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CHAPTER ONE

FLUID CHARACTERISTIC

FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS

Fluid mechanics and hydraulics represent that branch of applied mechanics that deals
with the behaviour of fluids at rest and in motion. In the development of the principles of
fluid mechanics, some fluid properties play principle roles, others only minor roles or no
roles at all. In fluid statics, specific weight (or unit weight) is the important property,
whereas in fluid flow, density and viscosity are predominant properties. Where
appreciable compressibility occurs, principles of thermodynamics must be considered.
Vapor pressure becomes important when negative pressures (gage) are involved, and
surface tension affects static and flow conditions in small passages.

SCOPE OF FLUID MECHANICS

Undoubtedly you have observed the movement of clouds in the atmosphere, the flight of
birds through the air, the flow of water streams and the breaking of waves at the
seashore. Fluid mechanics phenomena are involved in all of these. Fluid includes gases
and liquids, with air and water as the most prevalent. Some of the many other aspects of
our lives that involve fluid mechanics are flow in pipelines and channels, movements of
air and blood in the body, air resistance or drag, wind loading on buildings, motion of
projectiles, jets, shock waves, lubrications, combustion, irrigation, sedimentation and
meteorology and oceanography. A knowledge of fluid mechanics is required to properly
design water supply system, wastewater treatment facilities, dam spillways, valves, flow
meters, hydraulic shock absorbers and breaks, automatic transmissions, aircraft, ships,
submarines, breakwaters marinas, rockets, computer disk drives, windmills, turbines,
pumps, heating and air conditioning systems, bearings, artificial organs, and even sports
item like golf balls, yachts, race cars, and hang gliders. It is clear that everybody’s life is
affected by fluid mechanics in a variety of ways. All engineers should have at least a
basic knowledge of fluid phenomena.

Fluid mechanics is the science of the mechanics of liquids and gases, and is based on
the same fundamental principles that are employed in the mechanics of solids. The
mechanics of fluids is a more complicated subject than the mechanics of solids,
however, because with solids one deals with separate and tangible elements, while with
fluids there are no separate elements to be distinguished.

Fluid mechanics can be divided into three branches: fluid statics, kinematics & fluid
dynamics.

Fluid statics (hydrostatic) is the study of the mechanics of fluids at rest

Kinematics deals with velocities and streamlines without considering forces or energy

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Fluid dynamics (hydrodynamic) is concerned with the relations between velocities and
accelerations and the forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion.

Classical hydrodynamics is largely a subject in mathematics, since it deals with an


imaginary ideal fluid that is completely frictionless. The results of such studies, without
consideration of all the properties of real fluids, are of limited practical value.
Consequently, in the past, engineers turned to experiments, and from these developed
empirical formulas that supplied answers to practical problems. When dealing with
liquids, this subject is called hydraulics.

Empirical hydraulics was confined largely to water and was limited in scope. With
developments in aeronautics, chemical engineering and the petroleum industry, the
need arose for a broader treatment. This has led to the combining of classical
hydrodynamics (ideal fluids) with the study of real fluids, both liquids (hydraulics) and
gases, and this combination we call fluid mechanics. In modern fluid mechanics the
basic principles of hydrodynamics are combined with experimental data. The
experimental data can be used to verify theory or to provide information supplementary
to mathematical analysis. The end product is a unified body of basic principles of fluid
mechanics that we can apply to the solution of fluid-flow problems of engineering
significance. With the advent of the computer, during the past 25 years the entirely new
field of computational fluid dynamics has developed. Various numerical methods such
as finite differences, finite elements, boundary elements and analytic elements are now
used to solve advanced problems in fluid mechanics.

Fluid Mechanic

Fluid Statics Kinematics Fluid


Dynamics

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DEFINITION OF A FLUID

Fluid are substances that are capable of flowing and conform to the shape of containing
vessels. When in equilibrium, fluids cannot sustain tangential or shear forces. All fluids
have some degree of compressibility and offer little resistance to change of form. Fluids
can be classified as liquids or gases.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN A GAS AND A LIQUID

The differences between liquids and gases are :


a. Liquids are practically imcompressible wheras gases are compressible and
usually must be so treated
b. Liquids occupy definite volumes and have free surfaces whereas a given mass of
gas expands until it occupies all portions of any containing vessel.

A fluid may be either a gas or a liquid. The molecules of a gas are much farther apart
than those of a liquid. Hence a gas is very compressible, and when all external pressure
is removed, it tends to expand definitely. A gas is therefore in equilibrium only when it is
completely enclosed. A liquid is relatively incompressible, and if all pressure, except that
of its own vapor pressure, is removed, the cohesion between molecules holds them
together, so that the liquid does not expand indefinitely.

A vapor is gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near the liquid
phase. Thus steam is considered a vapor because its state is normally not far from that
of water. A gas may be defined as a highly superheated vapor; that is, its state is
normally very far from that of liquid air. The volume of a gas or vapor is greatly affected
by changes in pressure or temperature or both. It is usually necessary, therefore, to take
account of changes in volume and temperature in dealing with gases or vapors.
Whenever significant temperature or phase changes are involved in dealing with vapors
and gases, the subject is largely dependent on heat phenomena (thermodynamics).
Thus fluid mechanics and thermodynamics are interrelated.

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MEASURE OF FLUID

Density
The density (or mass density) of fluid is its mass per unit volume

m

v
unit : kg/m3

Specific volume
Is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid.

1 v
vs  or v s 
 m
unit : m3/kg

Weight
Mass multiplied by the gravitational acceleration

w=mg
unit : N

Specific weight
The specific weight(or weight density) of a liquid defined as the weight per unit volume.

 
v
unit : N/m3

Specific Gravity
Ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water at some specified temperature
Specific weight of the liquid divided by the specific weight of water
 fluid  fluid
S .G  or S .G 
 water  water

unit: none

*note: pwater=1000 kg/m3 , γwater=9810 N/m3

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EXAMPLE 1

If 6m3 of oil weighs 47kN, calculate its specific weight γ, density,ρ and specific gravity.

EXAMPLE 2

The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 62.4N/m3. The
specific gravity of mercury is 13.56. Calculate the density of water and the specific
weight and density of mercury.

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TUTORIAL

1. If 2.5m3 of certain oil has a mass of 20kg, find its mass density.
(Ans ρ=8kg/m3)

2. In an experiment, the weight of 2.5m3 of a certain liquid was found to be 18.75


kN. Find the specific weight of the liquid. Also find its density.
(Ans ws=7.5kN/m3, ρ=764.526kg/m3)

3. Find the specific gravity of oil whose specific weight is 7.85kN/m3.


(Ans S.G=0.8)

4. A vessel of 4m3 volume contains oil, which weighs 30.2kN. Determine the
specific gravity of the oil.
(Ans S.G=0.77)

5. A container weighs 5000N when filled with 60m3 of a certain liquid. The empty
weight of the container is 500N. What is the density of the liquid?
(Ans ρ=7.645 kg/m3)

6. Determine the mass density of oil, if 3000kg of the oil occupies a volume of 4m3.
(Ans ρ=750 kg/m3)

7. A container of volume 3.0m3 has 25.5kN of oil. Find the specific weight and mass
density of the oil.
(Ans ws=8500N/m3,ρ=866.463kg/m3)

8. A drum of 1m3 volume contains 8.5kN oil when full. Calculate its specific weight
and specific gravity.
(Ans ws=8500N/m3,S.G=0.866)

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______________________________________________DCC5143/EXERCISES

JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN AWAM

POLITEKNIK TUANKU SULTANAH BAHIYAH

CC303 – HYDRAULICS 1

1. If 1m3 of oil has a mass of 860 kg, calculate its specific weight, density and specific
gravity.
2. The specific weight of a certain liquid is 90.30N/m3. Determine its density and
specific gravity.
3. The density of a jet fuel is 760 kg/m3. Determine the specific weight and specific
gravity of this fuel.
4. If 1.0m3 of oil has a mass of 890kg, calculate its specific weight, density and specific
gravity.
5. A container has a 6m3 volume capacity and weights 1500N when empty and 56000N
when filled with a liquid. What is the density of the liquid?
6. A cylindrical tank with a diameter of 80cm is partially filled with SAE 10W oil
(ρ=870kg/m3). If the mass of the oil in the tank is 340kg, determine the height of the
oil in the tank.
7. An overhead tank has length, width and height of 2m, 2.5m, and 1.5m respectively. If
the water is filled up to three-quarters of its height, determine the mass and weight of
the water inside the tank.
8. If a similar tank, as in problem 7 is filled to the same level with oil with a mass of
4000kg, determine the density and specific gravity of the oil.
9. If 6.2m3 of oil weights 52980N, calculate its density and specific gravity.
10. A certain liquid, occupying a volume of 1.6m3, weighs 12.8kN. What are the specific
weight, density and specific gravity of the liquid?

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VISCOSITY

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress
or extensional stress. In general terms it is the resistance of a liquid to flow, or its "thickness".
Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of
fluid friction. Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while vegetable oil is "thick" having a
higher viscosity. All real fluids (except superfluids) have some resistance to stress, but a fluid
which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. For example
a high viscosity magma will create a tall volcano, because it cannot spread fast enough, low
viscosity lava will create a shield volcano, which is large and wide.[1] The study of viscosity is
known as rheology.

where

τ is the shear stress exerted by the fluid [Pa]


μ is the fluid viscosity - a constant of proportionality [Pa·s]

is the velocity gradient perpendicular to the direction of shear [s−1]

The viscosity of a fluid is an important property in the analysis of liquid behavior and fluid motion
near solid boundaries.

The viscosity is the fluid resistance to shear or flow and is a measure of the adhesive/cohesive
or frictional fluid property. The resistance is caused by intermolecular friction exerted when
layers of fluids attempt to slide by one another.

 Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow

The knowledge of viscosity is needed for proper design of required temperatures for storage,
pumping or injection of fluids.

There are two related measures of fluid viscosity - known as dynamic (or absolute) and
kinematic viscosity.

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Dynamic/absolute viscosity

Dynamic viscosity and absolute viscosity are synonymous. The IUPAC symbol for dynamic
viscosity is the Greek letter eta (η), but it is also commonly referred to using the Greek symbol
mu (μ). The SI physical unit of dynamic viscosity is the pascal-second (Pa·s), which is identical
to kg·m−1·s−1. If a fluid with a viscosity of one Pa·s is placed between two plates, and one plate
is pushed sideways with a shear stress of one pascal, it moves a distance equal to the
thickness of the layer between the plates in one second.

Dynamic viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal plane
with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart by the fluid.

The shearing stress between the layers of non turbulent fluid moving in straight parallel lines
can be defined for a Newtonian fluid as:

The dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed like

τ = μ dc/dy (1)

where τ = shearing stress

μ = dynamic viscosity

Equation (1) is known as the Newtons Law of Friction.

In the SI system the dynamic viscosity units are N s/m2, Pa s or kg/m s where

 1 Pa s = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/m s

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Kinematic viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to density - a quantity in which
no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity of a
fluid with its mass density as

ν=μ/ρ (2)

where

ν = kinematic viscosity

μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity

ρ = density

In the SI-system the theoretical unit is m2/s

Viscosity and Reference Temperatures

The viscosity of a fluid is highly temperature dependent and for either dynamic or kinematic
viscosity to be meaningful, the reference temperature must be quoted. In ISO 8217 the
reference temperature for a residual fluid is 100oC. For a distillate fluid the reference
temperature is 40oC.

 For a liquid - the kinematic viscosity will decrease with higher


temperature
 For a gas - the kinematic viscosity will increase with higher
temperature

EXAMPLE 1

A liquid has a dynamic viscosity of 0.005 kg/ms and a density of 850 kg/m3. Calculate the
kinematic viscosity.

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EXAMPLE 2

Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil , whose specific gravity is 0.95 and dynamic viscosity
0.0011Ns/m2.

TUTORIAL

1. Calculate the dynamic viscosity if kinematic viscosity 5.5x10-4 m2/s and specific gravity of
this fluid is 1.8. (Ans μ= 0.99kg/ms)
2. A liquid has a density 576 kg/m3. Find its dynamic viscosity if its kinematic viscosity is
6x10-6 m2/s. (Ans μ=3.456x10-3 kg/ms)
3. Calculate specific gravity of a liquid if its dynamic viscosity=0.005 Ns/m2 and kinematic
viscosity = 3.2mm2/s. (Ans S.G= 1.563)
4. a. A vessel of 7.3m3 cointains an oil, which mass 6500 kg. Determine the specific
gravity, density and specific weight of the oil.
(Ans ρ= 890.4kg/m3, S.G=0.89,ws=8734.93 N/m3)
b. An oil as question 4a has dynamic viscosity 1x10-3 N/m2. Find its kinematic
viscosity. (Ans v=1.12x10-6
2
m /s)
5. A 1600kg of oil are pour into a cylinder until 1000ml. If the diameter of the cylinder is
50mm and the kinemetic viscosity of the oil is 6x10-6 m2/s. Calculate :
i. specific weight of the oil
ii. the height of the oil inside the cylinder
iii. oil dynamic viscosity (Ans
ws=1.57x107N/m3,t=0.51m,μ 9.6kg/ms)

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CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID

Figure 1: Rheological diagram

The fluids can be classified into the following four types depending upon the presence of
viscosity.

i. Ideal Fluids

All real fluids (except super fluids) have some resistance to stress, but a fluid which
has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. An ideal
fluid is one that is incompressible and has no viscosity. Ideal fluid do not actually
exist, but sometimes it is useful to consider what would happen to an ideal fluid in a
particular fluid flow problem in order to simplify the problem.

ii. Real Fluids

A fluid having no viscosity is known as a real fluid. In actual practise, all the fluids
met with in engineering-science, are real fluids.

iii. Newtonian Fluids

Fluids for which the shearing stress is linearly related to the rate of shearing strain
are designated as Newtonian Fluids.Newtonian fluid whose stress at each point is
linearly proportional to its strain rate at that point. The concept was first deduced by
Isaac Newton and is directly analogous to Hooke's law for a solid. All gases are
newtonian, as are most common liquids such as water, hydrocarbons, and oils.

iv. Non-Newtonian Fluids

A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid whose flow properties cannot be described by a


single constant viscosity. In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear

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stress and the strain rate is nonlinear, and can even be time-dependent. Therefore a
constant coefficient of viscosity can not be defined. A ratio between shear stress and
rate of strain (or shear-dependent viscosity) can be defined, this concept being more
useful for fluids without time-dependent behavior.

TOTURIAL

Discuss the shear characteristics of the fluids for which the curves have been drawn in figure
below.

Solution :

a. The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law τ= μ (dV/dy), or the stress is
proportional to the velocity gradient or rate of shearing strain. Thus for these
fluids the plot of shear stress against velocity gradient is a straight line passing
through the origin. The slope of the line determines the viscosity
b. For the ideal fluid, the resistance to shearing deformation is zero, and hence the
plot coincides with the x axis. Although no ideal fluids exist, in certain analyses
the assumption of an ideal fluid is useful and justified.
c. For the ideal or elastic solid, no deformation will occur under any loading
condition, and the plot coincides with the y axis. Real solids have some
deformation, and within the proportional limit (Hooke’s Law) the plot is a straight
line that is almost vertical.
d. Non-Newtonian fluids deform in such a way that shear stress is not proportional
to rate of shearing deformation, except perhaps at very low shear stresses. The
deformation of these fluids might be classified as plastic
e. The ideal plastic material could sustain a certain amount of shear stress without
deformation, and thereafter it would deform in proportion to the shear stress.

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