Mobile Radio

Propagation
 Small scale fading
• Small scale fading or simply fading is used to
describe rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes,
phase or multipath delays of radio signal over a
short period of time or travel distances.

• Fading is mainly caused by interference between

two or more versions of the transmitted signal
which arrive at the receiver at slightly different
times. These waves are called multipath waves.
 Small scale fading
• Multipath in radio channel creates small scale
fading effects. The three most important effects
are:
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a mall
travel distance or time interval
2. Random frequency modulation due to varying
Doppler shifts on different multipath signals.
3. Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath
propagation delays.
 Factors influencing small scale fading

• Multipath propagation

• Speed of mobile

• Speed of surrounding objects.

• The transmission bandwidth of the signal

Wireless losses
Wireless losses
Doppler Effect
• In 1842, JC Doppler gives the concept of doppler
shift.
• It is based on three parameters: wavelength,
frequency & pitch.
• Frequency (double)=wavelength (half)
• High frequency=high pitch
• Low frequency=lower pitch
• High frequency=short wavelength=high pitch
• Low frequency =longer wavelength=lower pitch
Defination: the apparent change in the frequency of a
wave caused by relative motion between the source
of the wave & the observer.
Examples: Ambulance sound, train sound, galaxy
Dopper shift is used to
(1) Define the velocity of speeding car.
(2) Depth of the water
(3) Measure the speed of cars.
• Time dispersion: When a signal is
transmitted, this signal can suffer a distortion
caused by reflections and scattered
propagation paths in the radio channel, and
these phenomenon cause that an identical
signal arrives at different times at its
destination
• Doppler spread is a measure of the spectral
broadening caused by the time rate of change
of the mobile radio channel, and is defined as
the range of frequencies over which the
received Doppler spectrum is essentially non-
zero.
• For an electromagnetic wave, the coherence
time is the time over which a propagating
wave (especially a laser or maser beam) may
be considered coherent. In other words, it is
the time interval within which its phase is, on
average, predictable.
Fading
 Types of small scale fading
• Depending upon the relation between the signal
parameters (such as signal BW, symbol period etc..)
and the channel parameters (like delay spread and
Doppler spread), different transmitted signals will
undergo different types of fading.
• Multipath delay spread leads to time dispersion and
frequency selective fading.
• Doppler spread leads to frequency dispersion and time
selective fading.
• These two propagation mechanisms are independent
of one another
• If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain
and linear phase response over a bandwidth
which is greater than the bandwidth of signal,
the received signal will undergo flat fading.
• If the channel has a constant gain and linear
phase response over a bandwidth that is
smaller than the B/w of transmitted signal,
then the channel creates frequency selective
fading on a received signal.
• Coherence time is actually a statistical
measure of the time duration over which the
channel impulse response is essentially
invariant, and qualifies the similarity of the
channel response at the different times.
• In other words, it is the time duration over
which two received signal have a strong
potential for amplitude correction.
• If the reciprocal bandwidth of the baseband
signal is greater than the coherence time of
the channel, then the channel will change
during the transmission of the baseband
signal/message, thus causing distortion at the
receiver.
 Raleigh Fading (NLOS) model

It is used to describe statistical time varying nature of the received envelop of a flat
fading signal.

σ rms value of received voltage signal before

envelop detection
σ2 time average power of received signal before
envelope detection
• Path loss (or path attenuation) is the
reduction in power density (attenuation) of an
electromagnetic wave as it propagates
through space. Path loss is a major
component in the analysis and design of the
link budget of a telecommunication system.
 Okumura Model
⚫ It is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas,
and it is applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz
⚫ Based totally on measurements (not analytical calculations)
⚫ Applicable in the range: 150MHz to ~ 2000MHz, 1km to 100km T-R
separation, Antenna heights of 30m to 100m
 Okumura Model
⚫ The major disadvantage with the model is its low response to rapid changes
in terrain, therefore the model is fairly good in urban areas, but not as good in
rural areas.
⚫ Common standard deviations between predicted and measured path loss
values are around 10 to 14 dB.
⚫ G(hre)：
 hte 
G (hte ) = 20 log   1000m  hte  30 m
 200 

 hre 
G (hre ) = 10 log   hre  3 m
 3 

 hre 
G (hre ) = 20 log   10m  hre  3 m
 3 
 Okumura and Hata’s model
⚫ Example 4.10
 Hata Model
⚫ Empirical formulation of the graphical data in the Okamura model.
Valid 150MHz to 1500MHz, Used for cellular systems
⚫ The following classification was used by Hata:
■Urban area LdB = A + B log d − E
■Suburban area LdB = A + B log d − C
■Open area LdB = A + B log d − D
A = 69.55 + 26.16 log f − 13.82hb
B = 44.9 − 6.55 log hb
C = 2(log( f / 28)) 2 + 5.4
D = 4.78 log( f / 28) 2 + 18.33 log f + 40.94
E = 3.2(log( 11.75hm )) 2 − 4.97 for large cities, f  300MHz
E = 8.29(log( 1.54hm )) 2 − 1.1 for large cities, f  300MHz
E = (1.11log f − 0.7)hm − (1.56 log f − 0.8) for medium to small cities
 Indoor Propagation Models
⚫ The distances covered are much smaller
⚫ The variability of the environment is much greater
⚫ Key variables: layout of the building, construction materials,
building type, where the antenna mounted, …etc.
⚫ In general, indoor channels may be classified either as LOS or
OBS with varying degree of clutter
⚫ The losses between floors of a building are determined by the
external dimensions and materials of the building, as well as the
type of construction used to create the floors and the external
surroundings.
⚫ Floor attenuation factor (FAF)
⚫ Log-distance Path Loss Model
• Tradeoff between simplicity and accuracy
– Outdoor propagation models
– Indoor propagation models