured before the experiments are carried out.
33.2 Discharge rate

The discharge rate of the jet is measured by a glass tube type rotameter,
manufectured by Tokyo Keys Co” Ltd，with designed measurement rangefrom 25
L/hr to 250 L/hr. However, there are some differences between the readings and
actual flow rate so that it should be also calibrated from time to time. The method
Q5？
o
o
(Ju/I)
4
O
Q
Q
100 150 200 250

Readings (l/hr)
Figure 3.15 Calibration curve for rotameter

adopted for the calihration is to weigh the water flowing through the rotameter
within a certain time. Figure 3.15 shows a typical calihration curve. The maximum
error associated with the rotameter is estimated to be less than 4%.
3.3.3 LDA measurement

The LDA measurement accuracy is essentially dependent on the beam
crossing in the measuring volume，the particle density in the flow and the quality of
the optics. In a steadyflow with low turbulence, the measurement error is estimated
to be approximately 2%，whfleas in a highlyfluctuatingflow，the error is estimated
to be less than 5%.
3.4 Validation of oscillating jet method

We have carried out two sets of reference experiments Avith different flow
parameters for the vaHdation of the oscillating jet nozzle technique. The relevant
flow parameters are listed in Table 3.1. The Reynolds number offlow at the jet exit
isRe - DWj/v, where D = 7.5 mm is the diameter of jet exit. For Run S，Re = 3600
and for Rim 4，Re = 6000. The jet flow is consequently classified as turbulent flow
as Re〉2000.
Table 3.1 Reference Experiment Parameters

Run Ua P U f . • •
Wj , ..
Uj/Ua St fapD/W^ • • 1
R , .
No. (cm/s) (cm/s) (Hz) (cm/s) . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . : . . . . . ' . •

. . . . .... . • • • . . . . '； "• ••
> . . . ； . . . . . . . . . . .......
, • . . . , , . . . . , . .
RunS 6 3.9 1.1 48 0.65 0.14 L42xl0"3 8

Run 4 10 5 0.5 80 0.5 0.0375 2.32X10"4 8
3.4.1 Comparison of jet dispersion patterns

Figure 3.16 shows the phase-averaged dispersion patterns of the jet obtained
with the two simulation methods for the experiment Run S. Four phases within an
oscillation cycle are concerned. The phase number indicates the phase in the
oscillation cycle in multiples of 1/20 cycle startiig from f = 0 in u(t) = Ua+ up
sin(27Cjf?). At phase number 0，the crossflow is at its mean velocity but is

accelerating while at phase number 10，it undergoes deceleration. Phase numbers 6
and 16 roughly correspond to the instants when the crossflow velocity is at its
maximum and minimum values respectively. It is evident that the two simulation
methods result in generally identical dispersion patterns. Successive acceleration
and deceleration in the crossflow organize the jet discharging fluid into successive
large-scale patches which are spatially separated on the outer side of the bent-over
cross-flowing jet. These patches of concentration of jet fluids are separated by
narrow intrusions of ambient flow fluid in the outer side of the jet. In the inner side
of the jet, the patches remain connected. The secondary effect of lateral jet
overshooting is characterised by fupD/Wj', the value of which in the Run S is as
small as 1.42x10'. Therefore, the secondary effect in this experiment is negligible.
Infect，itdoes not lead to any observable difference in the subsequent dispersion
As shown in Figure 3.17, similar observations are made on Run 4 where the
unsteadiness in the crossflow has 汪 smaller amplitude and the flow oscillates at a
lowerfrequency. The organized jet fluid patches are more clearly identified. The
parameter fupD/Wf is at a much small value of 2.32xl0'4 so that the secondary
effect is also negligible.
The time-averaged mean dispersion patterns of the jet for two simulation
methods could be obtained from an average of the phase-locked patterns over all
phases of a cycle. Figure 3.18 shows the mean dispersion patterns obtained with the
two simulation methods. It is observed again that the averaged mean patterns
associated with the two methods are very similar to each other.
3.4.2 Comparison of jetfluid concentration

Quantitative iirfoimation on the concentration of dye-carrying jet fluids can
be obtained from the grey level matrices in Figure 3.18, The normalized dye
concentrations across the jet width at the downstream stations
for Run S and x/D = 10，25，40 for Run 4 are shown in Figure 3.19. The
Experimental Simulation of Oscillating Crossflo
xiolp<uUI (uocdJJns
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concentration distributions obtained from the two simulation methods agree well
with each other, thus supporting the similarity of the two flow patterns both
qualitatively and quantitatively.
We are confident that the oscillating jet method is a valid technique to model
jet dispersion in an oscillating crossflow within our interested range of flow
parameters.
Figure 3.18 Time-averaged images with upper: oscillating jet method;

lower: progressive surface water wave method
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Experimental Results and Discussions
Chapter 4
The results of laboratory experiments are discussed in this chapter. The

experimental parameters are list in Section 4.1. An outline of the analysis
method follows in the next section. The experimental observations are
presented in Section 4.3. In Section 4.4, the emphasis is on the discussions of
experimental results. The formation mechanism of the observed coherent
patches of jet fluid is analyzed in Section 4.5. Finally, the relevant conclusions
based on the laboratory works are drawn in Section 4.6.
The coordinates used in the description of experimental results are
illustrated schematically in Figure 4.1, where
Wj
jet centreline vertical location, br and bz are the half-width of the jet along the
lateral and vertical direction respectively.
Inner boundary
Jet axis
outer boundary
Figure 4.1 Coordinate sketch

4.1 Parametric studies

We have carried out twelve sets of flow visualization experiments under
different combinations of the three governing parameters (Section 3.2.1). The
oscillating jet method is employed to model the imsteady crossflow. The
experimental parameters are tabulated in Table 4.1，where f and A are the
oscillation frequency and amplitude of the jet-pipe-nozzle assembly
respectively.
Table 4.1 Experimental parameters 一 Parametric studies

Set No. /(Hz)
2 2 2
5
o
5
7 3 2
o
0.0375 1.46x10'
• • •
•o o
7
5
o o
0.0825 3.22x10-
5
.6 0.12 4.69x10"
1.5 0.5 0.0375 2.93x10"
1 0.75 0.5 0.0825 6.45x10"
6 0.5 0.5 0.12 9.37x10"
o
0.0375 5.86x10一
5
0.0825 1.29x10"
o
1 0.12 L87xl0"3
0
1
4.5 0.0375 8.79x10

111—i
12
2.2, 0.0825 1.93x10'-

1.2 0.12 2.81xl0":
In all experiments, the jet nozzle is vertically downward and the jet is
non-buoyant. The mean ambient velocity, Ua, and the jet exit velocity, W]、are
kept at 10 and 80 cm/s respectively. The jet-to-current velocity ratio is thus
fixed at J? = Wj /Ua = 8. As we know, for a smaller R, there exists strong
interaction between the jet flow and the vortex structures in the wake of the jet
nozzle (Andreopoulos et al. 1984，Sherif et aL 1989，Fric et aL 1994). It is also
known that at the developed stage, the jet is self-similar and its characteristic
features are grossly independent on the velocity ratio R. The choice ofi? = 8
here is a compromise value of our study interests and the laboratory flume
dimensions. The Reynolds number offlow at the jet exit is = 6000. Thus the jet
is classified as turbulent. The unsteadiness parameters
1.5 and the non-dimensionalfrequencies or Strouhal numbers
to 0.12. For Up/Ua〉1.0, the crossflow actually reverses its direction for some
time in an oscillating cycle. The parameters fupD/W/ governing the uncertainty
of coordinate transformation vary from lA6xlO'4 to 2.81xl0'3,
In addition^ a vertical pure jet issuing into a steady crossflow at the same
jet-to-current velocity ratio has also been investigated experimentally for
comparison purpose.
4.2 Analysis method

4.2.1 Averaging of turbulence quantities
In our experimental investigations, flow visualization technique is
employed and hundreds of flow images are obtained. It is shown early in this
chapter that the jet flow are turbulent in nature. For a turbulent jet issuing into
a steady ambient, a physical flow quantity, q, consists of a time-averaged
component，q, and a turbulent fluctuation, q\ According to Reynolds
decomposition, this is expressed as:
(4-1)
In the case of a turbulent jet discharging into a wave environment, a strong

coherence interaction occurs between the jet flow and the ambient waves.
Consequently, in addition to the averaged component and the turbulent
fluctuation mentioned above, any quantity q has a third component
component, q ^ (Hussian & Reynolds 1970). Therefore，we have:
(4.2)
In order to remove the incoherent turbulent fluctuation, an ensemble

averaging technique outlined by Lam (1995) is adopted in present study. With
this technique，a phase-averaged quantity,〈分〉，is obtained which contains the
time-averaged and coherent parts. This ensemble averaging method is
expressed as:
2
/=0 J)
{q^))^q+m)
where t is the time period of the wave motion; ^ is the phase angle.
4.2.2 Extraction of scalar field

The jet flow images obtained in the experiments are digitized with a
frame grabber and a host computer. Each image frame is represented by a
640x480 pixel matrix of 256 grey levels. Level 0 represents a folly dark pixel
and level 255 represents a white pixel. It is believed that the relationship
between jet fluid concentration and the grey level of imageframe is linear (Chu
1996). Accordingly, with grey level
scalar, C, is calculated by:
C = k (255 - G) (4.4)
where A: is a constant which can be determined by calibration before each

experimental investigation. In present study，the scalar concentrations are
generally normalized by the peak value within the same event.
It should be pointed out that as the flow images are taken by the camera
on the front side of the flume while the light source for illumination is on the
other side of the flume (Section 3.2), the grey levels of the "side-view" images
are, in fact, results of light absorption by dye in the lateral direction. Therefore,
the extracted “concentration” from the image frames are the integral results in
the lateral direction, not only the tracer distributions on the jet central plane like
LIF measurements.
4.3 Experimental observations

4.3.1 Phase-averaged dispersion patterns
Figures 4.2 to 4.13 show six sequential phase-averaged dispersion patterns
over an oscillation cycle of the crossflow for the experimental Sets 1 to 12
respectively. The images, obtained from the image processing procedures as
described in Section 3.2, are shown in 256 grey levels. The phase number at which
each image is obtained could be seen at the lower-left comer of the picture. The
phase numbers are l/20th of a cycle and the variation of crossflow velocity with the
phase number in an oscillation cycle is plotted in Figure 4.14. At the phases 0 and
10，the crossflow is at the mean velocity with acceleration and deceleration
respectively; at the phases 4 and 6, the crossflow is close to the maximum velocity
with little acceleration and deceleration respectively; whileas at the phases 14 and
16，the crossflow is close to the minimum velocity with little deceleration and
acceleration respectively.
Ua+U
Ua
0
Phase number
Figure 4.14 Correlativity of phase numbers and crossflow velocity

Figure 4.2 Time evolution of the jet in unsteady crossflow

Set 1:

Set 2: Up

Set: 3 Up
腿 r
..-. .-.--
• 乂 . • ••u
liWiMMililhMitltlllllirilllllirr 11 1 ？

Set 4: Up

Set 5:
£ ::jj
fiS.V ；；
.

Set 6: Up/Ua — 0.5, 5 / = 0.12

Set 7; up/Ua = 1.0，St- 0.0375
10

Set 8: Up
5-: V
v
;
—
'• '• ;•
_
Set 9: Un/Ua= 1 . 0 ， S t = 0.12
Iii
0
:.0
-
'•r

Set 10: Up

Set 11: Up/Ua = 1.5, St^ 0.0825

Set 12: Up
The most interesting phenomenon, completely dififerent from the case of

a turbulent jet in a steady crossflow，is that the unsteady crossflow organizes
the jet fluids into successive large-scale patches. The phenomenon is obvious for
all experimental sets except for Set 1 where both the unsteadiness parameter and
Strouhal number are relatively smaller (0.25 and 0.0375 respectively, see Figure
4.2). It is also observed from the images that，when thefrequencyof oscillation is
higher, the formation of the patches is more frequent since one patch is formed
every cycle of oscillation in the crossflow. For exanqde，as St = 0.0375 in Set 4
(Figure 4.5) increases to St== 0.0825 in Set 5 (Figures 4.6) and St= 0.12 in Set 6
Figure 4.7)，the numbers of the distinguishable patches within the same extent are
increased from two for Set 4 to four and six for Sets 5 and 6. Further analysis on
the formation mechanism of the large-scale clouds or patches will be presented
in Section 4.5.
Moreover, it is observed that the larger the unsteadiness parameter up/Ua is,
the farther distance the jet fluid protrudes vertically downward. This is obvious
when comparing the corresponding dispersion patterns at the different Up /Ua,
e.g. Figures 4.3, 4‘6，4.9 and 4.12 where Up /Ua = 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5
respectively. In addition, for Sets 10 to 12 where the unsteadiness parameter
u/Ua〉1，the jet fluid clouds closest to the jet nozzle are found to penetrate
upstream beyond the nozzle at the phases 0 and 16 (Figures 4.11 to 4,13), probably
due to the reversal of the relative crossflow velocity.
4.3.2 Time-averaged dispersion patterns

The time-averaged dispersion pattern of the jet into thefluctuating crossflow
can be obtained from an average of the phase-locked patterns over all phases of a
cycle. The patterns obtained are shown in Figure 4.15a It should be noted that in
obtaining Figure 4.15a the phase-locked patterns have undergone a co-ordinate
transformation so as to align the jet nozzle position to afixed locatioix
Figure 4.15a Time-averaged dispersion patterns for all the experimental sets
歡 … … . . . .
• . 益
;, ：
• 十 . ^ '
，：:
4A<-'
t- • ：
； % •' ::'.杏.“.tx:.》- ' ^ 5 '
隱華讚_ :--...-..
Set 4 - ' Set 5 Set 6
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哚 g&,:‘ • •级^ ¾
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：代：》 - •
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Set 8 Set 9
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梦__
s
Set 10
e
Set 12
11
t
:
-
X'.
.
:..
:
,:
.
Figure 4.15b Time-averaged dispersion patterns after

enhancement with SOBEL filter
To identify the jet boundary, an image enhancement is performed for the

time-averaged images with a 3x3 kernelfilter，SOBEL，thekernel values of which
is shown in Figure 4.16. The nine elements in the kernel hold the weights，which are
used to enhance the pixel under the centre element of the kemeL The enhancement
operators replace each pixel with a fbnction of its neighbours. The new pixel value
is computed by centring the kernel over the pixel, miiltqDlyiiig each of the neighboiir
pixel by the corresponding kernel weight，adding all of the results together，and
then taking the absolute value. The edge operators use patterns of positive and
negative weight to make regions containing contrasting pixels turn white, while
relatively homogenous regions turn black. The filter SOBEL operates an edge
detection in all directions of the image. Figure 4.15b shows the images in Figure
4.15a after the enhancement with this kernel filter.
Figure 4.16 SOBEL Filter kernel
The time-averaged jet vertical widths lb: are determinedfromthe boundary-

identified images in Figure 4.15b. It is found that when conâred with a round jet
issuing into a steady crossflow at the same jet-to-crossflow velocity ratio，the jet
widths in all experiments are greatly increased. More detailed characteristics of the
time-averaged jet width varying with the flow governing parameters will be
discussed in next sectioa
4.4 Analysis and discussions

4.4.1 Phase-averaged concentration
The experimental data obtained from the phase-averaged image

indicate that the oscillating crossflow can affect the jet concentrations at
downstream distances fer away from the jet exit. Obviously，this effect varies
with the crossflow parameters. Figure 4.17 shows how the maximum phase-
averaged concentrations across the jet flow section x/D = 40，Cm,p, vary with
the phase of crossflow oscillation for Sets 1，4，7 and 10. Cm
the discharging concentration Co. (It is noted that the concentrations extrated
from the image frames at a section x/D here as well as in the later discussions
are the integral results in the lateral direction). It is observed that at this far
downstream distance when the crossflow oscillates at a lower frequency (St =
0.0375), the concentrations change with the phase in a near
sinusoidal mariner just like the changes of streamwise velocity in the crossflow.
0.10
0.08
Set1
Up/U.=0.25, St=0.0375
0.06
o 0.04
Set 4
Up/U.«0.5. St=0.0375
oo/ô
Set 7
O 0.06 Up/U.=1,Or St=0.0375
0.04
Set 10
0.06 Up/U.-1.5, St=0.0375
0.04
0.02
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Phase number
Figure 4.17 Maximum concentrations at x/D = 40 vary with the phases

(at lower frequency)
The curves in Figure 4.17 suggest that the variation amplitude of the
concentration is dependent on the unsteadiness parameter in the crossflow，up
IUa- The greater the UplUa is，the larger the amplitude is.
In contrast, the variation of the maximum phase-averaged concentration
with the oscillation phases is not significant when the crossflow oscillates at
higher frequencies. This is demonstrated in Figure 4.18 which plots the
normalized maximum concentrations, CwyCo9 at x/D =40 against the oscillation
phases for Set 6 and Set 12. The non-dimensional frequencies St are 0.12 for
both sets. It can be seen from the figure that the maximum concentrations are
basically close to a constant and independent on the phases of crossflow
oscillation. It is also observed that the concentrations at the near downstream
distance x/D = 10 do not vary significantly with the oscillation phases. This is
demonstrated by the curves for Set 1 and Set 9 shown in Figure 4.18.
o
ou
Set 1, x/D=10
Up/U.=0.25, St-0.0375
Set 9, x/D=10
Up/U,=1.0, St=0.12
Set 6, x/D-40
Up/U«=0.5, St=s0.12
Set 12, x^)=40

Up/U,=1.5t St=0.12
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Phase number
Figure 4.18 Maximum concentrations vary with the phases

at x/D = 10 and x/D = 40 with higher frequencies
Furthermore, in order to recognize the effect of the oscillating crossflow

on the jet mixing, the highest normalized maximum phase-averaged
concentrations at certain downstream locations，max{Cmtp /Co), are compared
with the centreline concentrations of a jet in a steady crossflow of the same jet-
to-current velocity ratio. The results are listed in Table 4.2. It is seen that in the
unsteady cases, the variation of the highest maximum concentrations at x/D =
10 with the flow parameters is irregular and not very significant. While the
highest maximum concentrations are found to decrease with Strouhal number
St at x/D = 40. The unsteadiness parameter up /Ua seems not to affect the
concentrations obviously at this far field. Essentially, the highest maximum
concentrations associated with the unsteady crossflow，ranging from 0.083 to
0.091 at x/D = 10 and from 0,057 to 0.067 at x/D = 40，are found to be smaller
Table 4J2 Comparison of maxijC^p/Co) with centreline concentration

of the same jet in a steady crossflow
Set No. U/Ua St max(C^n/C^
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . x/D = x/D = 40
1 0.25 0.0375 0.087 0.064
2 0.25 0,0825 0.087 0.060
3 0.25 0.12 0.086 0.059
4 0.5 0.0375 0.087 0.067
5 0.5 0.0825 0.088 0.060
6 0.5 0.12 0.085 0.058
7 1.0 0.0375 0.088 0.064
8 L0 0.0825 0.089 0.060
9 1.0 0.12 0.083 0.057
10 L5 0.0375 0.086 0.066
11 1.5 0.0825 0.085 0.064
12 1.5 0.12 0.091 0.063
Steady i? = 8 0.097 0.072
than those centreline concentrations corresponding to an equivalent jet in 汪

steady crossflow，for which the centreline concentrations at x/D = 10 and 40
are 0.097 and 0.072 respectively. This suggests that if instantaneous phase-
locked jet mixing is considered，the unsteadiness in the crossflow enhances the

jet mixing effectively.
4.4.2 Forward motion of coherent patches

As mentioned earlier in this chapter，the discharging jet fluid is organized
into successive large-scale coherent patches under the oscillating crossflow.
The numbers of patches formed depend on the oscillating frequency of the
crossflow. Starting from the jet nozzle, the patches move forward and induce
fluctuations of the jet concentration found at downstream. The trajectories of
the coherent patches for three experiment sets are tracked from the phase-by-
phase dispersion patterns and plotted in Figure 4.19a. It indicates that the
formation of the patches is regular and one patch is formed for each cycle of
velocity oscillations in the crossflow. As one can seen in thefigure，thereare
five separated trajectory curves appearing within the range of x/D = 0 to 50 for
Set 9 where a higher frequency of crossflow oscillation, St = 0.12, is imposed.
On the other hand，only two and three separated trajectory curves are found
within the same x/D range for Set 7 and Set 8 respectively since lower
frequencies of crossflow oscillation, St = 0.0375 and 0.0825, are employed.
Trajectories of several successive patches can be combined together to obtain
the space-time convection of a typical patch.
In addition, it is found that the convection of patches in the first half
period (phase number 0 to 10) are fester than in the later half period (phase
number 12 and forward). This is specially evident for the Set 7 which is
associated with a lower frequency. This may be explained as due to the positive
streamwise velocity in the first half period and the reversed streamwise velocity
in the later half period imposed on the mean flow. As a result, the adjacent
patches combine together at the location far away from the jet nozzle. In the
highest frequency cases, for example，Set 9 and Set 12 shown in Figure 4.10
and Figure 4.13 respectively, the patches in the far away region are combined
together so that individual patches are hard to distinguish. This dispersion

feature may result in a relatively more uniform mixing of jet flow within the
region far away from the jet nozzle.
Moreover, with the patch formationfrequency，,and the amplitude of
the oscillating crossflow. Up
The trajectories of the patches shown in Figure 4.19a are replotted in Figure
4.19b using an alternative non-dimensional downstream distance It is
found that the separated trajectory curves of the different experimental sets in
Figure 4.19a approximately coincide together in Figure 4.19b. This implies that
the convection of the patches follows a similar pattern.
4.4.3 Time-averaged concentration

For a pure momentum jet in crossflow，the characteristic length scale is
zm = t^/Ua
Alternatively, zm can be written as
工M = / Ua
Since the jet-to-current velocity ratio

experiments，thus
(4.6)
The length scale analysis suggests that the jet flow is dominated by the
crossflow in the asymptotic region of z » zm. Therefore, we are concerned
with the jet dispersion and mixing properties in this region, i.e. z/D » 7. In the
following discussion, the selected jet sections are far beyond z/D = 7.
4.4.3.1 Concentration profile

Figure 4.20 presents the typical time-averaged jet fluid concentration
profiles at the successive downstream sections, x/D = 10，25，40，for Sets 7，8
60
- • - S e t 7 , St=0.0375
-^r-Set 8, St=0.0825
Set 9, St=0.12
40
30
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Phase number
Figure 4.19a Streamwise locations of coherent patches x/D vs.

phases of oscillating cycle
6
1
w •'Sst 7, St=0.0375
~ik~ Set 8, St=0.0825
一••Set 9, St=0.12
5
0
2
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 14 16 18 20
Phase number
Figure 4.19b Streamwise locations of coherent patches 逸 vs.

phases of oscillating cycle
and 9. The concentration

at the section x/D = 10, r in the figure is the lateral distance from the jet
centreline.
In these sets，the unsteadiness parameters are 1.0, that is there is no
velocity reversal in the crossflow，while the Strouhal numbers St are 0.0375，
0.0825 and 0.12 respectively. It is observed that at the smallest St (Figure
4.20(a)，St- 0.0375), the peak concentrations are located at the upper layer of
the jet throughout the region from the jet discharging point to x/D = 40. When
St is increased to 0.0825 (Figure 4,20(b))，a dual-peak distribution of
concentration along the lateral direction of the jet is found at x/D = 25. The
peak concentration location is found to shift from the upper layer of the jet at
x/Z) = 10 to the lower layer at x/D = 40, Under the condition of the largest
Strouhal number (Figure 4.20(c)，St= 0.12), the jet is almost imiform across
the jet section in the near field. At x/D = 25，an obvious peak value appears at
the lower layer, which becomes more obvious at x/D = 40.
Figure 4.21 shows the time-averaged non-dimensional concentration
profiles across the jet width at x/D = 10, 25 and 40 for Sets 4，5 and 6，where
the unsteadiness parameter is at a smaller value of u/Ua = 0.5. When compared
with the distributions at Up/Ua = 1.0 in Figure 4.20, no dual-peak distribution is
observed. In the case of St = 0.0375 (Figure 4.21(a))，the normalized
concentration distributions at x/D = 10 and 25 are approximately Gaussian
while at x/D = 40, the peak value is located at the upper layer of the jet* In the
case of larger Strouhal numbers, St- 0.0825 and 0.12 (Figure 4.21(b), (c))，the
jet fluid is concentrated at the upper layer of the jet at x/D = 10，but at x/D =
25，the jet is well mixed in the middle zone.
The concentration distributions at the largest unsteadiness parameter,
Up/Ua = 1.5，are shown in Figure 4.22. At the smallest Strouhal number，St =
0.0375，very different concentration profiles are observed at the cross sections
at x/D = 25 and x/D = 40 (Figure 4.22(a)). The distributions have a well
1
:0 x/D =25 x^D=40
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0.6 0.8 1.0 02
-10
10
Normalized dye concentration NormalizBd dye concentration Normalized dye concentration
⑷ Set 7: Up
=10 x/D =40

x/D=25
20
0 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.0
Normalized dye concentration Normalized dye concentration

NormalizBd dye concentration
(b) Set 8: 1.0，汾= 0.0825
x/D»10 x/D=25 X0-4O
10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8-Su 1.0 0.8 1.0 00 0J2 0.4 0 . 6 X 0.8 1.0
L
-10 L -15 -15
Normalized dye concentration Nonnaized dye concentration Normaized dya concentration
(c) Set 9: 1.0,^ = 0.12
Figure 4.20 Lateral distributions of normalized concentration

across the jet width
:10 =25 X/D =40
10
H
0 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.8 1.0 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
-10
L
-10 -10
NormalizBd dye concentration Normaiasd dye concentration Normalized dye concentration
(a) Set 4:
x/D=10 x/D =25 x/D=40
10 15
10
5
5
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6j T 0.8 1.0 02 0.4 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.0
-5
-5
10
10 -15 • 1 6
Normalized dye concentration Normalized dye concentration Normaized dye concentration
(b) Set 5: Up/Ua = 0.5，St = 0.0825
x/D=10 x/D =25 x/D =40
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 0.2 0.4 0 . 6 C 0.8 1.0 02 0.4
-5
-10 -10
-15
10
Normaized dye concentration Normalfzed dye concentration
Normalized dye concentration
(c) Set 6: Up/Ua = 0.5, St = 0.12

across the jet width
=
1
0 x/D=25 x/D =40
20
10
+
0 62 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.8 1,0 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
〕 10
Normalized dye concentration Normalized dye concentration Normaized dye concentration
(a) Set 10; 1 . 5 , ^ = 0.0375
:10 x/D-25 x/D^40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.5 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 02 0.4 0.6 NO .8 1.0
L
-15 -15
Normalized dye concentration Normaized dye concentration Normalized dye concentration
(b) Set 11: up/Ua = 1.5，St = 0.0825
:10 x/D=25 x/D=40
0 02 0.4 0.6 JD.8 1.0
NormatizBd dye concentration Normalized dye concentration Normafzed dye concentration
( c ) S e t 12: Up/Ua = 1.5, St - 0 . 1 2

across the jet width.
separated dual-peak appearance. For Set 11 and Set 12 where 5/= 0.0825 and
0.12 respectively，the similar distribution curves to those for Up/Ua^ 1.0 shown
in Figure 4.20(b) and (c) are observed (Figure 4.22(b), (c)).
In the case of the smallest unsteadiness parameter, Up/Ua - 0.25, (Sets 1，
2 and 3), the jet behaves very similar to a jet in a steady crossflow. No obvious
coherent patches of jet fluid are formed. The concentration profiles at the
successive cross sections of the time-averaged jet for these three experimental
sets are plotted in Figure 4.23. It can be seen that along the deflected jet，the
normalized concentration distributions across the jet axe very close to the
Gaussian. Furthermore, the concentration distributions across the jet are similar
at the successive sections. This is shown in Figure 4.24, where Cc denotes the
concentration at the centre of the jet section, br is the lateral distance r where
C(r) = Cc/2.
4.43.2 Jet width

The time-averaged jet vertical widths at different downstream positions
obtained from the images in Figure 4.15b are presented in Table 4.3. It is noted
that the jet width is greatly increased by the unsteadiness in crossflow. The
most significant determining fector is the unsteadiness parameter Up /U a in the
crossflow. It is observed in Figures 4.2 to 4.4 that the jet is bent over a larger
extent and the coherent patches formed are less protruding vertically
downwards from the connecting jet fluids on the inner side of the jet. The time-
averaged jet width in this case is widened to a smaller extent as compared with
the cases of the larger unsteadiness parameters. It can be seen from the Table 4.3
that the jet width, for example at x/D = 30，is increased from about 18Z) to
35.2D when Up /Ua varies from 0.25 to 1.5. When Up /Ua exceeds 1.0, the
variation of jet width with Up /Ua is not very significant. As one can see from
the table，the jet widths at x/D = 30 are 34.8Z) and 28.21) for Sets 7 and 8
respectively, where up/Ua = 1.0 for both sets with different St. Whereas when
x/D=10
Set 1 uÛa=0.25, St=0.0375
0.3 0.5
-20
C/C m ’io
x/D=10
Set 2 uJUa=:0.25, St=0.0825 x/D=25
0.4 0.5
-20
C/Cm.io

C/Cnit10

across the jet width for Sets 1，2 and 3
=h2
q-x/D=10
Set 1 up/Ua=0.25. St=0.0375 ^-x/D=25
—x/D=40
— S t e a d y jet
y 0.6
0.2 -

-45-
x/l>10
Set 2 up/Ua=0.25f St=0.0825 x/D=25
x/DÔ
Steady jet
9 0.6 --
0.4
-2.5 -2.0 .1.5 •1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 15 2.0 2.5
x/D=10
Set 3 up/Ua=0.25, St=0.12 x/D=25
x/D=40
Steady jet
0.8
oo/o
0 . 6 --
0.4
0.2
-2.0 •1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Figure 4.24 Self-similar concentration distributions

across the jet width for Sets 1，2 and 3
Up
and 11，have almost the same widths of 35.2Z) and 28.12) respectively.
Table 4.3 Time-averaged jet widths

Set uÛa St f Jet width (2b^D)
No: (Hz) x/D—\Q x/D=20 x/D—30
1 0.25 0.0375 0.5 12.1 15.4 18.0
2 0.25 0.0825 1.1 13.1 16.0 18.4
3 0.25 0.12 1.6 13.8 16.6 19.5
4 0.5 0.0375 0.5 13.2 17.8 24.5
5 0.5 0.0825 1.1 17.0 20.5 23.8
6 0.5 0.12 1.6 15.7 19.4 23.6
7 1.0 0.0375 0.5 22.1 28.8 34.8
8 1.0 0.0825 LI 21.8 26.1 28.2
9 1.0 0.12 1.6 20.1 24.5 27.7
10 1.5 0.0375 0.5 25.0 34.9 35.2
11 1.5 0.0825 LI 22.1 25.3 28.1
12 1.5 0.12 L6 20.6 24.1 26.0
Steady i? = 8 8,4 8J 10.6
In addition, the Strouhal number St also has some effect on the jet width.
At the smallest unsteadiness parameter, Up/Ua = 0.25, the jet widths are found
to increase with St. In contrast, the jet widths are found to decrease with St
when the unsteadiness parameters are increased to 1.0 and 1.5.
Generally speaking, when compared with a round jet issuing into a
steady crossflow at the same jet-to-current velocity ratio，the jet widths in the
unsteady crossflows are approximately two to three times larger within our
experimental conditions.
4.4.3,3 Peak concentration

拿
Table 4.4 lists the normalized peak concentration,
cross sections
at the selected sections，Co is the concentration at the jet exit. It is observed
that when compared with the same jet in a steady crossflow，the peak
concentrations associated with the unsteady crossflows are decreased. This is
consistent with the analysis on the jet dispersion width presented above. At the
near field of x/D = 10，the peak concentrations decrease with the oscillatmg
frequencies f or Strouhal numbers St in the crossflow and increase with the
unsteadiness parameters up /Ua in the crossflow. At the far field of x/D = 40
where the jet flow is fiilly developed, when the unsteadiness parameter Up/Ua is
Table 4.4 Time-averaged peak concentration

Set No. St
#
• • • ‘
u/Ua
, Cm
x/D=10 x/D-40
1 0.25 0.0375 0.092 0.065
2 0.25 0.0825 0.090 0.061
3 0.25 0.12 0.081 0.055
4 0.5 0.0375 0.091 0.054
5 0.5 0.0825 0.088 0.058
6 0.5 0.12 0.085 0.058
7 1.0 0.0375 0.093 0.057
8 1.0 0.0825 0.088 0.059
9 1.0 0,12 0.087 0.061
10 1.5 0.0375 0.094 0.058
11 1.5 0.0825 0.090 0.062
12 1.5 0.12 0.092 0.069
Steady i? = 8 0.097 0.072
at the smallest value of 0.25，the peak concentrations decrease with the

oscillating frequencies of the crossflow. In contrast，the peak concentrations
increase with the oscillating frequencies of the crossflow when Up/Ua increases
and exceeds 0.5. This variation of the peak concentrations with the flow
parameters at the far field corresponds to the jet width variations listed in Table
4.3，that is at the smallest unsteadiness parameter Up /Ua = 0.25，the jet is
widened to wider widths by the larger oscillating frequencies, while when Up/Ua
increases and exceeds 0.5, higher oscillating frequencies lead to narrower
widths. In summary，the feet that the peak concentrations associated with the
unsteady crossflow are smaller than the centreline concentrations of the same
jet in a steady crossflow implies that the jet dispersion and mixing is enhanced
by the imsteadiness in the crossflow.
4.5 Formation of coherent patches

In order to reveal the formation mechanism of the large-scale coherent
patches or clouds observed in the experiments as discussed in the previous
section, an ingeniously designed experiment has been performed. For this set of
experiments, the velocity in main stream of the flume Ua and the jet discharging
velocity Wj are kept at 0.11 m/s and 0.88 m/s respectively，resulting in the same
jet-to-current velocity ratio ofi? = 8; the oscillating frequency/and amplitude
A of the jet-pipe-nozzle assembly are 0.5 Hz and 3.0 cm respectively.
Accordingly, the Strouhal number, St = fD/Ua, is equal to 0.0375 and the
imsteadiness parameter, up/Ua, is equal to 1.0. By adjusting the delay time from
the phase signal, the dye, methyl blue，is intermittently released only at the
instant of = t/T = 0，1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 respectively to mark the formation
process, where T is the oscillating period of the jet nozzle. The dye release time
lasts 0.2 second. These four instants correspond to the time when the relative
velocity of the crossflow is at = w( = Ua)f
respectively，where u 9 umax
streamwise velocity of the oscillating crossflow respectively.
Figure 4.25(a) 一（d) show the time evolving patches or clouds of the jet
fluids within an oscillating cycle. The four images within a cycle are 774，Le. 0.5
sec” apart. The SOBEL filter is applied to the images to apparently identify the
patches. The phases of the crossflow oscillation are illustrated in term of the
phase number, in multiples of 10°, shown in the left-low comer of each image.
Phase number 0 corresponds to Ua = u , phase number 9 to W
a = iw，phase
number 18 to = w and phase number 27 to

continuously released dye are also displayed in Figure 4.25(e) for reference. It
is observed that in the case that the jet fluids are released at the phase =0
and 3/4 (Figure 4.25(a), (d)), the fluids being released are convected
horizontally in the direction of the accelerating crossflow. On the other hand, in
the case that the jet fluids are released at the phase /* = 1/4 and 1/2 (Figure
4.25(b), (c))，the released fluids are bent over towards the opposite direction of
the crossflow due to the deceleration of the ambient flow. These processes lead
to a clearly distinguishable 'twist" cloud patch protruding downwards (Figure
4.25(e)).
Furthermore, it can be observed in Figure 4.25(b) that as the jet fluids
are discharged at t* = 1/4, Le. ua = the jet is deflected significantly by the
crossflow due to the smaller jet-to-current velocity ratio at that time and the jet
evolves virtually in horizontal direction within one half oscillating cycle, which
leads to the formation of the upper layer of the jet pattern in Figure 4.25(e).
While for the jet fluids discharged at r* = 0，1/2 and 3/4 (Figure 4.25(a), (c),
(d)) when the crossflow is at its time-averaged mean velocity Ua or the
minimum value umin
convected significantly by the crossflow just after discharging. The fluids
accumulate to form a “cloud-like，，patch. Approximately after half of the
oscillating period, for example at = 1/4 in Figure 4.25(d), the jet fluid cloud
is formed and then convected by the accelerating crossflow and gradually
become a bulge-shaped coherent patch- This process is repeated once a cycle
and eventually succeeding fluid coherent patches are formed.
4.6 Summary
An oscillating jet technique is used for the modelling of an unsteady
crossflow. A series of parametric studies on a vertical round jet issuing into a
sinusoidally oscillating crossflow are performed in the laboratory flume. The

results suggest that the jet fluid is organized into large-scale coherent patches
due to accelerations and decelerations of the streamwise velocity in the
crossflow. Compared with an equivalent jet discharging into a steady
crossflow，unsteadiness in the oscillatmg crossflow enhances the mixing of the
jet flow in view of time-averaging.
r:
(b)
：
, , -
• -
.4:.j4ga
(d)
•• - mmm,.…...醒l.
Figure 4.25 Formation of the jet fluids patches. The dye is released at
= (a) 0; (b) 1/4; (c) 1/2; (d) 3/4. (as indicated by the
arrow heads) and (e) for continuously released dye
Numerical Modelling
Chapter 5
Numerical Modelling
5.1 Introduction
Experimental results and analysis are presented in the previous chapter.
In this chapter, the numerical calculation is employed in order to provide a
powerful methodology for prediction of a round vertical jet in an unsteady
crossflow and，in the same time，to make comparison between the experimental
results and the numerical predictions.
The flow problem was computed with a CFD code，FLUENT, which
used a control volume based technique (Patankar 1980) to solve the governing
partial differential equations. The ReNormalization Group (RNG) k-z turbulent
model was adopted in the computations. The RNG k-e model follows the k-s
two-equation turbulence modeling framework and can been derived from the
basic governing equations for fluid flow using mathematical techniques called
ReNormalization Group (RNG) methods. Based on this mathematical
foundation to turbulent transport modelling, as opposed to semi-empirical
approaches that are more common^ the RNG model provides a more general
and fundamental model and yields improved predictions of near wall flows
(including flow separation), flows with high streamline curvature and high
strain rate，low-Reynolds-number and transitionalflow，wallheat/mass transfer,
and detailed wake flow and vortex shedding behavior.
5.2 Mathematical model

The detailed descriptions on the governing equations can be found in
many literature, for example, Batchelor (1967) and Hinze (1975).
Numerical Modelling
5.2.1 Basic governing equations for laminar flows

The basic equations governing the laminar flow of continuous,
compressible or imcompressible Newtonian fluid in Cartesian co-ordinate
system are:
conservation of mass
dp d(pui)
"••i _ i i • • • —i »
(5.1)
where p is the density of fluid,

2，3 represents the three directions in Cartesian coordinate, Sm is the source
term. In present study，Sm = 0.
conservation of momentum in the ith direction
dipu^j) dp dl /y „
(5.2)
5X/ uXj
where p is the static pressure，gi and F) are gravitational acceleration and

external body forces in the i direction^ respectively. In present study，g, = 0，Fi
= 0 . Xij is the stress tensor，which is expressed as:
(5.3)
where jn is the molecular viscosity.
conservation of species i
where mr is mass fraction of species ，

/•In multicomponentflows，themass of
species i
V
Ji
teim In present study,
5.2.2 Conservation equations for turbulent flows

The conservation equations for turbulent flows are obtained by performing a
time averaging procedure (Hinze 1975) on the equations for laminar flows. For a
conserved scalar quantity (j) and the velocity w7 in turbulent flow, the instantaneous
value is decomposed into time averaging and fluctuating components:
<) =石+ (|)' (5.5)

u i =巧• + u; (5.6)
Turbulentfluctuations <|)' and u; are assumed to be random such that:
小‘=0，可=0 (5.7)
Substituting Equations 5.5 to 5.7 into the Equations 5.1 to 5.4 yields the time-
averaged equations for predicting turbulent flow (dropping off the overbar on the
mean variables for convenience).
conservation of mass
^ P + ^ ) = 0 (5.8)
dt dxi
conservation of momentum
孙，） = - 生 + 巧 +d (一巧) (5.9)
Numerical Modelling
Compared with Equation 5.2，a new term, Reynolds stress
the right hand side in Equation 5.9. With Boussinesq assumption, the Reynolds
stress is also proportional to the mean velocity gradient like the viscosity
stresses，that is:
___ du Su.
一 P
l>vV j OvV 乂
where |ir = pCÂ^/s is the turbulent viscosity，k is the turbulent kinetic energy, s
is referred to as dissipation rate of L CM - 0.09 is an empirical coefficient.
conservation of scalar
^(P^) . d{pu4) a(pw;c|)')

" I T + I T " : 一一 ( 5
. 1 1
)
Where D、represent the diffusion term. The correlation appears on the

right hand side is modeled using gradient transport theory. For the species
conservation in turbulent flows:
_一r = 一
\xt dm.
• ( 5 . 1 2
..) , 1、
Where cjm is the turbulent Schmidt number，the value of which is empirically

determined to be 0.7 approximately.
The ReNormalization Group (RNG) k-e model (Yakhot 1986) is
adopted as closure model.
5.2.3 The ReNormalization Group (RNG) k_s model

Turbulent flows have eddies that range in size from so-called "energy-
containing eddies，，of integral scale L, to small eddies of size LI i?e3/4, where
Numerical Modelling
Re - UL!
extremely low energy due to viscous dissipation. Thus, accurate solution of the
3-D Navier-Stockes equations for a turbulent flow requires storage of order
0 ( i ? f 4 ) and computational work of order 0{B?e) since turbulence also has a
range of time scales of order If Re is large，these computational

requirements are enormous. RNG methods reduce this computational
requirement by eliminating the inertial-range eddies from the equations of
motion^ yielding equations for averaged flow quantities at the integral scale of
the turbulence.
The transport equations for k and s in RNG k-s model are:
^ +^ =A( a 仏 + # - ps (5.13)
ut uXj uXj uXj
^dt dxi dxi dxi k k
where ak and a8 are the inverse effective Prandtl numbers for

respectively. They are computed using following formula derived analytically
by the RNG theory:
0.6321 0.3679
a a +2.3929 (5.15)
a0-13929 ou+2.3929
where ao = 1.0. In the high-Reynolds number limit 3 = a e « 1.393.

Variable S in Equations 5.13 and 5.14 is the modules of the mean rate-
of-strain tensor，Sij, which is defined as
(5.16)
where
Numerical Modelling
(5.17)
3 (5.18)
1+pTl k
where r| =
5.14 are derived analytically by the RNG theory, and they are:
=
C i g - 1 . 4 2 , C i t 1 . 6 8
5.2,4 Numerical solution procedure

The flow problem is computed with the FLUENT code which uses a
control volume based technique (Patankar 1980) to solve the governing partial
differential equations. This control volume based technique consists of:
• Division of the computational domain into discrete control volumes using a
general curvilinear grid;
• Integration of the governing equations on the individual control volumes to
construct the algebraic equations for discrete unknowns (z//, p’ mi). The
quadratic upwind interpolation (QUICK) scheme of Leonard (1979) is
employed for spatial discretization.
• The discretized equations are solved iteratively using the pressure-velocity
coupling algorithm - SIMPLEC (Van Doormaal & Raithby 1984),
More details about the solution procedure could be found in the
FLUENT User's Guide (1996)
Numerical Modelling
5.3 Computational domain and boundary conditions

Figure 5.1 shows the computational domain and its top view
which is 0.5 m long x 0.3 m
laboratory flume. The downstream distancefrom the jet exit extends to more than
50 diameters of the exit. We have tested a longer domain length at 0.8 h l The
calculated jet trajectory and centreline concentration for a vertical jet in steady
crossflow using different domain lengths are conq)ared in Figure 5.2. The result
indicates that the numerical solution for the 0.8 m length is aJmost the same as that
for the 0.5 m length. Hence, we confirm that it is appropriate to the present flow
problem for choosing 0,5 m as the domain length No corresponding sensitivity
x
Jet nozzle
0.5m
Wall
Inlet Outlet
let injection
o. i symmetric plane
0.3m
Figure 5.1 (a) Computational domain and (b) Top view of the domain
Numerical Modelling
3.0
0.8 m
2.5
2.0
15
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
(x/U^3
3.0
=0.8 m
2.5 =0.5 m
Gefn )
os
0.0 0.5 10 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
( 《严
Figure 5.2 Comparison of calculated jet properties using different

domain length, (a) jet trajectory; (b) centreline concentration
Numerical Modelling
test on the domain length was made for the unsteady crossflow runs. Since the flow
problem is symmetrical about plane
was considered in the confutations. The jet exit is positioned at the top fece of the
bo、z — 09 which is treated as an nnpermeable wall except inside the jet injection
hole. The main stream is introduced from left to right. Accordingly, these two feces
are treated as velocity inlet and free outlet, respectively. The upstream boundaiy x
= 0 is placed 0.1 m before the jet injection point. The other two feces remained are
naturally treated as wall boundaries.
In the following sections, (U, V, W) represent the jet flow mean velocity
components in {xf y, z) directions respectively; Wj is the jet discharging velocity; ua
ambient stream velocity and C the concentration of the jet fluid.
The boundary conditions used in this confutation are described as follows:
Jet injection region: We assign ？7 = F = 0, PT = ^ C = Co = 1; the kinetic

energy
k0
2
k
s
o =
Cp ，where
layer model (Lee & Rodi 1994).
Main stream inflow boundary： U = Ua{t))厂=『=0，C = 0. For steady

crossflow，the negligibly small initial values of k and s for this non-turbulence
inflow boundary are assumed such that Vt <10"3v for numeric reasons. For
imsteady crossflow, k is calculated from the velocity fluctuations in the main
stream. See Section 5.4.2.
Outflow boundary: A zero normal gradient is assumed for all the variables q
that is — = 0
Numerical Modelling
Syinmetric boundary: F = 0; and normal gradient of all the other variables
set to zero，that is — = 0 .
Other boundaries: They are treated as firictionless walls and

du dv 0. r L
= = for the upper boundary outside the jet injection region and the
dU dW
lower boundary; F = 0, 二
wall function is applied on the walls with equilibrium assumption used for
estimating
and
in the lee of the jet (Moussa et al. 1976，Fric & Roshko 1994). The local
boundary layer within the wake region and near-wall region must be simulated
with much finer numerical meshes，which, however，exceeds the study range of
our interest. We are interested in the jet bent over phase and its fiilly developed
asymptotic stage, which is remote from the walls. Hence, it is reasonable to
assume no effect of walls on the fiilly developed region of the jet. In fact，we
found in the computations that the numerical solution is rather insensitive to the
treatment of the wall boundaries.
Additionally，fluid properties are taken the values offresh water，i.e.，density
p = 103 kg/m3, molecular viscosity p, = 10"3 kg/nxs，binary diffiision coefficient for
contamination in water A) = 3.05x 10-5.
A grid pattern 64 x 22 x 64 is used in the calculations with the jet exit
defined by 16 uniform cells. Structured orthogonal grids are generated whereby in
the three co-ordinate directions finer grids are en^ployed near the jet exit and
coarser grids at the positions ferther away. The grid sizes range from 0.165 cm to
3.5 cm. The conputational grid is shown in Figure 5.3. The grid is selected from a
compromise between grid fineness and computation time required. It should be
noted that the flow to be simulated is an imsteady one for whichflowfields
Numerical Modelling
required at a number of phases. For the steady flow case of jet in a non-time-
varying crossflow, another two simulations with different resolutions, one on a
coarser grid pattern 64 x 22 x 44 and another on afiner grid 71 x 31 x 44，are
made to validate the numerical accuracy. All the contour plots present a very
similar pattern to each other, and the differencesfor all the non-dimensional
parameters are limited to the negligible values. We hence confirm that the chosen
grid size is fine enough and the numerical results are independent on the numerical
procedure adopted. Seven flow variables, namely, pressure, the three velocity
； -i2lm=mlusuHS1MI_ll
A•
_
<Mimmmms:s's二issls_l«lllHilllllallallfl_all__«1
而錢ils5ssi;s:s::s:::::::s::sBIssl8!:illslllllllllllf!i
M
.
m
—
«
鋒ilXE£=s3us:::::::::»UHalfilsllllllliilJIIllsllslllllllfs
f H m
lun s=
；
stu5_« •
••朦••顔•舊
•
••
；
•
«•«
_•議
—
画
S
••
•••
釀••
•«
Jan ] 0 1 9 9 8
G r i d ( 64 X 2 2 X 64 ) Fluent 4.42
Fluent Inc
Figure 5.3 Conputational surfece grid (64x22x64)
components, kinetic energy, dissipation rate and species massfraction, are selected
to be computed Iterations are terminated when the sum of normalized residuals of
the seven variables became less than 5xl0"5, a value which is subjectively judged to
be small enougL The time step At took the value of 0.0IT, where T = 1/îs the
time period of crossflow oscillation. Approximate^ 12 iterations are required to
converge for each step. The step-by-step technique is adopted for
重瞧••n••直•幽塞s
Numerical Modelling
convergence of time-dependent problem, Le. we begin with the confutation of the

steady crossflow and 汪 converged solution is achieved. Such solution serves as the
starting point for the computation of time-dependent crossflow. The time-
dependent calculation is performed over a number of oscillation period of crossflow
for ensuring that the numerical modelling becomes dynamically stable. Figure 5.4
presents the time history of normalized residuals for the selected variables in
computation for both steady and time-dependent crossflow cases. In steady
crossflow case, see Figure 5.4 (a)，a very good convergent solution is obtained after
1340 steps. The normalized residuals for all the selected confuted variables except
for pressure are smaller than 10"7. The normalized residuals for pressure is also
smaller than 10"5. For the unsteady crossflow, it is noted in Figure 5.4 (b) that
although the convergence curves are no longer monotonically decreased to a
constant and they are oscillatory too just like the oscillatmg velocity in the
crossflow，the convergence for each variable is reached dynamically. The sum of
the normalized residuals of all variables is less than 5xl0"5 at each step.
It should be pointed out that, with this CFD code，the numerical solutions of
flowfieldare rather insensitive to the boundaiy conditions of turbulence intensities
assumed within a reasonable range. Herein^ we empirically assume the turbulence
intensity in uniform crossflow has the value of 3% 〜8% as the boundary condition
The jet exit boundary layer is reasonably inferred to be fiilly-developed turbulent
and the turbulence intensities corresponding to this kind of flow normally have
values as great as 10% (Govier & Aziz 1977). Therefore, we set the turbulence
intensity at the jet exit as 10% in the comptitations.
Pressure 10.00E+00
U Velocity
V Velocity l.DODE-Oi
W Velocity
1.000E-02
Dissipalicm
1.0DDE-03—
1.000E-CM~
1.0DDE-05
.OODE-DB
1 . 0 0 0E-L17
1.00DE-D8
1100 I 160 1260 134D 1420 15D0
Time S t e p s
J a n 10 1 9 9 8
Normalized R e s i d u a l s Fluent m
Fluent Inc.
Pressure 1.00DE-03
U Velocity
V V e! o c i t y
W Velocity
].00DE-0^~-
fv
A "vv
Dissipation
.00DE-05'
1.00DE-06
1.0 ODE-0 7
1.00DE-08.
2100 2200 2300 MdO ？500 2600
Time S t e p s
J a n 10 1 9 9 8
N o r m a l i z e d Residua]： Fluent 4A2
Fluent Inc.
Figure 5.4 Time history of normalized residuals

(a) steady case; (b) time-dependent case
5.4 Results and discussions

5.4.1 Turbulent jet in a steady crossflow
The numerical model is verified by running the computer code for a
turbulent round jet in a steady crossflow. The predictions of jet properties will
be compared to the dimensional analysis relations relevant to the flow problem.
At the same time, the experimental measurements of Chassaing et al. (1974)，
Wong (1991)，Hodgson & Rajaratnam (1992) and Chu (1996) are adopted for
comparison. Recently，Lee & Chen (1997) conducted a niunerical simulation of
advected line puff with CFD. Their results are also adopted for comparison.
For a turbulent pure jet advected by a uniform crossflow，the flow
problem is characterized by the jet discharge Qf initial momentum discharge
concentration Co and the velocity in main stream. Ua. Two characteristic length
scales can be formed herein: Lm = Mol/2/Ua7 which is a measure of the vertical
distance beyond which the jet is significantly bent over by the current; Lx =
a measure of the spatial evolution of the jet. Dimensional analysis
leads to the following similar relations within the momentum dominated near
field (MDNF) and the momentum dominated fer field (MDFF) for the
commonly concerned features in environmental hydraulics (Lee & Chen 1997):
MDNF ( z « Z m ) MDFF “〉〉“）
2
Trajectory
Lm
171 A Lm
scQ scQ (5.20)

Minimum dilution
L 2
UaL 2m Lm
Jet width by Ih (5.21)

Numerical Modelling
Maximum velocity
(5.22)
In these equations, the jet trajectory is defined as the location of maximum

centreline concentration Cc. zc is the vertical location of the centreline
corresponding to the downstream distance
minimum dilution;
where the concentration is reduced to
velocity;
definition of above characteristic quantities is illustrated in Figure 5.5.
The similarity relations will be used to validate the present numerical
model.
Figure 5.5 Definition sketch of jet in a crossflow
5,4. LI Computational parameters and boundary conditions

The following parameters are adopted:
0.8 m/s, Co = 1. The velocity ratio is thus i? = 8 and the jet discharge
Numerical Modelling
initial momentum Mo are equal to 3.534xl0'5 m3/s and 2.827x10"5 m4/s2

respectively. The characteristic length scales are
_3
2.35x10 m. Consequently, the dimensionless distance along the main stream
direction in the computational domain extends up to / =
sufficient for the jet to be fiilly developed spatially. The fluid density is p — 103
kg/m3 and the molecular viscosity is v = lO"6 m2/s.
The boundary conditions on the jet injection boundary are U == V = 09 fF
—Wj, C Co. Basically, W) = 0.8 m/s is adopted in the computation, while to
compare the numerical results concerning the jet velocity decay with the
experimental data available，the flow cases with R = 6.35 and 3.95 are also
computed，for which Wj = 0.635 and 0.395 m/s respectively. With assumption
of / = 10% at the jet exit，we obtain h = 9.6x10"3 m2/s2，so = 6.3x10"2 m2/s3.
On the main stream inflow boundary JC = 0，C/ = 仏 = 0 . 1
0; For numeric reasons, negligibly small initial value of ^ and s for this non-
turbulence inflow boundary are assumed such that v, < 10"3v. It is supposed
that
L35xl0"5 m2/s2 and 8 = C^k2 / vt = 0.01S m2/s3.
5.4
Concentration field
Figure 5.6 shows a contour plot of concentration field in the symmetric
plane
from the jet exit to about
over and extends to
almost parallel with the main stream at the far field
^*>40. Accordingly, the region JC* < 40 is referred as the jet bent-over phase.
Numerical Modelling
40
o
^
<
20
min=0.03 max=1.0
30 contour levels=30
j—
Figure 5.6 Concentration contours in the symmetric plane y
Various transverse sections of the concentration field are shown in Figure

5.7. The outmost contour level is equal to Cm /2，where Cm is the maximum
concentration within the section. Ten contours are plotted for each section. It
is observed that the sections are kidney-shaped at bent-over phase and the
subsequent asymptotic region. A double peak distribution is appeared, which is
a characteristic feature of a turbulent jet in a crossflow and is generally
observed by the widely experimental investigations (Wong 1991，Hodgson &
Rajaratnam 1992 and Chu 1996). The sectional jet aspect ratio，defined as the
ratio of horizontal half-width by to vertical half width bz, is a parameter to
characterize the jet sectional shape. The computed results are presented in
Table 5.1. It is shown that the aspect ratio has a mean value of approximately
1.2 from x* = 40 to 80 and a little reduced value of L06 to 1.1 at the nearer
# * . •
phase jc < 40 and the farther phase x > 100. This is in good agreement with
the numerical prediction of Lee & Chen (1997) who computed an averaged
value of 1.2 with the minimum value of 1.05 and the experimental
measurements of Chu (1996) who found the aspect ratio of an advected puff
Numerical Modelling
10
20
20 x=40
30
10
20
80
30
1 1 1 i i i I i i i i { i i
1
:
10
20 _
100 - x =1 5 0 ( f ) -
30 . . . i i i 1 丨 i ii 1 i i
10 10 10 10
Figure 5.7 Concentration distributions at transverse cross sections. i? = 8

Outmost contour level = Cw/2, contour interval = 0.05
Numerical Modelling
ranging from approximately 1.05 for the early and later stages to 1.25 for the
bent over stage. The present result is also consistent with the experimental
results of Wong (1991) who found，based on the conductivity probe
measurements，the ratio of a line puff ranging from 1.05 to 1.36 with an
averaged value of L23. It is also comparable to the value of 1.3 obtained from
flow visualization by Pratte & Baines (1967) for the developed phase of the jet.
Table 5.1 Jet aspect ratio and maximum concentration ratio

X* 20 40 60 80 100 150
bylb: 1.06 1.21 1.19 1.17 1.1 1.02
CJCc 1.02 1.09 1.15 1.17 1.2 1.19
Furthermore, the ratio of sectional peak concentration Cm to the

centreline concentration Cc can be obtained from Figure 5.7. The results are
also shown in Table 5.1. It ranges from L02 at the initial phase x* < 20 to a
higher value of 1.2 at x* = 100 with an averaged value of L14. This is
comparable to the suggested values of 1.0 to 1.5 with an averaged value of L2
for an advected line puff by Chu (1996) and the prediction range of 1.05 to
1.35 with an averaged value of 1.2 by Lee and Chen (1997)，though lower than
the observed values of 1.3 to 1.5 by Hodgson & Rajaratnam (1992)，whose
measurements were significantly affected by secondary currents in the
laboratory flume.
The jet trajectory is defined as the location of maximum centreline
concentration. Figure 5.8 shows the computed vertical locations of jet
centreline against the downstream distances and the best fitted relationship. The
computed trajectory follows closely the 1/3 power law of Equation 5.19. The
derived constant, c\ = 1.504，is very close to the laboratory result of Wong
(1991)，who gave a value of 1.5 and the numerical result of 1.565 by Lee &
Chen (1997) as well as the measured value of 1.63 by Chu (1996). The
Numerical Modelling
experimental data from Hodgson & Rajaratnam (1992) are also plotted in the
figure for comparison. It can be found that the agreement between FLUENT
predictions and the experimental measurements is satisfectory although
somewhat scatter points exhibit in the near field.
10
FLUENT prediction
Expt. data from Hodgson et.al
1
0 1 10 100
X/Lm
Figure 5‘8 Jet trajectory
The centreline dilution^ referred as minimum dilution of the jet，is one of

the most concerned feature in environmental hydraulics. The non-dimensional
centreline dilution, SCQI (UaL2m)1, against the downstream distance，x/Lmi is
plotted in Figure 5.9. A trend line best fitting the numerical predictions is
obtained, which has a power of 0.67 (»2/3) and a coefficient of 0.928. This
indicates that the 2/3 similarity power law given by Equation 5,20 is followed
well. However，the derived coefficient C2 of 0.928 is much larger than the
values of 0.484 and 0.406 found by Wong (1991) and Chu (1996) respectively.
This discrepancy is probably due to an effect of the virtual origin. Essentially,
the comparison of the FLUENT predictions with the experimental data from
Numerical Modelling
FLUENT predictions
A Expt. data from Hodgson et.al
10 100
Figure 5.9 Centreline dilution
Y = 0.6417X-0.1314
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

(x/U)n
Figure 5.10 Jet width
Numerical Modelling
Hodgson & Rajaratnam (1992) exhibits no significant discrepancy in the far

field
Figure 5.10 shows the variation of dimensionless jet horizontal width,
b/Lmf
{pc/Lmy13 >0.7 corresponding to x* > 10，the best fitted lines of the numerical
predictions are found to have slopes of cs = 0.64 and 0.48 for by and bz
respectively. The linear fitted lines indicate that the similarity relations of
Equation 5.21 are also followed well.
Velocity field
Figure 5.11 illustrates the details of flow pattern on the symmetric plane
y — 0 and on the horizontal plane z = 0 at which the jet exit is located. The
symmetric plane shows a significant downward velocity component in the
vicinity ofjet exit，indicating the entrainment of environmental fluid into the jet.
The horizontal plane shows a pattern typical of separated flow around a solid
cylinder with acceleration at both sides. The typical transverse secondary flow
vector plots at different downstream distances are shown in Figure 5.12. The
vortex pair structures are clearly visible in the plots，the centres of which
approximately correspond to the locations of the peak concentration in Figure
5.6.
Analogy to the two-dimensional flow，we herein define a sectional
stream function 平，which satisfies the following equations:
Accordingly, we can obtain T at each transverse section with computed

velocity field and plot
downstream transverse sections in Figure 5.12 are plotted in Figure 5.13. From
thisfigure，thedevelopment of sectional flow field as well as the vortex pair is
:
111
illllliillllili
_、_、、、
11 I
ivi 1
5
Mi- …h………
5
/、、_、、、、、、、、、/ffM
mm
、
、
mmf f
Imffffrf…h
、
ff5/////////////=/
、
、
、
、
M
k
、
s m/
、
5
、
_
、
、
wwmffftffHft
f
、
、
f
、
、
f
、
—
s
、
/
、
f
/fff
、 …
f f:
•Mh
二二 =
111
mtt
M
tf-••ft
Mff
f
、、
ff
f fM
r-
h
(a) tt
10 20 30 40 50
20
10
0
• -4^^» —
»• —»• —^
-10
h
/1 N
-20
10 20 30 40 50
0.1
Figure 5.11 Velocity vector plots for steady case. R = 8

(a) symmetrical plane y = 0; (b) horizontal plane z = 0
…M
f
J
Q
x=20 (a) =40 :(b)
30 i t i i ' iL- r -i • i
飞
，
：
••.•::::rr"l#1/1/丨
;":*••
：
*••••««•«11/ /
…
«
•••
：
*麝
二
…
%%i
：
«
#
I I
/\i
：
\\\
# 4-畚
,
V
：
ft 1» Ik
/\
7/
\
^
A
.
：
z
•
A
：
w
〜
；；
答
/ } ih、
\\\、
/ /
20
=60 (c) =80. :(d)
30 L
•
r
>*•••••••
•
4««*
•
•
•
•
••
•
•
•
• •**•«»•、%/ \\ \tl
••
••
p •
••
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•• •
•
• 4 0 t• V \ \t\
•*«• • 1 /
• .•
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•
#
•
•
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f f
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•
I I 1
10 -、\uu/y
. f
.
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\
f
n
» II
1--I
、UI/"‘
t
• fi
xmA
.
Ml!]/' •
_
l
I t\、 'U li「

.
l
/
4
-1
/ / l\、 M l IP、
/ / m \ '//I 、
20 f //iiw、、
‘ / /1 iv \ ^ 、
=100 (e) =15.0 . Xf)

30
10 10 10 10
y/D
=0.3
Figure 5.12 Secondary flows at different downstream distances

Figure 5.13 Sectional streamlines at different transverse sections

max/min levels = ±6.7x10"4, iT.SxlO"4, ±6.0x10"4,
±5.5x10"4, ±6.6x10"4, 7.4x10"4 m2/s respectively.
Contour levels = 10，dash lines stand for negative value
Numerical Modelling
visible more clearly. The vortex pair has a preserved shape for x* > 40. The
maximum values of stream function within the subsequent transverse
sections decrease with the downstream distance. However if is normalized
by
the characteristic length of jet, one can find that the normalized maximum
stream functions ^ reach a asymptotic value at the jet developed stage.
Figure 5.14(a) shows the plot of 二 against the non-dimensional downstream

平
distance x*. We herein take
stream functions rapidly increase to a higher value of about 0.285 within
10，thereafter gently decrease and attain a constant of 0.15. Also，the locations
of the ^ ， ( y , z), can be determined from the computation. Similarly, if (y,
are normalized by L
remain at a constant at the jet developed stage. The variations of y/L and (2-
Zn)IL with :c* are shown in Figure 5.14(b)，where zm is the vertical location of
the maximum tracer concentration within the transverse section. It is observed
that the y/L has a negligible variation with JC* with an averaged value of 0.31
and {z-zm )IL attains an asymptotic value of -0.1 beyond x* > 40. It should be
noted that since the stream function is anti-symmetry about ^ = 0，the averaged
value ofy/L = 0.31 denotes that the vortex-pair is located at y/L = ±0.31. The
present results are comparable to the numerical computations on a line puff
conducted by Lee et al. (1996) which obtained = 0.174 to 0.181 andjv/Z =
土 0.33 and Lee et al. (1998) who gave 二 = 0.155 to 0.162 at the self-
平
similarity stage.
The typical contours of the excess streamwise velocity, defined as ue =
U
in Figure 5.15. Several separate regions of flow can be identified in these
contour plots. These regions are labeled by I，11 and III on the figures. The
excess streamwise velocity shown in Figure 5.15(a) displays a significant region
Numerical Modelling
uolpua
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
• 20 一
80 100 120
N
JO
(b)
Figure 5.14 Variations of ⑷冗；(b)

Numerical Modelling
Level ue
A 0.016
9 0.012
8 0.007
7 0.003
6 -0.001
5 -0.006
4 -0.010
3 -0.014
2 -0.019
1 -0.023
Level v
A 0.037
9 0.029
8 0.021
7 0.012
6 0.004
5 -0.004
4 -0.012
3 -0.021
2 -0.029
1 -0.037
Level w
A 0.095
9 0.083
8 0.071
7 0.059
6 0.047
5 0.035
4 0.023
3 0.011
2 -0.001
1 -0.013
Figure 5.15 Sectional velocity distribution at jc* = 40

⑷队;(b)r;(c)『
Numerical Modelling
I of high-speed streamwise fluids on the both sides of the jet central axis which
has been swept around into the vortices. In the region 11，the negative values
are presented，that \s U < Ua. While \ue\ decreases with increasing of jc*，
implying that U increases with at*. The streamwise velocity U, as expected, will
increase up to the main stream velocity Ua at the farther downstream distances.
Figure 5.16 shows the increasing of iie at the jet centreline with JC*. It is evident
that Ue/Ua attains the asymptotic value of 0 at the developed stage x* > 80，that
is the jet centreline streamwise velocity U attains the main stream velocity Ua.
0 2 0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0.0
-0.5
^ -1.0
-1.5
-2.0
Figure 5.16 Increasing of ue at jet centreline with x*
The region I in Figure 5.15(b) divides the flow field into two zones，the
upper one shows inward flow and the lower one outward flow. The contours of
W plotted in Figure 5.15(c) show the downward (+z direction) vertical flow
around the jet central axis in the region II while the region i n marks the
upward s direction) flow. As the free stream moves around the jet，increasing
its velocity, it is also deflected in z directioru The -z direction motion in region
Numerical Modelling
III is the induced effect of the bound vortex, which generates 汪 counter-
rotating motion in the free stream (Moussa et al. 1977).
Decay of the maximum velocity

By definition, the resultant velocity at a point
is VR(s) = Vf/ 2 + V2 + W2 , where s^^x2+y2 + z2 denotes the distance along

the jet trajectory. Vkm(s
velocity of jet within the transverse section which is vertically aligned at the
downstream position x. In addition to the solutions for the velocity ratio R- S,
the flow cases with R = 6,35 and 3.95 are also computed for comparison.
Figure 5.17 concerns the decay of the maximum resultant velocity VR’m of the
jet associated with R = 6.35 and 3.95. It is shown that, from the figure，the
numerical predictions agree well with the experimental results of Chassaing et
al. (1974). The decay of the maximum lateral velocity Vm and the maximum
vertical velocity Wm with the non-dimensional downstream distance x* =
(pc/Lx)m is shown in Figure 5.18. The computed data are well fitted by the trend
Lines; FLUENT predictions

Symbols: Chassaing et. al (1974) R=6.35
R=3.95
10 12 14 16 18
s/D
Figure 5.17 Decay of the maximum resultant velocity

Numerical Modelling
(a)
10 15 20 25 35
2.5
/W M = 0.0577X 0.266
2.0
1.5
n罾
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
X必
3
Figure 5.18 Maximum velocity decay with downstream distance

(a) lateral velocity
Numerical Modelling
lines with the power of 2/3. This indicates that the 2/3 power law is followed
well except in the vicinity of jet exit due to the limitedfinenessof the numerical
grid there. (Note: all the other results except
Vorticity field
By definition, the vorticity Q of flow field associated with the velocity
{Uf V, W)]s
Q =V x F =( — )/ +( — — — ) —)k (5.24)
dy dz dz dx dx dy
The streamwise vorticity (in /-direction) fields Qx at several transverse sections

are shown in Figure 5.19. The opposite symmetric patterns again indicate the
significant vortex flow at both sides of jet centre. Throughout the vorticity
distributions in the figure, one can follow the spatial evolution of the vortex-
pair: one vortex-pair initially appears near the jet exit, then develops downward
and downstream associated with the decreasing vorticity. Self-similar shape of
the vorticity is observed for JC* > 40. The normalized vorticity
Q: = / (Wm / L) has values of 4.72，5.0，5.26, 5.33, 5.4 and 5.63 at the
sections shown, where L = 2by.

The normalized location of Q*，
JC* > 40. Figure 5.20 shows the variation of (Y/X, (z-zOT)/i) with the non-
dimensional downstream distance x* It can be seen that
the asymptotic values of 0.16 and -0.067 respectively. It should be noted that
since the vorticity field is also symmetry about 少=0 with opposite orientation,
the asymptotic value of
comparable to the numerical computations on a line puff conducted by Lee et
al. (1996) which obtained the averaged values of Q* = 5.75,
(z-Zm)IL
w
4.
、、
、、v
10
20
20
30
10
20
=60 80
30
10
20
=100 150
30
0
1
10 10 10
Figure 5.19 Sectional streamwise vorticity Clx at different

transverse sections, max/min levels = 士 10.16，±6.36，
±4.73, ±3.68, dh3.05, 2.07 s"1 respectively.
Numerical Modelling
•v
麵
••參
,
H
B
h
20 60 80 100 120 而
1 1601
l/rz.z)
y/L
-zm)/L
Figure 5.20 Variation ofy/L, (Z'Zm)/L with x*
Other results
Moreover, the numerical results reveal that the turbulent kinetic energy
and its dissipation rate s as well as the turbulent viscosity Vt present very similar
sectional distributions which are kidney-shaped. The typical contours of
Vt
represents the peak value within the section. Unlike the corresponding scalar
field in Figure 5.7，the sectional maxima here is located at the jet centre rather
exhibiting the double peak structures at both sides of the jet centre. The
contour plots of the relative static pressure at subsequent transverse sections
are shown in Figure 5.22. It is demonstrated that the pressure drops toward the
centre of curvature of corresponding streamlines if one refers to the relevant
streamline patterns plotted in Figure 5.13. It is also noted that the gradients of
low-pressure parts become
,
gentle as
•
the -vortex-pair develops.
•
The
-
normalized
•
minimum pressure/7* = / (I/2pW^) is found to attain an asymptotic value

of 0.4
一
Numerical Modelling
0
1
20
=40 =40
30
o
11
-10 0 10 10
y/D y/D
Figure 5.21 Typical sectional distribution of (a)
contour interval = 0.05 km
With the FLUENT code，the self-similarity relations of a turbulent jet in

a uniform steady crossflow are tested successfully and the global features of the
computed flow field are captured. The numerical model adopted is hence
validated. The next step is to examine the behavior of a turbulent jet interacting
with an unsteady crossflow.
5.4,2 Turbulent jet in an unsteady crossflow

The FLUENT Code is used to compute the flow of a turbulent jet
issuing into the time-dependent crossflow，which we have investigated
experimentally and discussed in Chapter 4. We numerically investigate the same
flow cases as those in experiment Sets 4，5，7 and 8 (for flow parameters，see
Table 4.1).
The computational domain and the boundary conditions except for the
main flow inlet boundary are the same as those for the steady flow case
discussed in the last section. A sinusoidal oscillating horizontal velocity, ua(t)=
+ Up sm(2nft\ is imposed on the main flow inlet boundary. The turbulence
Numerical Modelling
Level p
A 0.79
9 0.13
8 -0.54
7 -1.21
6 -1.88
5 -2.54
4 -3.21
3 -3.88
=20 2 -4.55
1 -5.22
Level p
A 0.35
s
N\ 9 0.03
於j, 8 -0.30
、、IT
、、- -乂— >、
•
7 -0.63
6 -0.95
5 -1.28
4 -1.61
3 -1.94
2 -2,26
b 1 -2.59
I
1r ¥ Level p
A 0.27
9 0.06
‘ 紹 " 、》、M、 \ 8 -0,16
t-i"' ,、、•‘ i i 11
7 -0.37
6 -0.58
5 -0.79
4 -1.01
3 -1.22
2 -1.43
：60 (c) 1 -1.64
10 10
Figure 5.22 See next page for captions

Numerical Modelling
Level P
A 0.24
9 0.09
o
IX
8 -0.07
1
i ’ i C)i
\ v、、、、、之一、、之‘"/' / t 7 -0.22
、、 \ ‘ -XCr -
6 -0.37
5 -0.53
20 4 -0.68
3 -0.84
2 -0.99
：80
⑷
1 -1.14
30
Level P
A 0.22
9 0.10
10 <5^ ^
“：、、\\ 8 -0.02
7 -0.14
6 -0.27
5 -0.39
20 4 -0.51
3 -0.63
2 -0.75
=100
1 -0.88
30
Level
A 0.18
9 0.11
8 0.03
10
7 -0.04
6 -0.12
？( ^ 1111
'/iii
5 -0.19
20 4 -0.27
3 -0.34
2 -0.41
150
1 -0.49
30
10 10
Figure 5.22 Sectional distributions of static pressurep (Pa)

Numerical Modelling
kinetic energy is computed as:
k =
。(〜sin(27^))2&=香《
It is reasonable to assume that v,/v〜102 for this high Reynolds number

flow, thus the dissipation rate can be estimated by s = P/v" Accordingly，the
turbulence parameter adopted on the main stream inflow boundary are as
follows: k = 7.5 xlCT3，8 « 0.04 for Sets 7 and 8; k = 1.88 xlCT3，z « 3.2 xlO"3
for Sets 4 and 5.
For the sake of convenience，the following non-dimensional variables are
generated and used in later discussions:
T is the time period of velocity oscillation in the crossflow. Other symbols have
the same meanings as those in the former sections.
Figure 5.23 shows the velocity profile of sinusoidal oscillating crossflow
used in the computations.
u.
1/4
Figure 5.23 The velocity profile in the crossflow

Numerical Modelling
4.2.1 Comparison between numerical and experimental results

In FLUENT, the concentration of a scalar species /，in the flow is
defined by the mass fraction, mr ―
volume of species V respectively. The contour plots of computed scalar field in
x-z plane for Set 7 are shown in Figure 5.24A. In this flow case, the
unsteadiness parameter of the crossflow is up/Ua = 1.0, the Strouhal number is
St = 0.0375. To compare the computed results with those of experiments, the
contours of the tracer concentration in Figure 5.24A as well as in Figures
5.25A to 5.27A to follow are based on the integration of C(pq
direction:
C ( W ) = 士J ： ^ ，〜， 0 办 ( 5 . 2 5 )
_r0 Iq m^\
where
co-ordinate at the mesh (/, m, n); A/total grid numbers in ,direction; Aym =ym
The tracing dye concentration distributions obtained from the

corresponding experimental images are plotted in Figure 5.24B for comparisoiL
As we discussed in Section 4.2.2，the concentrations obtained from the side-
view images are actually the integral results in lateral direction, that is the 少
一
direction. It is observed that both the computed and e}q)erimental results give
quite similar distribution patterns over the whole oscillating cycle，although the
fluid patches are located at smaller vertical positions of z/D in the numerical
results, especially in the farfield.Figure 5.25 shows the results for Set 8，where
the crossflow unsteadiness parameter remains unchanged while the Strouhal
number is increased to 0.0825. In Set 4 and Set 5，the crossflow unsteadiness
parameter is decreased to 0.5 while the Strouhal number is 0.0375 and 0.0825
respectively. The model prediction and the experimental scalar distributions in
Numerical Modelling
30
(a) t =1/4
10
20
30
(b) t=l/2 b) /2
40
30
c) 3/4
10
20
30
20 30 40
x/D
Figure 5.24 Scalar field integrated in^ direction for Set 7

A: computedresults;B: experimental results
Numerical Modelling
10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 5.25 Scalarfield integrated

A: computed results; B: experimental results
Numerical Modelling
10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 5.26 Scalar field integrated

Numerical Modelling
(a) t =1/4
(c) t =3/4 (c) t =3/4
(d)
10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40
x/D
Figure 5.27 Scalar field integrated

Numerical Modelling
x z
- P13116 f o r t h e s e t w o sets are plotted in Figures 5.26 and 5.27 respectively.
From all these threefigures，it is again noted that the scalar field patterns
computed by the numerical model are quite similar to the experimental ones
except for the little smaller values of z/D in the far field at which the patches in
the numerical results are located. When compared with Set 7 in Figure 5.24,
the agreement between the numerical and experimental results for Sets 4，5 and
8 is much better.
Essentially
predicted satisfactorily with the model. These patches are labeled as patch I，II
and III in their formation order as shown in Figures 5.24 to 5.27. As we
discussed in the Chapter 4, these successive patches can be combined together
to obtain the space-time convection of one typical patch. For example，for Set
7，while the patch 工 is initially formed at
Figure 5.24, the patch marked I in the plot (a) actually could be identified as
the same patch at = 1 + 1/4 and the patch marked II in plot (c) could be
identified as the same patch at /* = 1 + 3/4 and so on. Based on this idea, the
downstream locations of the patches from both the computed and the
experimental results are plotted against the time
four sets of computation. It is obvious from the plots in thefigure，that the
computed trajectories of the patches agree well with the experimental data. It is
also observed that the forward motion of the patches is faster in the first half
period than in the latter one. This is consistent with the experimental results
which we have discussed in Chapter 4.
The computational results presented above support the reliability of the
numerical model and we are confident to use the numerical solutions obtained
for detailed examination of the complex flow problem which we considered.
5.4.2.2 Instantaneous scalar field

When compared to a jet in a steady crossflow，the earlier results show
Numerical Modelling
50
45 Set 7, up/Ua=1.0, St=0.0375
40 Fluent
35
30
20
3/4 1 1+1/4 1+1/2 1+3/4 2 2+1/4 2+1/2 2+3/4
45 Set 8. up/Ua=1.0. St=0.0825
40 Fluent
30
Q 25
20
3/4 1+1/4 1+1/2 1+3/4 2 2+1/4 2+1/2 2+3/4 3

Numerical Modelling
45 Set 4, up/Ua=0.5, St=0.0375
40 Fluent
25
20
3/4 1 1+1/4 1+1/2 1+3/4 2 2+1/4 2+1/2 2+3/4 3
50
45 Set 5. up/Ua=0.5t St=0.0825
40 Fluent
25
3/4 1+1/4 1+1/2 1+3/4 2 2+1/4 2+1/2 2+3/4 3
Figure 5.28 Downstream location of patches vs. non-dimensional time

Numerical Modelling
that the Eulerian scalar patterns on the

is significantly dififerent. In addition, the transverse sectional scalar distributions
also display quite dififerent shapesfrom the previous investigations on the jet in
a steady crossflow. Figures 5.29 and 5.30 show the scalar contour plots on the
transverse vertical sections，i.e.? the x-y plane, cutting through the first two
formed patches in Figure 5.24(A), which are refereed to patch I and patch 11，at
different tunes of their evolution proceeding. This way of presentation, gives an
idea of the Lagrangian injforniation of these patches. Generally, the transverse
sectional scalar field located within the patch displays a pear-like shape，which
is quite different from the double peak structure presented in the steady
crossflow case. At the instant t* = 3/4 when the crossflow is at its mmimum
velocity，the discharged jet flow is not deflected by the crossflow and
developed downward to penetrate into the ambient flow，resulting in an
accumulation of the jet fluid, from which the patch is formed. Then the patch
evolves in the accelerating and decelerating crossflow. Actually，the plots in
Figures 5.29 and 5.30 together construct a time evolution of the patch within
two oscillatmg periods. It is noted that the location of peak concentration shifts
from its initial location at the upper part of the patch to the lower part after r*
> 1/2 of the first oscillating period.
The aspect ratio of patch I initially is about 0,3 in Figure 5.29(a) and (b)，
then it increases to about 0.51 in Figure 5.29(c) and (d)‘ The aspect ratio of
patch 1
1 isfixed at a value of 0.53. This is differentfrom the observation that
the aspect ratio of the jet in 汪 steady crossflow varies with the location as
shown in Figure 5.7 and Table 5.1. In the part of the jetflowfield between two
patches，the sectional scalar fields exhibit a similar oval distribution as that in
the steady crossflow case. Figure 5.31 shows the typical sectional scalar
contour plots at x* =5 ， = 1/2 and at J C * =2 5 ， = 1/4，which are located at
the front of the first patch in Figure 5.24(b) and between the first two adjacent
patches in Figure 5.24(a) respectively.
Numerical Modelling
Figure 5.29 Time evolution of patch I (Set 7)

Outmost contour =
contour interval = 0.05CW
Numerical Modelling
10
20
30
25.8 29
40
10
20
30
=40 50
1/4 = 1/2
40
o
10
1i
10 10
Figure 5.30 Time evolution of patch H (Set 7)

Outmost contour =
contour interval =
Numerical Modelling
o
11
20
30
10 10 10 10
y/D
Figure 5.31 Sectional scalar contour plots outside the patches
(a) JC* = 5，” = 1/2; (b) JC* =2 5 ， = 1/4
Outmost contour = CJl, contour interval = 0.05C
5.4.2.3 Time-averaged scalar field

In view of time averaging，the jet sweeps wider in the vertical direction
due to oscillations in the crossflow* In this numerical study, the time-averaged
scalar fields for each flow case are based on the instantaneous fields at eight
phases. The idea is mathematically expressed as:
8
1 r 1
(5.26a)
since Atk = 778，thus
8
1
，广先） (5.26b)
=
灰i
where h = (^-1)7/8 (Jt = 1，2，…，8) corresponds to the eight phases of a

oscillating cycle. In practice，the following analysis in view of time averaging is
also based on the scalar field integrated in ^-direction, so that combining
Numerical Modelling
Equation (5.25) and (5.26) gives:
r
c 1 1 &
O/
00
1 (5,27) J
1 8 A / 、
Y.c^ym^h)^ym
0 ^=1 w
j =I
Jet width
Figure 5.32 displays the time-averaged scalar field on the x-z plane for
the four sets. It is observed from the results that the time-averaged vertical
width of the jet depends maiiily on the unsteadiness parameter up /Ua in the
crossflow while the Strouhal number St has a somewhat limited effect on the
width. Essentially the jet width is greatly increased compared to the case of the
same jet in a steady crossflow with the corresponding scalar distribution
already shown in Figure 5.6. From Figure 5.32, the jet vertical width, as
compared to the steady crossflow situation^ is approximately increased to
three-fold in Set 7 and Set 8 where up/Ua = 1.0，and to two-fold in Set 4 and
Set 5 where up/Ua = 0.5. In addition, it is observed from the figure that the jet
vertical width becomes narrower when the Strouhal number St increases from
0.0375 to 0.0825. This is consistent with the results of our experiments.
Furthermore，when the sectional scalar distributions shown in Figures
5.29 and 5.30 for Set 7 are compared to those shown in Figure 5.7 for the jet in
汪 steady crossflow case，we find that the horizontal width of the jet is not
increased by the oscillating crossflow like the vertical width as previously
discussed. In contrast, the horizontal width becomes much narrower within the
initial stage (Figure 5.29(a) and (b)).
Concentration profile
The computed time-averaged concentration profiles across the jet
vertical direction are compared with the corresponding e}q)erimental results in
Numerical Modelling
10
20
30
(a) Set 7
1.0，汾= 0.0375
40
10 20 30 40 50
(b) Set 8
1 . 0 , ^ = 0.0825
10 20 30 40 50

Numerical Modelling
10
20
30
0.0375
o
o
2
5
IX
10
20
30 0 . 5 ,a - 0 . 0 8 2 5
10 20 30 40
Figure 5.32 Time-averaged scalarfields on the

Numerical Modelling
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Numerical Modelling
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Numerical Modelling
Figure 5.33. The concentrations are normalized by the maximum concentration

at the section
with the laboratory measurements. Essentially, the double-peak distribution of
the concentration is simulated successfully although there is a somewhat
underprediction in the farfield
layer of Set 4 and Set 7.
Minimum dilution
The minimum dilution at the downstream location C
J is defined by:
Co/Cm(x), where
concentration. Figure 5.34 shows the computed non-dimensional minimum
dilution against downstream distance for Set 7. Four instants /* = 1/4，1/2，3/4
犯id 1 are considered. The niininiuni dilution averaged over one oscillating cycle
(this will be refereed as
same jet in a steady crossflow are also plotted in thefigure. Although the
instantaneous minimum dilutionfluctuates and at some time decreases to a
value lower than the centreline dilution in the steady case，the mean dilution is
essentially increased. It is noted that at a large downstream distance x/Lm « 7.5
(corresponding to x/D « 50), the mean dilution is increased to 4.2 while the
centreline dilution in a steady crossflow is only about 2.9. A similar increase of
the mean dilution in far field is observed for other sets (see Figures 5.35 to
5.37). At x/Lm » 7.5，the mean dilution is increased to a value of 3.6, 3.9，4.5
respectively for Set 8，Set 4 and Set 5. This indicates that the unsteadiness in
the crossflow enhances the mixing and dilution of the jet.
5,4.2.4 Velocity field

Details of the flow fields at the jet symmetric plane y = 0 for Set 7 and
Set 8 are illustrated by the velocity vector plots shown in Figure 5.38 and
Figure 5.39 respectively. Four phases of an oscillatmg cycle are concerned. The
imsteady parameter Up /Ua is 1.0 for both sets. It is interesting to note that
Numerical
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Numerical Modelling
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Numerical Modelling
although the time varying crossflow never reverses its direction, the jet fluid
which initially issued vertically is computed to discharge to the upstream
direction when the oscillating crossflow is at its mirdmum velocity, for instance,
at /* = 3/4 in Figure 5.38(c) and Figure 5.39(c). The most important
observation is that vortex-containing flow is formed at this instant /* = 3/4,
which may not be clearly observed in Figure 5.38 and Figure 5.39 due to the
small velocity vectors. For a more distinct look of the vortex structures, the
vector plots at this instant are plotted again in Figure 5.40 with the velocity
vectors msgrdfied. Referring to the corresponding flow images obtained in our
experimental investigation and the computed scalar distribution shown in
Figure 5.24, where the Strouhal number is equal to 0.0375, the upstream
vortex structure in Figure 5.40(a) centred at
edge of the organized fluid patch II，and the two downstream vortices, rotating
in opposite directions near
vortices are somewhat like the vortex pair observed in the wake of a solid
cylinder. When the Strouhal number increases to a larger value of 0.0825
(Figure 5.40(b))，the upstream vortex is also located at leading edge of the
patch II while the flow field behind the patch, in fact，cannot be identified as
any vortex structure. It seems that at this higher oscillating frequency or
Strouhal number, there is no enough time or space for the accelerating
/decelerating flow to develop into the vortex pair like that in the Set 7. In Set 4
and Set 5 where the unsteady parameter up/Ua is decreased to 0.5, no vortex
structure exists in the computedflowfields for both sets shown in Figures 5.41
and 5.42 respectively.
Figures 5.43 and 5.44 show the time evolution of the velocity fields on
the transverse vertical sections through the organized patch I and patch II
respectively in Set 7. Compared with the case of the jet in a steady crossflow
shown in Figure 5.12, a more significant downward secondary flow is produced
near the jet centreline, which may bring more jet fluids downwards and
Numerical Modelling
accumulated at the lower layer of the jet. Accordingly? the pear-like

concentration distributions shown in Figure 5.29 and Figure 5.30 are formed. It
is noted that the sectional velocityfields under the unsteady crossflow case also
exhibit a vortex pair type of pattern like the steady crossflow case, though
much less obvious.
Stream function
It is more clearly to display the flow patterns with sectional streamlines.
We can obtain the stream function at selected sections analogous to the two-
dimensional flow using Equation 5.23. Figures 5.45 and 4.46 show the
contours of transverse sectional stream function within the patch I and II
respectively for Set 7. A special pattern appears at the formation stage of patch
I when /* = 3/4 to 1+1/2 (Figure 5.45(a) and (b)). Except for the vortex-pair
within the jetflow，a circular flow below the jet patch is clearly observed，
resulting in an oblong structure accompanied with the vortex-pair of the jet
body. Afterwards, the secondary flow becomes a sole vortex-pair structure
gradually. It can be seen from the figures that the streamlines have the
preserved shape beyond = 1+1/2 (Figure 5.45(d) and Figure 5.46 for patch
II. Infeet，the patches I and II，as we discussed previously in Section 5.4.2.1，
could be identified as the same patch at the subsequent time periods of
oscillating crossflow). It should be pointed out that the plots relevant to patch
II at /* = 1/2，e.g. Figures 5.31(d), 5.44(d)，5.46(d) as well as 5.49(d)
presented later seem to exhibit disagreeing behaviors with those before. This
may be induced by the limited computational domain. As one can see from
Figure 5.24(b) that at t* = 1/2，the patch II is located very close to the domain
boundary, where the computed results nearby may be not very reliable.
The normalized locations (y* = y/L, z* = z/L) of the sectional maximum
stream function can be found from Figures 5.45 and 5.46. We take the
characteristic length Z to be the vertical width bz of the patch, where bz is
Numerical Modelling
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Numerical Modelling
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Numerical Modelling
Figure 5.45 Streamlines within patch I. max/min levels = ±1.22xlCr3，

±L63x10"37 ±1.1 xlO"3, ±9,4x1 O^mVs respectively.
Numerical Modelling
'i
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d
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10 10 10 10
y/D
Figure 5.46 Streamlines within patch II. max/min levels = ±8.1x10

tT.eSxlO"4, ±63x10^ ±5.3xl0"4m2/s respectively.
Contour levels = 10, dash lines stand for negative value
Numerical Modelling
determined by C = l/2Cm. The time variations of (y* z*) are presented in

Figure 5.47. It is obvious that the normalized location of the patch formed at 广
*
=3/4 approximately remains unchanged after /* = 1+1/4. The averaged
asymptotic values of (y* z*) are found to be (0.22, 1.13). Similar to the
discussions for a jet in a steady crossflow in Section 5A1，the asymptotic
location of representing the vortex-eye, should be at (±0.22, 1.13) because
of the symmetry of the jet flow. The result implies that the secondary flow
within the patch is self-similar after about half time period. We may relate this
point to the situation of a jet in a steady crossflow，for which the jet flow is
widely shown to be self-similar at the bent-over and developed stages (Fischer
1979, Lee & Chen 1998，Section 5.4.1).
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
3/4 1 1+1/4 1+1/2 1+3/4 2 2+1/4 2+1/2
Figure 5.47 Time variation of location of - (y * z*) vs. t*

(for the jet patch in Set 7)
Numerical Modelling
Vorticity
The streamwise vorticity within patch I and patch II can also be
computed from the velocity field. The contour plots of Q x at the same time
for the two jet patches are shown in Figures 5.48 and 5.49 respectively. It is
noted that at the initial stage from
structure is presented while after = 1+1/4 there are four rmyirrm) a pair of
which is located at the upper layer of the jet. It is evident that the vorticity field
is self-similar beyond t* > 1+1/2. The normalized maximum vorticity
I / b2) and its location (y* = y/b=) z* = z/bz) are found to
reach approximately constant values beyond /* > 1+1/2. This is shown in

Figure 5,50 which plots the variations ofQ “ and (y* z*) with * It is
广
observed that the value of Q* w rapidly decreases at the first half period (from
= 3/4 to 1+1/4)，and then attains an asymptotic value of about 5.8. The

asymptotic values of (y* r*) are (0,19, 1.19). Accordingly, the asymptotic
location of Q^x m should be at (±0.19, L19).
5.4.2.5 Other results

Moreover, It is found from the computations that the turbulent kinetic
energy (TKE) k and its dissipation rate s (hence the effective viscosity vt)
display the approximately similar shape to the scalar distribution as shown in
Figures 5.29 and 5.30. The typical sectional distributions of k and s within the
patch I at = 1/4 are shown in Figure 5.51. It is seen that the plots for both k
and 8 are pear-like shaped also. The region of high TKE is located at the lower
layer of the organized jet patch and a large spatial gradient is found here. The
significant TKE as well as the dissipation rate and hence the viscosity
computed in this region act to diffuse the tracer downward and form the high
scalar concentration maxima, namely the jet fluid patches.
Numerical Modelling
30
(c) (d)
= 1 3 . 3 : = 2 4 . 2
： 1 / 4 =1/2
40
10 10 10
0
1
Figure 5.48 Sectional streamwise vorticities within patch I

max/min levels = ±41，±20，±4.2, ±2.8 s'1 respectively.
Numerical Modelling
30
25.8 =29
(a) (b)
20
30
=40
t =1/2
40
10 10 10 10
Figure 5.49 Sectional streamwise vorticities within patch II

max/min levels = ±2.1，土 1.6，±1.2，±0,8 s'1 respectively.
Numerical Modelling
么！0石0>
xe£
1+1/4 1+1/2 1+3/4 2+1/4 2+1/2
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1+1/4 1+1/2 1+3/4 2+1/4 2+1/2
Figure 5.50 Time variations of ⑷ ； (b) (y*, z*)

(for the jet patch in Set 7)
Numerical Modelling
= 1 3 . 3
10 10 10
0
1
y/D
Figure 5.51 Typical sectional distribution of (a)

contour interval = 0.05 km
The static pressure fields within the jet patches are shown in Figures
5.52 and 5.53. The same instants and sections as those in Figures 5.48 and 5.49
are shown. It is remarkable that there are significant pressure fluctuations
during the jet evolution. Initially，negative pressure around the jet patch and a
positive pressure centre below the patch are observed in Figure 5.52 (a)，while
at = 1 the section is dominated by negative pressure till /* = 1+1/4 with
increasing magnitude (Figure 5.52 (b) and (c)). Then the pressure becomes
positive again. It is noted from the results that the pressure changes sign every
half time period effecting from /* = 1 of patch L On the other hand, during the
first half period when the sinusoidal velocity fluctuation in the crossflow is
positive，the pressure increases, while during the latter half period when the
velocity fluctuation is negative, it decreases，both with significant magnitudes.
The noraialized minimum pressures p* = p* /(l/2pJV^) range from 一 6 5 to
Numerical Modelling
25 accompanying with the evolution of the jet patch. This is significantly

different from the case of a jet in a steady crossflow where the pressure field at
the jet bent-over and developed stages is self-siroilar and the overallp* attains
an asymptotic value (Lee & Chen 1998，Section 5.4.1).
5.5 Summary
The RNG k-s turbulence model is used for numerical simulation.
FLUENT code is adopted to solve the flow governing equations. The code is
run firstly for a turbulent round jet issuing into a steady crossflow to validate
the model and provide comparison basis for further numerical studies. The
numerical solutions successfully test the relevant similarity relations associated
with the steady situation, so that we could throw light on the behaviors of a
turbulent jet in an unsteady crossflow with the numerical method. Four flow
situations which have been investigated experimentally in this study are
computed in the numerical modelling. The computed scalar fields agree well
with the corresponding experimental results previously discussed in Chapter 4.
The transverse sectional scalar fields within the jet patch display a pear-like
shape. Other important properties of the jet flow, such as the velocity fields，are
described quantitatively. The results show that in the imsteady crossflow cases，
such variables as stream function and vorticity within the jet patch also present
self-similarity after about half period since its formation. However, the pressure
fields display significant differences from the case of jet in a steady crossflo w.
The vortex structures are found to develop around the jet fluid patch, which
may help entrain the surrounding fresh fluid into the jet，namely the force
entrainment mechanism. Subsequently, the minimum dilution is increased by
unsteadiness in the crossflow in view of time averaging.
Numerical Modelling
一 Level Level p
A 4.13039 A -33.0386
9 3.4232 9 -33.5022
8 2.716 8 -33.9657
7 2.00881 7 -34.4293
6 1.30161 6 -34.8928
5 0.594418 5 -35.3564
4 -0,112777 4 -35.8199
3 -0.819971 3 -36.2835
2 -1.52717 2 -36.747
1 -2.23436 1 -37.2106
= 3 / 4
i—r T
Level
xl Level
8
A、? -1.19503 A
9
85.0748
84.9771
-1.3789
-1.56277 8 84.8795
-1.74664 7 84.7818
-1.93051 6 84.6841
-2.11438 5 84.5865
夂：
、!. 4 -2.29825 4 84.4888
w 3 -2.48212 3 84.3911
16-¾ 2
-2.66599 84.2935
-
-2.84986 84.1958
Z " 9
： 1 / 4 (c)
l^L
10 10 -10 10
Figure 5.52 Sectional static pressure p (Pa) within patch I

Numerical Modelling
Level Level p
A 2.55746 A -98.1834
9 2.49192 9 -98.2293
8 2.42638 8 -98.2753
7 2.36084 7 -98.3212
6 2.2953 6 -98.3671
5 2.22977 5 -98.4131
4 2.16423 4 -98.459
3 2.09869 3 -98.5049
2 2.03315 2 -98.5509
1.96761 1 -98.5968
/4
Level Level
A -2.61774 A 151.052
9 -2.65797 9 150.935
8 -2.69821 150.817
7 -2.73844 150.7
6 -2.77868 150.582
5 -2.81891 5 150.465
4 -2.85915 150.347
3 -2.89938 150.23
2 -2.93962 2 150.112
1 -2.97985 149.995
d 、：：
/4
t
11
ii
10 10 10 10
Figure 5.53 Sectional static pressure p (Pa) within patch II

Conclusions
Chapter 6
Conclusions
6-1 Summary of present study

The present study is concerned with the effect of an unsteady crossflow
on the far field behaviors of a turbulent momentum jet. Detailed laboratory and
numerical investigations with 狂 wide combination of the governing parameters
are conducted. The following conclusions can be made:
a) A n oscillating jet technique is developed, with which a range of

unsteady/time-dependent flow can be simulated in laboratory flume. The
method is validated against reference experiments undertaken in a
progressive surface water waves as well as against numerical computation.
The method overcomes the difficulties of producing a controllable unsteady
flow in a wind tunnel or water flume.
b) A computed-aided flow visualization technique accompanied with digital
image processing is used for the experimental investigations. The unsteady
crossflow organizes the jet fluid into large scale coherent patches with the
same formation frequency as the oscillatingfrequencyin crossflow. Detailed
information on the concentration distribution and the spreading
characteristics of the jet is obtained based on phase-averaged and ensemble
time-averaged analysis of the grabbed flow images.
c) It is found that in the farfield，alower oscillating frequency in the crossflow
leads to larger fluctuations in the phase-averaged, Le. instantaneous
maximum concentration, while the fluctuating amplitude is dependent on the
unsteadiness parameter up/Ua.
Conclusions
d) For the larger unsteadiness parameter of Up /Ua > 0.25, the sectional
concentration profiles across the time-averaged jet are no longer of the
Guassian. shape. Otherwise, the jet behaves like a jet in steady crossflow.
Generally, compared to an equivalent jet mixing in a steady crossflow, the
jet vertical widths, depending on Up /U^ are approximately two to three
folds. In view of time averaging, the unsteadiness in the crossflow improves
the jet dispersion obviously.
e) Numerical investigations are also performed. A CFD code with RNG k-z
turbulent model is employed. The numerical solution agrees well with the
experimental data available. The transverse sectional scalar field within the
organized coherent patch is found to be pear-like shaped with one peak.
Unlike its vertical width, the jet horizontal width is not widened.
f) Except for the scalarfield，otherimportant properties of the jet，such as the
velocityfields，arealso understood numerically. The solution shows that in
the unsteady crossflow cases，such variables as stream function and vorticity
within the jet patch also present self-similarity after about half period since
its formation. The pressurefields，however，displaysignificant fluctuations
during the patch evolution. The vortex structures are found to develop
around the jet fluid patch, which is believed to be closely related to the force
entrainment mechanism accompanied with the jet mixing. Subsequently, the
mmimum dilution in the farfield，inview of time averaging, is increased by
the factor of about 1.2 〜1.6 within the range of our flow parameters.
As mentioned in section 1.3, the results of this investigation have a
number of physical significance. Engineering design data can be extracted. Some
physical understanding of the complicated flow is achieved. The capability of
CFD to solve this unsteady flow is demonstrated.
Conclusions
6.2 Application examples

As mentioned in Chapter 1，a round jet in an unsteady crossflow is related
to many environmental problems. As afirst example, take the situation of Figure
6.1 where a chimney emission is downwind of a tall building and is thus exposed
to a crossflow which consists of an oscillating component due to vortex
shedding from the building. Take the common dimensions for the chimney
diameter as /) = l m and the crosswind breadth of the building as 5 = 10m. The
mean crossflow speed in light wind conditions,
assume that the frequency of vortex shedding from the building,f , is governed
by fB/Ua = 0.2, so that f = 0.2 ¢/^ /B, the Strouhal number of the imsteady
crossflow on the stack emission will be St = fD/Ua - 02D/B = 0.2x1/10 =
0.02，which is near to our range of study. The unsteadiness parameter in the
wake of the building. Up /Ua, depends on the proximity of the chimney to the
building. If they are very closely located, a larger value of u p fU a > 0.5 may be
found. According to our results，the stack emission will be quite different from
the situation where the building is not there.
As a next example, consider the outfall discharge of waste water into a
river estuary under tidal flow. Typical values aie D — lm for the exit diameter
of the outfall and Ua = 0.5 m/s for the mean current velocity in the estuary.
Since the typical time period of tidal flow 77 is 12 hours, the frequency of
crossflow is thus very small at / = 1/(12x3600). As a result，the Strouhal
number is St ^fD/Ua = 1/(12x3600x0.5) = 4.6x10"5. According to our findings，
the tidal oscillation will have negligible effects on the jet dispersion. However，if
an obstacle, such as a headland or a pier schematically shown in Figure 6.2, is
located upstream of the outfall, the crossflow will be imposed an oscillating
component of a high frequency or Strouhal number. Take the crossflow
dimension of the obstacle as 5 = 2ni, so that the frequency of oscillating
downstream is estimated a s / = Q2Ua/B = 0.05 Hz. The Strouhal number of the
Conclusions
Building
chimney
•
•
•
_
_
•
s
5三 )
Figure 6.1 Chimney emission in the wake of tall building

I_
obstacle
outfall
estuary
tide
ocean
Figure 6.2 Outfall discharge inriver estuary

Conclusions
unsteady crossflow on the outfall will then

According to our results, a higher dilution will be achieved.
6.3 Suggestions for future work

We have attempted a comprehensive study on the interaction of a
turbulent momentum jet with a sinusoidally oscillating crossflow. Owing to the
complexity of this type of flow，furtherunderstanding is needed.
We applied the flow visualization technique to investigate the scalar field.
In the experimental work of this study，only side view of the jet is concerned.
Transverse sectional measurement on the scalar field is recommended. Detailed
velocity measurement using laser Doppler anemometer (LDA) or particle image
velocimetry (PIV) is highly suggested. This will give the physical knowledge of
flow field and provide a reliable comparison base for numerical modelling.
Integral models have been developed by some workers in this area (Chin
1988，Cheung 1991). The model applied for a momentum/buoyancy jet in a
steady current could predict the average mixing characteristics of the jet with
satisfactory accuracy. We have attempted to apply the model proposed by Chin
(1988) for a jet in wave ambient to our flow problem. Unfortunately，
comparison with the present experimental data is very poor. It is believed that
the entrainment hypothesis employed in the model of Chin (1988) is not
reasonable. Kuaw (1997) also justified that this model is not suitable for jet in
waves. The treatments of the frame of reference, forced entrainment as well as
the momentum flux associated with the entrained fluid are in doubt. Kuaw
(1997) made some improvements based on the JETLAG proposed by Lee &
Cheung (1990) and applied to the near field ofjet in waves. Further study on the
jet farfieldbased on JETLAG is also recoromended.
The numerical simulation in present study covers four flow conditions.
More situations C3ii be considered in future to cxaimtic the quBntitative
Conclusions
correlation between the flow governing parameters and the jet mixing
characteristics. In addition, in this study the calculation accuracy near the
domain outflow boundary seems to have been constricted by the limited domain,
in fact the computer capacity. An extending computational domain, mainly in
the streamwise direction, is suggested.
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An experimental and numerical investigation of a

Title turbulent round jet issuing into an unsteady crossflow

Author(s) Xia, Liping.; 夏麗萍

Issue Date 1998

The author retains all proprietary rights, (such as patent

THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG

I would like to express my deepest thankfulness to Dr. K . M . Lam for

The mixing and dispersion of single or multiple jets issuing into a

Department of Civil Engineering

Review of a Turbulent Jet in Crossflow 4

Experimental Simulation of Oscillating Crossflow ••••••••••••• 17

Experimental Results and Discussions 44

3.1 Reference experimental parameters 38

2.1 A round jet in steady crossflow with velocity ratio i? = 8 5

4.14 Correlativity of phase numbers and crossflow velocity 48

oscillating stroke of the jet-pipe-nozzle assembly

Length and time scales

internal length scale

jet evolution characteristic length scale

Empirical and analytical constants in the numerical model

This study aims at an experimental and numerical investigation on the

1.2 Layout of thesis

1.3 Physical significance

provide valuable data for engineering design of wastewater and air-pollutant

Review of a Turbulent Jet in Crossflow

This is characterized by the half-width^ 6(x), and the centreline velocity，Uc{x). x

The spreading and entrainment characteristics change significantly when

Figure 2.1 A round jet in steady crossflow

The near-field structure of the shear layer consists of ring-like or loop-

be found in Moussa et al. (1977)，Andreopoulos et al. (1984)，Andreopoulos

counter-rotating vortex-pair jet trajectory

Figure 2.2 Schematic diagram of a jet in crossflow

2.2 Review of literature

2.2.1 Laboratory works

significantly increased by the wave motion. Compared to the same jet in a

2.2.2 Integral model

Figure 2.3 Buoyant jet discharging into a stagnant ambient

Consider an arbitrary inclined buoyant jet discharging into

Conservation of volume flux Q:

Conservation of momentum flux M:

Certainly, pa = p for pure jet.

Simple algebraic analysis gives the trajectory of the jet:

Then, the entrainment rate can be calculated by

where a is the shear entrainment coefficient, which is usually considered as a

Koole & Swan (1994) derived an equivalent Lagrangian model, similar

2.2.3 Numerical calculation

Experimental Simulation of Oscillating Crossflow

3.2 Experimental set-up and processing method

u{t) = C/fl + Up sin(27t^) (3.1)

3.2*1 Oscillating jet method

Sinple dimensional analysis suggests that the flow problem is governed by

We note that the Keulegan-Carpenter number, Kc = Up T/D} is used in some

Propeller current meter

stepper motor phase

propeller calibration crank-yoke

of the disc which is connected to the stepper motor by a co-shaft At instant

Figure 3.3 Derivation of the oscillatmg velocity

x = i? cos 0 + -^/2 — (i?sin0)2 (3.3)

；，hte moving velocity of the assembly along horizontal direction is

where co = — = I n / i s the angular velocity. Equation 3.4a can be rewritten as

For a uniform angular velocity motion, 0 = = Inft. Thus，

To an observer moving with the jet nozzle，the ambient crossflow is thus

Figure 3.4 Instantaneous image before and after stretching