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Abstract
We hypothesised that habitual physical activity (PA) together with progressive endurance training contributes to the
differences in training response (DV_ O2max) in healthy and physically active male participants. Twenty volunteers (age 30+3
years and V_ O2max 54+7 ml kg71 min71) participated in an eight-week training program which included four to six heart
rate-guided exercise sessions weekly. PA data over the whole period were collected by an accelerometer-equipped
wristwatch. Individual relative intensities of endurance training and PA were separately determined by adjusting to V_ O2max
reserve and calculated as mean daily duration (min) of training and PA at light, moderate, high and very high intensity levels.
V_ O2max increased 6.4+4.1% (p 5 0.0001) during the training period. DV_ O2max correlated with the amount of habitual PA
that was mainly of light intensity (r ¼ 0.53, p ¼ 0.016), but not with the duration of moderate, high or very high intensity PA
(p ¼ ns for all). Age, body mass index, and daily amount of training at any intensity level of exercise were not related to
DV_ O2max (p ¼ ns for all). In conclusion, a high amount of habitual PA together with prescribed endurance training was
associated with good training response in physically active males.
Keywords: physical activity, endurance training, individual training response, maximal oxygen consumption
Correspondence: Arto Hautala, Verve Research, Department of Exercise and Medical Physiology, Kasarmintie 13, P.O. Box 404, Oulu, 90101 Finland.
E-mail: arto.hautala@verve.fi
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.658080
564 A. Hautala et al.
Figure 1. Endurance exercise training program for eight weeks. Week High ¼ high training load week, Week Mod ¼ moderate training load
week, High ¼ endurance training 80–90% of HR at the ventilatory threshold, Very High ¼ endurance training 4 90% HR at the ventilatory
threshold.
Statistical analysis
The Gaussian distribution of the data was assessed
with the Shapiro-Wilk goodness-of-fit test. The Figure 2. Heterogeneity of V_ O2max training responses after eight
effects of training were analysed by paired t-test weeks of controlled endurance training in healthy previously
physically active males.
between pre- and post-training values. In order to
evaluate practical meaningfulness for the effects of
training, standardised mean effect sizes (Cohen’s d)
were calculated (Cohen, 1988). The following scale 7.9 + 10.6% (range 77.1% to 33.8%). The mean
(negative or positive) was used for interpretation of daily active durations (min) at light (15–35% of
effect sizes: large 40.8, moderate 40.5 and small V_ O2R), moderate (435–55% of V_ O2R), high
40.2. Pearson’s bivariate correlation analysis was (455–75% of V_ O2R) and very high (475% of
performed between the baseline status of age, body V_ O2R) intensity levels of PA and realised endurance
mass index (BMI), V_ O2max, DV_ O2max, realised training are presented in Table 1.
training and habitual PA at light, moderate, high The individual limits of mean daily cumulative
and very high intensities. Effect sizes of correlations active duration were 3.5 + 0.3 to 6.9 + 0.8 METs at
(negative or positive) were interpreted as follows: light, 7.0 + 0.8 to 10.2 + 1.2 METs at moderate,
large 40.5, medium 40.3 and small 40.1 (Cohen, 10.3 + 0.8 to 13.5 + 1.7 METs at high and
1988). Stepwise linear regression analysis was used 413.5 + 1.7 METs at very high intensity levels of
to study the predictive value of PA after adjustment endurance training and PA. DV_ O2max correlated
of baseline V_ O2max against DV_ O2max. The data were with the duration at all daily habitual PA that exceeds
analyzed using SPSS software (SPSS 14.0, SPSS 3.5 + 0.3 METs (r ¼ 0.53, p ¼ 0.017, Figure 3).
inc., Chicago, USA). A P-value 50.05 was con- When analysing different PA intensity levels sepa-
sidered statistically significant. rately, DV_ O2max associated with the duration at light
intensity (r ¼ 0.53, p ¼ 0.016), but not with the
duration at moderate (r ¼ 0.09, p ¼ ns), high
Results
(r ¼70.34, p ¼ ns) or very high (r ¼70.03, p ¼ ns)
The mean + SD training adherence was 87 + 13% intensity of PA.
in the training sessions and 97 + 20% in the total Baseline V_ O2max correlated to DV_ O2max
training amount. The individual training responses (r ¼7.48, p ¼ 0.033) and to light intensity PA
are shown in Figure 2. (r ¼70.84, p50.0001) as well. After adjustment of
The average increase in V_ O2max was 6.4 + 4.1%, baseline V_ O2max, the duration of light-intensity PA
ranging from 71.1% to 15.1% (Table 1). Similarly, accounted for 28% as an independent predictor of
average oxygen consumption at the VT increased DV_ O2max. Age, BMI, and the daily training volume
566 A. Hautala et al.
Table 1. The realisation of training (TR) and habitual physical activity (PA).
Values are mean+SD (range). BMI ¼ body mass index, V_ O2max ¼ maximal oxygen consumption, VT ¼ ventilatory threshold,
HRmax ¼ maximal heart rate, RERmax ¼ maximal respiratory exchange ratio, Light ¼ 15–35% of V_ O2max reserve [V_ O2R] (3.5+0.3–
6.9+0.8 METs), Moderate 435–55% of V_ O2R (7.0+0.8 – 10.2+1.3 METs), High 455–75% of V_ O2R (10.3+0.8–13.5+1.7 METs),
Very High 475% of V_ O2R (13.6+1.7 METs).
Discussion
The present study showed that daily habitual PA
together with progressive endurance training con-
tributes to V_ O2max response in previously active
male participants. A high amount of daily light-
intensity PA together with prescribed endurance
training was associated with good training response,
whereas realised endurance training was not related
to training response. Baseline fitness associated
negatively to light-intensity PA, which may empha-
sise the role of high amount of daily habitual light
intensity PA among those subjects whose fitness level
is low at beginning of training intervention when
targeting improved V_ O2max. Taken together, these
Figure 3. Association between mean daily habitual PA findings suggest that lifestyle habits in terms of a
(43.5 + 0.3 METs, min), and changes in V_ O2max. Individual physically active daytime at a light intensity level may
amount of daily PA are expressed as metabolic equivalent (MET) enhance the effects of prescribed endurance training
values. on aerobic fitness.
The fact that some individuals do not improve
V_ O2max in response to a standardised endurance
at a light, moderate, high, or very high intensity level training program has been known over two decades
of exercise did not correlate with DV_ O2max, e.g. the (Bouchard, Boulay, Simoneau, Lortie, and Perusse,
correlations were r ¼70.20, r ¼70.23, and 1988; Lortie et al., 1984) and has been convincingly
r ¼70.18 for age, high and very high training demonstrated by several other previous studies
volume, respectively (p ¼ ns for all). There were no (Bouchard and Rankinen, 2001; Hautala et al.,
significant correlations between the training re- 2006; Hautala et al., 2003; Karavirta et al., 2011;
sponses in oxygen consumption at the VT and Scharhag-Rosenberger et al., 2010). However, it is
baseline characteristics (r ¼70.2170.09, p ¼ ns for important to remember that low responders in terms
all), realised training (r ¼70.4070.39, p ¼ ns of V_ O2max are not necessarily low responders in
for all), or habitual PA (r ¼70.1570.11, p ¼ ns for terms of some other physiological and metabolic
all). adaptations associated with metabolic control or
Physical activity and exercise training response 567
performance (Scharhag-Rosenberger et al., 2010; level is highly heterogeneous, as shown also in the
Vollaard et al., 2009). In the HERITAGE family present study. An important point to consider when
study, the contributions of age, gender, race, and the contribution of light habitual PA to individual
baseline fitness level to endurance-training-induced training response is discussed is that participants
changes in V_ O2max accounted for only 11% of the with good V_ O2max response may have healthier
variance in the response to 20 weeks of standardised lifestyles, including lower stress levels and better
training. Furthermore, autonomic nervous system diets. Even with adequate data available, it is difficult
activity has been shown to be related to training to differentiate how different lifestyle habits con-
response (Hautala, Kiviniemi, and Tulppo, 2009; tribute to the observed individual changes in
Kiviniemi et al., 2010; Kiviniemi, Hautala, Kinnu- V_ O2max.
nen, and Tulppo, 2007). It is also well documented Type 1 (slow twitch) muscle fibres have a high
that genetic background causes considerable varia- capacity for oxidative metabolism, whereas type 2
tion in both baseline V_ O2max and DV_ O2max after (fast twitch) fibres have a high capacity for glycolytic
training interventions (Bouchard et al., 1999; Hag- energy production. The percentage of both fibre
berg et al., 2011; Timmons et al., 2010). In a types varies widely among participants (13–95%)
previous study by Bouchard et al. (2011), a (Church, 2009). Participants with a greater percen-
combination of 21 single nucleotide polymorphisms tage of type 1 fibres are better suited for endurance
accounted for 49% of the variance in V_ O2max training (Ama et al., 1986). Interestingly, low
trainability. In the present study we found that a prevalence of type 1 fibres is associated with several
high amount of daily light-intensity PA, additional to health outcomes, such as weight gain, lower fatty
prescribed endurance training, results in good acid oxidation capacity, and increased blood pres-
V_ O2max response, accounting for 28% of the sure (Hernelahti, Tikkanen, Karjalainen, and Kujala,
variance. Since the correlation between light-inten- 2005; Karjalainen, Tikkanen, Hernelahti, and Kuja-
sity PA and V_ O2max response was 40.5, it highlights la, 2006; Tikkanen, Hamalainen, Sarna, Adlercreutz,
a practical meaningfulness of habitual PA outside the and Harkonen, 1998). In the present study, it could
prescribed training sessions in inducing training be hypothesised that participants with low endurance
adaptations. training response have a lower distribution of type 1
In the present study, the objective PA data were fibres. Therefore, a low responder may be metabo-
obtained with an accelerometer over the whole lically disadvantaged with inborn impaired skeletal
training period. Since self-report questionnaires on muscle oxidative capacity, which affects both beha-
PA tend to overestimate PA levels (Boon, Hamlin, viour and metabolism (Church, 2009). The impaired
Steel, and Ross, 2010; Troiano et al., 2008), oxidative capacity may create lower functional work
accelerometers offer a reliable solution to problems capacity and minimise improvements in V_ O2max in
with self-reported data (Troiano, 2005). In the response to endurance training, despite a well-
present study, we used a questionnaire to detect realised exercise training intervention.
specific intense activities not including hand move- Our results may be also related to differences in
ments, such as cycling, and calculated mean METs individual recovery, i.e. a high amount of light
based on HR data and added this to the final PA habitual PA might help in recovering better from a
analysis. Subsequently, we were able to quantify also single exercise session. In the present study, it may
those activities that are otherwise difficult to detect be possible that the recovery from a single exercise
with a wrist accelerometer. We calculated the relative session was adequate especially among those subjects
intensity of PA expressed as a percentage of V_ O2R whose fitness level was lower at the baseline. There-
(Howley, 2001). This is highly important, since fore, daily light PA may be important part of overall
participants differing in fitness respond in markedly physical loading in aiming to good training response
different ways to PA or exercise training at a fixed when baseline fitness level is low. It could be also
absolute intensity. A PA intensity of 10 METs might hypothesised that daily habitual PA might serve as
be a warm-up for one participant but require stimulus for increase in V_ O2max. Habitual PA that
maximal effort by another. Taken together, we feel exceeds the resting metabolic rate several times may
our approach represents a methodological frame- start recovery effectively by stimulating metabolism.
work for understanding the possible contribution of Consequently, this kind of PA could optimally
PA in modifying individual exercise training balance training stress and subsequent recovery.
response. The present results support the existence of large
Cardiorespiratory fitness is often described as a individual differences in responses to endurance
surrogate measure of total PA. Exercise training training. The new approach was to evaluate whether
studies have definitely shown that increasing the variation in training response was associated with the
amount of weekly exercise improves fitness at the amount of daily habitual PA during the eight-week
group level. However, individual change in fitness progressive endurance training program. We found
568 A. Hautala et al.
that a high amount of habitual daily light-intensity Hautala, A.J., Makikallio, T.H., Kiviniemi, A., Laukkanen, R.T.,
PA together with prescribed endurance training was Nissila, S., and Huikuri, H.V., et al. (2003). Cardiovascular
autonomic function correlates with the response to aerobic
associated with good training response in physically training in healthy sedentary subjects. American Journal of
active males. These results suggest that daily habitual Physiology: Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 285(4), H1747–1752.
PA, additional to prescribed endurance training, is Hernelahti, M., Tikkanen, H.O., Karjalainen, J., and Kujala,
practically meaningful determinant of training U.M. (2005). Muscle fiber-type distribution as a predictor of
blood pressure: A 19-year follow-up study. Hypertension, 45(5),
response.
1019–1023.
Howley, E.T. (2001). Type of activity: Resistance, aerobic and
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