Y C Wong-Final PDF

STEEL STRUCTURE IN AN
OPEN CAR PARK
The influence of trapped smoke on the fire

resistance of steel beams
Master Thesis
Yan-Ying C. Wong
Delft University of Delft

Structural Engineering
Steel and Timber structures
STEEL CONSTRUCTION IN AN OPEN CAR PARK- Influence of trapped smoke on the fire resistance of the steel beams
This thesis has been performed as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Civil Engineering at Delft University of Technology
This thesis has been carried out in cooperation with

Bouwen met Staal (BmS)
Delft University of Technology (TU Delft)
Efectis Nederland
Author:
Name: Y.C.Wong (student number 4076915)
Institute: Delft University of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering & Geosciences
Structural Engineering - Steel and Timber structures
Email address: wongconnie2009@hotmail.com
Graduation Committee:
Name: Prof.ir. F.S.K. Bijlaard
Name: Ir.R. Abspoel

Name: Dr.ir. A.F. Hamerlinck

Company: Bouwen met Staal
Senior Advisor
Name: Ir. R.A.P. van Herpen

Institute: Eindhoven University of Technology
Fellow Fire safety Engineering, Faculty of Architecture
Name: Ir. A.D. Lemaire

Company: Efectis Nederland
Senior Project Leader Fire Engineering
Name: Dr.ir. K.C. Terwel

Institute Delft University of Technology
Building Engineering
Name: Ir.L.J.M. Houben

Road and Railway Engineering
The photo used on the cover is from Universiteit Gent, photo Hilde Christiaens
Y.C.Wong i
Preface
This study contains the research of the influence of smoke, originating from a car fire, on the
steel beams of an open car park. The study was done as a final fulfillment to obtain the degree of
Master of Science in Structural Engineering at the Delft University of Technology. The research
was done in cooperation with Bouwen met Staal and Efectis Nederland.
I am grateful for the assistance, advice and guidance of the graduation committee during this
research. Special thanks to Tony Lemaire for his patience, guidance and technical support which
are very valuable leading to the result of this research. My appreciation goes to Ruud van
Herpen for his invitations to the “Nationale Parkeerdag 2014” and the Expert class “Next
Generation” for an opportunity to learn even more about the topic I was graduating on. My
sincere gratitude also goes to Ralph Hamerlinck, whom gave advice and suggestions regarding
the car parks in the Netherlands.
Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for the encouragement and the support
during this period. At last and the most important are my parents in Suriname for their support
and the opportunity to study in the Netherlands.
Y.C.Wong
Delft, Netherlands
November 2014
Y.C.Wong ii
Summary
A car in an open car park is on fire. The fire and the smoke unleash a heat that causes the
temperature to rise. The open car park is made out of a steel frame and to be designed for a fire
resistance of 60 minutes. This car fire is a local fire whereas flashover doesn’t occur. The crucial
point of the fire is when the steel frame reaches the critical temperature. If this occurs, the steel
will fail and might lead to the collapse of the building.
Because it is an open car park, it is assumed the natural ventilation will lead the smoke out of the
building very fast. But the smoke can be trapped between the beams, which are present below
the ceiling as a support structure for the floor system. The aim is to study whether the influence
of trapped smoke between beams in an open car park is significant or not. And is it necessary to
take the smoke into account during the design of an open car park when making use of the
Bouwen met Staal guideline (BmS- guide), a guideline for the design of the fire safety of an
open car park?
In this study the influence of the smoke on the steel structure of the open car park was
investigated by making use of a spreadsheet Car Park Fire (CaPaFi) and the software, Fire
Dynamic Simulator (FDS). CaPaFi is a spreadsheet which calculates the steel temperatures
without taking smoke into account. It is based on real car fire tests and the Eurocode. FDS is a
program that uses computational fluid dynamic calculations to run a simulation (model) of a car
fire in an open car park. It calculates the steel temperature of the steel beams taking the effect of
smoke into account. All the information for FDS is written in a script beforehand and run
afterwards.
A single car fire and a 3 car fire were modeled and studied. To verify the calculations in FDS
with CaPaFi, a single car fire model was put up. Because there were still some differences in the
results, 4 more models were set up with small adjustments in the first one to fine tune the model
(model 2 to 5). According to the study 95% of the car fires are limited to maximum 3 (fully)
burnt cars [1]. So, 3 car fires were also taken into account and the smoke. There were two cases
with 3 car fires: one with beam sticking out (model 6 with obstacles) and one with beams hidden
in the ceiling (model 7 without obstacles).
Based on the results of this study, it is found that the smoke which is trapped between the beams
can be neglected when making use of the BmS-guide to design the fire safety of an open car park
for the steel beams with a height smaller than 500mm. Also a reasonable explanation could not
be found of why the temperatures of the steel beams of FDS are lower than the ones calculated
by CaPaFi. And in a 3 car fire model points that are further away from the car fire can be
disregarded because their steel temperature calculated by FDS, even though higher than CaPaFi,
will never reach the critical temperature. At last, it is still unclear why the increased number of
soot doesn’t have any effect on the temperature of the steel beams in the single car fire model.
At last, information about each chapter is given:
Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction of the thesis, the objectives, preconditions and the
assumptions of this study. Finally the research strategy is presented.
Y.C.Wong iii
Chapter 2 provides information about the car park such as to distinguish between a closed and
open car park, the lay out, the dimensions of the beams and the type of floor systems that are
commonly used in the Netherlands.
Chapter 3 presents the different type of fires that can occur in a building and what type occurs in
an open car park. Then the cars which cause the fire are discussed. Finally the smoke that arises
from the fire is given.
Chapter 4 discusses the effects of heat on steel and what kind of fire safety measures can be
applied to protect the steel from the heat. Then simplified calculations are presented in
comparison with CaPaFi showing the effect of the heat of a single car fire and 3 car fires on a
steel beam within an open car park.
Chapter 5 is about the tools that can be used for this study. The choice for this study was making
use of computational fluid dynamic calculations that would be done by the FDS. The results
gained from the FDS were than compared with the results done by CaPaFi, which is a
spreadsheet that is used for calculating the steel temperatures of a beam in a car park. CaPaFi is
based on real car fire experiments and the Eurocode.
Chapter 6 is about the model set up in FDS which is divided into two parts: a single car fire with
a single beam and 3 car fires with 2 beams. The 3 car fires contain two cases, with beams
sticking out of the ceiling and without. The results of the comparison of the total heat fluxes and
the steel temperature of the beam between the different models are presented and the conclusions
are drawn.
Chapter 7, the final chapter of the study contains the conclusions and the recommendations
which can be used for further study and analysis.
Y.C.Wong iv
Table of Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................. ii
Summary ........................................................................................................................................iii
Table of Symbols .........................................................................................................................viii
Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
§1.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 1
§1.4 Objective ............................................................................................................................. 2
§1.5. Preconditions and assumptions of the study ...................................................................... 2
§1.6 Research strategy................................................................................................................. 3
Chapter 2 The car park .................................................................................................................... 5
§2.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 5
§2.2 The car park ......................................................................................................................... 5
§2.3 The layout of the car park ................................................................................................... 6
§2.4 The floor systems in a car park ......................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3 Fire and smoke ............................................................................................................. 13
§3.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 13
§3.2 Localized fire and a compartment fire .............................................................................. 13
§3.3 The combustible material .................................................................................................. 15
§3.4 The smoke ......................................................................................................................... 17
§3.4.1 Characteristics of the smoke ....................................................................................... 18
§3.4.2 The smoke movement ................................................................................................. 18
§3.4.3 Influence of smoke on the environment and humans ................................................. 18
§3.4.4 Measures against the smoke ....................................................................................... 18
Chapter 4 Effect of the high temperatures on the steel properties ................................................ 19
§4.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 19
§4.2 Heat transfer ...................................................................................................................... 19
§4.3. Influence of the temperature on the material properties .................................................. 21
§4.4 The simplified calculations of steel ................................................................................... 23
§4.5 Fire safety measures .......................................................................................................... 28
§4.5.1 Active measures .......................................................................................................... 28
§4.5.2 Passive measures ........................................................................................................ 28
Chapter 5 The tools to study thermal influences .......................................................................... 31
§5.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 31
§5.2 Models on thermal influences ........................................................................................... 31
Y.C.Wong v
§5.3 Software ............................................................................................................................ 33

§5.3.1 Car Park Fire (CaPaFi) ............................................................................................... 33
§5.3.2 Fire Dynamic Simulator (FDS) .................................................................................. 36
Chapter 6 Modeling ...................................................................................................................... 37
§6.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 37
§6.2 Preparations for the verifications ...................................................................................... 37
§6.3 One car fire (Model 1 to 5)................................................................................................ 38
§6.3.1 Set up of model ........................................................................................................... 38
§6.3.2 Analysis of the results for model 1 to 5 ...................................................................... 42
§6.4 Three car fires (model 6 and model 7) ............................................................................. 52
§6.4.1 Set up 3 car fires ......................................................................................................... 52
§6.4.2 Analysis of the results for model 6 and 7 ................................................................... 55
Chapter 7 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................. 68
§7.1 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 68
§7.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 68
§7.2.1 Recommendations with respect to further study ............................................................ 68
§7.2.2 Recommendations with respect to the software ............................................................. 69
References ..................................................................................................................................... 70
Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 74
Appendix 1 Size of the car [3] ...................................................................................................... 74
Appendix 2 Information TT-plates [26] ....................................................................................... 75
Appendix 3 Calculation of the section factor of some profiles [52] ............................................. 77
Appendix 4 Previous studies ......................................................................................................... 78
Appendix 5 Information about hollow core slab[14] .................................................................... 82
Appendix 6 Simplified calculations .............................................................................................. 83
Appendix 7 Profile of the fictitious beam ..................................................................................... 85
Appendix 8 Script of model 1 (FDS) ............................................................................................ 86
Appendix 9 Data total heat fluxes of Model 1 .............................................................................. 89
Appendix 10 Data temperatures of model 1 ................................................................................. 94
Appendix 11 Script model 2 for FDS ........................................................................................... 97
Appendix 12 Data Total heat fluxes for model 2 ........................................................................ 103
Appendix 13 Data temperature of model 2 ................................................................................. 112
Appendix 14 Comparison heat fluxes model 2,4 and CaPaFi .................................................... 116
Appendix 15 Comparison temperatures model 2,4 and CaPaFi ................................................. 121
Y.C.Wong vi
Appendix 16 Comparison Total heat fluxes model 2 and model 5............................................. 126
Appendix 17 Comparison Temperatures model 2 and model 5 ................................................. 135
Appendix 18 Convective heat transfer coefficient Model 5 ....................................................... 140
Appendix 19 Comparison Total heat fluxes model 2 and model 3............................................. 144
Appendix 20 Comparison temperatures model 2 and model 3 ................................................... 146
Appendix 21 Script of FDS (model 6) ........................................................................................ 150
Appendix 22 Data heat fluxes of model 6 .................................................................................. 159
Appendix 23 Data temperatures of model 6 ............................................................................... 170
Appendix 24 Script of FDS (model 7 hidden beams) ................................................................. 175
Appendix 25 Data heat fluxes of model 7 (hidden beams) ......................................................... 176
Appendix 26 Data temperatures model 7 (hidden beams) .......................................................... 187
Appendix 27 Comparison heat fluxes model 6 and 7 ................................................................. 192
Appendix 28 Comparison temperature model 6 and 7 ............................................................... 195
Y.C.Wong vii
Table of Symbols
Latin case letters
Am Perimeter of the area that is heated of the member [m]

ASB Asymmetric Slim for Beams
B1 The length of a parking unit (one side) [m]
B2 The length of a parking unit (two sides) [m]
Ca Specific heat of steel [J/kg K]
D Diameter of the fire [m]
H Distance between fire and ceiling [m]
̇ or hpunt Total heat flux [W/m2]
hnet Net heat flux [W/m2]
hnet,c Net convective heat flux [W/m2]
hnet,r Net radiate heat flux [W/m2]
HRR Heat Release Rate [kW]
l Length [m]
Lf Flame length [m]
Lh Horizontal flame length [m]
min Minutes
P2 Depth of the double parking stroke
Q*D heat release coefficient related to the diameter D of the local fire
Q*H Heat release coefficient related to the height H of the compartment
Horizontal distance between the vertical axis of
r the fire and the point along the ceiling where the thermal flux is calculated [m]
RHR Rate of heat release [W/m2]
s Seconds
T Temperature [oC]
t Time [in seconds or minutes]
THQ Top Hat Q-beams
Tm Surface temperature of the member [oC]
Tr Effective radiation temperature of the fire environment [oC]
tα Time constant [seconds]
V Cross- sectional area [m2]
W Width of the aisle [m]
y Dimensionless perimeter [-]
z' Vertical position of the vertical heat resource [m]
Y.C.Wong viii
Greek case letters
α Parking angle [ o ]
αc Convection coefficient [W/m2K]
εf Emissivity of the fire [-]
εm Emissivity of the member [-]
θg Temperature gas [oC]
θm Temperature member [oC]
κ1 Adaption factor for non-uniform temperature across the cross- section
κ2 adaption factor for non-uniform temperature along the beam
λa Thermal conductivity [W/mK]
ρ Density [kg/m3]
σ Constant of Stefan- Boltzmann [W/m2K4]
Φ Configuration factor [-]
Y.C.Wong ix
Chapter 1 Introduction
In this chapter a brief introduction is given about the research, followed by the problem
statements, the objectives, the preconditions and the scope of this study and ending with the
research strategy.
§1.1 General
One of the most used construction material is steel. As for any material, even steel has its
advantages and disadvantages. One of those disadvantages is the deduction of the strength and
other properties when it is exposed to fire. Many architects and design recognized the
advantages of steel in the world of construction. The use of steel in the construction varies from
single- story industrial buildings to multi-story non-residential buildings [2]. An example of the
last named is a car park.
With a car park made out of steel, measures are taken to ensure the safety of users in case of fire.
In case of fire in the open car park, the surrounding area near the car that is on fire will heat up.
The fire in an open car park is short and local. There are some guidelines that will make sure of
the safety for design and construction. Because it is an open car park, it is assumed that the
smoke which is produced during the local fire will leave the area quickly (see Figure 1) due to
natural ventilation. The smoke rises up and gets to the ceiling and is hindered by the beams that
(partly) stick out, depending on which floor system is used. The beams’ height depends on the
type of floor system that is used. There is still uncertainty whether the smoke has an influence
(and at what rate) or not on the fire safety of the beams in a car park during a fire and therefore
the problem can be stated as:
What kind of influences will the smoke, trapped between the beams below the floor, have on
the steel frame of the open car park?
Figure 1 Sketch of the problem
Within a fire, a lot of chemical and physical reactions occur and the problem is very complex.
To gain more insight of the problem, the main question is divided in sub questions:
1. What is an open car park? (the size, the structure, material)
2. How does the heat spread through the space? How does it transfer from the open
area on to the structure?
3. How many heat/energy comes from the smoke?
4. Which size of the beam will hinder the free flow of the smoke?
5. Which methods are there available to model/calculate smoke?
6. How long does it take for the smoke to transfer the heat onto the structure? What
is the heat transfer with regard to the local fire model?
Y.C.Wong 1
7. Which preconditions can be stated with respect to the height of the beams to be
able to make use of CaPaFi and which must be written in the Guideline of the fire
safety for steel car parks (BmS -guideline) to limit the field of application?
§1.4 Objective
To research whether smoke, which is trapped between the beams, needs to be taken into account
during the fire safety design of the open car park when making use of the BmS -guideline.
§1.5. Preconditions and assumptions of the study
The preconditions are as followed:
- Fire resistance as written in Guideline of the fire safety for steel car parks [1]
- Only open car parks are researched and the enclosed car parks are not taken into account.
- The requirements which have been set up for this research regarding the car park are:
 The main structure is made out of steel
 Natural ventilation (without the help of mechanical ventilation)
 No superstructure (upper structure) on top of the car park
 The layout in the car park has a regular repetition of parking units
 The minimum fire resistant requirement of an open car park is approximately 60
minutes [1]
- Only beams are checked in this process (no columns and floors)
Assumptions that are made:
- For an open car park, the worst case scenario in this case with the maximum of trapped
smoke is no wind. The wind is left out for this research during the whole process.
- There are only normal sized cars 1

that are making use of the open car parks (see
Appendix 1 Size of the car
- No new types of cars are included in this research such as hybrid and electric cars. Only
the ones that are mentioned in [4]
- Research shall only be done whereas the local fire occurs on a horizontal floor (no
research shall be done on floors with a slope)
1
Normal sized cars: A vehicle containing 4 or more wheels, not a plowing car or a disabled vehicle or a four-wheel
moped, designed for the transport of people containing not more than 8 seats not including the driver’s seat or a
camping car [in Appendix A of NEN 2443]. See Appendix 1 for the information.
Y.C.Wong 2
§1.6 Research strategy
This study involves two fields namely the thermal analysis and the structural analysis. Because
the time is limited, the thermal analysis is done thoroughly and the structural analysis is done in
a more simplified manner. To accumulate information about this topic, resources such as the
internet, papers, eBooks and articles are used.
Gaining insight for thermal analysis through full scale experiments are expensive and involves a
lot of significant work. These experiments are not used in the everyday building design but as a
scientist’s tool. Small scale experiments are often executed in a geometry scale where the
execution is easily done. Making use of the results gained from these small scale models other
mathematical models, hand calculated methods and even computer based models are derived
and/or assessed. However, not all experimental results are totally accurate because there are
measuring errors. And these measuring errors can be estimated for 30%. As mentioned before,
full-scale car fire experiments are usually very expensive to perform and require special facilities
for experimenting due to the damage it can caused to the structure and environment. Computer
simulated car fires are less expensive. A disadvantage is the long simulation time that is needed
to run the simulation although the technology of processors and computers has improved in the
last decades. [5], [6]
The car fire is a localized fire. In the Eurocodes the localized fire is described. In the BmS-guide
the spreadsheet Car Park Fire (CaPaFi) is used, which is based on the localized fire and data
gained from real experimental car fires [1], [7], [8]. In this study CaPaFi is used to verify
whether the models made in the software Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS). CaPaFi doesn’t take
into account the smoke and FDS does. With these two tools insight is gained. With Smokeview
(SMV) graphic results can be seen which have been calculated by FDS.
For verification of the thermal analysis, the Eurocodes are used as reference. The Eurocodes that
have been used for this research are:
1. NEN-EN- 1991-1-2
2. NEN-EN- 1993-1-2
More information of CaPaFi and FDS are given in §5.3. Car Park Fire (CaPaFi) and details
about which version is used is as follow:
 CaPaFi version 2.1

 FDS version 6.0.1
In Figure 2 the steps carried out in the current study is given as a flow diagram.
Y.C.Wong 3
Figure 2 Flow chart of the research methodology
Y.C.Wong 4
Chapter 2 The car park

§2.1 General
In this chapter information about the car park is given such as the definition, the distinction
between an enclosed and open car park, the dimensions of a car park and the different floor
systems that can be used within a car park and its dimensions.
§2.2 The car park
A car park2 (also called a parking garage) is a building designed for parking cars which can be
made out of several floors. A distinction between car parks can be made:
A) An enclosed (closed) or integrated car park

An enclosed (closed) car park or “integrated” parking garage can be part of a big
building, have enclosed facades and/or located below the ground level (underground car
park). [9] From [10] it is shown that there has been a lot of research with respect to the
car fires in enclosed car parks. These studies involved around the smoke movement and
the fire development affected by the ventilation systems and it can be concluded that:
 The fire will stop by itself in case of oxygen lack
 If ambient air is drawn in, the fire can be re-ignited (also known as back draft)
 Ventilation accelerates various stages of the fire
B) An open car park

An open car park can also be part of a building or a building itself with open facades.
The characteristics of an open car park are given in NEN2443 [3] (based on the
ventilation of carbon monoxide and the use of liquid propane gas):
 At least two walls opposite from each other are open (it can’t be closed)
 The maximum distance between two walls opposite from each other is 54m
 The lowest floor is ≤ 1,3 m below ground level
 The open sections in the walls are for each floor (area) ≥ 1/3 of the surface of all walls
and the walls that are confined to this floor (area) OR the openings in the two opposite
walls in each of these facades ≥ 2.5% of the gross floor area of the floor(area) AND
 The ventilation (according to NEN 1087 [11]) must be at least 3*10-3m3/s per m2 used
surface (This is also an requirement of the Bouwbesluit (a Building decree used in the
Netherlands))
To ensure the natural ventilation, there are extra requirements or specifications [1]:
 The requirement of the distance from one wall to the other is nuanced to: from each point
in the area in the car park the distance to a wall ≤ 27m
 Only “The open sections in the walls are for each floor (area) ≥ 1/3 of the surface of all
walls and the walls that are confined to this floor (area)” stands, the other option about
the 2.5% is not applicable
 When a wall with a length of ≥ 7.5m is closed over the entire height, a conservative
consideration on the basis of mirror symmetry is possible (in which it is assumed that the
number of cars on fire is doubled and no heat-exchange at the location of the reflecting
2
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/parking+garage
Y.C.Wong 5
surface takes place). At an angle with two closed walls over a length of ≥ 7.5m, this
mirror symmetry apply to both directions;
 The free flow of hot combustion gasses above cars must not be enclosed on 4 sides by e.g.
high steel beams, closed wall sections that stick out of the floors or parapet
 There must be a space of at least 500mm so that free flow is possible.
Since the amount of air is limited in an enclosed car park, the fire is limited to some point.
Within an enclosed car park, extra measures have been placed in to maintain the fire safety of
the people and the building itself. But for an open car park, whereas there is an unlimited amount
of fresh air this could lead to a short “big” fire. The focus of this study is on open car parks.
§2.3 The layout of the car park
There are many layouts for an open car park given in article 5.3.8.3 in [3]. There are two type of
car arrangements which are the herring bone shape (45o, 60o, deep double parking) and parking
in the length (one side or double side). The dimensions can be found in the Table 1. For a public
(intensive use) a minimum unit width of 2.5 m is required.
Figure 3 Herring bone shape 45o [3] Figure 4 Herring bone shape 60o [3]
W - Width of the aisle
P2 - Depth of the double parking stroke
- Direction of the car flow
For parking straight the minimum width of

the aisle (= W) is 4m.
Figure 5 Deep double parking [3]
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Figure 6 Parking in length (one side) [3] Figure 7 Parking in length (two sides) [3]
B1 – The length of the parking unit (one side)

B2 – The length of the parking unit (two sides)
b – Width of a parking unit
W - Width of the aisle
α – Parking angle
Y.C.Wong 7
Table 1 The dimensions of the elements in an open and public car park [3]
Length Length of
Depth of Depth of Depth of the
of the the
a single a double double Width of Width
Parking parking parking
parking parking parking the parking
angle (α)3 unit unit
stroke stroke Herrington aisle (W) unit (b)
one side two side
(P1) (P2) shape (P2)
(B1) (B2)
Figure 3 Figure 3 Figure 6
Figure
Figures Figure 6 Figure 5 and till and Figure 7
6
Figure 4 Figure 7 Figure 7
[degrees] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m]
30.00 4.19 6.80 7.30 3.80 2.40 7.99 12.18
30.00 4.19 6.80 7.30 3.80 2.45 7.99 12.18
30.00 4.19 6.80 7.30 3.80 2.50 7.99 12.18
45.00 4.95 8.61 8.40 3.80 2.40 8.75 13.70
45.00 4.95 8.61 8.39 3.80 2.45 8.75 13.70
45.00 4.95 8.61 8.37 3.80 2.50 8.75 13.70
60.00 5.38 9.85 11.36 3.80 2.40 9.18 14.56
60.00 5.38 9.85 11.37 3.80 2.45 9.18 14.56
60.00 5.38 9.85 11.39 3.80 2.50 9.18 14.56
60.00 5.38 9.85 11.40 3.80 2.55 9.18 14.56
65.00 5.44 10.11 11.39 3.87 2.40 9.31 14.75
65.00 5.44 10.11 11.40 3.80 2.45 9.24 14.68
65.00 5.44 10.11 11.41 3.80 2.50 9.24 14.68
65.00 5.44 10.11 11.42 3.80 2.55 9.24 14.68
70.00 5.46 10.29 11.33 4.43 2.40 9.89 15.35
70.00 5.46 10.29 11.34 4.08 2.45 9.54 15.00
70.00 5.46 10.29 11.35 3.82 2.50 9.28 14.74
70.00 5.46 10.29 11.36 3.80 2.55 9.26 14.72
80.00 5.37 10.44 5.53 2.40 10.90 16.27
80.00 5.37 10.44 not 5.23 2.45 10.60 15.97
80.00 5.37 10.44 applicable 4.87 2.50 10.24 15.61
80.00 5.37 10.44 4.47 2.55 9.84 15.21
90.00 5.13 10.26 6.67 2.40 11.80 16.93
90.00 5.13 10.26 not 6.33 2.45 11.46 16.59
90.00 5.13 10.26 applicable 6.00 2.50 11.13 16.26
90.00 5.13 10.26 5.67 2.55 10.80 15.93
3
The angle in which the parking slots are located with respect to each other
Y.C.Wong 8
To have a sustainable design for the arrangements of the columns are also given as 3 examples
(See Figure 8 till Figure 10). All the sizes are given in m. This is to design column free.
Figure 8 Columns layout -1 [3] Figure 9 Column layout -2 [3]
In Figure 8 the columns placed in the

car park in a way that not big spans are
needed and more columns are needed.
In Figure 9 and Figure 10 the columns
are placed in such a manner that is it
easy to park the car and eye-sight for
the driver is better.
X Figure 10 Column layout-3 [3]
It can be concluded from the given layouts that for the x- direction the approximated length is
16m and in the y- direction it is between 5 – 8m. The governing case for the x – and y direction
are respectively columns layout 1 and 3.
For the minimum required free height (= the vertical distance between the floor or ground and de
lowest point of the upper structure) is minimum 2.3m and incidental areas (beneath beams and
(pipe) lines) is minimum 2.2m. [Article 5.5.1, [3]].
Y.C.Wong 9
§2.4 The floor systems in a car park
The columns determine the possible spans in an open car park. The floor system depends on
many factors such as the height restriction and the structural layout (spacing between columns).
The available floor systems determine which beams should be used to be able to cover the span
and take up the loads that are present. The most common used floor systems in car parks in the
Netherlands are presented in different categories given in Figure 11 [12].
3) Precast
1) Hollow core 2) Composite
concrete plank 4) TT - Plates
slabs decks/slabs
floors
Low Composite
decks/slabs Deep Composite
On steel beams On THQ-beams With dowels Without dowels
decks/slabs
on steel beams
On steel beams
On ASB beams
(integrated)
Figure 11 Categories of floors systems used in car parks in the Netherlands [12]
The different floor systems are briefly explained [12]:
1) Concrete hollow core slabs

The hollow core slabs prefabricated floor
elements, which have been prestressed and then
brought on site to be executed. The self-weight of
these floors are 50% lower than a massive floor
slab due to these hollow cores. They are able to
span over a length of 18m. The width of these
floors is standard 1.2m. The floors have a light
self-weight and support large loads too. An
example of this hollow core floor used on steel
beams for a car park is the Medimall car park in
Rotterdam. For the concrete hollow core slabs on Figure 12 Car park Medimall, Rotterdam
THQ- beams examples are car park at Tilburg , the
car park at the Martini hospital in Groningen,
Parking building Zuid in Eindhoven and the
Roermondsepoort in Venlo. [13] [14] [15] [16]
[17] [18].
Y.C.Wong 10
2) Composite decks/ slabs

These floors obtain a steel metal sheet that acts
like a formwork for cast in situ concrete floors.
They are light weighted and easy to be executed.
Depending on the span there is a distinction
between low (with or without dowels) and high
composite floors (with or without propping). The
spans range from 3.25m to 9.60m. An example of
a car park with a low composite floor is Doorneind
Helmond. For the high composite floor
respectively on steel beams and on ASB beams are
Figure 13 Car park Rijnstaat, Arnhem [22]
car park Hoofddorp, car park Rijnstaat Hospital in
Arnhem and car park at the Bogaard in Rijswijk.
[13] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24]
3) Precast concrete planks

Precast concrete planks are prefabricated
formwork elements where on site the concrete is
poured on top. These floors are used in residential
and non-residential structures. The maximum
length is 8.9m and the thickness varies from 50mm
to 90mm. An example of this type of floor system
the car park Gerechtsgebouw at the Wilheminapier
in Rotterdam. [13] [25].
Figure 14 Floor system car park

Gerechtsgebouw at the Wilheminapier in
Rotterdam [25]
4) TT-plates
This type of floor system is also used in car parks
such as split level car park. The spans range from
8 -16m, the effective width is 2.50m and the height
is 550mm or 770mm. A concrete layer can be
poured on top of the service. The flange thickness Figure 15 TT –plates [26]
of the TT-plates is variable depending how thick
the concrete topping is. (For sizes and information
see Appendix 2 Information TT-plates ). [26], [27]
The fire safety of a parking garage is defined as the time that the building can withhold/
withstand without collapse and causing casualties. This is different in each country. From [1] it
can be concluded that car parks are required to have a fire resistance of 60 minutes for the main
construction. For car parks with fewer floors the requirement is at least 30 minutes. A fire safety
of an open car park fulfills the requirements as a safe building if the steel structure doesn’t fail
and the steel structure satisfies the safety requirements (if it is proven that it can withstand
scenarios in an equivalent safety analysis).
Y.C.Wong 11
Figure 16 Car Park “Medimall” Figure 18 Car Park “Q-Park Tilburg”
After visiting some open car parks in the

Netherlands (Figure 16, Figure 17 and Figure
18), the following can be concluded: column
layout 2 and 3 are the most common (Figure 9
and Figure 10) and the most user unfriendly
layout is number 1 (Figure 8).
Combining what was found in previous

paragraphs, layout 3 will be used for the study.
Figure 17 Car Park “Eindhoven” (Near the
airport)
The main factor that sends out heat apart from the flames is the smoke. To have the largest
amount of heat it is therefore necessary to have as much smoke as possible (the bigger the
volume smoke, the more heat). The bigger the area where the smoke is trapped, the less dense it
is leading to possibly less heat production. This is still uncertain, therefore research and
investigation is needed.
Y.C.Wong 12
Chapter 3 Fire and smoke

§3.1 General
In this chapter, the distinction of different categories fires is given. The explanation of a car fire
and in which category a car fire is explained. A short elaboration about smoke, its movement and
hazards and the protection against smoke are presented.
§3.2 Localized fire and a compartment fire
To have a fire there are 3 components necessary:
A) The fuel (combustible material)

B) The oxygen (to sustain the combustion)
C) Heat or ignition source
These are given in the fire triangle. All three components
must be present at the same time and each of them has their
function in the reaction.
Figure 19 The fire triangle [http://www.academyfire.com/extinguisherguide.html]
The type of fire can be divided in a compartment fire and a localized fire.
A compartment fire can be described in 3 phases which is shown Figure 20 [28]:

1) Pre- flashover: The fire just started and can still effectively be put out if early warnings
are given. Only some of the material within the compartment is on fire.
2) Post flashover: in this stage the fire can either die out (lack of combustible material or
oxygen) or increase (sudden income fresh air inside room e.g. when a window breaks)
3) Flash over: All combustible material within the compartment is on fire and extinguishing
the fire in this stage is impossible. The flashover is around 600oC or with a radiation
intensity of 20 kW/m2. For models the flashover is around 500-600oC and 15-20 kW/m2
[28], [29].
Within a compartment fire, the whole compartment has a high temperature due to the fire.
Y.C.Wong 13
Figure 20 The temperature- time curve of a fire
A localized fire is characterized by the fact that the fire remains small or a fire within a very
large area where there is no flash over. The combustion products such as smoke and other hot
gasses will gather on the ceiling. This will cause the area to divide into a layer of smoke and one
without. In a zone model this is modeled as a hot and cold layer. The temperatures are assumed
to be overall the same within a layer. [28]
The fire in a car park can be categorized as a localized fire. In a car park with enough ventilation
or early intervention of the fire department there will be no flashover (low fire load density of
250 MJ/m2 [30]) and the fire is maintained. The fire is limited to one or a couple of cars. Fire
temperatures obtained from real fire test in an open car park from previous tests gives a good
indication how the development of the temperature is for a car fire. The fire in a car park
undergoes the following stages:
a) The ignition: This can be done on purpose (vandalism etc.) or accidently (heat in the
fuel/motor, cigarette in the car seat etc.). Once the ignition starts, part of the car will start
burning.
b) The growth: After ignition, the fire grows at a rate depending on the type of material, the
amount of oxygen. The whole car is burning and heat is spreading. This heat ignites a car
parked next to the fully burning car (fire spread).
c) Decay: The fire is starting to be smaller because there is no more material left to be
burned.
An example on how the temperature progress is within the time during a car fire can be seen in
Figure 21.
Y.C.Wong 14
Figure 21 Measured temperature of gasses (fire) [4]
To check whether a structure still meets the requirements of not failing, one makes use of the
standard fire curve. This curve (see Figure 20) is described with:
T= 20+ 345*log (8*t+1) Eq. (1)
with T= temperature in oC
t =time in minutes
Further elaboration on how to check the structures will be given in the other chapters.
§3.3 The combustible material
In case of a car fire the combustible material are the cars and the fuel within these cars in the car
park. Based on the amount of energy that a car releases during a fire, cars in Europe are divided
in 5 categories (examples of which cars are given in each category Table 2) with an energy
available to be released ranging from 6000 MJ to 12000 MJ in Table 3 [4].
Table 2 Definition of the European cars [4]
Y.C.Wong 15
Table 3 The average car mass, mass of the combustible materials and energy available to be released versus
category [4]
From [1], the following can be said:

 Researches shows that more than 95% of the car fires are limited to maximum of 3 (fully)
burning vehicles
 The flame spread from one vehicle to another vehicle (parked transversally) is
approximated 12 minutes (based on a category 3 car with an available energy of 9500 MJ)
[1] [4] For car parks with floors (levels) higher than 5m: after 12 minutes 2 cars are
burning and after 24 minutes 4 cars are burning.
The combustible material in a parking garage is the car itself, namely the tires, the interior of the
car, the fuel and the plastic car parts. There is time needed to have flame spread from one car to
another. The fire inside a car will die out if there is a lack of oxygen. The most common car fires
are due to casualties and overheated motors. Even this issue is almost ruled out because the car
producers are also responsible in getting good cars on the market [31].
From [32] an indication can be given how much the rate of the heat release is of different type of
cars. In this case, 3 cars were set on fire. In Table 4 and Table 5 the information of these cars and
the tanks are given.
Table 4 Cars in Full-scale Fire Experiment at VTT of 1994 [32]
Test no. Car model Mass before fire without

fuel [kg]
1 Ford Taunus 1.6 990
2 Datsun 160J Sedan 918
3 Datsun 180B Sedan 1102
Table 5 Fuel tank features [32]
Test Fuel tank Filler pipe Fuel hose to engine

no. material
Material Location Material Connection to fuel tank
1 Steel Beneath the boot Steel Steel Top of the tank
2 Steel Between the back of Plastic Plastic Bottom of the tank
the rear seat and the
boot
3 Steel Beneath the boot Plastic Plastic Top of the tank
Y.C.Wong 16
The results of these tests are given in Figure 22 and

it’s ignition at t = 2 min. The peaks correspond to the
burning of different parts of the car and are indicated
by the arrows.
Table 6 Information about Figure 22 [32]

Test Arrow Arrow Arrow
1 2 3
1 1/3 of Fuel is
windscreen burning from
collapse, the filler pipe
increasing mouth
fire in the
passenger
cabin
2 Windscreen Burning
collapse, liquid is
flashover in dropping
the from the rear
passenger part of car
cabin
3 Flashover Flames from Melted
in the the fuel tank plastics from
passenger where the a pool fire
cabin plastic filler under the rear
pipe has part
melted
Figure 22 Rate of heat release measured in the
car fire experiments [32]
According to [32] 59% of the car fires started from the engine area and 35% from the
passenger’s area. Fire spreads faster from engine to the passenger’s cabin then the other way
around. Temperatures measured in the experiments vary from 400-800oC.
In this research the focus will mainly be on vehicles described in Table 2 and the electric cars
and hydrogen or hybrid cars are disregarded. It should be mentioned with the search of cleaner
and sustainable energy the use of more hydrogen and electric cars will be more common.
Research of tunnel fires with hydrogen car has already begun. [33]
§3.4 The smoke
When the ignition has started, a smoke layer will develop and the heat production process starts.
The amount of energy is expressed in the rate of heat release (RHR [in W/m2]) and a time
constant (tα [s]). The RHR is dependent on the type of combustion material and the amount of
oxygen.
Y.C.Wong 17
§3.4.1 Characteristics of the smoke
The smoke within a closed compartment can be divided into layers: cold and hot layer. Each
layer has its own characteristics [34]:
1. Hot layer: the temperature in this part of the layer causes the natural buoyancy of the
smoke to lift up itself toward the ceiling while clean or a little polluted air is drawn into
the lower part.
2. Cold layer: In this layer the mixing and all forms of heat transfers reduce the effect of the
driving force whereas the buoyancy won’t lift up so much smoke. Wind and stack effects,
mechanical heat, ventilating and other air moving systems control the smoke movement.
The layers in an open car park will not be distributed very accurately. The hot layer will be
located between the beams and the cold layer under the beams to a certain extent (certain
height). The area and surroundings where the burning car is located will be warm. The further
away from the source the colder it gets.
§3.4.2 The smoke movement
A phenomenon called back-layering can also occur. During fires, jet fans are used to drive the
smoke onto one side. But if the driven force is too low, the smoke flow might go back (air flow
going in the upstream direction) which is called back-layering. [35] This usually occurs in tunnel
fires, but it can also occur in car parks. Some back-layering is allowed in car parks. Researches
have been done to study this phenomenon in large closed car parks. [36]
§3.4.3 Influence of smoke on the environment and humans
The emissions from car fires have been examined. A detailed investigation of full-scale
simulated car fires (3 separate full scale fire tests: fire ignited and developed in the engine
compartment, fire ignited in the coupe and extinguished in the early phases and a fire ignited in a
coupe which spread out to the entire vehicle) was done, including characterizing the gas phase
components, particulates and run-off water from extinguishing activities. It is concluded out of
these researches that these emissions have potentially negative effect on the environment or a
toxic effect on humans if it were produced in significant quantities. During the fire, the smoke is
the biggest problem and leads to the death of people. The most toxic effects are those coming
from carbon monoxide, fumes and vapors. The smoke is the main hazard against humans. [37]
[38] [39]
§3.4.4 Measures against the smoke
There are different methods to keep the smoke under control in the car park. It is necessary to
keep the smoke under control so that people can safely escape from the building and for the
firemen to enter the building to extinguish the fire at an early stage. The smoke can influence the
sight of the people and also the oxygen which the people inhale. The measures that can be taken
to control the smoke flow during the design stage [39]:
- Natural or mechanical ventilation
- Positions of the escape/ fighting stairs
- Escape distances
To some distinct these measurements can remove the smoke during the fire away from the car
parks.
Y.C.Wong 18
Chapter 4 Effect of the high temperatures on the steel properties

§4.1 General
Within this chapter, the car park and the fire are brought together. What will happen? The effects
of the high temperatures on the steel are discussed. Different types of heat transfers are discussed
and the formulas on how to determine these. Afterwards, the effects on the material properties of
steel are discussed. In the last part, the simplified calculations are given and the reason why it is
necessary to research the influence of the smoke.
§4.2 Heat transfer
On the surfaces that are exposed to the fire, heat transfer occurs. The heat transfer from a fire on
to a steel member is illustrated in Figure 23 and is known in 3 forms [29] [30]:
Figure 23 Different type of heat transfer4
1. Conduction: the amount of heat transfer from hot to cold object is proportional to the
temperature gradient, the contact area and the conductivity. Since it is about the steel car
park, the steel’s thermal conductivity is used and given in NEN-1993-1-2 [40].
For 20oC ≤ < 800oC Eq. ( 2a)

For 800oC ≤ < ≤ 1200oC Eq. ( 2b)
Where
4
Picture obtained from http://schoolworkhelper.net/thermal-energy-transfer-conduction-convection-radiation/
Y.C.Wong 19
Figure 24 Thermal conductivity of steel vs. temperature [40]
And furthermore the specific heat is a property influenced by the temperature.

The determination of the specific heat Ca of steel [J/kg K] according to [40]:
For
Eq. (3a )
For
Eq. (3b )
For
Eq. ( 3c)
For
Eq. (3d )
Where
Figure 25 Specific heat of steel vs. temperature [40]
Y.C.Wong 20
2. Convection: this is heat flow in a gas or fluid. The amount of heat that is transferred is
proportional to the difference in temperature, the contact area and the convection
coefficient. The convective heat transfer according to [40]
̇ Eq.(4)
̇
[ ]
[oC]
o
[ C]
3. Radiation: the amount of radiation is dependent on the material of which the radiator is
made out of, a constant σ (Stefan- Boltzmann constant) and the temperature of this
object. The heat flux coming from the radiation according to [40]
̇ Eq.(5)
̇
[– ]
[– ]
[ ]
Summarizing to net heat flux ( ̇ ̇ ̇ Eq.(6)
§4.3. Influence of the temperature on the material properties
The yield strength of steel will decrease as the temperature rises. This can lead to a failure.
Theoretically if the stress is known due to the loads, the temperature of steel can be calculated
when it fails. This temperature is known as the critical temperature [29]. The loss of strength
starts at approximately 400oC. Around 550oC only 60% of its strength is left for hot rolled
sections. Decrease of the strength is the strongest between 400oC and 800oC. The limiting
temperature in which structural steel member would withstand before collapse varies according
to the temperature profile and the load. [41]
Y.C.Wong 21
Figure 26 Strength factor steel vs. temperature [41]
Depending on how the steel element was designed, it can be that the element doesn’t necessarily
have to fail. For example if the element is designed to just carry the load at room temperature, it
will probably fail during the fire or afterwards. This doesn’t have to be the case if the element
was a bit over dimensioned [29].
Figure 27 Steeltemperature and the stadard fire curve [29]
The extent in which the object is warmed up depends on a section factor [29] [30]. It is
calculated:
Am/V Eq.(7)
With: Am = the perimeter of the area that is heated [m]

V= the cross- sectional area [m2]
In Appendix 3 Calculation of the section factor of some profiles [52] there is more info about the
different shapes and there calculation method with for with and without fire protection. The
smaller the section factor, the slower it heats up (see Figure 27). This information is provided by
the producers.
Y.C.Wong 22
§4.4 The simplified calculations of steel
A building is designed to withstand loads such as the self-weight, the live loads and the wind
loads. Even during a casualty such as a fire. In previous studies of Liew et al. and the paper
about the car park Medimall, the steel structure was able to withstand the fire with or without
addition of fire protection. For more detailed information about these cases see Appendix 4
Previous studies. The same matter was done in a simplified manner with a beam which is simply
supported. This beam is located in an open car park. Areas where this beam needs to be checked
against failure are:
1. The area where the maximum moment occurs (in the middle of the beam): in this area a
car is never parked here, but it could be that a fire can start there.
2. The area where the fire occurs (where the car is parked): Although the biggest moment
capacity isn’t in this area, the heat might cause the moment capacity to reduce
significantly and lead to failure.
The dimensions for the beam are taken from the car park Medimall in Rotterdam. In §2.3 it was
concluded that the biggest span was approximately 16m. Due to this reason, the direction of the
floor system and span given in Medimall are changed: the hollow core sections will span across
4.8m (effective width) and the beams across 14.75m. It is chosen to start with HEB 500 (S355)
and making use of hollow core slabs (type 150-8 of Dycore, see Appendix 5 Information about
hollow core slab. The fire is at 2m from the left support, which approximate the center of the car.
In Figure 28 the beam and the position of the fire are given.
Figure 28 Fire occurring in the middle of the beam (Dimensions are in mm)
The critical temperature of the beam is calculated (see Appendix

6 Simplified calculations) and the temperatures of the steel beam
during the car fire are determined by Car Park Fire (CaPaFi).
In practice the temperature in the cross- section of the beam

differs. The topside of the beam is put against the slab floor in
and the bottom of the beam is exposed to the heat of the car fire
(Figure 29). The differences in the temperature throughout the
Figure 29 Heated I-section cross- section of the beam are corrected by the factor κ1 in the
Y.C.Wong 23
NEN-EN- 1993-1-2. The temperature of the beam throughout the cross-section is than being
averaged. Since the beam is simply supported the factor κ2 will be 1.
In Figure 30, Figure 32 and Figure 34 the beam is represented by the green dots in CaPaFi. Point
1 and 4 are the points at the support. Point 2 is the point at x= 2m and point 3 is the middle of the
beam, x= 7.375m. The car is given as the red square. The steel temperatures are calculated and
plotted in graphs given in Figure 31, Figure 33 and Figure 35.
Car fire at 2m away from the left support of the beam
Figure 30 Beam is illustrated with green points: point 1 and 4 are at the supports, point 2 at 2m and point 3
in the middle of the beam; car fire is the red square. [Source: CaPaFi]
Y.C.Wong 24
Temperature field of the beam (fire at x=2m)

650
618 Pos 1
600
Pos 2
550
Pos 3
500
Pos 4
450
400
350
Temp [°C]
300
250
200
150
100
73
50
0
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600 4200 4800 5400 6000 6600 7200
Time [sec]
Figure 31 Temperature of different positions of the beam with the car fire at x=2m [Source: CaPaFi]
Car fire in the middle of the beam
in the middle of the beam; car fire is the red square. [Source: CaPaFi]
Y.C.Wong 25
Temperature field of the beam (fire at x=7.375m)

650
618 Pos 1
600 Pos 2
550 Pos 3
500 Pos 4
450
400
Temp [°C]
350
300
250
200
150
100 73
50
0
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600 4200 4800 5400 6000 6600 7200
Time [sec]
Figure 33 Temperature of different positions of the beam with the car fire in the middle of the beam [Source:
CaPaFi]
All the results of the simplified calculations and the ones done by CaPaFi are given in Table 7.
Table 7 Overview of the critical temperatures (hand calculations 5) and the beam’s temperature of CaPaFi
Location Critical temperature Beam’s temperature Beam’s temperature

[oC] with fire at 2m [oC] with fire in middle [oC]
X = 2.00m 712 618 73
X= 7.38m 628 73 618
From Table 7 it can be concluded that the temperature of the beam in both situations are lower
than the critical temperature, so the beam would not fail. But in both cases the influence of the
smoke that is trapped between the beams can cause the temperature to be higher. For the
situation given in red in Table 7, the smoke might cause the temperature to be higher than 628oC.
That’s why it is necessary to check the influence of the smoke.
Another situation that can occur is that there is more than 1 car parked near the support. These
cars are about 2.5m apart from each other. It is assumed that the first car right (red car in Figure
34) under the beam ignites first and then the blue car and at last the pink one (Figure 34). As
shown Figure 35 the temperature of the beam at position 2 reaches 734oC which is higher than
the critical temperature. This beam needs to be re-designed again with fire protection or enlarged
to a bigger profile. As expected, for more than 1 car fire the temperature will be much higher
than in the case of 1 car fire.
5
See Appendix 6 Simplified calculations
Y.C.Wong 26
3 Car fires at 2m from the left support of the beam
in the middle of the beam; car fires are the red, blue and pink square [Source: CaPaFi]
Temperature field of the beam ( 3 fires at x=2m)

800
750 Pos 1
734
700 Pos 2
650
Pos 3
600
550 Pos 4
500
450
Temp [°C]
400
350
300
250
200
150 141
100
50
0
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600 4200 4800 5400 6000 6600 7200
Time [sec]
Figure 35 Temperature of different positions of the beam with 3car fire at 2m from the left support [Source:
CaPaFi]
Y.C.Wong 27
§4.5 Fire safety measures
To protect a building, in this case a car park, against fire there are many measures that can be
taken. These measures can be divided into active (fire and smoke detectors, sprinklers etc.) and
passive measures (special applied materials such as paint, coatings, protection of the steel by
concrete surroundings etc.). In this paragraph it is elaborated on these measures.
§4.5.1 Active measures
Active measures are measures that actively respond to the fire. These are:
1. Fire and smoke detectors [42]

Fire detectors: Their functions are to detect and locate the fire at an early stage, alert the
occupants and the fire brigade and activate the fire control systems.
Smoke detectors: these systems detect the presence of smoke. The detection can be done
through ionization (electrical conductivity of air ionized by radioactive element), optical
detection (attenuated or scattered light) or long distance light beam (attenuated light).
Disadvantage of these smoke detectors are that it is very sensitive (smoking).
2. Sprinklers
There are many types and classes sprinklers, it functionality ranging from industrial
buildings to car parks. They can detect the fire in an early stage (smoke/ small fire) and
suppress or extinguish it and sound the alarm. The continuous development of the
sprinklers ensures that there is a high reliability and sensitive in responding to the fire.
When there is a fire, water is sprinkled and thus keeping the fire small, have control over
the smoke and flames. Regular checkups and maintenance is required for the optimal
functioning of the sprinkler system. [43]
In recent years, there are new ventilation systems developed which combined with an electronic
fire detection are considered as an addition to extinguish fire at an early stage, and CAN’T
replace the sprinkler system.
§4.5.2 Passive measures
Passive measures are measures that don’t need activation in order to function, such as insulation
material and planning an escape route.
To protect the steel against the heat there are many methods, fire insulation of the load bearing
structures [41]. In Figure 36 an outline of the different types of fire protected steel is given.
Y.C.Wong 28
Fire protected
steel
Reactive Non- Reactive
Thin film Thick film

intumenscent intumescent Boards Sprays
coatings coatings
On site Off site On site Off site

Light weight Heavy weight
applied applied applied applied
Figure 36 Outline of fire protected steel [41]
The methods for protecting the steel against fire are described below [41]:
i. Intumescent coatings: A material that will be inert at low temperatures and will insulate
the steel during high temperatures (starts a chemical reaction at a temperature of 200oC -
250oC). This material will swell and acts as an expanded layer with low conductivity.
These materials are subdivided into two groups:
- Thin film: This type is water based or solvent based (used for cellulosic fire conditions).
These are applicable for buildings with a fire resistance requirement of 30 to 90 minutes.
Some of these materials nowadays can also reach 120 minutes. Water based ones can be
applied on- site and solvent based ones are used for area which are dry and heated.
Expansion ratio is about 50:1 (1mm coating expands to 50mm).
- Thick film: first developed for off-shore and hydrocarbon industries but nowadays also
applicable for buildings. They are epoxy based and have a higher dry film thickness than
the thin ones. Expansion ratio is lower and is about 5:1.
ii. Boards: A system that is used to protect the necessary areas and it is not hidden. They are
applied on painted and unpainted steelwork. They are divided in two groups:
- Lightweight (150-250 kg/m3): used not decorative finishes and are cheaper than heavy
weights.
- Heavy weight (700-950 kg/m3): used for decorative finishes.
iii. Sprays: It can cover up complex shapes elements and the costs don’t rise significantly as
the thickness of the elements thickens. They are not applicable in areas where the
aesthetic is necessary. Spraying is a wet trade, so it might influence other site operations.
Y.C.Wong 29
Y.C.Wong 30
Chapter 5 The tools to study thermal influences

§5.1 General
As quoted in [6]: “Fire processes are a very complicated and complex phenomenon consisting of
combustion, radiation, turbulence, fluid dynamics and other physical and chemical processes. A
good knowledge about complex phenomena and processes occurring during fire in different
environments is a significant component of fire safety. As fire itself is very complicated
phenomenon, interdisciplinary approach to the problem is required.”
There are many tools nowadays to predict the smoke and fire spread. These tools make use of a
model, which is a simplified “version” of the reality, to calculate and predict what will happen
with the use of formulas. The model used within the simulations can model and simulate and
visualize the spreading of fire and smoke. An estimation of the environmental damages caused
by the fire can even be given. The benefits of a model are mentioned in the §1.6. [6].
Making use of a model requires skills and knowledge. The software that is used will always give
a solution. It is therefore important that the user defines what data and boundaries to give to the
software and how to model the situation as good as possible. Verification must always be done
with literature cases or other cases [29].
In this chapter a brief explanation is given, the different methods to study the thermal effects on
the steel structure and the software that will be used for this research.
§5.2 Models on thermal influences
Over the years many models have been developed to describe the behavior of the fire and its
influences in the environment. With these models researches with respect to the fire and its
behavior can be researched more thoroughly. Depending on the accuracy of the results that one
wants to obtain and the best model for describing the fire a model is chosen.
Some of the models that are known for the description of fire presented with a short explanation:
1) Empirical correlations:
- Very easy to use
- Applicable for a certain case and limited in the range of conditions
- Examples are the Thomas’ Plume equation
2) Zone models:
- They are based on analytical and semi-analytical considerations
- It divides the interested area into zones, which are described by a simply set of
parameters and semi-empirical laws and these parameters are averaged for the
specific area
- Boundary conditions are used when there is a change between the areas
- Examples: CFAST and OZone
Requirements that must be fulfilled in order to use this model are given in NEN 6055 (article
7.1.2). Zone models are not suitable for modeling fire in car parks because they are limited to
small areas (smoke cools down too fast), works with average temperatures and underestimates
Y.C.Wong 31
the temperature of the upper layer. Furthermore in a zone model it is very difficult to take into
account the natural ventilation or mechanical ventilation and the horizontal spreading of the
smoke can’t be taken into account [44]
3) CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) or field models:

 They are based on local physical quantities laws (e.g. mass, momentum, energy and
different type of concentrations)
 It is an accurate and scientifically method
 This model provides the ability to model the evolution of the fire at any time and any
point of a specific area
 Very time consuming
 They also take into account the turbulence effects of the smoke and therefore can be
divided in two categories namely the Reynolds-Averaged Navier- Stokes (RANS) and
Large Eddy Simulations (LES) and the Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) [29] [45]
A) The RANS: this model describes the turbulent quantities based on the time
interval which can cause the situation to change. The intervals can be around 1s- 5s. An
example of such a model is the k-ε model. [29]
B) The LES: This model will only take into account the small and fast vortices.
The large vortices are calculated with the fundamental equations. This model is very
accurate and requires really small time intervals (0.01s -0.1s) and is therefore time
consuming. [29]
C) The DNS: This is the most accurate tool to simulate fluid turbulence. It can
compute and solve Navier- Stokes equations in a very fine spatial mesh with very small
time steps and the smallest turbulent and fastest fluctuations. But the computational cost
of DNS is very high. The resources required to calculate DNS exceeds the capacity of
most powerful computers currently available [45]
 The presentation of a CFD model can be given in a table chart or a graphic layout.
Within the graphic layout there are two options: the vector plots and the contour plot.
 Examples are: FDS, Jasmine and Fluent
With CFD modeling, the fire in a car park can be modeled more realistic. More
parameters can be taken into account such as the heat transfer by convection, conduction
and radiation etc. [44].
Since CFD modeling provides more accuracy and more realistic for a car park, computational
model software was needed. The choice was for FDS (Fire Dynamic Simulator). The reason for
this:
 It’s a free software

 Its specialty is smoke and its movements
 It is widely used by engineers to plan out escape routes, fire simulations etc.
Y.C.Wong 32
§5.3 Software
To analyze the thermal effects on the steel structure of a car park the spreadsheet Car Park Fire
(CaPaFi) can be used. This spreadsheet has its limits and can’t take into account the influence of
smoke, but it is based on a local fire model of the Eurocode and has a database of results from
real car fire experiments. To gain more accurate information and also taking into the smoke it is
better to make use of computational fluid dynamics software. This shall be discussed in the
paragraphs.
§5.3.1 Car Park Fire (CaPaFi)
CaPaFi is an excel spreadsheet made to calculate the temperature of the elements in a large
enclosed or open car park due to a car fire whereas the walls are far enough from the fire to
avoid any influence on the heat distribution. The formulas are based on the NEN-EN- 1991-1-2
[46]. As it is known that a car fire is a localized fire, one shall make use of Annex C of the
previous mentioned NEN.
A brief explanation is given as follow:
1. The spreadsheet can calculate the temperature of the steel beams with maximum 5 local
fire sources
2. It is only valid in cases where the fires has an influence on the ceiling
3. The given rates of heat releases are calibrated on cars and are based on real
measurements (One of these is for example Hs (= height of the fire) is 0.3m [1])
4. The model used is as shown in Figure 37.
Legend:
H [m]- Distance between fire and ceiling

D [m]- Diameter of the fire
r [m]- Horizontal distance between the
vertical axis of the fire and the point
along the ceiling where the thermal flux
is calculated
Lh [m]- Horizontal flame length
Lf [m]- Flame length
Figure 37 Localized fire when Lf > H ( The fires have

influence on the ceiling [46]
If the fire reaches the ceiling (Lf ≥ H), the heat flux ̇ [W/m2] received by the area exposed to the
fire is as followed:
̇ If y ≤ 0.30 Eq. (8a)

̇ If 0.30 < y < 1.00 Eq. (8b)
̇ If y ≥1.00 Eq. (8c)
Y.C.Wong 33
Where
y is a dimensionless parameter calculated as Eq.(9)
r is the horizontal distance [m] between the vertical axis of the fire and the point along the
ceiling where the thermal flux is calculated (see Figure 37)
H is the distance [m] between the fire source and the ceiling (see Figure 37)
Lh is the horizontal flame length [m] (see Figure 37) and follows the relation of:
Eq.(10)
(A non-dimensional rate of heat release) Eq.(11)
z’ is the vertical position of the virtual heat source [m] and is given by:
When Eq. (12a)

When Eq.(12b)
Whereas Eq.(13)
And the net heat flux ̇ [W/m2] received by the fire exposed surface area at the level of the
ceiling is calculated:
̇ ̇ Eq. (14)
With :
From Eq. (14) it can be deduced that ̇ is the net heat flux to a beam with a temperature of 20oC.
Y.C.Wong 34
The heat release of the car which is used in CaPaFi is given in Figure 38. For more than 1 car,
the heat releases are also determined and CaPaFi can reach a maximum of 5 cars (Figure 39).
These are not input data but already written within the spreadsheet.
Figure 38 Heat release of a car [6, CaPaFi]
Figure 39 Heat release of 5 cars[6,CaPaFi]
Y.C.Wong 35
§5.3.2 Fire Dynamic Simulator (FDS)
Fire Dynamic Simulator (FDS) is a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of the fire-
driven fluid flow. Navier- Stokes equations suitable for low- speed (Ma6 < 0.3), thermally –
driven flow with an emphasis on smoke and heat transport from fires are solved numerically. [47]
The formulated equations and numerical algorithm are given in the FDS Technical Reference
Guide [48], whereas the verification and validation of the model are conferred in the FDS
Verification and Validation Guide. [49] [50]. Smokeview (SMV) is a separate program used to
display the results of the FDS simulation graphically. Because FDS make use of syntax
commands and for some cases it is much more convenient to have a graphical layout of the
model which has to be written in syntax command.
From [47] the formulas are obtained which it uses to do the computational fluid dynamics. These
are as followed:
Quantity Formula
Heat flux radiation Eq.(15)
Heat flux convection Eq.(16)
Heat net flux ̇ Eq.(17)
With:
[oC]
[oC]
[oC]
Combining equations 15, 16 and 17 one obtains a heat flux ̇ as in CaPaFi given in equation 8:
̇ Eq.(18)
The comparisons can now be made for FDS with CaPaFi by comparing Eq.(14) and Eq. (18).
In FDS devices are put up to measure the hnet,d and the temperature of the member and then use
these information to calculate the ̇ . With this a comparison of the heat fluxes can be made with
CaPaFi to verify the model which will be set up in FDS. This will be given in chapter §6.3.
The default settings of FDS were used. Information about these default settings can be found in
the FDS Technical Reference Guide volume1: Mathematical Model.
6
Ma or M: Mach number, a dimensionless number representing the ratio of the speed of the medium and the speed
of the sound in that medium.
Y.C.Wong 36
Chapter 6 Modeling
§6.1 General
In this chapter the focus is on the models itself. Before modeling one has to make certain that the
models are calculating according to the Eurocodes and that the reality is given correctly. In the
process, CaPaFi have been analyzed on how it calculates the temperature of the steel structure
and the models which are set up in FDS are then verified with CaPaFi.
§6.2 Preparations for the verifications
To verify FDS, a case has to be put up where the beams and the positions of the measuring
points must be the same. FDS has its limits in modeling small sized things in terms of the
meshes. The smaller the meshes the longer it takes to gain results. Furthermore with the chosen
mesh it can be that some modeled obstacles can be round up. For the first trial, an actual
HEA500 was being modeled in FDS. This beam has the shape of an HEA in CaPaFi and in FDS
it contains a shape of a U-profile. The reason for the shape as a U is the sides which are exposed
to the fire in FDS. This three sided exposure is taken into account by CaPaFi with its section
factor. 7 With the information about its sections factor, the thickness was calculated and resulted
in a thickness of 16mm. Of course, other models were made as well and up on checking these,
the rounding up phenomenon was discovered. (The height of a HEA500 = 490mm and that was
rounded up to 500 mm). A fictitious profile is set up for this purpose.
x
Figure 40 Fictitious beam (Left =CaPaFi, Right = FDS)
The calculations and information about the fictitious beam can be found in Appendix 7 Profile of
the fictitious beam. As shown in Figure 40 the U-profile seems to allow heat to be stored
between the legs of the U-profile, but one must keep in mind the buildup heat is prevented by a
dummy obstacle. Furthermore, the heating effects of FDS are measured in 1 direction within the
obstacle. This means that for the U-profile, the temperature is measured on each side in its local
cross-section (z-direction for the legs and the x- direction for the under flange). This fictitious
7
Section factor is the ratio between the surface area that is heated up and the volume of the profile. (see Eq. (7))
Y.C.Wong 37
beam can be “translated” back into a real beam with the ratio calculation between the section
factor and the boxed section factor. The calculated section factor for the beam is the same as the
section factor of the U-profile.
The modeling can be divided in two parts:
a) There is 1 car on fire within the car park with 1 beam: this model was used for fine
tuning a model made in FDS to gain the more or less the same results of CaPaFi.
b) There are 3 cars on fire within the car park with 2 beams
More on these models and their results will be presented in the following paragraphs.
§6.3 One car fire (Model 1 to 5)
§6.3.1 Set up of model
A simple model is being set up in CaPaFi which is given the name model 1 and this case is then
set up in FDS. The set up in CaPaFi is shown in Figure 41 and the input parameters for this case
are shown Table 8. The green dots display the position of the measuring points on the beam and
the red square the position of the car with respect to the beam. In this case, the beam is directly
above the car.
Figure 41 Position of the beam with respect to the car in CaPaFi
Table 8 Input data for CaPaFi for models
Quantity Unit Model 1 and 3 Model 2,4,5

Hf (=Height of ceiling) m 2.8 2.8
Hb (=Height of the beam) m 0.5 0.5
Coefficient Beam - 0.85 0.85
Am/V m-1 92 54
Am/V(box) m-1 65 37
Y.C.Wong 38
The model that has been set up in FDS is written in a script and can be found in Appendix 8
Script of model 1 (FDS). The space where the simulation takes place has the dimensions of 12m
by 12m by 2.8m (x, y and z direction). The reason for choosing a square box is to also test the
fire for symmetry since the CaPaFi model is a circular fire, meaning that the heating process
should be symmetric too. The height is 2.8m according to the average height of a car park.
The next step is to define how big the mesh should be within this space. The more accurate the
results, the smaller the mesh (the grids within the model) must be. The disadvantage of this is the
long simulation time. It has been chosen to make the grids 10cm by 10 cm by 10cm (x, y and z
direction). The space has 6 planes which have been described with boundary conditions (see
Figure 42). The planes of X=0, X=12, Y=0 and Y= 12m are open, because it’s an open car park.
The planes for Z=0 and Z=2.8 are put to “INERT”, which means that the ceiling and the floor
stays at the ambient temperature of 20oC. The reason for this decision was that the focus was on
the steel beam.
Figure 42 The space of the model
Figure 43 Sideview of the model 1 (Dimensions in mm)
After that, the fire and it properties are described. The maximum fire area is calculated with the
given fire diameter (D) in CaPaFi as followed: . The
maximum heat release rate in CaPaFi is 8.30MW at t= 25 min= 1500s. The size of a car is about
4.8m by 2m, so the rate of heat release for this car is: . This heat
release rate was put on the cubic car in FDS with the dimension 3.0m by 3.0m (to approximate a
circular fire as in CaPaFi) by 0.3m.
Y.C.Wong 39
The height is 0.3m, because in CaPaFi, this is set to 0.3m. The height between the fire and the
ceiling is equal to 2.0m (Figure 43). The fire pool description is from an example that was
provided by Efectis. The properties of the beam have been done according to the Eurocodes
regarding the thermal properties and the shape (found in respectively in §4.2 and §6.2).
Devices are defined to measure the temperature of the steel member, the temperature of the gas,
the net heat flux for the position 1, 2, 3 and 4 (just like in CaPaFi on the same position). There
are also other devices for measuring the radiation and convective heat fluxes (Figure 44).
Figure 44 Top view of model 1 with the coordinates in FDS
The heat release curve of a car fire (Figure 38) shows that the heat release is stable from t= 4min
till t= 16min and then reaches its highest value at t= 25min, therefore the model has been
simulated till t= 25+ min. (=1500+ s) to see whether the heat fluxes originating from radiation
and convection on to the beam is correct.
The same set up is used for model 2, 3, 4 and 5 with minor modification for fine tuning the
model, because the results that were gained from the model didn’t match up with the model of
CaPaFi. The changes are presented in Table 9.
Y.C.Wong 40
Table 9 Overview of model 1 to 5 and briefly summarized
Model 1 2 3 4 5
Soot-yield 0.037 0.037 0.074 0.2 0.037
Number of cars 1 1 1 1 1
Number of beams 1 1 1 1 1
Thickness of the beam 0.016 0.032 0.016 0.032 0.032
[m]
Burning surface area 21.6 12.6 12.6 12.6 12.6
car [m2]
Center to center 0 0 0 0 0
distance beams and
carfire(s) [m]
Area (hxbxh) [m] 12x12x2.8 12x12x2.8 12x12x2.8 12x12x2.8 12x12x2.8
Number of meshes 1 1 1 1 1
Grid size [cm] 10x10x10 10x10x10 10x10x10 10x10x10 10x10x10
Ceiling Inert concrete concrete concrete concrete

Floors Inert concrete concrete concrete concrete
2
αc,steel [W/m K] 35 35 35 35 FDS
calculates
αc,concrete [W/m2 K] Not FDS FDS FDS FDS
applicable calculates calculates calculates calculates
Table 10 Comparison Matrix
Models 1 2 3 4 5 Legend of Table 10

2 not applicable
3 x x Comparison
4 x
5 x
The checklist for the analysis of each model is:
 Comparison HRR of the car for CaPaFi and FDS

 Heat fluxes of the different positions of the beam for CaPaFi and FDS
 Temperature of the different position of the beam for CaPaFi and FDS
 And for some models the convective factor has to be checked with the Eurocode
Y.C.Wong 41
§6.3.2 Analysis of the results for model 1 to 5
The results and the comparison (data input for the charts) of CaPaFi and FDS are given in tables
in appendices. Only the governing cases/positions are discussed in the report and the rest can be
found in the appendixes. The governing cases/ positions are the ones which are the most heated
area. The equations 15, 16 and 17 have been used to calculate the total heat fluxes. The same
procedures of data analysis are done for model 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Note: The total heat fluxes in FDS (Eq. 18) = ̇ in CaPaFi (Eq.14).
The first model was analyzed. The total heat fluxes and the temperatures of model 1 of the other
positions can be found in Appendix 9 Data total heat fluxes of Model 1 and Appendix 10 Data
temperatures of model 1. Due to an error this model is not valid for comparison with other
models, but it was used to fine tune the other models. The fine tuning for model 2:
1. The burning area was set to burn on the top side and the 4 sides (surface area would
be .
2. The ceiling and the floor was put to inert, which means that the ceiling and the floor stays
at the ambient temperature of 20oC. For the next scenario it is decided to change this to a
concrete ceiling and floor. This was done because a real car park consists of concrete
floors and ceiling. The concrete properties concrete specific heat and conductivity are
obtained from NEN-EN-1992-1-2.
The emissivity of concrete was left as
the default setting of FDS 0.9, and not
making use of 0.7 as stated in the
Eurocodes.
3. There are more devices put up
to check the symmetry of the model
for the beam. The points can be seen
in Figure 45. The total heat fluxes of
points 2 and 8 should be the same, and
for the pairs of 3 -9 and 4 - 10. The
points 5 till 12 are points that are
below the ceiling measuring the
assigned quantities of the concrete
ceiling.
Figure 45 Top view of model 2 with the coordinates
Y.C.Wong 42
The script for the second model is given in Appendix 11 Script model 2 for FDS for FDS, the
results and comparisons of the heat fluxes and temperatures are given in Appendix 12 Data Total
heat fluxes for model 2and Appendix 13 Data temperature of model 2.
Heat release rate of 1 car (model 2)

10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
HRR [kW]
5000
FDS
4000
CaPaFi
3000
2000
1000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Time [s]
Figure 46 Heat Release Rate 1 car for model 2 (FDS vs. CaPaFi)
In Figure 46 it can clearly be concluded that the HRR is configured correctly. The HRR curve
given in CaPaFi and the one of FDS is almost a match, with only minor fluctuations after t=
1000s. Also the maximum value at t= 1500s is a bit higher for the FDS curve that the one of
CaPaFi. This can be the case since the burning surface of FDS was put to 12.6m2, whereas
CaPaFi is 12.01m2.
Total heat fluxes position 1 (model 2)

140
Total heat fluxes [kW/m2]
120
100
80
60 FDS Pos1
40 CaPaFi Pos1
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Figure 47 Total heat fluxes position 1 for model 2 (FDS vs. CaPaFi)
Y.C.Wong 43
Total heat fluxes Position 2 and 8 (model 2)

140
120
100
80
FDS Pos2
60
CaPaFi Pos2
40
20 FDS Pos8
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Figure 48 Total heat fluxes for position 2 and 8 for model 2 (FDS vs. CaPaFi)
Temperature position 1 (model 2)

500.00
400.00
Temperature [oC]
300.00
Temp.FDS
200.00 Pos1
Temp.CaPaFi
100.00 Pos1
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]
Figure 49 Temperature of the steel beam for position 1 for model 2 (FDS vs. CaPaFi)
500.00
400.00
Temperature [oC]
Temp.FDS
300.00 Pos2
Temp.CaPaFi
200.00 Pos2
100.00
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]
Figure 50 Temperature of the steel beam for position 2 for model 2 (FDS vs. CaPaFi)
Y.C.Wong 44
From the analysis of the heat fluxes the following can be concluded:
1) Although the HRR of the car in FDS is more or less correct with CaPaFi, the total heat
fluxes for the beam still isn’t correct. For position 1 of model 2, the total heat flux is at
the beginning of the fire more or less the same as CaPaFi, but at higher heat releases of
the car fire the total heat fluxes are much higher than CaPaFi (Figure 47). As for position
2, which is a bit further away from the center of the heat fluxes at lower heat release rates
of the car is lower than CaPaFi and at higher heat releases the opposite happens (Figure
48). In Figure 48 there is no graph put for CaPaFi for position 8, because this is identical
as position 2 of CaPaFi. For the other positions, see Appendix 12 Data Total heat fluxes
for model 2.
2) For position 2 and position 8 the symmetry was checked, to see whether the fire was
simulated good enough as a circular fire as stated in CaPaFi. In the results of Figure 47
the green line is more or less the same as the blue one. It can be concluded that the
symmetry was done correctly.
3) In Figure 49 and Figure 50 it can be concluded that the temperature matches the total
heat fluxes again. From t= 200s and onward, both the total heat fluxes and the
temperature show a big difference between the model in FDS and CaPaFi. For the
temperature plots of the other positions, see Appendix 13 Data temperature of model 2.
Because the total heat fluxes and the temperature of the steel beams in the model are lower than
the one given in CaPaFi, the next step is to see whether if a more homogeneous smoke layer
would make a difference. The soot-yield of the model 4 was enlarged to gain a more
homogeneous smoke. The soot-yield number gives the amount of small particles within the
smoke. The higher the number, the more particles there are within the smoke, the more
homogeneous the heat is divided within the smoke layer. The same script is used as the one for
model 2, with only a soot-yield number 0.2 for model 4. The results are presented in Table 11
and Table 12 (numerically), because the differences between each model are not that significant
to be seen within a graph. Only for position 1 and 2 the heat fluxes and temperature are
presented. The rest of the results can be found in Appendix 14 Comparison heat fluxes model 2,4
and CaPaFi and Appendix 15 Comparison temperatures model 2,4 and CaPaFi.
From these tables, it can be concluded that for the heat fluxes it really doesn’t matter whether the
soot-yield is higher or not, the differences between each model is very little. The same can be
said about the temperatures of the beam between these two models. For a too high soot-yield
(model 4) the steel temperatures are more or less the same as model 2.
Y.C.Wong 45
Table 11 Comparison heat fluxes of model 2,4 and CaPaFi
Total Heat
fluxes Position 1 Position 2
t [s] Model 2 Model 4 CaPaFi Model 2 Model 4 CaPaFi
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 5.60 5.20 20.39 2.90 2.66 5.91
120 12.79 12.64 33.39 5.11 5.14 10.80
181 20.06 18.75 39.98 7.44 6.84 17.77
240 37.20 33.28 44.33 9.63 8.44 23.92
301 32.64 37.84 44.33 9.25 9.32 23.92
360 31.38 34.32 44.33 10.63 9.98 23.92
420 34.47 34.65 44.33 10.19 10.27 23.92
480 29.80 37.77 44.33 11.04 10.63 23.92
540 34.42 36.85 44.33 9.82 8.56 23.92
600 36.82 32.36 44.33 10.68 10.39 23.92
660 31.99 32.57 44.33 10.38 9.27 23.92
720 29.92 35.60 44.33 10.83 8.79 23.92
780 28.61 38.73 44.33 10.55 10.93 23.92
841 30.09 37.98 44.33 9.89 8.80 23.92
900 28.08 28.54 44.33 9.82 9.95 23.92
961 28.58 36.10 44.33 10.04 8.97 23.92
1020 42.82 52.99 48.79 12.96 15.16 30.13
1081 59.68 56.32 52.07 22.97 19.84 34.61
1140 63.55 60.91 54.67 22.40 21.25 38.09
1201 78.43 71.92 56.82 27.34 28.65 40.95
1260 81.22 74.56 58.68 28.29 29.64 43.36
1321 90.36 95.00 60.31 46.13 29.23 45.46
1380 93.84 93.17 61.77 42.43 40.22 47.32
1441 91.92 112.80 63.09 54.89 60.61 48.99
1500 126.68 123.35 68.85 58.45 63.08 56.04
Y.C.Wong 46
Table 12 Comparison temperatures of model 2,4 and CaPaFi
Temperatures Position 1 Position 2

0 20 20 20 20 20 20
61 23 23 21 21 21 20
120 29 29 33 24 24 24
181 40 39 52 28 27 30
240 55 55 73 32 32 40
301 70 73 95 37 37 53
360 85 89 116 42 41 65
420 98 104 137 47 45 77
480 110 118 156 51 49 88
540 123 131 175 55 53 99
600 134 142 193 59 57 110
660 144 153 210 63 60 120
720 154 164 227 66 63 130
780 163 175 243 70 66 140
841 172 184 259 73 69 149
900 181 193 274 76 72 158
961 188 200 289 79 74 167
1020 203 215 303 83 78 176
1081 222 234 318 91 85 187
1140 242 253 334 99 93 201
1201 264 275 351 109 104 215
1260 286 298 368 120 113 230
1321 310 324 385 135 124 246
1380 335 349 402 150 139 262
1441 361 377 419 168 158 278
1500 396 414 435 194 182 295
Y.C.Wong 47
Temperature Position 1
500
400
Temperature [oC]
300
Model 2
200
Model 4
100 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Figure 51 Comparison temperature of model 2, 4 and CaPaFi for position 1
500
400
Temperature [oC]
300
Model 2
200 Model 4
CaPaFi
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Figure 52 Comparison temperature of model 2, 4 and CaPaFi for position 2
From Figure 51 and Figure 52 one can see that the temperature for positions that are further
away from the fire are still not the same yet as the one presented in CaPaFi, so for the next
model (model 5) adjustments have been made to the steel beam. The convection coefficient of
the steel beam is not defined in the model and it is set to be calculated by FDS itself to see
whether the model is much more stabilized then the previous ones. Parts of the results are given
in the next two figures.
Y.C.Wong 48
Total heat fluxes comparison Position 1

140
120
100
80
60 Model 2
40 Model 5
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Figure 53 Comparison heat fluxes model 2, model 5 and CaPaFi for position 1
Total heat fluxes comparison position 2

140
120
100
80
Model 2
60
Model 5
40
CaPaFi
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Figure 54 Comparison heat fluxes model 2, model 5 and CaPaFi for position 2
From Figure 53 and Figure 54 it can be concluded that the heat fluxes are even lower than the
ones in model 2. With this being said, it can also be deduced that the temperature of the beam in
FDS will be much lower than the ones in CaPaFi. Furthermore, the differences also are bigger
for positions further apart from the fire source. In Appendix 18 Convective heat transfer
coefficient Model 5 the average convection coefficient of steel is calculated which is between
0.86 and 27 W/m2K. This value is much lower than the one written for steel in the Eurocode (35
W/m2K).
At last model 3 has been checked with model 2. In model 3, the thickness of the beam is half the
size (16mm) of model 2 (32mm). The soot-yield is also 2x the one given in model 2. The results
are given in Appendix 19 Comparison Total heat fluxes model 2 and model 3 and Appendix 20
Comparison temperatures model 2 and model 3. As expected, the temperatures of model 3 are
higher because the thickness of the beam is thinner.
Y.C.Wong 49
After going through each model, it can be found that model 2 is the closest to CaPaFi. An
overview is given in Table 13 with the differences of each model compared to each other and
their conclusions.
Y.C.Wong 50
Table 13 Summary of all 5 models, the differences and their conclusions
Model Soot- Thickness αc,steel Results/ Conclusions Conclusions

yield [m] [W/m2K] comparisons (Compared to (Compared to CaPaFi)
appendix Model 2)
(ces)
(A) The total heat fluxes for the point directly above
2 0.037 0.032 35 12, 13 the fire are at the beginning more or less the same, and
in the end much higher. The total heat fluxes for point
2-8, all were lower than CaPaFi.
(B) The temperatures of the beam for all positions
were lower than the ones calculated in CaPaFi.
(C) The symmetry of the positions 2-8, 3-9 and 4-10 is
modeled correctly.
(A) The temperature of model 3 are higher than This comparison was not made, due to a calculation
3 0.074 0.016 35 19, 20 model 2 because the thickness of the beam is thinner. mistake the shadow factor was not taken into account
(B) The symmetry of the positions 2-8, 3-9 and 4-10 leading to a thinner beam of 0.016m.
is modeled correctly.
4 0.2 0.032 35 14, 15 There are no significant differences in the total heat The total heat fluxes and the temperatures of model 4
fluxes and the temperatures, even with a higher soot- are more or less the same as model 2. In both models
yield. (See table 13 and 14) these results are still lower than the ones that are
calculated by CaPaFi.
The total heat fluxes and the temperatures of model 5 (A) The calculated average αc,steel is between 0.86 and
5 0.037 0.032 FDS 16, 17, 18 are a bit lower than the ones in model 2. This is 27 W/m2 K which is lower than 35 W/m2 K in the
calculates caused by the lower αc,steel calculated by FDS. Eurocode.
(B) Model 2 is still much closer to CaPaFi than model
5 for both the total heat fluxes and the temperatures of
the beam.
Y.C.Wong 51
Since all the models did have some improvements and is still not totally in accordance with the
one set up in CaPaFi, it has been decided to go further with 3 cars. According to the study 95%
of the car fires are limited to maximum 3 (fully) burnt cars [1]. In §4.6 showed that the
temperature of the beam will be much higher when there is more than 1 car burning. With this
information, a model with 3 cars is set up in FDS and being more realistic with 3 cars, the model
might be even closer to CaPaFi. These new models with 3 cars are given the name model 6 and
model 7. Model 6 is with beams sticking out of the ceiling and model 7 is without the beams
sticking out. Elaboration on these two models is in the next paragraph.
§6.4 Three car fires (model 6 and model 7)

§6.4.1 Set up 3 car fires
The car in the previous models (1 car fire for models 2, 3, 4 and 5) was 12.6 m2 which was a
square. To model three car fires next to each other the shape of the car has to be changed. In
practice the cars in a car park are parked next to each other with a space of approximately 2.5m.
This “square car” would be too big with its dimensions of 3x3m. The most suitable size of the
rectangular car is 4.8m by 1.8m with a height of 0.3m. For this car, only the top and the 4 sides
are taken into account as burning surface and the surface area is exactly 12.6m2.
Because there are three fires, the space where this takes place has to be increased too. There
must be sufficient air going through the space as the previous models 2, 3, 4 and 5. The ratio of
the openings is approximate two times the previous space. The space can’t be too large because
the run time increases too. The space where 1 car fire took place was about 4*12m*2.8m
=134.4m2 and for the 3 car fires it’s about 268m2 leading to a space of 24m by 24m.
For the three car fires 2 models had been set up where as in model 6 the beams stick out from the
ceiling and for model 7 the beams are hidden in the ceilings. For simplicity model 6 will be
named with obstacles beams and model 7 without obstacles. The run time for these two models
is set to 2500s because it is necessary that all three cars reach their maximum heat release rate.
To make sure that the run time is as short as possible to reach the 2500s the space of 24m by
24m was divided into 5 meshes, whereas the area around the fire and the 2 beams with a heart to
heart distance of 16m was with a smaller mesh of 10cm, all the other space is made with a mesh
of 20cm.
In Figure 55 the beams are displayed as green points 1-8 and the cars are given in little blocks.
This is top view of model 6 and 7 in CaPaFi. The order in which the cars burned is given in
white numbers. The same model is set up in FDS (Figure 56 and Figure 57). The side views of
the models are also given Figure 58 and Figure 59. In model 6 where the beams stick out of the
floor, the temperature at the side of the beam which is facing the fire is also measured. This is to
check what the influences with respect to the temperatures are.
Y.C.Wong 52
Figure 55 Positions of the beams and the cars modeled in CaPaFi for model 6 and 7
Figure 56 Model 6 (3 cars with obstacles) Figure 57 Model 7 in FDS (3 cars without obstacles)
Figure 58 Side views of model 6 (all dimensions are in mm)
Y.C.Wong 53
Figure 59 Side views of model 7 (all dimensions are in mm)
Table 14 Data input for CaPaFi for model 6 and model 7
Quantity Unit Model 6 Model 7

Hf (=Height of ceiling) m 2.8 2.3
Hb (=Height of the beam) m 0.5 0.001
Coefficient Beam - 1 1
Am/V m-1 54 54
Am/V(box) m-1 37 37
The input parameters for CaPaFi for model 6 and 7 are given in Table 14. The reason why the
ceiling height of model 7 for CaPaFi is 2.3m and not 2.8 is because in FDS the ceiling is pulled
down in order to create the hidden beam effect. The space was kept the same as model 6 to keep
as many factors constant as possible.
An overview of model 6 and 7 is given in Table 15 and the differences between models are
marked out in red. In the end this is needed to check if there is really a difference between a one
car fire and three car fires within an open car park.
Y.C.Wong 54
Table 15 Overview of differences Model 2, 6 and 7
Model 2 6 7
Soot-yield 0.037 0.037 0.037
Number of cars 1 3 3
Number of beams 1 2 2
Thickness of the 0.032 0.032 0.032
beams [m]
Center to center 0 2.65 2.65

distance beams
and carfire(s) [m] and 13.05 and 13.05
Area (hxbxh) [m] 12x12x2.8 24x24x2.8 24x24x2.8
Number of meshes 1 5 5
Grid size [cm] 10x10x10 10x10x10 10x10x10
and and
4x20x20x20 4x20x20x20
Ceiling concrete concrete concrete
Floors concrete concrete concrete
αc,steel 35 35 35
αc,concrete FDS FDS FDS

calculates calculates calculates
Table 16 Comparison Matrix
Models 2 3 4 5 6 7
Legend of Table 16
2
not applicable
3 x
x Comparison
4 x
5 x
6 x
7 x x
§6.4.2 Analysis of the results for model 6 and 7
The heat release rate according to CaPaFi of each car is given in Figure 60. The heat release of
the model 6 and 7, which are obtained from FDS are given in Figure 61 and Figure 62. As can be
seen these figures the shape of the graphs are different. The reason for the shape in Figure 61
and Figure 62 in FDS compared to Figure 39 of CaPaFi is that FDS sums up the total heat
release rate of all 3 cars. This can be verified.
To verify the heat releases of FDS with CaPaFi, the heat releases of the cars is determined for
CaPaFi and FDS at t= 1500s= 25 min. For CaPaFi the sum of the heat release is 8.3MW +3.96
MW +2.4 MW =14.66 MW. For FDS the heat release is at t= 1501s 14165.882 kW = 14.17 MW.
For more verification, see Table 17. The differences are not that significant meaning that the
HRR was modeled correctly.
Y.C.Wong 55
Figure 60 Heat release of each car in CaPaFi (Source: CaPaFi)
Table 17 Verification HRR model 6 and model 7 with CaPaFi
Time HRR CaPaFi HRR FDS with HRR FDS without

[min] [MW] obstacles obstacles
[MW] [MW]
16 1.4+2.4= 3.8 3.84 3.76
24 5.5+3.44+0= 8.94 9.05 8.88
25 14.66 14.42 14.17
Sum of HRR of 3 cars (with obstacles)

16000
14000
12000
10000
HRR [kW]
8000
6000
4000
HRR- with obstacles (M6)
2000
CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
Figure 61 Heat Release Rate of the 3 burning cars (model 6)
Y.C.Wong 56
Sum HRR of 3 burning cars (Without obstacles)

16000
14000
12000
10000
HRR [kW]
8000
6000
HRR- without obstacles
4000 (M7)
2000 CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
Figure 62 Heat Release Rate of 3 burning cars (model 7)
After the verification of the heat releases of the cars, the next step is to check whether the total
heat fluxes of the beams and the temperature are done correctly.
Starting with model 6, the total heat fluxes were compared for each of the positions with CaPaFi.
From Figure 63 and Figure 64 it can be concluded that the total heat fluxes are still qualitative
good and quantitative bad. One can also see that the total heat fluxes have turned around for
positions that are further apart from the car fire: the total heat fluxes of FDS are higher than the
ones in CaPaFi. It should be mentioned that the total heat fluxes are very low for points that are
further apart from the car fire (the maximum is around 5 kW/m2). More results about the heat
fluxes of model 6 of the other positions can be found in Appendix 22 Data heat fluxes of model
6.
From Figure 65 and Figure 66 it can be concluded that the temperature is also not the same as
CaPaFi, but the temperature does follow the trend of the total heat fluxes. In position 2 both the
total heat flux and the temperature in FDS are higher than the one given in CaPaFi. The
temperatures of the positions that are further away from the fire (Figure 66) are very low
compared to position 2 and will never reach the critical temperature.
Y.C.Wong 57

70
Total Heat fluxes [kW/m2]
60
50
40
FDS
30
CaPaFi
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 Time[s]
Figure 63 Total heat fluxes of position 2 of model 6 (with obstacles)
Total heat fluxes Position 5 (model 6)

70
60
50
40
30 FDS
20 CaPaFi
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 Time[s]
Figure 64 Total heat fluxes of position 5 of model 6(with obstacles)
Temperature Position 2 (model 6)

400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250
200 FDS
150
CaPaFi
100
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 65 Temperature of Position 2 of model 6 (with obstacles)
Y.C.Wong 58

400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250
200 FDS
150
CaPaFI
100
50 Time[s]
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Figure 66 Temperature of Position 5 of model 6(with obstacles)
After model 6, model 7 is also analyzed which is the one without beams. The total heat fluxes
shown in Figure 67 is already much closer to the ones in CaPaFi, only the heat up is much
slower in FDS. In Figure 68 where position 5 is much further apart from the car fire, the total
heat fluxes of FDS is higher than the one in CaPaFi just as the same case as Model 6.
Total Heat fluxes Position 2 (model 7)

70
60
50
40
FDS
30
20 CaPaFi
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 67 Total heat fluxes of position 1 of model 7(without obstacles)
Y.C.Wong 59
Total heat fluxes of Position 5 (model 7)

70
60
Heat fluxes [kW/m2]
50
40
30 FDS
20 CaPaFi
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 68 Total heat fluxes of position 5 of model 7 (without obstacles)
400 Temperature position 2 (model 7)

350
300
Temperature [oC]
250
200
150 FDS
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 69 Temperature of position 1 of model 7(without obstacles)

400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250
200
FDS
150
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 70 Temperature of position 5 of model 7(without obstacles)
Y.C.Wong 60
Afterwards, the temperatures are compared. Where in position 2 of model 7 the total heat flux
was a bit lower in heating up (at the maximum at t= 1500s differs 4 kW/m2), the temperature in
FDS is almost half the value of CaPaFi (Figure 69).
Finally both models are also compared to see the effect of with beams and without beams with
respect to CaPaFi. The total heat fluxes between CaPaFi of model 6 and model 7 are the same,
with a minimum difference in the range of one hundredth. It can be concluded from Figure 71
that model 7 is much closer to CaPaFi. Of course for positions further from the fire source had
the effect that the ones in FDS were much higher than the ones in CaPaFi (Figure 72), but still
very low in value.

60
50
With obstacles
40 (M6)
30 Without
obstacles (M7)
20
CaPaFi
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 71 Total heat fluxes comparison between model 6, model 7 and CaPaFi (position 2)

60
50
40 With obstacles
(M6)
30 Without
obstacles (M7)
20
CaPaFi
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 72 Total heat fluxes comparison between model 6, model 7 and CaPaFi (position 5)
It can be concluded the total heat fluxes for the model with obstacles is much lower than the one
without obstacles. This is very unusual. Therefor the temperatures between these two models are
also compared.
Y.C.Wong 61
Position 2 Comparison Model 6 and 7

400
350
300
Temperature [oC]
With obstacles
250 (M6)
200 Without
150 obstacles (M7)
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 73 Temperature comparison between model 6 and 7 (position 2)

400
350
300
Temperature [oC]
With obstacles
250 (M6)
200 Without
obstacles (M7)
150
CaPaFi
100
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 74 Temperature comparison between model 6 and 7 (position 5)
The same effect can be seen with the temperatures. The model with the obstacles has a lower
temperature than the without obstacles. This shouldn’t be the case. The reason for this is as
followed:
In Figure 75 and Figure 76 the smoke’s movement is given in blue arrows. In model 6 the
ceiling is higher and the smoke travels along the ceiling and then nearing the beam it moves
downwards (point C) and then flowing across the lower side of the beam (Point B). This causes
the temperature to be lower than the without obstacles. In model 7 is lowered in the middle,
causing the flame length to bend along the ceiling spreading the heat more out and causes higher
temperature at the lower part of the beam (point E). This can be seen with the visual effects in
Smokeview in the Table 18. In the last picture where t = 1530s the heat is spread along the beam
in model 6, whereas in model 7 this is spread across the whole area.
Y.C.Wong 62
Table 18 Snap shots of the graphic results of model 6 and 7 in Smokeview
With obstacles (model 6) Without obstacles (model 7)
Figure 75 Movement smoke (model 6) Figure 76 Movement smoke (model 7)
Y.C.Wong 63
The temperatures of these two models are given Figure 77 and Figure 78. The temperature at
points A and D (see Figure 77 and Figure 78) were not measured and couldn’t be found via
Smokeview too (it was at the intersection of 2 meshes causing Smokeview not to be able to view
it). The temperature of the side given in Figure 77 and Figure 78 are the temperature measured in
point C.

400
350 With obstacles
300 (M6)
Temperature [oC]
250 Without obstacles

(M7)
200
With obstacles Side
150 (M6)
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 77 Temperature comparison position 2

400
350
300 With obstacles (M6)
Temperature [oC]
250
Without obstacles
200 (M7)
150 With obstacles Side
(M6)
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Figure 78 Temperature comparison position 5
As expected, the temperature of the side of beam is much closer to the one of CaPaFi and a bit
higher than the one of without obstacles. This is because CaPaFi calculates its temperature and
the total heat fluxes at the lowest point of the beam (point B and E). For the case where there is
an obstacle if the temperature of point A is known this would be very low with respect to point C.
Taking the average temperature of point A, B and C this temperature would be more or less the
same as point E of the model without obstacles (the purple line in Figure 84 and Figure 85).
From this it can be concluded that the smoke doesn’t affect the temperature of the steel beam for
Y.C.Wong 64
beams of 500mm. So for smaller beams (< 500mm) the smoke shall have no influence either.
Although for points that are further away from the fire (Figure 85) the temperatures are higher
than the ones in CaPaFi, it still isn’t significant because the temperature doesn’t reach the critical
temperature. The temperature comparisons of model 6 and 7 of the other positions can be found
in Appendix 28 Comparison temperature model 6 and 7.
At last, a single car fire model (model 2) will be compared with the 3 cars fires (model 6- with
obstacles and model 7- without obstacles). Comparison of these models that have been set up in
FDS and run is not possible. The reason is the beam’s placement, even though the burning area
of the cars and the defined properties of the beam are the same. In the single car fire the beam is
directly above the fire and in the 3 car fires model these beams are 2.65m away from the fires.
The flame and the smoke within the single car fire will first hit the beam first and spread out
whereas within the 3 car fires models, the flame and the smoke will first hit the ceiling and then
spread sideways to the beam. This will cause the heating up of the beam to be different and can’t
be compared to each other. See Table 19 for the positioning of the beam and the smoke’s
movements.
To be able to compare these models, it is recommended to reposition the beam with respect to
the fires in the same plane to be able to compare the steel temperatures of the beam (see Figure
79). The beam is given in green color.
Figure 79 Top view position of the beam in model 2, 6, 7 and the recommended position of the beam
(dimensions in mm)
Finally, an overview of the conclusions of the comparisons for model 6, model 7 and CaPaFi are
presented in Table 20.
Y.C.Wong 65
Table 19 Comparison model 2, 6 and 7: Positioning beam and the smoke’s movement (dimensions are in mm)
Models Positions x-z plane Smoke’s movement

Single car
fire
(model 2)
3 car fires-
with
obstacles
(model 6)
3 car fires-
without
obstacles
(model 7)
Legend:
Smoke’s movement
Y.C.Wong 66
Table 20 Overview and summary of model 6, model 7, model 2 and CaPaFi comparisons
Model Appendices Conclusions Conclusions

(Compared to model 6) (Compared to CaPaFi)
6 (with obstacles, 21, 22 (A)The total heat fluxes for points that are closer to the fire are
3 car fires) lower than CaPaFi. For points that are further away from the fire
the total heat fluxes are higher than CaPaFi.
(B)The temperatures for the points closer to the fire are lower
than CaPaFi, but don’t reach the critical temperature. Points
further away from the fire have higher temperatures than CaPaFi,
but are relatively low compared to points that are closer to the
fire.
(C)The average temperature of the beam calculated by measuring
the side temperature and the temperature at the lowest point is
more or less the same as CaPaFi.
7 (without 24, 25 The total heat fluxes and temperatures are higher (A)The total heat fluxes for the points that are closer to the fire
obstacles, than model 6. This has to do with the movement are closer to CaPaFi, almost matching it. For points that are
3 car fires) of the smoke (Table 18, explanation on page 63) further away from the fire the total heat fluxes are higher than
model 6 and CaPaFi.
For more results see appendices 27 and 28 for all
positions. (B)The temperatures for the points closer to the fire are lower
than CaPaFi, but don’t reach the critical temperature. Points
further away from the fire have higher temperatures than CaPaFi
and model 6, but are relatively low compared to points that are
closer to the fire.
Y.C.Wong 67
Chapter 7 Conclusions and recommendations
In this chapter the final conclusions are given of the research that has been performed. As
finalization the recommendations are presented for further research on this topic.
§7.1 Conclusions
The objective of this research was to determine whether the smoke, trapped between the beams,
needs to be taken into account during the design of the fire safety of an open car park when
making use of the guideline for car parks (Bouwen met Staal guideline (BmS-guide)).
As mentioned before, there were single car fire models and 3 car fire models put up in FDS and
then compared with CaPaFi. The following can be concluded:
1. When making use of the BmS-guide to design the fire safety of an open car park,
the influence of the smoke trapped between the beams is negligible and therefore
doesn’t have to be taken into account for beams with a height smaller than
500mm. The average temperature obtained in FDS for the steel beams sticking
out is more or less then the same as the temperature of the beam hidden in the
ceiling.
2. The temperatures of the steel beams of FDS are lower than the ones calculated by
CaPaFi and a reasonable explanation could not be found during this research.
Even if the reason is found why this occurs, conclusion 1 with respect to the
model with beams sticking out and the model without beams, which are related to
each other, will not change if the models of FDS are fine-tuned closer to the ones
in CaPaFi.
3. In a 3 car fire model, the points that are further away from the car fire can be
disregarded because their steel temperature calculated with FDS, even though
higher than CaPaFi, will never reach the critical temperature.
4. It is still unclear why the increased number of soot doesn’t have any effect on the
temperature of the steel beams in the single car fire model.
§7.2 Recommendations
§7.2.1 Recommendations with respect to further study
1. The reason why FDS calculates the steel temperatures lower than CaPaFi can be
researched more in detail than in the present study. To gain more insight whether the
calculations of FDS are better than CaPaFi or not, the FDS results should be compared to
the results of the real car fires, which form the basis of CaPaFi.
2. There is still research to be done to check what the influences of smoke are, trapped
between beams that are higher than 500mm. The significant limit of the height in which
Y.C.Wong 68
case the smoke should or shouldn’t be taken into account during design still has to be
found.
3. To gain better insight of how much the influence of the smoke is on the steel beams in
the car park it is recommended to use a better model with 4 beams surrounding the 3 car
fires.
4. It is still not clear why the difference of the total heat fluxes and the temperatures isn’t
significant between model 4 (soot-yield =0.2) and model 2 (soot-yield =0.037). There
should be a study to check why this had occurred.
5. After modeling in FDS to gain information about the thermal load, the next step is to
model the steel beam with the thermal load in the software, making use of the finite
element methods to gain proper insight of the effects of the smoke on the beam itself
(taking into account the height of the beam, the shape of the beam, the cross section and
the height).
6. Since there are new type of cars such as hybrid, electric cars etc., it is recommended to
also research the smoke effects and the car fire heat effects on the beam (het heat releases
rates, the new material, burning time) of these cars.
§7.2.2 Recommendations with respect to the software
7. Although CaPaFi was renewed in 2010 to make use of the Eurocodes, the software itself
was not working totally correctly with the new versions of Microsoft office 2010 and
higher. The temperatures graphs which were supposed to be plot after the calculation
didn’t show up. It is recommended that CaPaFi is renewed each time there is a new
Microsoft office to keep the use of CaPaFi user friendly.
8. For large models made in FDS, it is not possible to stop the model and resume the
simulation at another time. This problem only occurs when running FDS in a windows
operating system. For OS and Linux this doesn’t occur.
Y.C.Wong 69
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May/June 2000.
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Y.C.Wong 71
Brandveiligheid.pdf
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Y.C.Wong 72
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van staalconstructies voor gebouwen volgens Eurocode 3, 1st ed. Zoetermeer, The
Netherlands: Bouwenmetstaal, 2010.
Y.C.Wong 73
Appendices
Appendix 1 Size of the car [3]
Characteristics of the vehicle Value Percentile

Length 4.88 m 95%
Width without rearview 1.83 m 95%
mirrors
Height 1.73 m 95%
Numbers of axles 2
Numbers of tires 4
Width of the track 1.56 m 95%
Turning circle (between walls) 11.58 m 95%
Weight (empty) 1491 kg 95%
Weight (maximum) 2189 kg 95%
Capacity 110 kW/150 pk 95%
Deceleration 5.2 m/s2
Y.C.Wong 74
Appendix 2 Information TT-plates [26]
Y.C.Wong 75
Y.C.Wong 76
Appendix 3 Calculation of the section factor of some profiles [52]
Shape Discription Section factor (Am/V)
Open cross -section

with four sides exposed
to fire
Corner profile with

four sides exposed to
fire
Strip- or staff steel with

four sides exposed to
fire
Round tube with four

sides to exposed to fire
Rectangular tube or
welded rectangular
tube with a constant
thickness with four
sides to exposed to fire
I-section with welded

side plates with four
sides exposed to the
fire
Open cross-section
with three sides
exposed to fire
Open cross- section

with 1 side exposed to
fire
Y.C.Wong 77
Appendix 4 Previous studies
The study and modeling of Liew et al. (2002) [51] showed the structural response of the frame in
a multistory car park before and after the fire. The plan view and the loads are given in Figure 80.
The results of before the fire (ambient temperature) are as follow:

- Midspan beam deflection is 17mm < span/360 = 36mm
- Maximum sway deflection at first story is 7mm < height/ 300 = 9.3 mm
The structure’s design satisfies both the ultimate and serviceability limit states at ambient
temperature. The resistance of the frame reaches its limits at load factor 1.481. Two fire
scenarios were set up to test the frame. The most critical column and the most critical loaded
beam were chosen. For both scenarios, the collapse was not observed. The fire service load are
1.0 DL + 1.0 IL (DL = Dead load, IL = Imposed Load).
Figure 80 (a) Plan view of multistory car park (b) elevation and load of the frame on Gridline B [51]
Y.C.Wong 78
Scenario 1: Car fire near column
Figure 81 Simulation of a car fire near column [51]
The results are given in Figure 83. After cooling down, the residual displacement is 27.5mm
which is less than 36mm (span/360). In Figure 85 the horizontal displacement of node A is
given. Node A is at the first story level (see Figure 80(b)). The maximum air temperature is
reached around t= 12min and at t= 33 min when the fuel tank and the compartment is on fire.
The maximum sway deflection is 36mm. The residual sway displacement is 20mm (1/140 of the
height).
Scenario 2: Car fire in the middle of a beam (mid span)
Figure 82 Simulation of car fire in the middle of beam [51]
In Figure 84 it shows that the moment initially decreases due to thermal bowing. The deflection
of the beam increased to a maximum of 138mm, and after the fire the residual deflection is about
113mm. The compression force increases when the temperature rises and decreases when the
cool down starts. The maximum deflection of the beam is 48mm and the residual deflection is
about 31mm (1/90 story height).
The results of the study are presented in Figure 83 till Figure 86.
Y.C.Wong 79
Figure 83 Midspan deflection of the heated beam Figure 84 Midspan moment of the heated beam [51]
[51]
Figure 86 Axial force of the heated beam [51]

Figure 85 Horizontal displacement Node A [51]
It can be concluded that fire scenario 2 is more critical (Maximum and residual frame deflection
are respectively 33.3% and 55% higher than scenario 1). After post fire analysis (Analysis of the
stability of the structure after fire, so that inspection and repairs could safely be carried out) it
can be concluded that the frame collapse at a load factor of 1.444 and for the midspan fire 1.415.
Both are a bit lower than what the British standards requires (1.4 DL +1.6 IL, BSI 1990a). And
in an advanced analysis it shows that the structure has an adequate factor of safety to have
repairs and inspection work carried out. The imposed load that exists during the repair doesn’t
exceed the limit.
For another car park, Medimall, located in Rotterdam (the Netherlands) there also have been
checked whether the critical areas will reach the critical temperature during fire. This car park
has the measurements of 295x35x13m. The results have been presented and all of the beams and
columns passed the unity check. The value of the unity check must be ≤ 1.0 in order to satisfy
the requirements. These checks have been done without taking into the account the influence of
the smoke. The results are presented in Table 21 and Table 22. [28]
Y.C.Wong 80
Table 21 Results of the calculation of the beam according to natural fire scenarios and the governing u.c. with
redistributed moments taking into account the temperature curve along the length of the beam [28]
Steel profile Location Max. steel temperature [oC] U.C.

HEM 240 Middle beam 609 0.63
HEB300 Middle beam 721 0.54
HEB320 Middle beam 667 0.57
HEA300 Edge beam 691 0.89
(1st – 3rd floor)
(4th floor)
HEB300 Edge beam 721 0.69
(4th floor)
HEM260 On the ramp 611 0.59
HEM280 On the ramp 608 0.86
HEA240 On the ramp 612 0.37
HEA200 On the ramp 628 0.71
Table 22 Results of the column’s calculation with the maximum steel temperature (natural fire curve) and
the critical steel temperature [28]
Steel Profile Location Max. steel Critical steel

temperature [oC] temperature [oC]
K220 Axis D and B 538 586
(axis 19-29)
K220 Axis D and B 495 563
(other axis)
K250 Axis B 538 575
(axis 5-9,34-38,44,54-58
K250 Axis B(45,47) 538 561
K300 Axis B (axis 33,41) 449 530
K300 Axis B (axis 4,10,12, 29, 538 528
43,49,53,59)
K300 Axis B (axis 2, 16) 566 528
K220 Axis A (on the ramp) 558 740
In both examples of previous studies showed that these structures are safe and will be able to
withstand the fire for the amount of time that it was designed for, without any protection added.
Additional fire protection by using concrete was added to the columns in Medimall (given in red,
Table 22). In both these cases there was no smoke taken into account.
Y.C.Wong 81
Appendix 5 Information about hollow core slab[14]
Fixed data:
- Calculations according NEN-EN 1992-1-1 and NEN-EN-1992-1-2

- Load category A,B and G
- Momentary factor Ψ = 0.4/0.5/0.3 (Category A)
- Momentary factor Ψ = 0.5/0.5/0.3 (Category B)
- Momentary factor Ψ = 0.7/0.5/0.3 (Category G)
- Fire resistance (see graph)
- Environmental class XC1-XC3
- Permanent load =1.20 kN/m2
- End deflection ≤ 0.004 Lt
- Additional deflection ≤ 0.002 Lt
- Pressure layer (top layer) C20/25 50mm thick
- Service class 2
Y.C.Wong 82
Appendix 6 Simplified calculations

y
Assumed that the temperature is thoroughly equally divided over the whole beam and the
temperature is the same in cross- section and in the longitudinal direction, the simplified method
given in [52] can be used.
Method 1 (According to [52])
[1])
( ) o
C=
3 ( ) o
C
(For unprotected beam exposed to three sides, with concrete slab on side four)
(For all other cases)
At T= 712 oC the beam will fail (critical temperature).
Method 2 (according to the Eurocode)
From NEN-EN-1993-1-2, §4.2.3.3:
Y.C.Wong 83
* + Eq. (7)
Parameters are given to take into account the non-uniform temperature in the cross-section. This
factor is given in 4.2.3.3 of the mentioned Eurocode given in equation (4.10):
Eq.(8)
(For unprotected beam exposed to three sides, with concrete slab on side four)
(For all other cases)
Out of Eq. (7) and (8) can be derived: =0.44

[ ]
With the temperature for failure can be found with linear interpolation from table 3.1 of
NEN-EN-1993-1-2, which is 612.5 oC (critical temperature).
The moment M at position at x= 2m is determined:
* +
With the temperature for failure can be found with linear interpolation from table 3.1 of
NEN-EN-1993-1-2, which 717 oC (critical temperature).
The input data for CaPaFi for beam HEB500:
Y.C.Wong 84
Appendix 7 Profile of the fictitious beam
tf =50 mm
tw=12 mm
h= 500 mm
b =300mm
( )
Thickness calculation for the U-profile
( )
In CaPaFi the ksh = 0.9 * and this factor is used to calculate the temperature change of
the steel beam. This 0.9 has to be taken into account to for FDS.
FDS : 0.9* ( )
( )
Y.C.Wong 85
Appendix 8 Script of model 1 (FDS)
The script itself is written in uppercase because all the commands in FDS are written uppercase
and FDS is case sensitive. The remarks are written between ----- or behind the /. The script starts
with &HEAD CHID / and ends with &TAIL/.
&HEAD CHID='test5', TITLE='test5'/ For 1 car fire (named model 1)
&TIME T_END=3000/
&MISC RESTART=.TRUE./
---- Fuel (From the example of Efectis of the half car) ---
&REAC ID='EFECTIS_HEPTANE',
FYI='SFPE',
FUEL='REAC_FUEL',
FORMULA='C7H16',
HRRPUA_SHEET=0.0,
CO_YIELD=0.01,
SOOT_YIELD=0.037,
HEAT_OF_COMBUSTION=4.46E4,
IDEAL=.TRUE./
------ Spaces ------
&MESH IJK=120,120,28, XB=0,12,0,12,0,2.8/ with a mesh of 10cm
------ The car and properties ----- HRR is for a car with a surface of 9.6m2 but with 4 sides burning
&SURF ID='car1',
color='RED',
HRRPUA= 864.583,
RAMP_Q='car1_fire'/
&RAMP ID='car1_fire', T=0, F=0.0/

&RAMP ID='car1_fire', T=960, F=0.169 /
&RAMP ID='car1_fire', T=2800, F=0 /
&OBST XB=4.5,7.5,4.5,7.5,0,0.3, SURF_ID='car1'/
Y.C.Wong 86
----- Properties of the steel beams ------
&MATL ID='STEEL_EURO',
SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP='STEEL_EURO_SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP',
CONDUCTIVITY_RAMP='STEEL_EURO_CONDUCTIVITY_RAMP',
DENSITY=7850.0,
EMISSIVITY=0.7/
&RAMP ID='STEEL_EURO_SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP', T=0.0, F=0.425/

&RAMP ID='STEEL_EURO_SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP', T=580, F=0.738/
&RAMP ID='STEEL_EURO_CONDUCTIVITY_RAMP', T=0.0, F=54.0/

&SURF ID='STEEL1',
MATL_ID = 'STEEL_EURO',
HEAT_TRANSFER_COEFFICIENT=35,
THICKNESS= 0.016
RGB=105,105,105/
&OBST XB=5.85,6.15, 0.0,12, 2.3,2.8, RGB= 105,105,105,

SURF_ID6='STEEL1','STEEL1','INERT','INERT','STEEL1','INERT'/ beam described as an U-profile
with the properties of “my profile”
--- Walls ---
&VENT SURF_ID='INERT', MB='ZMIN',RGB= 165,42,42 / floor

&VENT SURF_ID='INERT', MB='ZMAX',RGB= 165,42,42 / ceiling
Y.C.Wong 87
&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB='YMIN', COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ front wall

&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB='YMAX' , COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ back wall
&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB= 'XMIN', COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ left wall

&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB= 'XMAX' , COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ right wall
--- Devices to measure things----
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX1', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6, 6, 2.3, IOR= -3/

&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX1', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6, 6, 2.3, IOR=-3/

&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX1', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6, 6, 2.3, IOR=-3/

&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX1', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6, 6, 2.3, IOR=-3/

&DEVC ID='Tmember-1', QUANTITY ='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 6, 6, 2.3, IOR=-3/

&DEVC ID='Tgas-1',QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 6, 6, 2.3, IOR=-3/

--- Slices to be shown in smoke view---
&SLCF PBZ=2.3, QUANTITY='TEMPERATURE'/

&SLCF PBX=1, QUANTITY='TEMPERATURE'/
&SLCF PBY=6, QUANTITY='TEMPERATURE'/
&BNDF QUANTITY='WALL TEMPERATURE' /
&TAIL/
Y.C.Wong 88
Appendix 9 Data total heat fluxes of Model 1
Position 1
Total heat FDS CaPaFi
fluxes
t[s] hnet Tmember ε*boltzmann* α*ΔT hpunt q"Tot
[kW/m2] o
[ C] ΔT(W/m2) [W/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m²]
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 6.09 24.48 18.32 156.63 6.27 20.39
120.00 19.50 39.41 85.71 679.32 20.27 33.39
180.00 32.77 64.45 222.55 1555.83 34.55 39.98
240.00 50.39 101.49 488.95 2852.09 53.74 44.33
300.00 48.62 138.72 849.47 4155.23 53.63 44.33
360.00 48.80 172.02 1266.38 5320.67 55.39 44.33
420.00 38.43 202.07 1732.22 6372.47 46.54 44.33
480.00 33.22 229.47 2241.51 7331.58 42.80 44.33
540.00 40.16 253.68 2766.43 8178.92 51.10 44.33
600.00 36.59 274.40 3277.00 8904.07 48.77 44.33
661.00 29.94 290.67 3720.55 9473.29 43.14 44.33
721.00 36.05 306.83 4201.19 10039.12 50.29 44.33
781.00 31.44 321.06 4658.67 10536.94 46.63 44.33
841.00 30.00 333.05 5070.97 10956.86 46.02 44.33
901.00 32.46 344.46 5486.46 11356.20 49.30 44.33
961.00 35.29 354.35 5865.56 11702.19 52.86 44.33
1021.00 37.28 369.24 6471.58 12223.49 55.97 48.79
1081.00 49.53 391.14 7442.52 12989.99 69.97 52.07
1141.00 51.95 413.99 8563.15 13789.63 74.31 54.67
1201.00 69.76 441.55 10072.28 14754.33 94.59 56.82
1261.00 62.93 470.13 11832.39 15754.42 90.51 58.68
1321.00 74.34 500.98 13975.21 16834.38 105.15 60.31
1381.00 78.21 531.33 16348.19 17896.58 112.46 61.77
1441.00 78.37 560.98 18941.00 18934.32 116.24 63.09
1501.00 92.23 594.42 22216.20 20104.64 134.55 68.85
1561.00 71.70 619.85 24974.07 20994.66 117.67 65.17
Y.C.Wong 89
Position 2

fluxes
t[s] hnet Tmember ε*boltzmann* α*ΔT hpunt q"Tot
[kW/m2] o
[ C] ΔT(W/m2) [W/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m²]
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 3.21 22.20 8.92 77.12 3.30 5.91
120.00 5.79 27.99 33.29 279.59 6.11 10.80
180.00 7.68 36.19 70.33 566.59 8.32 17.77
240.00 10.38 47.30 125.44 955.44 11.47 23.92
300.00 12.08 58.45 186.82 1345.67 13.61 23.92
360.00 12.27 69.09 251.48 1718.18 14.24 23.92
420.00 8.85 78.53 314.08 2048.38 11.22 23.92
480.00 9.98 87.46 378.21 2361.13 12.72 23.92
540.00 10.84 95.24 438.08 2633.51 13.91 23.92
600.00 10.93 102.40 496.62 2884.11 14.31 23.92
661.00 8.21 108.44 548.64 3095.34 11.85 23.92
721.00 10.14 114.28 601.41 3299.87 14.04 23.92
781.00 10.85 120.10 656.35 3503.36 15.01 23.92
841.00 9.17 125.26 707.20 3684.00 13.56 23.92
901.00 8.90 129.71 752.72 3839.96 13.50 23.92
961.00 10.17 133.85 796.32 3984.62 14.95 23.92
1021.00 13.08 140.40 868.27 4214.14 18.16 30.13
1081.00 20.03 152.06 1004.83 4621.95 25.65 34.61
1141.00 36.43 170.40 1243.84 5264.08 42.93 38.09
1201.00 24.62 188.70 1513.66 5904.49 32.04 40.95
1261.00 31.61 213.02 1925.51 6755.74 40.29 43.36
1321.00 40.54 239.94 2459.31 7697.79 50.70 45.46
1381.00 39.97 265.86 3059.25 8605.00 51.64 47.32
1441.00 59.55 295.45 3858.48 9640.65 73.05 48.99
1501.00 87.08 335.84 5170.25 11054.33 103.30 56.04
1561.00 70.33 368.21 6428.17 12187.34 88.95 51.58
Y.C.Wong 90
Position 3
Total heat FDS CaPaFI
fluxes
t[s] hnet Tmember ε*boltzmann* α*ΔT Hpunt q"Tot q"Tot
[kW/m2] [oC] ΔT(W/m2) [W/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m²] [kW/m²]
0.00 0.00 20.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.61 20.55 20.06 2.22 19.33 0.63 1.34
120.00 1.73 22.06 20.89 8.34 72.18 1.81 2.62
180.00 1.97 24.16 22.43 17.00 145.61 2.13 3.81
240.00 2.80 26.98 24.60 28.92 244.19 3.07 4.96
300.00 3.15 29.80 27.31 41.23 343.09 3.53 4.96
360.00 2.74 32.33 29.95 52.51 431.38 3.22 4.96
420.00 2.22 34.62 33.00 63.00 511.61 2.80 4.96
480.00 2.30 36.92 35.00 73.78 592.18 2.96 4.96
540.00 2.36 38.82 37.00 82.84 658.56 3.10 4.96
600.00 3.21 40.67 40.00 91.87 723.50 4.03 4.96
661.00 2.22 42.28 42.00 99.83 779.83 3.10 4.96
721.00 2.54 43.83 44.00 107.60 834.00 3.48 4.96
781.00 2.45 45.35 47.00 115.34 887.22 3.46 4.96
841.00 1.89 46.75 49.00 122.60 936.39 2.95 4.96
901.00 2.36 48.10 51.00 129.64 983.48 3.47 4.96
961.00 2.13 49.19 53.00 135.40 1021.59 3.29 4.96
1021.00 3.01 50.97 55.00 144.96 1083.97 4.24 6.57
1081.00 4.31 53.61 58.00 159.40 1176.26 5.64 8.12
1141.00 5.88 57.11 62.00 179.10 1298.74 7.36 9.65
1201.00 4.89 60.92 66.00 201.32 1432.36 6.52 11.14
1261.00 6.04 65.06 71.00 226.28 1577.16 7.84 12.63
1321.00 6.56 69.60 77.00 254.71 1735.86 8.55 15.77
1381.00 7.74 74.37 84.00 285.90 1903.03 9.93 18.43
1441.00 9.78 80.24 92.00 326.00 2108.30 12.21 20.79
1501.00 18.90 89.16 102.00 390.95 2420.57 21.71 30.42
1561.00 9.97 97.08 116.00 452.78 2697.82 13.12 24.38
Y.C.Wong 91
Position 4
fluxes
t[s] hnet Tmember ε*boltzmann* α*ΔT Hpunt q"Tot q"Tot
[kW/m2] [oC] ΔT(W/m2) [W/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m²] [kW/m²]
0.00 0.00 20.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.07 20.06 20.02 0.22 1.95 0.07 0.47
120.00 0.13 20.20 20.31 0.79 6.92 0.14 0.94
180.00 0.15 20.46 20.87 1.85 16.13 0.17 1.40
240.00 0.29 20.82 21.67 3.30 28.76 0.32 1.84
300.00 0.25 21.26 22.68 5.09 44.27 0.30 1.84
360.00 0.26 21.55 23.67 6.25 54.28 0.32 1.84
420.00 0.29 21.84 25.00 7.44 64.45 0.36 1.84
480.00 0.22 22.16 26.00 8.74 75.64 0.30 1.84
540.00 0.36 22.44 26.00 9.88 85.35 0.46 1.84
600.00 0.55 22.71 27.00 11.01 94.98 0.66 1.84
661.00 0.24 22.98 28.00 12.12 104.46 0.36 1.84
721.00 0.21 23.22 29.00 13.08 112.58 0.33 1.84
781.00 0.31 23.43 30.00 13.96 120.01 0.45 1.84
841.00 0.36 23.60 31.00 14.68 126.10 0.50 1.84
901.00 0.32 23.79 32.00 15.46 132.67 0.46 1.84
961.00 0.34 23.97 32.00 16.19 138.78 0.49 1.84
1021.00 0.34 24.23 33.00 17.31 148.18 0.51 2.46
1081.00 0.54 24.70 34.00 19.26 164.51 0.72 3.07
1141.00 1.36 25.51 36.00 22.68 192.90 1.58 3.67
1201.00 1.57 26.54 37.00 27.05 228.87 1.83 4.25
1261.00 1.37 27.73 39.00 32.18 270.67 1.67 4.82
1321.00 1.96 29.36 42.00 39.26 327.49 2.33 5.39
1381.00 1.49 30.94 44.00 46.29 382.97 1.92 5.96
1441.00 1.82 32.83 47.00 54.81 449.16 2.32 6.52
1501.00 4.25 35.29 50.00 66.14 535.30 4.85 9.60
1561.00 1.94 37.24 55.00 75.31 603.50 2.61 7.51
Y.C.Wong 92
140 Total Heat fluxes Position 1(model 1)

120
Total heat flux [kW/m2]
100
80
60 FDS
40 CaPaFi
20
0
Time [s]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
140 Total Heat fluxes Position 2 (model 1)

120
Total Heat flux [kW/m2]
100
80
60 FDS
40 CaPaFi
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]
140 Total Heat fluxes Postion 3 (model 1)

120
100
80
60 FDS
40 CaPaFi
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]
140 Total Heat fluxes Position 4 (model 1)

120
100
80
60 FDS
40 CaPaFi
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 93
Appendix 10 Data temperatures of model 1
Temperature Member [oC]

Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Position 4
t[s] FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi
0 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
60 24.48 21.00 22.20 20.00 20.55 20.00 20.06 20.00
120 39.41 33.00 27.99 24.00 22.06 21.00 20.20 20.00
180 64.45 52.00 36.19 30.00 24.16 22.00 20.46 21.00
240 101.49 73.00 47.30 40.00 26.98 25.00 20.82 22.00
300 138.72 95.00 58.45 53.00 29.80 27.00 21.26 23.00
360 172.02 116.00 69.09 65.00 32.33 30.00 21.55 24.00
420 202.07 137.00 78.53 77.00 34.62 33.00 21.84 25.00
480 229.47 156.00 87.46 88.00 36.92 35.00 22.16 26.00
540 253.68 175.00 95.24 99.00 38.82 37.00 22.44 26.00
600 274.40 193.00 102.40 110.00 40.67 40.00 22.71 27.00
661 290.67 210.00 108.44 120.00 42.28 42.00 22.98 28.00
721 306.83 227.00 114.28 130.00 43.83 44.00 23.22 29.00
781 321.06 243.00 120.10 140.00 45.35 47.00 23.43 30.00
841 333.05 259.00 125.26 149.00 46.75 49.00 23.60 31.00
901 344.46 274.00 129.71 158.00 48.10 51.00 23.79 32.00
961 354.35 289.00 133.85 167.00 49.19 53.00 23.97 32.00
1021 369.24 303.00 140.40 176.00 50.97 55.00 24.23 33.00
1081 391.14 318.00 152.06 187.00 53.61 58.00 24.70 34.00
1141 413.99 334.00 170.40 201.00 57.11 62.00 25.51 36.00
1201 441.55 351.00 188.70 215.00 60.92 66.00 26.54 37.00
1261 470.13 368.00 213.02 230.00 65.06 71.00 27.73 39.00
1321 500.98 385.00 239.94 246.00 69.60 77.00 29.36 42.00
1381 531.33 402.00 265.86 262.00 74.37 84.00 30.94 44.00
1441 560.98 419.00 295.45 278.00 80.24 92.00 32.83 47.00
1501 594.42 435.00 335.84 295.00 89.16 102.00 35.29 50.00
Y.C.Wong 94

700
600
Temperature [oC]
500
400
300 FDS
200 CaPaFi
100
0
Time [s]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

700
600
Temperature [oC]
500
400
FDS
300
CaPaFi
200
100
0
Time [s]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

700
600
Temperature [oC]
500
400
FDS
300
CaPaFi
200
100
0 Time [s]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Y.C.Wong 95

700
600
Temperature [oC]
500
400
300 FDS
200 CaPaFi
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 96
Appendix 11 Script model 2 for FDS
&HEAD CHID='test6', TITLE='test6'/ For 1 car fire (model 2)
&TIME T_END=3600/
&MISC RESTART=.TRUE./
----Fuel (From an example of Efectis of a half car and info from SFPE) ---
FYI='SFPE',
FUEL='REAC_FUEL',
FORMULA='C7H16',
HRRPUA_SHEET=0.0,
CO_YIELD=0.01,
SOOT_YIELD=0.037,
IDEAL=.TRUE./
------ Spaces ------
&MESH IJK=120,120,28, XB=0,12,0,12,0,2.8/ The space where the simulation takes place,
with meshes of 10cm
------ The car and its properties -----
&SURF ID='car1',
color='RED',
HRRPUA= 658.730,
RAMP_Q='car1_fire'/ Fire surface is now used is 12.6m2 (3*3+4*3*0.3=12.6m2)

Y.C.Wong 97
&OBST XB=4.5,7.5,4.5,7.5,0,0.3, SURF_ID6='car1','car1','car1','car1','INERT','car1'/ (The

upper side and the 4 sides of the box are going to be on fire)
------ Properties of the steel beam ------
DENSITY=7850.0,
EMISSIVITY=0.7/


&SURF ID='STEEL1',
Y.C.Wong 98
THICKNESS= 0.016
RGB=105,105,105/
&OBST XB=5.85,6.15, 0.0,12, 2.3,2.8, RGB= 105,105,105,

SURF_ID6='STEEL1','STEEL1','INERT','INERT','STEEL1','INERT'/ (The beam is the
fictitious beam with the properties of “My Profile”)
--- Concrete properties used for the ceiling and the floors----
&MATL ID='CONCRETE_EURO',
SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP='CONCRETE_EURO_SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP',
CONDUCTIVITY_RAMP='CONCRETE_EURO_CONDUCTIVITY_RAMP',
DENSITY=2500/
&RAMP ID='CONCRETE_EURO_SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP', T=20, F=0.9/

&RAMP ID='CONCRETE_EURO_SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP', T=1200,F=1.1/
&RAMP ID='CONCRETE_EURO_CONDUCTIVITY_RAMP', T=20.0, F=1.951/

Y.C.Wong 99

&SURF ID='CONCRETE',
MATL_ID = 'CONCRETE_EURO',
THICKNESS=0.4
RGB=84,255,159/
---Ceiling and the floor --
&VENT SURF_ID='CONCRETE', MB='ZMIN'/ floor

&VENT SURF_ID='CONCRETE', MB='ZMAX'/ ceiling
--- 4 sides (walls) ---
&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB='YMIN', COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ front wall

&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB='YMAX' , COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ back wall
&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB= 'XMIN', COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ left wall
&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB= 'XMAX' , COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ right wall
--- Devices ----
(Devices 5,6,7,11,12 are on the ceiling and devices 1,2,3,4,8,9,10 are on the bottom of the steel
member)

&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX4', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6, 11, 2.3, IOR= -
3/

3/
3/
3/
3/
---12 (counts of the devices)
Y.C.Wong 100

----24 (counts of the devices)


Y.C.Wong 101

-----60 (counts of the devices)

&DEVC ID='Tgas-11',QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE',XYZ= 5, 6, 2.8, IOR=-3/
-----72 (counts of the devices)
--- Slices ---

&TAIL/
Y.C.Wong 102
Appendix 12 Data Total heat fluxes for model 2
Position 1 (model 2)
fluxes
t Hnet Tmember ε*boltzmann*ΔT α*ΔT Hpunt qtot
[s] [kW/m2] [oC] [W/m2] [W/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m²]
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60 5.17 23.54 14.40 123.77 5.31 20.39
120 12.96 33.38 57.31 468.36 13.48 33.39
180 20.04 50.47 142.29 1066.62 21.25 39.98
240 28.97 76.25 298.51 1968.73 31.24 44.33
300 29.00 103.06 502.16 2907.06 32.41 44.33
360 26.59 126.35 718.20 3722.18 31.03 44.33
420 26.52 149.14 969.61 4519.97 32.01 44.33
480 22.64 168.31 1214.98 5190.72 29.05 44.33
540 23.59 185.91 1470.43 5806.95 30.87 44.33
600 24.11 199.83 1694.34 6294.18 32.10 44.33
660 24.40 213.18 1928.44 6761.36 33.09 44.33
720 24.41 225.26 2157.57 7184.13 33.75 44.33
780 25.94 236.48 2385.92 7576.90 35.90 44.33
840 22.98 246.85 2610.65 7939.65 33.53 44.33
900 22.38 255.09 2799.14 8228.00 33.41 44.33
960 22.83 262.68 2980.98 8493.94 34.30 44.33
1020 33.45 276.66 3336.20 8983.01 45.77 48.79
1080 52.18 300.94 4021.21 9832.81 66.03 52.07
1140 44.61 327.63 4881.49 10767.00 60.25 54.67
1200 42.54 353.13 5817.81 11659.51 60.02 56.82
1260 49.17 381.63 7008.82 12657.09 68.83 58.68
1320 59.64 412.56 8489.83 13739.71 81.87 60.31
1380 62.76 442.72 10140.25 14795.23 87.70 61.77
1440 74.54 475.01 12154.20 15925.30 102.62 63.09
1500 92.61 515.38 15066.76 17338.24 125.02 68.85
Y.C.Wong 103
fluxes
t hnet Tmember ε*boltzmann*ΔT α*ΔT hpunt qtot
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60 2.70 21.72 6.93 60.14 2.77 5.91
120 5.33 26.20 25.60 216.97 5.57 10.80
180 6.78 32.65 53.96 442.61 7.28 17.77
240 9.86 41.05 93.72 736.68 10.69 23.92
300 8.90 49.61 137.66 1036.44 10.07 23.92
360 7.61 57.76 182.82 1321.44 9.12 23.92
420 8.16 65.19 227.08 1581.73 9.96 23.92
480 7.62 71.61 267.73 1806.49 9.70 23.92
540 7.83 77.40 306.37 2009.10 10.15 23.92
600 8.14 82.69 343.37 2194.15 10.68 23.92
660 7.15 87.31 377.11 2355.97 9.88 23.92
720 6.93 92.17 413.97 2525.90 9.87 23.92
780 6.99 96.80 450.50 2687.88 10.13 23.92
840 8.03 100.97 484.60 2833.82 11.35 23.92
900 6.46 104.31 512.81 2950.93 9.92 23.92
960 7.15 107.79 542.94 3072.66 10.77 23.92
1020 9.56 112.60 585.94 3240.87 13.38 30.13
1080 12.79 121.26 667.66 3544.16 17.00 34.61
1140 14.48 132.05 777.20 3921.72 19.18 38.09
1200 23.69 147.11 945.49 4448.91 29.09 40.95
1260 33.29 167.02 1197.47 5145.68 39.63 43.36
1320 29.54 185.97 1471.30 5808.92 36.82 45.46
1380 35.85 210.93 1887.59 6682.58 44.42 47.32
1440 46.18 235.86 2372.83 7555.08 56.11 48.99
1500 48.46 269.84 3159.39 8744.29 60.36 56.04
Y.C.Wong 104
fluxes
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60 0.83 20.44 1.77 15.48 0.85 1.34
120 1.18 21.56 6.29 54.61 1.24 2.62
180 1.92 23.28 13.35 114.89 2.05 3.81
240 2.40 25.39 22.16 188.62 2.61 4.96
300 2.44 27.62 31.68 266.62 2.74 4.96
360 2.23 29.73 40.92 340.62 2.61 4.96
420 2.27 31.67 49.56 408.55 2.72 4.96
480 2.39 33.35 57.17 467.26 2.91 4.96
540 2.15 34.88 64.23 520.92 2.74 4.96
600 2.29 36.32 70.96 571.33 2.93 4.96
660 1.69 37.62 77.10 616.65 2.39 4.96
720 1.58 38.98 83.63 664.27 2.33 4.96
780 1.89 40.27 89.92 709.58 2.69 4.96
840 1.74 41.48 95.87 751.93 2.59 4.96
900 1.47 42.48 100.82 786.77 2.36 4.96
960 1.87 43.46 105.74 821.13 2.79 4.96
1020 2.25 44.75 112.27 866.18 3.22 6.57
1080 3.52 46.93 123.51 942.51 4.59 8.12
1140 3.55 49.44 136.76 1030.50 4.71 9.65
1200 4.63 52.55 153.58 1139.33 5.92 11.14
1260 6.43 56.33 174.65 1271.45 7.88 12.63
1320 5.43 60.27 197.47 1409.50 7.03 15.77
1380 6.47 64.80 224.67 1567.99 8.27 18.43
1440 7.10 69.46 253.84 1731.11 9.08 20.79
1500 6.95 75.37 292.60 1938.08 9.18 30.42
Y.C.Wong 105
fluxes
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60 0.09 20.04 0.17 1.51 0.09 0.47
120 0.11 20.15 0.61 5.38 0.12 0.94
180 0.14 20.34 1.35 11.78 0.16 1.40
240 0.30 20.61 2.44 21.32 0.32 1.84
300 0.37 20.90 3.63 31.57 0.41 1.84
360 0.38 21.19 4.77 41.52 0.43 1.84
420 0.15 21.42 5.73 49.75 0.21 1.84
480 0.22 21.62 6.52 56.58 0.28 1.84
540 0.24 21.81 7.33 63.50 0.31 1.84
600 0.21 22.01 8.12 70.32 0.29 1.84
660 0.17 22.19 8.87 76.73 0.25 1.84
720 0.20 22.42 9.82 84.86 0.29 1.84
780 0.43 22.61 10.58 91.37 0.54 1.84
840 0.23 22.76 11.19 96.57 0.34 1.84
900 0.29 22.91 11.83 101.97 0.41 1.84
960 0.11 23.03 12.32 106.15 0.22 1.84
1020 0.40 23.28 13.33 114.68 0.52 2.46
1080 0.48 23.64 14.82 127.27 0.63 3.07
1140 0.56 24.10 16.76 143.60 0.72 3.67
1200 0.78 24.85 19.90 169.86 0.97 4.25
1260 1.31 25.76 23.74 201.69 1.54 4.82
1320 1.01 26.90 28.58 241.37 1.28 5.39
1380 2.21 28.20 34.19 286.85 2.53 5.96
1440 1.38 29.68 40.68 338.78 1.76 6.52
1500 2.78 31.72 49.77 410.17 3.24 9.60
Y.C.Wong 106
fluxes
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60 3.02 21.83 7.41 64.22 3.09 5.91
120 5.75 26.50 26.89 227.61 6.00 10.80
180 7.34 33.64 58.49 477.37 7.87 17.77
240 10.79 42.94 103.14 803.01 11.70 23.92
300 9.53 52.41 152.81 1134.41 10.82 23.92
360 8.93 61.69 205.87 1459.15 10.59 23.92
420 9.30 69.64 254.96 1737.24 11.29 23.92
480 8.19 76.47 300.01 1976.46 10.46 23.92
540 8.21 82.82 344.30 2198.71 10.75 23.92
600 8.80 88.71 387.53 2404.70 11.59 23.92
660 7.24 93.92 427.62 2587.16 10.25 23.92
720 7.53 98.78 466.59 2757.35 10.75 23.92
780 7.38 103.72 507.74 2930.13 10.82 23.92
840 7.31 107.87 543.63 3075.41 10.93 23.92
900 6.84 111.80 578.69 3212.96 10.63 23.92
960 7.92 115.96 617.03 3358.63 11.89 23.92
1020 10.08 121.88 673.65 3565.63 14.32 30.13
1080 14.78 131.77 774.22 3911.84 19.47 34.61
1140 18.33 144.70 917.31 4364.53 23.62 38.09
1200 25.03 160.48 1110.89 4916.97 31.06 40.95
1260 35.40 180.55 1389.42 5619.22 42.41 43.36
1320 31.32 201.78 1727.31 6362.39 39.41 45.46
1380 50.60 228.73 2226.60 7305.65 60.13 47.32
1440 41.54 256.36 2829.13 8272.65 52.65 48.99
1500 67.74 293.42 3799.52 9569.63 81.11 56.04
Y.C.Wong 107
fluxes
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60 0.90 20.46 1.85 16.18 0.92 1.34
120 1.63 21.66 6.69 58.02 1.70 2.62
180 1.71 23.47 14.12 121.38 1.84 3.81
240 2.72 25.78 23.83 202.45 2.95 4.96
300 2.06 28.12 33.84 284.03 2.37 4.96
360 2.64 30.54 44.48 368.80 3.06 4.96
420 2.76 32.62 53.85 441.74 3.26 4.96
480 2.17 34.42 62.09 504.71 2.74 4.96
540 2.09 36.16 70.18 565.48 2.72 4.96
600 2.50 37.79 77.91 622.58 3.20 4.96
660 1.56 39.15 84.44 670.16 2.32 4.96
720 1.38 40.44 90.75 715.53 2.19 4.96
780 1.69 41.88 97.85 765.90 2.55 4.96
840 2.18 43.00 103.44 805.14 3.09 4.96
900 2.21 44.17 109.31 845.81 3.16 4.96
960 2.08 45.27 114.93 884.41 3.08 4.96
1020 2.48 46.74 122.53 935.91 3.54 6.57
1080 3.68 49.04 134.61 1016.36 4.83 8.12
1140 3.86 51.87 149.83 1115.36 5.12 9.65
1200 4.63 55.07 167.55 1227.45 6.02 11.14
1260 5.48 58.74 188.53 1356.02 7.03 12.63
1320 4.96 62.91 213.18 1501.84 6.68 15.77
1380 6.84 67.47 241.23 1661.41 8.74 18.43
1440 6.53 72.41 272.94 1834.40 8.63 20.79
1500 10.88 79.00 317.39 2065.10 13.26 30.42
Y.C.Wong 108
fluxes
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60 0.09 20.04 0.18 1.54 0.09 0.47
120 0.11 20.16 0.64 5.62 0.11 0.94
180 0.20 20.37 1.49 12.97 0.21 1.40
240 0.34 20.62 2.47 21.57 0.37 1.84
300 0.28 20.94 3.78 32.90 0.31 1.84
360 0.30 21.24 5.01 43.56 0.35 1.84
420 0.34 21.54 6.22 54.00 0.40 1.84
480 0.31 21.80 7.26 62.91 0.38 1.84
540 0.26 22.05 8.29 71.76 0.34 1.84
600 0.24 22.22 8.99 77.73 0.33 1.84
660 0.27 22.42 9.80 84.70 0.36 1.84
720 0.52 22.62 10.64 91.86 0.62 1.84
780 0.21 22.77 11.23 96.87 0.32 1.84
840 0.21 22.93 11.91 102.63 0.32 1.84
900 0.18 23.10 12.60 108.51 0.30 1.84
960 0.42 23.27 13.29 114.32 0.55 1.84
1020 0.86 23.55 14.45 124.14 1.00 2.46
1080 0.41 23.87 15.80 135.51 0.56 3.07
1140 0.95 24.39 17.98 153.80 1.12 3.67
1200 1.10 25.14 21.09 179.77 1.30 4.25
1260 1.62 26.23 25.75 218.22 1.86 4.82
1320 1.03 27.41 30.78 259.33 1.32 5.39
1380 1.53 28.67 36.26 303.53 1.87 5.96
1440 1.88 30.19 42.95 356.73 2.28 6.52
1500 2.01 32.18 51.83 426.14 2.48 9.60
Y.C.Wong 109
Heat fluxes position 1 (model 2)

Total heat fluxes [kW/m2] 140
120
100
80
FDS Pos1
60
CaPaFi Pos1
40
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Heat fluxes Position 2 and 8 (model 2)

140
120
100
80
FDS Pos2
60
CaPaFi Pos2
40
FDS Pos8
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Heat fluxes position 3 and 9 (model 2)

140
120
100
80
FDS pos3
60
CaPaFi Pos3
40
FDS Pos9
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 110
Heat fluxes position 4 and 10 (model 2)

140
120
100
80
FDS Pos4
60
CaPaFi Pos4
40
FDS Pos10
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 111
Appendix 13 Data temperature of model 2
Temperature of the steel beam [oC]

Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Position 4
t [s] FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi
0 20.00 20 20.00 20 20.00 20 20.00 20
61 22.68 21 21.33 20 20.34 20 20.03 20
120 28.94 33 23.98 24 21.06 21 20.11 20
181 39.56 52 27.81 30 22.06 22 20.23 21
240 54.65 73 32.48 40 23.24 25 20.39 22
301 70.01 95 37.34 53 24.42 27 20.54 23
360 84.69 116 42.11 65 25.65 30 20.70 24
420 97.87 137 46.50 77 26.79 33 20.83 25
480 110.41 156 50.85 88 27.91 35 20.97 26
540 122.54 175 54.75 99 28.96 37 21.13 26
600 134.02 193 58.86 110 30.02 40 21.26 27
660 144.00 210 62.52 120 31.02 42 21.40 28
720 154.14 227 66.36 130 31.95 44 21.53 29
780 163.42 243 69.78 140 32.85 47 21.65 30
841 172.29 259 72.86 149 33.66 49 21.75 31
900 180.68 274 76.17 158 34.58 51 21.85 32
961 188.32 289 79.12 167 35.36 53 21.94 32
1020 202.61 303 83.50 176 36.43 55 22.11 33
1081 222.32 318 90.51 187 37.98 58 22.36 34
1140 242.49 334 98.56 201 39.79 62 22.75 36
1201 264.39 351 108.54 215 41.95 66 23.26 37
1260 286.23 368 120.25 230 44.21 71 23.74 39
1321 310.13 385 135.39 246 46.93 77 24.39 42
1380 335.14 402 150.40 262 49.67 84 25.15 44
1441 361.23 419 168.44 278 52.82 92 26.07 47
1500 395.98 435 193.52 295 57.24 102 27.40 50
Y.C.Wong 112
Temperature of the steel beam [oC]

Position 8 Position 9 Position 10
t [s] FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi
0 20.00 20 20.00 20 20.00 20
61 21.43 20 20.38 20 20.04 20
120 24.22 24 21.09 21 20.11 20
181 28.43 30 22.18 22 20.24 21
240 33.72 40 23.47 25 20.44 22
301 38.98 53 24.79 27 20.60 23
360 44.09 65 26.00 30 20.75 24
420 49.12 77 27.24 33 20.90 25
480 53.89 88 28.50 35 21.07 26
540 58.01 99 29.51 37 21.21 26
600 62.45 110 30.64 40 21.34 27
660 66.48 120 31.67 42 21.46 28
720 70.43 130 32.77 44 21.60 29
780 73.88 140 33.69 47 21.69 30
841 77.44 149 34.52 49 21.83 31
900 80.78 158 35.47 51 21.94 32
961 84.21 167 36.38 53 22.06 32
1020 88.88 176 37.51 55 22.25 33
1081 97.66 187 39.29 58 22.49 34
1140 105.83 201 41.16 62 22.82 36
1201 117.15 215 43.57 66 23.39 37
1260 130.67 230 46.06 71 24.02 39
1321 148.44 246 49.02 77 24.70 42
1380 165.25 262 52.11 84 25.66 44
1441 184.54 278 55.39 92 26.63 47
1500 210.22 295 59.73 102 28.02 50
500
400
Temperature [oC]
300
200 Temp.FDS
Pos1
Temp.CaPaFi
100 Pos1
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 113
500
400
Temperature [oC]
300 Temp.FDS
Pos2
200
Temp.CaPaFi
Pos2
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]
500
400
Temperature [oC]
300
200 Temp.FDS Pos3

Temp.CaPaFi Pos3
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]

500
400
Temp.F
Temperature [oC]
DS Pos4
300
Temp.Ca
PaFi
200 Pos4
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 114

400
Temperature [oC]
300 Temp.FDS
Pos8
200 Temp.CaP
aFi Pos8
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]

400
Temperature [oC]
Temp.FDS
300
Pos9
200 Temp.CaPaFi
Pos9
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]

500
400
Temperature [oC]
Temp.FDS
300 Pos10
200 Temp.CaPaFi
Pos10
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 115
Appendix 14 Comparison heat fluxes model 2,4 and CaPaFi
Position 3 Position 4
Total heat Model 2 Model 4 CaPaFi Model 2 Model 4 CaPaFi
fluxes [kW/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m2]
t [s] 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0 0.75 0.80 1.34 0.08 0.04 0.47
61 1.26 1.55 2.62 0.20 0.10 0.94
120 1.94 2.18 3.81 0.26 0.20 1.40
181 2.45 1.80 4.96 0.24 0.68 1.84
240 2.25 2.15 4.96 0.36 0.32 1.84
301 2.53 2.26 4.96 0.27 0.34 1.84
360 3.02 2.62 4.96 0.26 0.21 1.84
420 2.76 2.57 4.96 0.34 0.31 1.84
480 2.58 2.19 4.96 0.82 0.23 1.84
540 2.71 2.65 4.96 0.30 0.22 1.84
600 2.94 2.84 4.96 0.79 0.31 1.84
660 2.42 2.20 4.96 0.39 0.26 1.84
720 2.84 2.32 4.96 0.45 0.21 1.84
780 2.23 2.41 4.96 0.25 0.29 1.84
841 2.62 2.42 4.96 0.25 0.28 1.84
900 2.67 2.39 4.96 0.25 0.43 1.84
961 3.40 3.34 6.57 0.46 0.42 2.46
1020 4.45 4.74 8.12 0.49 0.68 3.07
1081 4.95 4.65 9.65 1.26 0.89 3.67
1140 5.68 5.66 11.14 1.84 0.85 4.25
1201 6.14 6.60 12.63 1.26 1.99 4.82
1260 7.35 5.85 15.77 1.79 0.94 5.39
1321 6.94 6.59 18.43 1.58 1.63 5.96
1380 9.13 8.29 20.79 1.59 2.37 6.52
1441 11.10 9.31 30.42 2.99 1.83 9.60
1500
Y.C.Wong 116
Total heat Position 8 Position 9

fluxes Model 2 Model 4 CaPaFi Model 2 Model 4 CaPaFi
t[s] [kW/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m2]
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 3.11 3.12 5.91 0.96 0.87 1.34
120 5.50 5.98 10.80 1.20 1.48 2.62
181 8.22 7.31 17.77 2.03 2.08 3.81
240 10.93 9.09 23.92 2.42 2.71 4.96
301 9.41 9.74 23.92 2.49 2.85 4.96
360 10.48 10.85 23.92 2.31 2.64 4.96
420 11.39 10.16 23.92 2.59 2.27 4.96
480 10.29 10.46 23.92 2.84 2.68 4.96
540 10.95 10.21 23.92 2.53 2.25 4.96
600 10.47 9.68 23.92 2.76 2.90 4.96
660 10.77 11.38 23.92 2.67 2.67 4.96
720 11.71 10.50 23.92 3.16 2.76 4.96
780 11.03 9.77 23.92 3.02 2.33 4.96
841 10.71 10.90 23.92 2.29 3.07 4.96
900 11.10 9.42 23.92 2.80 2.54 4.96
961 12.49 10.70 23.92 3.51 2.64 4.96
1020 13.98 14.37 30.13 3.06 3.67 6.57
1081 24.48 14.56 34.61 4.75 3.98 8.12
1140 25.06 21.52 38.09 5.10 5.24 9.65
1201 28.74 32.97 40.95 5.89 5.68 11.14
1260 33.74 23.46 43.36 6.93 5.29 12.63
1321 52.27 40.08 45.46 8.81 7.20 15.77
1380 42.72 56.06 47.32 7.30 8.27 18.43
1441 49.30 44.59 48.99 8.14 7.80 20.79
1500 75.38 92.60 56.04 11.22 13.19 30.42
Y.C.Wong 117
Total heat
fluxes Position 10
Model 2 Model 4 CaPaFi
t [s] [kW/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m2]
0 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 0.07 0.17 0.47
120 0.13 0.17 0.94
181 0.17 0.18 1.40
240 0.72 0.30 1.84
301 0.31 0.25 1.84
360 0.26 0.25 1.84
420 0.43 0.26 1.84
480 0.66 0.31 1.84
540 0.50 0.47 1.84
600 0.48 0.31 1.84
660 0.33 0.31 1.84
720 0.41 0.33 1.84
780 0.26 0.31 1.84
841 0.33 0.49 1.84
900 0.36 0.34 1.84
961 0.38 0.26 1.84
1020 0.58 0.39 2.46
1081 0.54 1.01 3.07
1140 0.66 0.65 3.67
1201 1.25 0.98 4.25
1260 1.69 1.80 4.82
1321 1.65 1.40 5.39
1380 1.94 1.45 5.96
1441 1.82 2.40 6.52
1500 2.66 2.30 9.60
Position 1
140
120
100
80
Model 2
60
Model 4
40
CaPaFi
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 118
Position 2
140
120
100
80
60 Model 2
40 Model 4
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Position 3
140
120
100
80
60 Model 2
40 Model 4
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Position 4
140
120
100
80
60 Model 2
40 Model 4
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 119
140
Position 8
120
100
80
60 Model 2
40 Model 4
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Position 9
140
120
100
80
60 Model 2
40 Model 4
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Position 10
140
120
100
80
Model 2
60
40 Model 4
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 120
Appendix 15 Comparison temperatures model 2,4 and CaPaFi

t [s] Model2 Model4 CaPaFi Model 2 Model 4 CaPaFi
0 20 20 20 20 20 20
61 20 20 20 20 20 20
120 21 21 21 20 20 20
181 22 22 22 20 20 21
240 23 23 25 20 20 22
301 24 24 27 21 21 23
360 26 25 30 21 21 24
420 27 26 33 21 21 25
480 28 28 35 21 21 26
540 29 29 37 21 21 26
600 30 29 40 21 21 27
660 31 30 42 21 21 28
720 32 31 44 22 21 29
780 33 32 47 22 22 30
841 34 33 49 22 22 31
900 35 34 51 22 22 32
961 35 34 53 22 22 32
1020 36 35 55 22 22 33
1081 38 37 58 22 22 34
1140 40 39 62 23 23 36
1201 42 41 66 23 23 37
1260 44 43 71 24 24 39
1321 47 45 77 24 24 42
1380 50 48 84 25 25 44
1441 53 50 92 26 26 47
1500 57 54 102 27 27 50
Y.C.Wong 121

0 20 20 20 20 20 20
61 21 21 20 20 20 20
120 24 24 24 21 21 21
181 28 28 30 22 22 22
240 34 33 40 23 23 25
301 39 38 53 25 25 27
360 44 43 65 26 26 30
420 49 47 77 27 27 33
480 54 51 88 28 28 35
540 58 55 99 30 29 37
600 62 59 110 31 30 40
660 66 63 120 32 31 42
720 70 66 130 33 32 44
780 74 70 140 34 33 47
841 77 73 149 35 34 49
900 81 76 158 35 35 51
961 84 79 167 36 35 53
1020 89 83 176 38 37 55
1081 98 90 187 39 38 58
1140 106 99 201 41 40 62
1201 117 109 215 44 42 66
1260 131 120 230 46 44 71
1321 148 136 246 49 47 77
1380 165 157 262 52 50 84
1441 185 172 278 55 53 92
1500 210 202 295 60 57 102
Y.C.Wong 122
Temperatures Position 10
t [s] Model 2 Model 4 CaPaFi
0 20 20 20
61 20 20 20
120 20 20 20
181 20 20 21
240 20 20 22
301 21 21 23
360 21 21 24
420 21 21 25
480 21 21 26
540 21 21 26
600 21 21 27
660 21 21 28
720 22 22 29
780 22 22 30
841 22 22 31
900 22 22 32
961 22 22 32
1020 22 22 33
1081 22 22 34
1140 23 23 36
1201 23 23 37
1260 24 24 39
1321 25 25 42
1380 26 25 44
1441 27 26 47
1500 28 28 50
500
Position 1
400
Temperature [oC]
300
Model 2
200
Model 4
100 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 123
500
Position 2
400
Temperature [oC]
300
Model 2
200
Model 4
100 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
500
Position 3
400
Temperature [oC]
300
Model 2
200
Model 4
100 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Position 4
500
400
Temperature [oC]
300
Model 2
200
Model 4
100 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 124
500
Position 8
400
Temperature [oC]
300
Model 2
200
Model 4
100
CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Position 9
500
Temperature [oC]
400
300
Model 2
200
Model 4
100
CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Position 10
500
Temperature [oC]
400
300
Model 2
200
Model 4
100
CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 125
Appendix 16 Comparison Total heat fluxes model 2 and model 5
The heat fluxes of model 2 are already presented in Appendix 9. Only the ones of model 5 will
be presented here and the rest of the graphs of the different positions.
FDS CaPaFi
hnet Tmember ε*boltzmann*ΔT α*ΔT hpunt qtot
t[s] [kW/m2] [oC] [W/m2] [W/m2] [kW/m2] [kW/m²]
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 2.43 21.11 4.48 12.25 2.45 20.39
120 7.85 24.75 19.48 52.28 7.92 33.39
180 13.90 31.83 50.28 130.16 14.08 39.98
241 21.51 43.13 104.10 254.48 21.87 44.33
300 21.01 55.59 170.47 391.47 21.57 44.33
361 20.48 66.12 232.81 507.31 21.22 44.33
420 22.94 76.97 303.44 626.72 23.87 44.33
480 16.36 87.24 376.53 739.59 17.47 44.33
540 22.89 97.33 454.80 850.63 24.20 44.33
600 23.07 107.31 538.68 960.36 24.57 44.33
661 17.12 115.64 614.07 1052.09 18.79 44.33
720 19.74 123.83 692.96 1142.15 21.57 44.33
781 28.09 134.25 800.64 1256.74 30.15 44.33
840 15.73 141.71 883.03 1338.82 17.95 44.33
900 14.79 149.75 976.94 1427.28 17.19 44.33
961 17.82 158.95 1091.12 1528.46 20.44 44.33
1020 33.21 172.28 1270.01 1675.06 36.16 48.79
1081 39.85 190.62 1543.93 1876.84 43.27 52.07
1140 44.60 209.32 1858.76 2082.56 48.54 54.67
1201 47.54 230.36 2259.35 2313.91 52.11 56.82
1261 47.84 252.46 2738.02 2557.02 53.13 58.68
1320 64.24 277.62 3361.56 2833.77 70.43 60.31
1381 69.40 303.23 4090.69 3115.58 76.61 61.77
1440 76.15 330.47 4980.08 3415.16 84.54 63.09
1500 91.08 363.69 6240.56 3780.56 101.11 68.85
1560 75.02 391.44 7456.45 4085.85 86.56 65.17
Y.C.Wong 126
FDS CaPaFi
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 1.52 20.67 2.70 17.66 1.54 5.91
120 3.11 22.30 9.30 60.46 3.18 10.80
180 4.62 24.74 19.43 124.66 4.77 17.77
241 6.10 28.07 33.66 212.33 6.35 23.92
300 6.68 31.73 49.84 308.61 7.04 23.92
361 6.29 35.24 65.91 400.91 6.75 23.92
420 6.18 38.60 81.78 489.10 6.75 23.92
480 6.64 41.91 97.99 576.29 7.31 23.92
540 6.34 45.19 114.53 662.50 7.12 23.92
600 5.95 48.24 130.38 742.72 6.83 23.92
661 5.88 51.41 147.34 826.09 6.85 23.92
720 6.09 54.48 164.22 906.70 7.16 23.92
781 6.09 57.56 181.71 987.88 7.26 23.92
840 5.64 60.57 199.23 1066.99 6.91 23.92
900 5.52 63.42 216.27 1141.98 6.88 23.92
961 6.24 66.41 234.59 1220.46 7.70 23.92
1020 8.87 70.42 259.98 1325.98 10.45 30.13
1081 11.15 75.85 295.82 1468.87 12.92 34.61
1140 13.07 82.88 344.75 1653.80 15.07 38.09
1201 16.47 91.50 408.82 1880.51 18.76 40.95
1261 18.84 102.27 495.47 2163.61 21.50 43.36
1320 33.03 115.37 611.50 2508.19 36.15 45.46
1381 28.98 129.46 750.14 2878.92 32.61 47.32
1440 33.03 146.00 932.46 3313.85 37.28 48.99
1500 65.67 167.44 1203.18 3877.67 70.76 56.04
1560 35.52 185.60 1465.60 4355.22 41.34 51.58
Y.C.Wong 127
FDS CaPaFi
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 0.36 20.16 0.64 1.00 0.36 1.34
120 0.72 20.52 2.07 3.26 0.73 2.62
180 0.94 21.02 4.10 6.42 0.95 3.81
241 1.23 21.72 6.96 10.87 1.25 4.96
300 1.39 22.45 9.94 15.46 1.42 4.96
361 1.32 23.18 12.93 20.03 1.35 4.96
420 1.26 23.89 15.88 24.51 1.30 4.96
480 1.35 24.58 18.78 28.88 1.40 4.96
540 1.25 25.28 21.69 33.25 1.31 4.96
600 1.18 25.95 24.54 37.49 1.24 4.96
661 1.20 26.63 27.44 41.78 1.26 4.96
720 1.25 27.32 30.39 46.11 1.33 4.96
781 1.34 27.98 33.25 50.28 1.42 4.96
840 1.27 28.65 36.16 54.49 1.36 4.96
900 1.23 29.28 38.91 58.45 1.33 4.96
961 1.22 29.92 41.73 62.48 1.32 4.96
1020 1.70 30.75 45.41 67.70 1.81 6.57
1081 2.17 31.88 50.48 74.82 2.29 8.12
1140 2.46 33.19 56.43 83.08 2.60 9.65
1201 2.92 34.76 63.68 93.01 3.08 11.14
1261 3.60 36.56 72.09 104.34 3.77 12.63
1320 3.57 38.46 81.12 116.30 3.76 15.77
1381 4.24 40.66 91.79 130.13 4.46 18.43
1440 4.78 42.94 103.13 144.54 5.03 20.79
1500 7.14 45.89 118.14 163.12 7.42 30.42
1560 4.49 48.76 133.11 181.16 4.80 24.38
Y.C.Wong 128
FDS CaPaFi
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 0.04 20.02 0.08 -0.02 0.04 0.47
120 0.07 20.06 0.23 -0.05 0.07 0.94
180 0.11 20.11 0.46 -0.10 0.11 1.40
241 0.16 20.20 0.79 -0.18 0.16 1.84
300 0.15 20.28 1.12 -0.25 0.16 1.84
361 0.16 20.37 1.49 -0.33 0.16 1.84
420 0.16 20.46 1.83 -0.41 0.16 1.84
480 0.16 20.54 2.16 -0.48 0.16 1.84
540 0.16 20.62 2.50 -0.56 0.16 1.84
600 0.15 20.71 2.85 -0.64 0.16 1.84
661 0.15 20.79 3.19 -0.72 0.15 1.84
720 0.16 20.88 3.55 -0.80 0.17 1.84
781 0.15 20.96 3.88 -0.87 0.16 1.84
840 0.15 21.05 4.21 -0.94 0.15 1.84
900 0.17 21.13 4.56 -1.02 0.18 1.84
961 0.15 21.21 4.89 -1.09 0.16 1.84
1020 0.22 21.33 5.35 -1.20 0.22 2.46
1081 0.30 21.50 6.03 -1.35 0.31 3.07
1140 0.46 21.71 6.92 -1.54 0.46 3.67
1201 0.56 21.99 8.06 -1.79 0.57 4.25
1261 0.64 22.34 9.49 -2.11 0.65 4.82
1320 0.71 22.72 11.05 -2.45 0.72 5.39
1381 0.90 23.18 12.92 -2.86 0.91 5.96
1440 1.09 23.68 15.01 -3.31 1.11 6.52
1500 1.24 24.35 17.79 -3.91 1.26 9.60
1560 1.00 25.03 20.63 -4.52 1.01 7.51
Y.C.Wong 129
FDS CaPaFi
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 1.50 20.70 2.82 7.05 1.51 5.91
120 3.35 22.42 9.82 24.29 3.39 10.80
180 5.07 25.01 20.55 50.17 5.14 17.77
241 6.61 28.69 36.34 87.07 6.73 23.92
300 7.18 32.49 53.24 125.12 7.35 23.92
361 6.79 36.15 70.14 161.80 7.02 23.92
420 6.90 39.69 87.07 197.29 7.19 23.92
480 7.31 43.38 105.35 234.29 7.64 23.92
540 7.10 46.97 123.70 270.20 7.49 23.92
600 6.65 50.45 142.14 305.08 7.09 23.92
661 6.51 53.88 160.94 339.53 7.01 23.92
720 6.32 57.23 179.79 373.01 6.88 23.92
781 6.61 60.67 199.84 407.55 7.22 23.92
840 7.14 63.90 219.15 439.83 7.80 23.92
900 6.18 66.96 238.04 470.52 6.89 23.92
961 6.17 70.15 258.29 502.55 6.94 23.92
1020 9.17 74.56 287.13 546.66 10.01 30.13
1081 13.05 81.30 333.50 614.25 14.00 34.61
1140 15.13 89.55 393.88 696.86 16.22 38.09
1201 25.48 99.77 474.69 799.29 26.75 40.95
1261 26.99 111.42 575.28 916.04 28.48 43.36
1320 22.23 123.60 690.61 1038.03 23.95 45.46
1381 30.43 140.99 874.86 1212.32 32.52 47.32
1440 45.49 157.14 1068.06 1374.15 47.93 48.99
1500 54.65 184.01 1441.40 1643.40 57.74 56.04
1560 58.89 206.13 1802.26 1864.98 62.56 51.58
Y.C.Wong 130
FDS CaPaFi
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 0.35 20.17 0.69 1.10 0.36 1.34
120 0.85 20.56 2.24 3.58 0.85 2.62
180 1.07 21.09 4.40 7.01 1.08 3.81
241 1.35 21.86 7.52 11.93 1.37 4.96
300 1.52 22.64 10.72 16.94 1.55 4.96
361 1.40 23.42 13.92 21.92 1.43 4.96
420 1.31 24.17 17.06 26.75 1.35 4.96
480 1.59 24.95 20.32 31.75 1.64 4.96
540 1.30 25.70 23.48 36.55 1.36 4.96
600 1.36 26.44 26.62 41.28 1.43 4.96
661 1.34 27.20 29.87 46.13 1.42 4.96
720 1.43 27.94 33.06 50.87 1.51 4.96
781 1.31 28.64 36.11 55.36 1.40 4.96
840 1.40 29.35 39.25 59.96 1.50 4.96
900 1.35 30.06 42.38 64.51 1.46 4.96
961 1.37 30.77 45.53 69.05 1.48 4.96
1020 1.87 31.69 49.62 74.91 1.99 6.57
1081 2.48 32.93 55.24 82.87 2.62 8.12
1140 2.73 34.34 61.72 91.93 2.88 9.65
1201 3.44 36.05 69.70 102.90 3.61 11.14
1261 3.50 37.90 78.43 114.72 3.69 12.63
1320 3.67 39.92 88.20 127.71 3.89 15.77
1381 4.23 42.30 99.94 142.97 4.48 18.43
1440 4.86 44.69 111.97 158.26 5.13 20.79
1500 7.10 48.21 130.23 180.84 7.42 30.42
1560 5.88 51.44 147.52 201.55 6.23 24.38
Y.C.Wong 131
0 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 0.05 20.02 0.09 0.08 0.05 0.47
120 0.08 20.06 0.26 0.22 0.08 0.94
180 0.12 20.13 0.51 0.43 0.12 1.40
241 0.23 20.22 0.89 0.76 0.23 1.84
300 0.19 20.31 1.26 1.07 0.19 1.84
361 0.17 20.41 1.65 1.41 0.17 1.84
420 0.17 20.51 2.03 1.73 0.18 1.84
480 0.18 20.60 2.41 2.05 0.19 1.84
540 0.18 20.70 2.81 2.39 0.19 1.84
600 0.17 20.79 3.17 2.69 0.17 1.84
661 0.17 20.89 3.56 3.02 0.18 1.84
720 0.17 20.98 3.93 3.33 0.18 1.84
781 0.16 21.07 4.30 3.65 0.17 1.84
840 0.17 21.16 4.68 3.97 0.18 1.84
900 0.19 21.26 5.07 4.29 0.20 1.84
961 0.19 21.35 5.45 4.61 0.20 1.84
1020 0.25 21.48 5.97 5.05 0.26 2.46
1081 0.38 21.66 6.71 5.67 0.39 3.07
1140 0.43 21.90 7.69 6.49 0.44 3.67
1201 0.55 22.20 8.91 7.51 0.57 4.25
1261 0.68 22.57 10.40 8.75 0.70 4.82
1320 1.00 22.99 12.17 10.21 1.02 5.39
1381 0.88 23.47 14.12 11.83 0.90 5.96
1440 1.02 24.01 16.38 13.68 1.05 6.52
1500 1.46 24.77 19.57 16.28 1.49 9.60
1560 1.47 25.49 22.58 18.71 1.51 7.51

140
120
100
80
Model 2
60
Model 5
40
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 132
Total heat fluxes comparison position 2

Total heat fluxes [kW/m2] 140
120
100
80
60 Model 2
40 Model 5
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]

140
120
100
80
60 Model 2
40 Model 5
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]

140
120
100
80 Model 2
60
Model 5
40
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 133

140
120
100
80
Model 2
60
Model 5
40
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]

140
120
100
80
60 Model 2
40 Model 5
20 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Total heat fluxes Position 10

12
10
8
6 Model 2
4 Model 5
2 CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 134
Appendix 17 Comparison Temperatures model 2 and model 5
Temperatures Position 1 Position 2 Position 3

Model Model Model Model Model Model
t [s] 2 5 CaPaFi 2 5 CaPaFi 2 5 CaPaFi
0 20.00 20.00 20 20.00 20.00 20 20.00 20.00 20
61 22.68 21.11 21 21.33 20.67 20 20.34 20.16 20
120 28.94 24.75 33 23.98 22.30 24 21.06 20.52 21
181 39.56 31.83 52 27.81 24.74 30 22.06 21.02 22
240 54.65 43.13 73 32.48 28.07 40 23.24 21.72 25
301 70.01 55.59 95 37.34 31.73 53 24.42 22.45 27
360 84.69 66.12 116 42.11 35.24 65 25.65 23.18 30
420 97.87 76.97 137 46.50 38.60 77 26.79 23.89 33
480 110.41 87.24 156 50.85 41.91 88 27.91 24.58 35
540 122.54 97.33 175 54.75 45.19 99 28.96 25.28 37
600 134.02 107.31 193 58.86 48.24 110 30.02 25.95 40
660 144.00 115.64 210 62.52 51.41 120 31.02 26.63 42
720 154.14 123.83 227 66.36 54.48 130 31.95 27.32 44
780 163.42 134.25 243 69.78 57.56 140 32.85 27.98 47
841 172.29 141.71 259 72.86 60.57 149 33.66 28.65 49
900 180.68 149.75 274 76.17 63.42 158 34.58 29.28 51
961 188.32 158.95 289 79.12 66.41 167 35.36 29.92 53
1020 202.61 172.28 303 83.50 70.42 176 36.43 30.75 55
1081 222.32 190.62 318 90.51 75.85 187 37.98 31.88 58
1140 242.49 209.32 334 98.56 82.88 201 39.79 33.19 62
1201 264.39 229.60 351 108.54 91.29 215 41.95 34.73 66
1260 286.23 252.46 368 120.25 102.27 230 44.21 36.56 71
1321 310.13 278.15 385 135.39 116.53 246 46.93 38.60 77
1380 335.14 303.23 402 150.40 129.46 262 49.67 40.66 84
1441 361.23 330.47 419 168.44 146.00 278 52.82 42.94 92
1500 395.98 363.69 435 193.52 167.44 295 57.24 45.89 102
Y.C.Wong 135

t [s] 2 5 CaPaFi 2 5 CaPaFi 2 5 CaPaFi
0 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20 20.00 20.00 20
61 20.03 20.02 20.00 21.43 20.70 20 20.38 20.17 20
120 20.11 20.06 20.00 24.22 22.42 24 21.09 20.56 21
181 20.23 20.11 21.00 28.43 25.01 30 22.18 21.09 22
240 20.39 20.20 22.00 33.72 28.69 40 23.47 21.86 25
301 20.54 20.28 23.00 38.98 32.49 53 24.79 22.64 27
360 20.70 20.37 24.00 44.09 36.15 65 26.00 23.42 30
420 20.83 20.46 25.00 49.12 39.69 77 27.24 24.17 33
480 20.97 20.54 26.00 53.89 43.38 88 28.50 24.95 35
540 21.13 20.62 26.00 58.01 46.97 99 29.51 25.70 37
600 21.26 20.71 27.00 62.45 50.45 110 30.64 26.44 40
660 21.40 20.79 28.00 66.48 53.88 120 31.67 27.20 42
720 21.53 20.88 29.00 70.43 57.23 130 32.77 27.94 44
780 21.65 20.96 30.00 73.88 60.67 140 33.69 28.64 47
841 21.75 21.05 31.00 77.44 63.90 149 34.52 29.35 49
900 21.85 21.13 32.00 80.78 66.96 158 35.47 30.06 51
961 21.94 21.21 32.00 84.21 70.15 167 36.38 30.77 53
1020 22.11 21.33 33.00 88.88 74.56 176 37.51 31.69 55
1081 22.36 21.50 34.00 97.66 81.30 187 39.29 32.93 58
1140 22.75 21.71 36.00 105.83 89.55 201 41.16 34.34 62
1201 23.26 21.98 37.00 117.15 99.19 215 43.57 36.00 66
1260 23.74 22.34 39.00 130.67 111.42 230 46.06 37.90 71
1321 24.39 22.74 42.00 148.44 123.79 246 49.02 39.98 77
1380 25.15 23.18 44.00 165.25 140.99 262 52.11 42.30 84
1441 26.07 23.68 47.00 184.54 157.14 278 55.39 44.69 92
1500 27.40 24.35 50.00 210.22 184.01 295 59.73 48.21 102
Y.C.Wong 136
Temperatures Position 10
Model Model
t [s] 2 5 CaPaFi
0 20.00 20.00 20
61 20.04 20.02 20
120 20.11 20.06 20
181 20.24 20.13 21
240 20.44 20.22 22
301 20.60 20.31 23
360 20.75 20.41 24
420 20.90 20.51 25
480 21.07 20.60 26
540 21.21 20.70 26
600 21.34 20.79 27
660 21.46 20.89 28
720 21.60 20.98 29
780 21.69 21.07 30
841 21.83 21.16 31
900 21.94 21.26 32
961 22.06 21.35 32
1020 22.25 21.48 33
1081 22.49 21.66 34
1140 22.82 21.90 36
1201 23.39 22.20 37
1260 24.02 22.57 39
1321 24.70 22.99 42
1380 25.66 23.47 44
1441 26.63 24.01 47
1500 28.02 24.77 50
450
400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250 Model2
200
Model5
150
CaPaFi
100
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time[s]
Y.C.Wong 137
450
400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250 Model2
200
Model5
150
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
450
400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250 Model2
200
Model5
150
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
450
400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250 Model2
200
Model5
150
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 138
450
400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250
200 Model2
150 Model5
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
450
400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250 Model2
200
Model5
150
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
450
400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250 Model2
200
Model5
150
100 CaPaFi
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 139
Appendix 18 Convective heat transfer coefficient Model 5
The calculation of the convection coefficient of the steel for model 5 is presented. This is done to
verify the calculated value by FDS with the Eurocodes. The value in the yellow block is the
averaged value of the convection coefficient.
qconv Tgas Tmember αC qconv Tgas Tmember αC
t[s] [kW/m2] [oC] [oC] [W/m2 K] [kW/m2] [oC] [oC] [W/m2 K]
0 0 20 20 --- 0 20 20 ---
61 0.83 133.78 21.11 7.36 0.83 68.15 20.67 17.46
120 1.83 229.32 24.75 8.97 1.83 92.77 22.30 26.03
181 2.92 321.73 32.11 10.07 2.92 145.79 24.82 24.10
241 4.49 443.00 43.13 11.22 4.49 129.37 28.07 44.28
301 4.07 427.58 55.66 10.95 4.07 131.78 31.79 40.74
361 4.08 438.05 66.12 10.97 4.08 161.73 35.24 32.27
420 4.35 467.48 76.97 11.15 4.35 127.75 38.60 48.83
480 2.86 372.01 87.24 10.03 2.86 200.33 41.91 18.03
540 4.15 474.65 97.33 11.00 4.15 178.59 45.19 31.11
600 4.17 485.41 107.31 11.02 4.17 141.92 48.24 44.48
661 3.07 416.14 115.64 10.23 3.07 157.08 51.41 29.08
720 3.00 412.87 123.83 10.39 3.00 165.42 54.48 27.07
781 4.62 540.16 134.25 11.37 4.62 164.72 57.56 43.07
840 2.38 389.48 141.71 9.60 2.38 157.54 60.57 24.54
900 1.89 358.08 149.75 9.07 1.89 139.99 63.42 24.67
961 2.45 412.02 158.95 9.70 2.45 176.90 66.41 22.21
1020 4.69 583.95 172.28 11.39 4.69 216.18 70.42 32.17
1081 5.33 643.70 190.62 11.77 5.33 255.67 75.85 29.65
1140 5.29 659.40 209.32 11.75 5.29 269.00 82.88 28.42
1200 4.96 659.37 229.60 11.53 4.96 341.98 91.29 19.77
1261 4.89 677.15 252.46 11.52 4.89 397.69 102.27 16.56
1320 6.27 789.96 277.62 12.23 6.27 644.32 115.37 11.85
1381 5.86 789.47 303.23 12.05 5.86 523.34 129.46 14.87
1440 6.16 832.88 330.47 12.27 6.16 596.28 146.00 13.69
1500 7.00 921.92 363.69 12.55 7.00 925.52 167.44 9.24
1560 4.06 756.44 391.44 11.11 4.06 626.32 185.60 9.20
10.82 26.28
Y.C.Wong 140
0 0 20 20 --- 0 20 20 ---
61 0.05 34.32 20.16 3.70 0.00 21.11 20.16 1.91
120 0.14 48.90 20.52 4.88 0.00 21.16 20.52 2.69
181 0.24 64.65 21.04 5.61 0.01 23.70 21.04 3.17
241 0.16 52.96 21.72 5.26 0.02 26.84 21.72 3.89
301 0.27 70.10 22.48 5.74 0.00 22.03 22.48 -7.25
361 0.29 73.79 23.18 5.73 0.02 26.30 23.18 5.48
420 0.17 55.65 23.89 5.31 0.01 24.68 23.89 13.34
480 0.32 77.59 24.58 5.97 0.01 24.45 24.58 -77.94
540 0.23 64.30 25.28 5.82 0.01 24.90 25.28 -31.21
600 0.12 51.55 25.95 4.70 0.01 23.56 25.95 -2.58
661 0.15 52.86 26.63 5.72 0.00 22.74 26.63 -0.96
720 0.20 63.45 27.32 5.50 0.01 25.78 27.32 -8.52
781 0.32 81.05 27.98 6.11 0.01 25.28 27.98 -4.13
840 0.28 76.87 28.65 5.82 0.01 24.35 28.65 -1.79
900 0.12 53.39 29.28 5.16 0.01 24.99 29.28 -2.52
961 0.16 60.10 29.92 5.31 0.00 22.88 29.92 -0.43
1020 0.32 84.15 30.75 5.94 0.01 24.29 30.75 -1.03
1081 0.49 101.80 31.88 7.02 0.03 30.25 31.88 -17.08
1140 0.44 95.47 33.19 6.99 0.06 37.15 33.19 16.25
1200 0.66 125.37 34.73 7.25 0.03 29.91 34.73 -5.65
1261 0.94 152.23 36.56 8.13 0.08 40.59 36.56 19.94
1320 0.75 135.81 38.46 7.66 0.16 53.77 38.46 10.48
1381 0.99 165.36 40.66 7.97 0.21 61.37 40.66 10.06
1440 1.33 197.84 42.94 8.56 0.34 79.18 42.94 9.47
1500 2.05 254.62 45.89 9.84 0.28 71.75 45.89 10.65
1560 0.67 137.96 48.76 7.52 0.15 53.53 48.76 31.40
6.28 -0.86
Y.C.Wong 141
0 0 20 20 --- 0 20 20 ---
61 0.29 62.26 20.70 6.90 0.03 28.05 20.17 3.20
120 0.69 106.57 22.42 8.21 0.23 60.53 20.56 5.67
181 1.29 162.93 25.10 9.33 0.24 61.98 21.11 5.84
241 1.01 138.71 28.69 9.16 0.23 63.06 21.86 5.61
301 1.11 154.14 32.52 9.16 0.26 69.15 22.66 5.61
361 1.37 179.71 36.15 9.56 0.28 71.84 23.42 5.73
420 1.03 151.26 39.69 9.23 0.12 49.97 24.17 4.61
480 1.59 208.04 43.38 9.65 0.41 85.92 24.95 6.73
540 1.42 191.17 46.97 9.85 0.20 60.76 25.70 5.60
600 1.19 178.34 50.45 9.27 0.22 66.26 26.44 5.53
661 0.93 155.03 53.88 9.18 0.17 58.83 27.20 5.31
720 0.84 149.98 57.23 9.08 0.29 78.26 27.94 5.85
781 1.01 167.41 60.67 9.50 0.20 60.39 28.64 6.37
840 1.38 205.25 63.90 9.76 0.25 73.00 29.35 5.67
900 0.79 152.11 66.96 9.29 0.18 60.99 30.06 5.78
961 0.94 177.19 70.15 8.76 0.21 68.86 30.77 5.49
1020 1.55 235.85 74.56 9.60 0.41 91.54 31.69 6.90
1081 2.31 307.81 81.30 10.21 0.61 115.74 32.93 7.43
1140 2.45 326.59 89.55 10.33 0.62 124.18 34.34 6.95
1200 3.81 442.04 99.19 11.12 0.52 111.57 36.00 6.91
1261 4.77 518.48 111.42 11.71 0.63 118.08 37.90 7.91
1320 3.19 422.28 123.60 10.69 0.71 132.25 39.92 7.68
1381 4.60 526.91 140.99 11.91 0.80 145.68 42.30 7.74
1440 7.30 723.54 157.14 12.88 1.08 174.81 44.69 8.29
1500 8.23 801.47 184.01 13.33 2.13 266.32 48.21 9.77
1560 7.12 760.15 206.13 12.85 1.37 211.42 51.44 8.57
10.02 6.41
Y.C.Wong 142
Position 10
qconv Tgas Tmember αC
t[s] [kW/m2] [oC] [oC] [W/m2 K]
0 0 20 20 ---
61 0.00 20.87 20.02 1.58
120 0.00 21.47 20.06 1.72
181 0.00 21.89 20.13 1.83
241 0.07 36.85 20.22 4.27
301 0.01 24.37 20.32 2.50
361 0.01 23.22 20.41 2.15
420 0.01 23.40 20.51 2.19
480 0.01 23.56 20.60 2.24
540 0.02 27.03 20.70 2.90
600 0.01 23.28 20.79 2.11
661 0.00 22.96 20.89 2.03
720 0.00 23.10 20.98 2.33
781 0.00 22.13 21.07 1.57
840 0.00 23.04 21.16 1.95
900 0.01 24.85 21.26 2.63
961 0.02 28.03 21.35 3.51
1020 0.02 27.30 21.48 2.75
1081 0.06 36.62 21.66 4.29
1140 0.02 29.83 21.90 3.08
1200 0.16 52.99 22.20 5.05
1261 0.09 42.37 22.57 4.34
1320 0.42 84.13 22.99 6.83
1381 0.13 49.93 23.47 5.06
1440 0.21 61.22 24.01 5.70
1500 0.42 85.68 24.77 6.83
1560 0.50 95.16 25.49 7.23
3.41
Y.C.Wong 143
Appendix 19 Comparison Total heat fluxes model 2 and model 3
Total heat
fluxes Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Position 4
Model Model Model Model Model Model Model Model
t [s] 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 5.60 5.58 2.90 2.96 0.75 0.80 0.08 0.07
120 12.79 14.02 5.11 5.69 1.26 1.44 0.20 0.15
181 20.06 21.75 7.44 7.00 1.94 2.01 0.26 0.19
240 37.20 29.21 9.63 9.61 2.45 2.80 0.24 0.36
301 32.64 28.32 9.25 9.20 2.25 2.45 0.36 0.27
360 31.38 32.38 10.63 11.62 2.53 3.40 0.27 0.36
420 34.47 34.76 10.19 11.38 3.02 3.13 0.26 0.22
480 29.80 34.70 11.04 9.81 2.76 2.64 0.34 0.27
540 34.42 31.09 9.82 9.82 2.58 2.73 0.82 0.32
600 36.82 33.37 10.68 9.52 2.71 2.11 0.30 0.44
660 31.99 34.25 10.38 9.82 2.94 2.37 0.79 0.34
720 29.92 31.03 10.83 9.81 2.42 2.97 0.39 0.32
780 28.61 30.85 10.55 9.03 2.84 2.39 0.45 0.31
841 30.09 31.16 9.89 9.88 2.23 2.47 0.25 0.25
900 28.08 30.09 9.82 9.92 2.62 2.33 0.25 0.35
961 28.58 28.45 10.04 10.86 2.67 3.18 0.25 0.33
1020 42.82 52.85 12.96 14.56 3.40 4.17 0.46 0.48
1081 59.68 63.40 22.97 17.76 4.45 4.38 0.49 0.82
1140 63.55 63.12 22.40 21.21 4.95 4.47 1.26 0.74
1201 78.43 76.09 27.34 26.35 5.68 5.70 1.84 0.95
1260 81.22 74.35 28.29 25.96 6.14 5.94 1.26 1.42
1321 90.36 75.18 46.13 38.54 7.35 7.41 1.79 1.84
1380 93.84 92.24 42.43 36.49 6.94 7.91 1.58 1.93
1441 91.92 84.00 54.89 44.68 9.13 8.38 1.59 2.12
1500 126.68 125.09 58.45 57.00 11.10 10.17 2.99 2.94
Y.C.Wong 144
Total heat
fluxes Position 8 Position 9 Position 10
Model Model Model Model
t [s] Model 2 Model 3 2 3 2 3
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
61 3.11 3.07 0.96 0.68 0.07 0.08
120 5.50 5.54 1.20 1.72 0.13 0.16
181 8.22 8.29 2.03 1.83 0.17 0.21
240 10.93 10.07 2.42 2.38 0.72 0.23
301 9.41 10.48 2.49 2.35 0.31 0.24
360 10.48 12.84 2.31 3.13 0.26 0.31
420 11.39 10.62 2.59 2.77 0.43 0.27
480 10.29 11.74 2.84 3.22 0.66 0.28
540 10.95 11.11 2.53 2.79 0.50 0.31
600 10.47 10.79 2.76 2.49 0.48 0.29
660 10.77 11.52 2.67 3.36 0.33 0.31
720 11.71 12.11 3.16 3.36 0.41 0.37
780 11.03 9.78 3.02 2.37 0.26 0.26
841 10.71 11.84 2.29 3.64 0.33 0.47
900 11.10 10.44 2.80 2.39 0.36 0.32
961 12.49 11.58 3.51 2.96 0.38 0.48
1020 13.98 16.41 3.06 4.12 0.58 0.42
1081 24.48 19.76 4.75 4.24 0.54 0.60
1140 25.06 30.98 5.10 5.24 0.66 0.75
1201 28.74 32.85 5.89 6.58 1.25 0.79
1260 33.74 39.72 6.93 7.29 1.69 1.47
1321 52.27 36.51 8.81 7.14 1.65 2.09
1380 42.72 46.35 7.30 9.03 1.94 2.21
1441 49.30 79.69 8.14 10.81 1.82 2.56
1500 75.38 98.84 11.22 15.96 2.66 2.66
Y.C.Wong 145
Appendix 20 Comparison temperatures model 2 and model 3
Temperatures Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Position 4

Model Model Model Model Model Model Model Model
t [s] 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
61 23 24 21 22 20 20 20 20
120 29 33 24 26 21 22 20 20
181 40 51 28 33 22 23 20 20
240 55 76 32 41 23 25 20 21
301 70 104 37 49 24 27 21 21
360 85 129 42 57 26 30 21 21
420 98 150 47 65 27 31 21 21
480 110 170 51 71 28 33 21 22
540 123 186 55 77 29 35 21 22
600 134 202 59 82 30 36 21 22
660 144 215 63 88 31 38 21 22
720 154 227 66 92 32 39 22 22
780 163 237 70 96 33 40 22 22
841 172 247 73 100 34 41 22 23
900 181 255 76 103 35 42 22 23
961 188 263 79 107 35 43 22 23
1020 203 278 83 112 36 45 22 23
1081 222 302 91 122 38 47 22 23
1140 242 327 99 133 40 49 23 24
1201 264 353 109 147 42 52 23 25
1260 286 382 120 165 44 56 24 26
1321 310 413 135 185 47 60 24 27
1380 335 443 150 208 50 64 25 28
1441 361 472 168 234 53 69 26 30
1500 396 516 194 265 57 75 27 31
Y.C.Wong 146

t [s] 2 3 2 3 2 3
0 20 20 20 20 20 20
61 21 22 20 20 20 20
120 24 26 21 22 20 20
181 28 34 22 24 20 20
240 34 42 23 26 20 21
301 39 52 25 28 21 21
360 44 61 26 30 21 21
420 49 68 27 32 21 21
480 54 76 28 34 21 22
540 58 81 30 36 21 22
600 62 88 31 37 21 22
660 66 93 32 39 21 22
720 70 99 33 41 22 23
780 74 103 34 42 22 23
841 77 107 35 43 22 23
900 81 110 35 44 22 23
961 84 114 36 45 22 23
1020 89 120 38 46 22 23
1081 98 130 39 49 22 24
1140 106 144 41 51 23 24
1201 117 162 44 55 23 25
1260 131 182 46 59 24 26
1321 148 202 49 63 25 27
1380 165 228 52 67 26 29
1441 185 261 55 73 27 30
1500 210 299 60 80 28 32
600
500
Temperature [oC]
400
300
200 Model 2
100 Model 3
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time[s]
Y.C.Wong 147
600
500
Temperature [oC]
400
300
Model 2
200
Model 3
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time[s]
600
500
Temperature [oC]
400
300
Model 2
200
Model 3
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time[s]
600
500
Temperature [oC]
400
300
Model 2
200
Model 3
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time[s]
Y.C.Wong 148
600
500
Temperature [oC]
400
300
Model 2
200
Model 3
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time[s]
600
500
Temperature [oC]
400
300
Model 2
200
Model 3
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time[s]
600
500
Temperature [oC]
400
300
Model 2
200
Model 3
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time[s]
Y.C.Wong 149
Appendix 21 Script of FDS (model 6)
&HEAD CHID='model6', TITLE='model6'/ For 3 cars with obstacles: 2 beams
&TIME T_END=2500/
MISC RESTART=.TRUE.
----Fuel (UIT HET VOORBEELD V DE HALVE AUTO OOK UIT SFPE) ---
FYI='SFPE',
FUEL='REAC_FUEL',
FORMULA='C7H16',
HRRPUA_SHEET=0.0,
CO_YIELD=0.01,
SOOT_YIELD=0.037,
IDEAL=.TRUE./
------ Spaces------
&MESH IJK=150,160,28, XB=0,15,0,16,0,2.8/ With the cars 10cm mesh ->150,160,28)

&MESH IJK=22.5,120,14, XB=-4.5,0,-4,20,0,2.8/Mesh 2 (meshes of 20cm )
&MESH IJK=22.5,120,14, XB=15,19.5,-4,20,0,2.8/ Mesh 3 (meshes of 20cm)
&MESH IJK=75,20,14, XB=0,15,-4,0,0,2.8/ Mesh 4 (meshes of 20cm)
&MESH IJK=75,20,14, XB=0,15,16,20,0,2.8/ Mesh 5 (meshes of 20cm)
------ Cars and the properties -----
&SURF ID='car1',
color='RED',
HRRPUA= 658.730,
RAMP_Q='car1_fire'/ (OPPERVLAKTE DAT IN BRAND STAAT IS 12.6M2 WANT 4.8X1.8+

2x4.8x0.3+ 2x1.8x0.3)

&SURF ID='car2',
RGB=34,139,34,
HRRPUA= 658.730,
RAMP_Q='car2_fire'/ (Green car, burning surface is 12.6M2: 4.8X1.8+ 2x4.8x0.3+ 2x1.8x0.3)
Y.C.Wong 150

&SURF ID='car3',
RGB=255,0,255,
HRRPUA= 658.730,
RAMP_Q='car3_fire'/ (Magenta car, burning surface is 12.6M2: 4.8X1.8+ 2x4.8x0.3+ 2x1.8x0.3)

&OBST XB= 6.6, 8.4, 0.4,5.2, 0,0.3, SURF_ID6='car1','car1','car1','car1','INERT','car1'/ (top side and the sides are
on fire)
&OBST XB= 4.1,5.9, 0.4,5.2, 0,0.3, SURF_ID6='car2','car2','car2','car2','INERT','car2'/ (top side and the sides are
on fire)
&OBST XB= 9.1,10.9, 0.4,5.2, 0,0.3, SURF_ID6='car3','car3','car3','car3','INERT','car3'/ top side and the sides are
on fire)
------ Properties of steel beams ------
DENSITY=7850.0,
EMISSIVITY=0.7/

Y.C.Wong 151


&SURF ID='STEEL1',
THICKNESS= 0.032
RGB=105,105,105/
&OBST XB= 0,15, 0,0.3, 2.3,2.8, RGB= 105,105,105,

SURF_ID6='INERT','INERT','STEEL1','STEEL1','STEEL1','INERT'/ fictitious beam "my profile"
&OBST XB= 0,15, 15.7,16, 2.3,2.8, RGB= 105,105,105,
SURF_ID6='INERT','INERT','STEEL1','STEEL1','STEEL1','INERT'/ fictitious beam "my profile"
--- Concrete properties ----
&MATL ID='CONCRETE_EURO',
SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP='CONCRETE_EURO_SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP',
CONDUCTIVITY_RAMP='CONCRETE_EURO_CONDUCTIVITY_RAMP',
DENSITY=2500/

&RAMP ID='CONCRETE_EURO_SPECIFIC_HEAT_RAMP', T=1200,F=1.1/
Y.C.Wong 152

&SURF ID='CONCRETE',
MATL_ID = 'CONCRETE_EURO',
THICKNESS=0.4
RGB=84,255,159/
---Floor and ceiling --
&VENT SURF_ID='CONCRETE', MB='ZMIN'/ floor

&VENT SURF_ID='CONCRETE', MB='ZMAX'/ ceiling
--- walls ---
&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB='YMIN', COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ front side

&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB='YMAX' , COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ back side
&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB= 'XMIN', COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ left side
&VENT SURF_ID='OPEN',MB= 'XMAX' , COLOR='INVISIBLE'/ right side
--- Devices ----

Devices 5,6,7,11,12 on the ceiling terwijl 1,2,3,4,8,9,10 are on the member ----
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX1', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2 , 0.15 , 2.3, IOR= -3/
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX2', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 0.15 , 2.3, IOR= -3/
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX3', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 8.8, 0.15 , 2.3, IOR= -3/
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX4', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 13 , 0.15 , 2.3, IOR= -3/
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX5', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2 , 15.85, 2.3, IOR= -3/
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX6', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 15.85, 2.3, IOR= -3/
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX8', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 13 , 15.85, 2.3, IOR= -3/
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX9', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 0, 2.8, 2.8, IOR= -3/
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX18', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 7.5, 8, 2.8, IOR= -3/
Y.C.Wong 153
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX23', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 7.5, 12, 2.8, IOR= -3/
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX26', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
&DEVC ID='INC-FLUX28', QUANTITY='INCIDENT HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
---36
&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX1', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 0.15, 2.3, IOR=-3/

&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX2', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 0.15, 2.3, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX18', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 7.5, 8, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX23', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 7.5, 12, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX26', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX28', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
Y.C.Wong 154
&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX33', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX34', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX35', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 8.8, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='NET-FLUX36', QUANTITY='NET HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 13, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
----72
&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX1', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 0.15, 2.3, IOR=-3/

&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX2', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 0.15, 2.3, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX16', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 8, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX18', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 7.5, 8, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX23', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 7.5, 12, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX26', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX28', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX33', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX34', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX35', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 8.8, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='RAD-FLUX36', QUANTITY='RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 13, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
----108
&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX1', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 0.15, 2.3, IOR=-3/

&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX2', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 0.15, 2.3, IOR=-3/
Y.C.Wong 155

&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX16', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 8, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX18', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 7.5, 8, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX23', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 7.5, 12, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX26', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX28', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX33', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 2, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX34', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 6.3, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX35', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 8.8, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='CONV-FLUX36', QUANTITY='CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX', XYZ= 13, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
-------144
&DEVC ID='Tmember-1', QUANTITY ='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 2, 0.15, 2.3, IOR=-3/

&DEVC ID='Tmember-2', QUANTITY ='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 6.3, 0.15, 2.3, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='Tmember-18', QUANTITY ='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 7.5, 8, 2.8, IOR=-3/
Y.C.Wong 156
&DEVC ID='Tmember-23', QUANTITY ='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 7.5, 12, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='Tmember-26', QUANTITY='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 2, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
&DEVC ID='Tmember-28', QUANTITY='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 6.3, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
&DEVC ID='Tmember-33', QUANTITY='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 2, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='Tmember-34', QUANTITY='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 6.3, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='Tmember-35', QUANTITY='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 8.8, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='Tmember-36', QUANTITY='WALL TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 13, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
------180
&DEVC ID='Tgas-1',QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 2, 0.15, 2.3, IOR=-3/

&DEVC ID='Tgas-2',QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 6.3, 0.15, 2.3, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='Tgas-18',QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 7.5, 8, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='Tgas-23',QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 7.5, 12, 2.8, IOR=-3/
&DEVC ID='Tgas-26', QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 2, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
&DEVC ID='Tgas-28', QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 6.3, 0.3, 2.6, IOR= 2/
&DEVC ID='Tgas-33', QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 2, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='Tgas-34', QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 6.3, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='Tgas-35', QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 8.8, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
&DEVC ID='Tgas-36', QUANTITY='GAS TEMPERATURE', XYZ= 13, 15.7, 2.6, IOR= -2/
-----216
Y.C.Wong 157
-- Slices ---

&SLCF PBX=6.3, QUANTITY='TEMPERATURE'/
&SLCF PBY=0.4, QUANTITY='TEMPERATURE'/
&TAIL/
The locations of where the measuring points are given below for model 6:
Dark blue dots: points on the ceiling
Green dots: points on the lower part of the beam
Y.C.Wong 158
Appendix 22 Data heat fluxes of model 6
Left blank on purpose
Y.C.Wong 159
Position 1.00 (model 6)

hpunt
t[s] hnet [kW/m2] tmember ε*boltzmann*ΔT[W/m2] α*ΔT [W/m2] [kW/m2]
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.29 20.12 0.48 4.20 0.29
120.00 0.50 20.42 1.69 14.79 0.51
180.00 1.03 20.93 3.75 32.67 1.07
240.00 1.16 21.45 5.85 50.83 1.21
300.00 1.08 22.15 8.69 75.19 1.16
360.00 1.27 22.85 11.59 99.91 1.38
420.00 2.03 23.59 14.64 125.76 2.17
480.00 0.92 24.21 17.19 147.23 1.08
540.00 1.25 24.78 19.61 167.46 1.44
600.00 1.81 25.49 22.57 191.99 2.02
660.00 1.46 26.08 25.11 212.95 1.70
720.00 1.22 26.66 27.55 233.01 1.48
780.00 2.82 27.72 32.15 270.36 3.13
840.00 2.53 29.13 38.27 319.54 2.89
900.00 3.46 30.53 44.47 368.67 3.88
960.00 3.14 32.23 52.09 428.16 3.62
1020.00 4.51 33.93 59.82 487.46 5.06
1080.00 3.42 35.41 66.70 539.49 4.02
1140.00 4.02 36.70 72.73 584.40 4.68
1200.00 2.80 37.91 78.50 626.92 3.51
1260.00 3.49 39.58 86.54 685.31 4.26
1320.00 4.27 41.40 95.43 748.86 5.12
1380.00 5.32 43.64 106.63 827.33 6.26
1440.00 5.57 45.88 118.06 905.71 6.60
1500.00 8.59 48.75 133.09 1006.34 9.73
1560.00 6.71 52.14 151.30 1124.78 7.99
1620.00 8.33 55.04 167.40 1226.47 9.73
1680.00 6.40 57.05 178.78 1296.78 7.87
1740.00 6.93 59.42 192.46 1379.63 8.50
1800.00 7.14 61.86 206.91 1465.23 8.82
1860.00 6.38 63.90 219.15 1536.33 8.13
1920.00 3.66 64.85 224.99 1569.82 5.45
1980.00 4.74 66.51 235.26 1627.98 6.61
2040.00 2.50 67.27 240.01 1654.62 4.40
2100.00 2.32 67.87 243.76 1675.48 4.24
2160.00 3.17 68.32 246.60 1691.25 5.11
2220.00 2.08 68.79 249.56 1707.57 4.03
2280.00 1.62 68.84 249.86 1709.26 3.58
2340.00 1.52 68.96 250.66 1713.67 3.48
2400.00 2.53 69.25 252.47 1723.60 4.51
2460.00 3.01 69.84 256.27 1744.40 5.02
2500.00 3.91 70.22 258.70 1757.64 5.93
Y.C.Wong 160

α*ΔT
t[s] hnet [kW/m2] tmember ε*boltzmann*ΔT[W/m2] [W/m2] hpunt [kW/m2]
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.56 20.26 1.02 8.95 0.57
120.00 1.06 20.80 3.19 27.84 1.09
180.00 1.50 21.61 6.50 56.44 1.57
240.00 1.92 22.65 10.76 92.83 2.02
300.00 2.48 23.81 15.52 133.20 2.63
360.00 1.79 24.82 19.75 168.57 1.97
420.00 2.32 26.00 24.75 209.98 2.55
480.00 2.20 27.02 29.10 245.62 2.48
540.00 1.91 27.98 33.23 279.16 2.22
600.00 2.34 29.05 37.93 316.89 2.70
660.00 2.34 29.98 42.00 349.24 2.73
720.00 1.54 30.87 45.97 380.46 1.97
780.00 7.60 34.37 61.85 502.93 8.16
840.00 7.65 37.96 78.72 628.54 8.36
900.00 7.04 41.42 95.55 749.71 7.88
960.00 7.38 44.55 111.28 859.41 8.35
1020.00 7.44 48.16 129.97 985.68 8.56
1080.00 9.63 52.38 152.64 1133.32 10.91
1140.00 9.64 56.97 178.34 1294.09 11.11
1200.00 10.36 61.65 205.61 1457.63 12.02
1260.00 11.76 66.74 236.70 1636.07 13.63
1320.00 12.22 71.86 269.34 1815.15 14.31
1380.00 13.69 77.69 308.32 2019.06 16.02
1440.00 17.18 84.74 358.14 2265.74 19.80
1500.00 22.97 94.68 433.62 2613.80 26.02
1560.00 24.79 105.96 527.02 3008.75 28.33
1620.00 17.78 112.99 589.54 3254.67 21.63
1680.00 17.30 119.35 649.18 3477.30 21.42
1740.00 21.16 126.53 720.02 3728.45 25.61
1800.00 16.00 132.18 778.55 3926.19 20.71
1860.00 15.33 136.67 826.88 4083.45 20.24
1920.00 12.49 140.16 865.57 4205.73 17.56
1980.00 10.84 143.00 897.69 4304.92 16.04
2040.00 9.06 145.15 922.57 4380.40 14.37
2100.00 8.01 146.61 939.62 4431.43 13.38
2160.00 7.29 147.64 951.78 4467.53 12.71
2220.00 6.29 148.08 956.96 4482.82 11.73
2280.00 5.34 148.17 958.01 4485.91 10.78
2340.00 5.27 148.37 960.41 4492.97 10.72
2400.00 5.62 148.38 960.50 4493.24 11.07
2460.00 7.18 149.47 973.55 4531.48 12.68
2500.00 6.27 149.37 972.39 4528.11 11.77
Y.C.Wong 161

2
t[s] hnet [kW/m ] tmember ε*boltzmann*ΔT[W/m2] α*ΔT [W/m2] hpunt [kW/m2]
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.59 20.25 0.99 8.67 0.60
120.00 1.00 20.77 3.07 26.79 1.03
180.00 1.62 21.56 6.30 54.70 1.68
240.00 1.86 22.52 10.19 88.05 1.96
300.00 1.89 23.49 14.22 122.19 2.02
360.00 1.93 24.48 18.35 156.93 2.11
420.00 1.76 25.42 22.29 189.71 1.97
480.00 1.84 26.36 26.27 222.52 2.09
540.00 1.87 27.21 29.95 252.52 2.15
600.00 1.62 28.03 33.47 281.06 1.93
660.00 1.74 28.85 37.02 309.59 2.08
720.00 1.90 29.63 40.45 336.90 2.27
780.00 4.54 31.74 49.86 410.83 5.00
840.00 4.86 34.22 61.19 497.87 5.42
900.00 4.87 36.37 71.17 572.85 5.51
960.00 3.78 38.58 81.70 650.27 4.51
1020.00 5.63 41.03 93.60 735.88 6.46
1080.00 5.38 43.51 105.96 822.69 6.30
1140.00 6.02 46.09 119.16 913.15 7.05
1200.00 6.85 48.81 133.42 1008.51 7.99
1260.00 5.96 51.68 148.80 1108.75 7.22
1320.00 6.55 54.60 164.94 1211.15 7.93
1380.00 6.23 58.01 184.31 1330.48 7.75
1440.00 9.83 62.23 209.11 1478.09 11.52
1500.00 22.82 73.16 277.83 1860.45 24.96
1560.00 24.30 85.21 361.63 2282.48 26.95
1620.00 16.20 92.50 416.58 2537.67 19.16
1680.00 14.99 98.50 464.31 2747.60 18.20
1740.00 15.06 104.15 511.44 2945.32 18.52
1800.00 13.66 109.33 556.56 3126.64 17.34
1860.00 11.92 113.55 594.68 3274.29 15.79
1920.00 11.62 117.35 630.09 3407.21 15.66
1980.00 9.50 120.43 659.54 3514.90 13.68
2040.00 9.19 123.01 684.82 3605.39 13.48
2100.00 8.92 125.14 705.98 3679.74 13.30
2160.00 8.73 127.22 727.03 3752.59 13.21
2220.00 8.01 129.01 745.46 3815.42 12.57
2280.00 7.60 130.68 762.82 3873.86 12.24
2340.00 7.86 132.61 783.11 3941.26 12.59
2400.00 9.33 134.74 805.88 4015.76 14.15
2460.00 14.85 140.06 864.37 4201.98 19.91
2500.00 12.03 141.33 878.71 4246.54 17.15
Y.C.Wong 162

2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.39 20.14 0.56 4.93 0.39
120.00 0.46 20.45 1.80 15.67 0.48
180.00 0.66 20.85 3.41 29.72 0.70
240.00 1.14 21.41 5.70 49.47 1.20
300.00 0.80 21.88 7.59 65.81 0.87
360.00 1.01 22.35 9.50 82.14 1.10
420.00 0.82 22.75 11.18 96.42 0.93
480.00 1.31 23.24 13.16 113.23 1.43
540.00 1.00 23.63 14.79 127.03 1.14
600.00 0.69 23.97 16.22 139.09 0.84
660.00 0.98 24.36 17.84 152.66 1.15
720.00 0.96 24.67 19.13 163.44 1.14
780.00 1.60 25.42 22.29 189.72 1.81
840.00 1.87 26.34 26.19 221.84 2.12
900.00 1.18 27.09 29.42 248.21 1.45
960.00 1.68 28.03 33.48 281.12 1.99
1020.00 1.74 28.85 37.05 309.84 2.09
1080.00 2.00 29.79 41.18 342.73 2.38
1140.00 2.74 30.86 45.92 380.07 3.17
1200.00 3.01 31.96 50.87 418.69 3.48
1260.00 2.72 33.22 56.57 462.68 3.24
1320.00 4.12 34.66 63.17 512.93 4.70
1380.00 2.78 35.99 69.39 559.62 3.41
1440.00 3.58 37.53 76.67 613.52 4.27
1500.00 5.02 40.03 88.73 701.10 5.81
1560.00 5.24 42.85 102.67 799.72 6.14
1620.00 4.25 44.61 111.56 861.31 5.23
1680.00 4.28 46.38 120.66 923.27 5.33
1740.00 4.23 47.72 127.65 970.26 5.33
1800.00 3.16 49.12 135.05 1019.25 4.31
1860.00 2.76 50.38 141.78 1063.31 3.96
1920.00 3.64 51.56 148.18 1104.76 4.89
1980.00 2.01 52.26 151.97 1129.05 3.30
2040.00 2.20 52.92 155.58 1152.08 3.51
2100.00 2.09 53.81 160.55 1183.52 3.44
2160.00 2.64 54.72 165.57 1215.03 4.02
2220.00 3.43 55.50 169.97 1242.47 4.85
2280.00 2.80 56.35 174.76 1272.12 4.24
2340.00 2.51 57.59 181.85 1315.53 4.01
2400.00 4.36 59.53 193.13 1383.63 5.93
2460.00 6.81 62.46 210.47 1486.07 8.50
2500.00 8.41 64.65 223.75 1562.72 10.19
Y.C.Wong 163

2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.03 20.01 0.03 0.24 0.03
120.00 0.17 20.12 0.46 4.04 0.17
180.00 0.30 20.29 1.15 10.04 0.32
240.00 0.36 20.49 1.95 17.03 0.38
300.00 0.41 20.73 2.92 25.44 0.44
360.00 0.47 20.97 3.90 33.96 0.51
420.00 0.48 21.18 4.75 41.29 0.53
480.00 0.56 21.40 5.66 49.15 0.62
540.00 0.54 21.62 6.55 56.79 0.60
600.00 0.44 21.79 7.24 62.79 0.51
660.00 0.48 21.99 8.04 69.64 0.56
720.00 0.59 22.18 8.83 76.35 0.67
780.00 1.49 22.82 11.42 98.53 1.60
840.00 1.38 23.48 14.18 121.85 1.51
900.00 1.52 24.22 17.23 147.57 1.69
960.00 1.65 24.93 20.23 172.59 1.84
1020.00 1.63 25.67 23.36 198.53 1.85
1080.00 1.70 26.48 26.80 226.81 1.96
1140.00 1.84 27.33 30.46 256.71 2.13
1200.00 1.96 28.28 34.57 289.96 2.29
1260.00 2.04 29.24 38.76 323.49 2.40
1320.00 2.28 30.29 43.39 360.16 2.68
1380.00 2.66 31.39 48.31 398.77 3.10
1440.00 2.98 32.57 53.62 439.98 3.47
1500.00 4.14 34.50 62.47 507.58 4.71
1560.00 4.17 36.35 71.08 572.21 4.81
1620.00 3.32 37.79 77.94 622.82 4.03
1680.00 3.03 39.17 84.54 670.92 3.78
1740.00 4.16 41.04 93.67 736.33 4.99
1800.00 3.03 42.58 101.34 790.42 3.92
1860.00 3.02 43.92 108.07 837.30 3.96
1920.00 3.23 44.92 113.17 872.37 4.22
1980.00 2.15 45.71 117.22 899.99 3.17
2040.00 2.48 46.52 121.40 928.31 3.53
2100.00 2.80 47.25 125.19 953.79 3.88
2160.00 2.27 47.81 128.12 973.33 3.37
2220.00 2.49 48.52 131.87 998.27 3.62
2280.00 2.32 49.14 135.15 1019.92 3.48
2340.00 2.09 49.76 138.43 1041.49 3.27
2400.00 1.93 50.20 140.82 1057.05 3.13
2460.00 2.33 50.79 143.98 1077.61 3.55
2500.00 1.87 51.12 145.76 1089.12 3.10
Y.C.Wong 164

2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.04 20.01 0.03 0.30 0.04
120.00 0.18 20.10 0.41 3.61 0.18
180.00 0.27 20.27 1.07 9.34 0.28
240.00 0.46 20.46 1.82 15.93 0.47
300.00 0.59 20.70 2.81 24.50 0.61
360.00 0.51 20.90 3.63 31.58 0.55
420.00 0.45 21.11 4.46 38.84 0.50
480.00 0.37 21.32 5.32 46.22 0.42
540.00 0.46 21.55 6.25 54.28 0.52
600.00 0.35 21.72 6.95 60.24 0.42
660.00 0.46 21.93 7.78 67.41 0.53
720.00 0.43 22.12 8.58 74.23 0.52
780.00 1.44 22.78 11.28 97.33 1.55
840.00 1.34 23.59 14.62 125.61 1.48
900.00 1.71 24.36 17.85 152.76 1.88
960.00 1.73 25.13 21.09 179.72 1.93
1020.00 1.66 25.93 24.47 207.67 1.89
1080.00 1.78 26.80 28.18 238.13 2.04
1140.00 1.97 27.76 32.29 271.56 2.28
1200.00 2.41 28.76 36.66 306.67 2.76
1260.00 2.26 29.78 41.11 342.16 2.65
1320.00 2.86 30.91 46.13 381.73 3.29
1380.00 2.59 32.00 51.03 419.99 3.06
1440.00 2.67 33.16 56.28 460.48 3.19
1500.00 4.73 35.26 65.97 533.99 5.33
1560.00 3.89 37.36 75.85 607.48 4.57
1620.00 3.79 39.13 84.35 669.53 4.54
1680.00 3.70 40.87 92.85 730.54 4.52
1740.00 4.13 42.66 101.74 793.26 5.02
1800.00 4.09 44.46 110.78 855.96 5.06
1860.00 3.09 45.77 117.49 901.80 4.11
1920.00 3.42 47.00 123.90 945.14 4.49
1980.00 3.54 48.05 129.37 981.68 4.65
2040.00 2.69 48.82 133.46 1008.80 3.83
2100.00 2.94 49.67 137.97 1038.44 4.12
2160.00 2.85 50.37 141.73 1062.99 4.06
2220.00 2.36 51.01 145.15 1085.22 3.59
2280.00 2.26 51.69 148.86 1109.13 3.52
2340.00 2.16 52.15 151.37 1125.22 3.43
2400.00 1.96 52.67 154.23 1143.46 3.26
2460.00 2.04 53.11 156.64 1158.83 3.35
2500.00 1.76 53.36 158.00 1167.43 3.08
Y.C.Wong 165

2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.01 20.01 0.02 0.21 0.01
120.00 0.20 20.11 0.45 3.91 0.21
180.00 0.35 20.29 1.16 10.11 0.36
240.00 0.39 20.49 1.96 17.09 0.41
300.00 0.32 20.69 2.77 24.18 0.34
360.00 0.53 20.93 3.74 32.54 0.56
420.00 0.43 21.14 4.59 39.89 0.48
480.00 0.39 21.35 5.45 47.32 0.44
540.00 0.41 21.58 6.37 55.27 0.47
600.00 0.32 21.76 7.09 61.47 0.39
660.00 0.49 21.98 7.98 69.14 0.57
720.00 0.46 22.16 8.76 75.77 0.55
780.00 1.24 22.79 11.33 97.75 1.35
840.00 1.62 23.58 14.58 125.29 1.76
900.00 1.75 24.34 17.74 151.84 1.92
960.00 1.52 25.12 21.04 179.33 1.72
1020.00 1.59 25.93 24.47 207.67 1.82
1080.00 2.02 26.81 28.19 238.23 2.28
1140.00 1.88 27.70 32.02 269.34 2.18
1200.00 2.06 28.67 36.25 303.45 2.40
1260.00 2.40 29.66 40.61 338.17 2.78
1320.00 2.21 30.67 45.07 373.40 2.63
1380.00 2.42 31.73 49.83 410.62 2.88
1440.00 2.53 32.87 54.97 450.37 3.04
1500.00 3.89 34.97 64.62 523.82 4.48
1560.00 4.44 37.20 75.12 602.07 5.11
1620.00 4.11 38.92 83.34 662.22 4.86
1680.00 3.94 40.60 91.51 720.97 4.75
1740.00 4.87 42.60 101.42 790.99 5.76
1800.00 4.05 44.42 110.60 854.72 5.02
1860.00 3.30 45.74 117.34 900.81 4.32
1920.00 2.99 46.93 123.52 942.55 4.06
1980.00 3.17 47.86 128.36 974.95 4.27
2040.00 2.54 48.75 133.07 1006.24 3.68
2100.00 2.69 49.54 137.27 1033.86 3.86
2160.00 2.77 50.31 141.39 1060.79 3.97
2220.00 2.19 50.92 144.70 1082.26 3.42
2280.00 2.55 51.64 148.61 1107.48 3.81
2340.00 2.08 52.02 150.67 1120.76 3.36
2400.00 2.10 52.47 153.14 1136.54 3.39
2460.00 1.73 52.92 155.59 1152.15 3.04
2500.00 1.90 53.18 157.01 1161.16 3.22
Y.C.Wong 166

2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.05 20.01 0.03 0.24 0.05
120.00 0.25 20.13 0.53 4.61 0.25
180.00 0.34 20.29 1.17 10.22 0.36
240.00 0.40 20.49 1.98 17.31 0.42
300.00 0.54 20.77 3.07 26.79 0.57
360.00 0.53 21.01 4.07 35.42 0.57
420.00 0.54 21.25 5.04 43.85 0.59
480.00 0.39 21.50 6.06 52.59 0.45
540.00 0.44 21.73 6.97 60.45 0.50
600.00 0.54 21.93 7.80 67.58 0.61
660.00 0.38 22.15 8.69 75.20 0.47
720.00 0.46 22.37 9.62 83.12 0.55
780.00 1.35 22.94 11.95 103.02 1.46
840.00 1.42 23.69 15.05 129.19 1.56
900.00 1.62 24.36 17.83 152.53 1.79
960.00 1.46 25.03 20.63 175.88 1.65
1020.00 1.31 25.69 23.45 199.28 1.54
1080.00 1.46 26.43 26.60 225.21 1.71
1140.00 1.79 27.25 30.08 253.65 2.08
1200.00 1.94 28.07 33.66 282.55 2.26
1260.00 2.04 28.98 37.62 314.37 2.40
1320.00 2.13 29.95 41.89 348.37 2.52
1380.00 2.12 30.90 46.08 381.36 2.54
1440.00 2.33 31.94 50.79 418.06 2.79
1500.00 4.11 33.90 59.70 486.57 4.66
1560.00 3.98 35.78 68.39 552.16 4.60
1620.00 3.49 37.42 76.18 609.87 4.18
1680.00 3.18 38.93 83.38 662.48 3.93
1740.00 4.18 40.76 92.28 726.47 5.00
1800.00 4.18 42.52 101.04 788.37 5.07
1860.00 3.00 43.79 107.41 832.70 3.94
1920.00 2.86 44.78 112.43 867.31 3.84
1980.00 3.05 45.72 117.25 900.22 4.07
2040.00 2.24 46.44 120.96 925.31 3.28
2100.00 2.66 47.15 124.68 950.34 3.73
2160.00 2.26 47.75 127.83 971.41 3.36
2220.00 2.08 48.32 130.78 991.03 3.20
2280.00 1.87 48.89 133.80 1011.03 3.02
2340.00 1.73 49.26 135.77 1024.00 2.89
2400.00 1.51 49.63 137.78 1037.22 2.69
2460.00 1.86 50.01 139.76 1050.18 3.05
2500.00 1.75 50.33 141.53 1061.67 2.96
Y.C.Wong 167
Total heat fluxes Position 1 (Model6)

70
60
50
40
30 FDS
20 CaPaFi
10
0
Time[s]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600

70
60
50
40
FDS
30
20 CaPaFi
10
0 Time[s]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Total heat fluxes Position3 (model6)

70
60
50
40
FDS
30
20 CaPaFi
10
0
Time[s]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600

70
60
50
40
FDS
30
20 CaPaFi
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 Time[s]
Y.C.Wong 168
70
60
50
40
30 FDS
20 CaPaFi
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 Time[s]
Total heat flux Position 6 (model 6)

70
60
50
40
30 FDS
20 CaPaFi
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 Time[s]
70
60
50
40
30 FDS
20 CaPaFi
10
0 Time[s]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
70
Total heat fluxes Postion 8 (model 6)
60
50
40
30 FDS
20 CaPaFi
10
0
Time[s]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Y.C.Wong 169
Appendix 23 Data temperatures of model 6

t[s] FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi
0 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
60 20.12 20.04 20.26 20.08 20.25 20.03
120 20.42 20.60 20.80 21.08 20.77 20.44
180 20.93 21.64 21.61 22.94 21.56 21.21
240 21.45 23.14 22.65 25.56 22.52 22.32
300 22.15 25.03 23.81 28.84 23.49 23.72
360 22.85 26.86 24.82 32.02 24.48 25.08
420 23.59 28.65 26.00 35.12 25.42 26.42
480 24.21 30.40 27.02 38.14 26.36 27.72
540 24.78 32.10 27.98 41.08 27.21 28.99
600 25.49 33.76 29.05 43.94 28.03 30.23
660 26.08 35.38 29.98 46.72 28.85 31.43
720 26.66 36.96 30.87 49.44 29.63 32.61
780 27.72 38.61 34.37 52.54 31.74 34.23
840 29.13 41.38 37.96 60.51 34.22 40.76
900 30.53 44.09 41.42 68.23 36.37 47.10
960 32.23 46.72 44.55 75.71 38.58 53.24
1020 33.93 49.34 48.16 83.05 41.03 59.23
1080 35.41 52.51 52.38 91.18 43.51 65.51
1140 36.70 56.21 56.97 100.03 46.09 72.05
1200 37.91 60.39 61.65 109.54 48.81 78.83
1260 39.58 65.03 66.74 119.70 51.68 85.83
1320 41.40 70.11 71.86 130.78 54.60 93.03
1380 43.64 75.61 77.69 143.33 58.01 100.50
1440 45.88 81.76 84.74 157.90 62.23 109.10
1500 48.75 88.88 94.68 174.78 73.16 119.36
1560 52.14 100.33 105.96 198.97 85.21 136.92
1620 55.04 108.24 112.99 220.41 92.50 154.15
1680 57.05 114.31 119.35 238.17 98.50 170.96
1740 59.42 120.18 126.53 255.87 104.15 188.61
1800 61.86 126.56 132.18 276.21 109.33 209.98
1860 63.90 131.64 136.67 291.99 113.55 226.90
1920 64.85 135.53 140.16 302.61 117.35 238.70
1980 66.51 138.85 143.00 311.41 120.43 248.89
2040 67.27 141.61 145.15 318.40 123.01 257.42
2100 67.87 143.84 146.61 323.94 125.14 265.00
2160 68.32 145.64 147.64 328.66 127.22 272.47
2220 68.79 147.02 148.08 332.56 129.01 279.82
2280 68.84 147.96 148.17 335.65 130.68 287.47
2340 68.96 148.51 148.37 337.97 132.61 295.69
2400 69.25 148.95 148.38 340.00 134.74 304.47
2460 69.84 149.34 149.47 341.86 140.06 313.92
2500 70.22 149.80 149.37 343.87 141.33 322.71
Y.C.Wong 170
Temperature Position 4 Position 5 Position 6

Time[s] FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi
0 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
60 20.14 20.01 20.01 20.00 20.01 20.00
120 20.45 20.10 20.12 20.03 20.10 20.03
180 20.85 20.28 20.29 20.08 20.27 20.08
240 21.41 20.55 20.49 20.15 20.46 20.16
300 21.88 20.89 20.73 20.24 20.70 20.26
360 22.35 21.22 20.97 20.34 20.90 20.36
420 22.75 21.55 21.18 20.43 21.11 20.45
480 23.24 21.87 21.40 20.51 21.32 20.55
540 23.63 22.18 21.62 20.60 21.55 20.64
600 23.97 22.48 21.79 20.68 21.72 20.73
660 24.36 22.78 21.99 20.77 21.93 20.82
720 24.67 23.07 22.18 20.85 22.12 20.90
780 25.42 23.46 22.82 20.94 22.78 21.00
840 26.34 25.04 23.48 21.16 23.59 21.26
900 27.09 26.59 24.22 21.37 24.36 21.51
960 28.03 28.09 24.93 21.58 25.13 21.76
1020 28.85 29.57 25.67 21.78 25.93 22.00
1080 29.79 31.13 26.48 22.02 26.80 22.28
1140 30.86 32.78 27.33 22.29 27.76 22.59
1200 31.96 34.50 28.28 22.58 28.76 22.92
1260 33.22 36.29 29.24 22.91 29.78 23.29
1320 34.66 38.15 30.29 23.25 30.91 23.68
1380 35.99 40.10 31.39 23.63 32.00 24.10
1440 37.53 42.36 32.57 24.05 33.16 24.58
1500 40.03 45.22 34.50 24.55 35.26 25.14
1560 42.85 51.57 36.35 25.30 37.36 26.02
1620 44.61 57.58 37.79 25.96 39.13 26.79
1680 46.38 63.28 39.17 26.52 40.87 27.47
1740 47.72 69.07 41.04 27.08 42.66 28.16
1800 49.12 75.67 42.58 27.73 44.46 28.95
1860 50.38 81.19 43.92 28.25 45.77 29.59
1920 51.56 85.72 44.92 28.65 47.00 30.09
1980 52.26 89.92 45.71 29.00 48.05 30.52
2040 52.92 93.80 46.52 29.30 48.82 30.91
2100 53.81 97.41 47.25 29.57 49.67 31.24
2160 54.72 101.29 47.81 29.81 50.37 31.56
2220 55.50 105.40 48.52 30.03 51.01 31.86
2280 56.35 109.73 49.14 30.22 51.69 32.13
2340 57.59 114.28 49.76 30.40 52.15 32.38
2400 59.53 119.08 50.20 30.57 52.67 32.64
2460 62.46 124.45 50.79 30.74 53.11 32.90
2500 64.65 130.52 51.12 30.91 53.36 33.15
Y.C.Wong 171

Time[s] FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi
0 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
60 20.01 20.00 20.01 20.00
120 20.11 20.03 20.13 20.02
180 20.29 20.07 20.29 20.05
240 20.49 20.14 20.49 20.10
300 20.69 20.23 20.77 20.16
360 20.93 20.32 21.01 20.23
420 21.14 20.41 21.25 20.29
480 21.35 20.49 21.50 20.35
540 21.58 20.57 21.73 20.40
600 21.76 20.66 21.93 20.46
660 21.98 20.73 22.15 20.52
720 22.16 20.81 22.37 20.57
780 22.79 20.90 22.94 20.63
840 23.58 21.15 23.69 20.83
900 24.34 21.40 24.36 21.02
960 25.12 21.63 25.03 21.20
1020 25.93 21.87 25.69 21.38
1080 26.81 22.14 26.43 21.58
1140 27.70 22.43 27.25 21.81
1200 28.67 22.75 28.07 22.04
1260 29.66 23.09 28.98 22.30
1320 30.67 23.46 29.95 22.57
1380 31.73 23.85 30.90 22.86
1440 32.87 24.30 31.94 23.20
1500 34.97 24.83 33.90 23.60
1560 37.20 25.68 35.78 24.26
1620 38.92 26.43 37.42 24.86
1680 40.60 27.11 38.93 25.40
1740 42.60 27.79 40.76 25.96
1800 44.42 28.58 42.52 26.60
1860 45.74 29.22 43.79 27.12
1920 46.93 29.72 44.78 27.53
1980 47.86 30.16 45.72 27.90
2040 48.75 30.55 46.44 28.23
2100 49.54 30.89 47.15 28.52
2160 50.31 31.22 47.75 28.80
2220 50.92 31.54 48.32 29.08
2280 51.64 31.84 48.89 29.36
2340 52.02 32.12 49.26 29.63
2400 52.47 32.41 49.63 29.90
2460 52.92 32.71 50.01 30.19
2500 53.18 32.99 50.33 30.47
Y.C.Wong 172
Temperature [oC] 400

300
200
FDS
100
CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time[s]
400
Temperature [oC]
300
200
FDS
100
CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
400
Temperature [oC]
300
200
FDS
100
CaPaFi
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time[s]
400
Temperature [oC]
300
200
FDS
100
CaPaFI
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 173
Temperature [oC] 400

300
200
FDS
100
CaPaFI
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time[s]
400
Temperature[oC]
300
200
FDS
100
CaPaFI
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time[s]
400
Temperature[oC]
300
200
FDS
100
CaPaFI
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
400
Tempearture [oC]
300
200
FDS
100
CaPaFI
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 174
Appendix 24 Script of FDS (model 7 hidden beams)
The script of model 7 is the same as model 6, only difference is that the beams are next to the
ceiling and not sticking out, and the measuring points from 26-36 are not applicable because the
beams are not sticking out.
The positions of the points on the beam are given in the picture below.
Dark blue dots: points on the ceiling
Green dots: points on the lower part of the beam
Y.C.Wong 175
Appendix 25 Data heat fluxes of model 7 (hidden beams)
Left blank on purpose
Y.C.Wong 176
α*ΔT hpunt
t[s] hnet [kW/m2] tmember ε*boltzmann*ΔT[W/m2] [W/m2] [kW/m2]
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.89 20.37 1.48 12.90 0.90
120.00 1.49 21.09 4.38 38.14 1.53
180.00 1.88 22.05 8.29 71.76 1.96
240.00 2.47 23.34 13.58 116.78 2.60
300.00 3.07 24.64 18.99 162.25 3.25
360.00 2.16 25.78 23.80 202.16 2.38
420.00 2.10 26.89 28.54 241.09 2.37
480.00 2.03 27.90 32.89 276.40 2.34
540.00 2.22 28.98 37.59 314.16 2.57
600.00 2.12 29.99 42.07 349.74 2.51
660.00 2.47 31.10 46.99 388.50 2.90
720.00 2.36 32.11 51.52 423.73 2.83
780.00 4.43 33.80 59.21 482.83 4.98
840.00 4.71 36.45 71.58 575.87 5.35
900.00 6.31 38.70 82.27 654.46 7.05
960.00 3.64 40.33 90.20 711.62 4.44
1020.00 4.66 42.76 102.23 796.66 5.56
1080.00 4.66 44.88 112.96 870.89 5.64
1140.00 3.88 46.84 123.05 939.41 4.94
1200.00 4.44 49.03 134.55 1015.96 5.59
1260.00 5.34 51.28 146.61 1094.64 6.58
1320.00 6.89 54.10 162.11 1193.36 8.24
1380.00 6.34 56.86 177.72 1290.27 7.81
1440.00 9.49 61.14 202.62 1440.04 11.14
1500.00 9.96 65.42 228.50 1589.77 11.78
1560.00 7.48 69.15 251.86 1720.24 9.45
1620.00 7.16 72.25 271.86 1828.66 9.27
1680.00 8.62 76.18 298.06 1966.39 10.89
1740.00 22.62 82.29 340.54 2180.30 25.14
1800.00 9.20 85.89 366.58 2306.12 11.87
1860.00 8.32 88.39 385.14 2393.57 11.10
1920.00 7.45 90.59 401.79 2470.50 10.32
1980.00 5.74 92.00 412.67 2520.04 8.67
2040.00 5.75 93.35 423.16 2567.22 8.74
2100.00 4.68 94.15 429.46 2595.37 7.71
2160.00 3.50 94.83 434.80 2619.05 6.55
2220.00 4.45 95.26 438.20 2634.06 7.52
2280.00 2.75 95.24 438.03 2633.28 5.83
2340.00 3.23 95.07 436.74 2627.60 6.29
2400.00 2.64 94.92 435.54 2622.30 5.70
2460.00 2.33 94.71 433.82 2614.69 5.38
2500.00 2.48 94.51 432.30 2607.94 5.52
Y.C.Wong 177
2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 1.24 20.57 2.28 19.91 1.26
120.00 2.18 21.72 6.93 60.13 2.25
180.00 3.08 23.39 13.80 118.69 3.21
240.00 3.69 25.23 21.48 182.95 3.90
300.00 3.60 27.12 29.52 249.05 3.88
360.00 3.63 28.96 37.51 313.49 3.98
420.00 3.65 30.77 45.53 377.07 4.07
480.00 3.67 32.44 53.03 435.40 4.16
540.00 3.43 34.03 60.29 491.10 3.98
600.00 3.44 35.59 67.52 545.59 4.05
660.00 3.36 37.00 74.14 594.89 4.03
720.00 3.14 38.30 80.35 640.47 3.86
780.00 10.39 43.21 104.46 812.20 11.31
840.00 10.28 48.29 130.62 990.00 11.40
900.00 10.45 53.19 157.09 1161.66 11.77
960.00 9.67 57.80 183.07 1322.94 11.18
1020.00 11.40 62.88 213.00 1500.76 13.11
1080.00 11.82 68.24 246.06 1688.27 13.75
1140.00 12.77 74.27 285.20 1899.39 14.95
1200.00 15.09 80.78 329.81 2127.28 17.55
1260.00 15.68 87.72 380.11 2370.06 18.43
1320.00 18.61 95.65 441.32 2647.76 21.70
1380.00 20.30 104.93 518.14 2972.72 23.79
1440.00 23.39 116.21 619.40 3367.49 27.38
1500.00 48.68 136.55 825.54 4079.17 53.59
1560.00 46.33 154.28 1032.26 4699.94 52.06
1620.00 26.39 163.20 1146.35 5011.90 32.55
1680.00 22.84 170.71 1248.13 5274.90 29.36
1740.00 32.34 180.88 1394.38 5630.91 39.37
1800.00 21.39 187.43 1493.92 5860.17 28.74
1860.00 15.91 191.50 1557.95 6002.62 23.47
1920.00 14.69 194.53 1606.68 6108.59 22.40
1980.00 10.17 196.22 1634.32 6167.78 17.97
2040.00 9.25 197.22 1650.74 6202.65 17.10
2100.00 7.37 197.60 1657.04 6215.97 15.24
2160.00 6.72 197.29 1651.85 6205.01 14.58
2220.00 4.56 196.18 1633.55 6166.13 12.36
2280.00 4.72 194.91 1612.91 6121.99 12.46
2340.00 4.13 193.59 1591.49 6075.77 11.79
2400.00 5.20 192.67 1576.62 6043.46 12.82
2460.00 8.30 192.87 1579.84 6050.47 15.93
2500.00 6.35 192.48 1573.59 6036.85 13.96
Y.C.Wong 178
2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 1.26 20.58 2.32 20.24 1.29
120.00 2.18 21.69 6.84 59.30 2.25
180.00 2.98 23.21 13.06 112.44 3.11
240.00 3.61 24.96 20.33 173.44 3.80
300.00 3.37 26.75 27.97 236.42 3.64
360.00 3.18 28.39 35.03 293.64 3.51
420.00 3.51 30.00 42.08 349.87 3.90
480.00 3.42 31.61 49.29 406.45 3.88
540.00 2.89 32.94 55.28 452.78 3.40
600.00 2.84 34.29 61.47 500.04 3.40
660.00 3.34 35.80 68.49 552.89 3.96
720.00 3.00 37.07 74.48 597.34 3.68
780.00 4.26 38.85 83.00 659.72 5.00
840.00 4.59 40.86 92.79 730.12 5.41
900.00 3.90 42.58 101.30 790.16 4.79
960.00 3.82 44.28 109.90 849.92 4.78
1020.00 5.22 46.26 120.06 919.27 6.26
1080.00 6.00 48.78 133.21 1007.15 7.14
1140.00 5.85 51.48 147.71 1101.72 7.10
1200.00 7.36 54.70 165.48 1214.50 8.74
1260.00 7.81 58.11 184.85 1333.75 9.33
1320.00 7.67 61.65 205.61 1457.62 9.34
1380.00 8.60 65.64 229.81 1597.23 10.43
1440.00 9.76 69.71 255.46 1739.97 11.75
1500.00 39.40 89.38 392.58 2428.13 42.22
1560.00 34.11 107.55 540.86 3064.40 37.71
1620.00 22.78 115.87 616.19 3355.49 26.76
1680.00 22.46 123.46 689.24 3621.02 26.77
1740.00 18.34 129.59 751.46 3835.69 22.92
1800.00 17.03 135.82 817.63 4053.75 21.90
1860.00 12.60 139.90 862.56 4196.33 17.66
1920.00 10.56 143.44 902.79 4320.48 15.78
1980.00 12.52 146.49 938.17 4427.13 17.89
2040.00 10.84 148.70 964.33 4504.50 16.31
2100.00 9.32 150.62 987.33 4571.55 14.87
2160.00 7.90 152.12 1005.56 4624.04 13.53
2220.00 8.66 153.58 1023.57 4675.35 14.36
2280.00 8.25 155.06 1041.91 4727.08 14.02
2340.00 8.87 156.76 1063.19 4786.43 14.72
2400.00 10.44 158.88 1090.27 4860.96 16.39
2460.00 14.49 163.08 1144.85 5007.90 20.64
2500.00 9.07 163.78 1154.09 5032.38 15.25
Y.C.Wong 179
2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.76 20.34 1.35 11.77 0.77
120.00 1.20 21.04 4.18 36.34 1.24
180.00 1.94 22.09 8.44 73.08 2.02
240.00 2.04 23.29 13.40 115.31 2.17
300.00 2.27 24.48 18.36 156.95 2.45
360.00 2.41 25.72 23.57 200.29 2.63
420.00 2.30 26.90 28.58 241.41 2.57
480.00 2.31 27.93 33.06 277.72 2.62
540.00 2.09 29.06 37.96 317.06 2.44
600.00 2.44 30.17 42.86 355.97 2.84
660.00 1.91 31.03 46.68 386.04 2.34
720.00 1.76 31.92 50.69 417.33 2.23
780.00 2.65 33.28 56.84 464.72 3.17
840.00 2.73 34.71 63.44 514.95 3.31
900.00 3.40 36.28 70.74 569.63 4.04
960.00 3.26 37.75 77.74 621.39 3.96
1020.00 3.61 39.27 85.06 674.61 4.37
1080.00 4.31 41.13 94.10 739.40 5.14
1140.00 4.85 43.27 104.76 814.31 5.77
1200.00 5.96 45.72 117.27 900.32 6.98
1260.00 6.67 48.46 131.54 996.07 7.80
1320.00 6.85 51.02 145.22 1085.64 8.08
1380.00 5.60 53.82 160.57 1183.64 6.94
1440.00 7.13 57.07 178.91 1297.56 8.60
1500.00 6.05 59.56 193.31 1384.69 7.63
1560.00 7.98 62.47 210.52 1486.34 9.68
1620.00 5.06 64.43 222.41 1555.04 6.84
1680.00 4.36 66.18 233.20 1616.37 6.21
1740.00 4.53 68.12 245.35 1684.30 6.46
1800.00 5.14 69.59 254.65 1735.53 7.13
1860.00 4.27 70.63 261.36 1772.11 6.30
1920.00 3.94 71.87 269.39 1815.40 6.02
1980.00 3.30 72.77 275.32 1847.10 5.42
2040.00 3.30 73.85 282.45 1884.89 5.46
2100.00 3.90 74.85 289.09 1919.76 6.11
2160.00 5.65 76.40 299.52 1973.93 7.92
2220.00 4.16 77.38 306.19 2008.19 6.47
2280.00 5.86 79.05 317.69 2066.60 8.24
2340.00 5.20 80.42 327.29 2114.77 7.65
2400.00 6.17 82.55 342.37 2189.24 8.70
2460.00 14.85 87.57 379.03 2364.98 17.60
2500.00 6.47 87.88 381.33 2375.78 9.23
Y.C.Wong 180
2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.19 20.04 0.14 1.25 0.19
120.00 0.42 20.27 1.10 9.61 0.43
180.00 0.74 20.64 2.55 22.26 0.77
240.00 0.77 21.03 4.14 36.04 0.81
300.00 0.80 21.47 5.94 51.60 0.86
360.00 0.87 21.88 7.57 65.64 0.94
420.00 0.81 22.26 9.15 79.16 0.89
480.00 0.72 22.61 10.59 91.41 0.83
540.00 0.82 22.99 12.16 104.77 0.94
600.00 0.73 23.32 13.53 116.37 0.86
660.00 0.73 23.65 14.87 127.72 0.87
720.00 0.73 23.98 16.27 139.44 0.88
780.00 1.71 24.78 19.59 167.29 1.89
840.00 1.75 25.70 23.47 199.47 1.98
900.00 1.83 26.56 27.15 229.73 2.08
960.00 1.81 27.39 30.71 258.76 2.10
1020.00 2.01 28.30 34.65 290.60 2.34
1080.00 1.76 29.17 38.46 321.05 2.12
1140.00 2.04 30.18 42.88 356.17 2.44
1200.00 2.70 31.33 48.02 396.53 3.15
1260.00 2.52 32.46 53.10 435.94 3.01
1320.00 2.81 33.79 59.18 482.61 3.35
1380.00 3.22 35.09 65.19 528.12 3.81
1440.00 3.40 36.55 72.02 579.15 4.05
1500.00 4.38 38.67 82.14 653.50 5.11
1560.00 4.98 40.98 93.36 734.13 5.80
1620.00 4.64 42.92 103.02 802.19 5.54
1680.00 4.15 44.80 112.51 867.85 5.13
1740.00 4.81 46.78 122.71 937.15 5.87
1800.00 4.28 48.69 132.76 1004.15 5.41
1860.00 3.71 50.04 139.97 1051.53 4.91
1920.00 3.08 51.04 145.34 1086.39 4.31
1980.00 3.26 52.10 151.13 1123.66 4.53
2040.00 2.64 53.03 156.19 1155.94 3.95
2100.00 3.03 53.68 159.78 1178.69 4.37
2160.00 2.87 54.43 163.96 1204.98 4.24
2220.00 2.75 55.02 167.30 1225.85 4.15
2280.00 2.03 55.57 170.35 1244.83 3.45
2340.00 2.59 56.35 174.76 1272.08 4.04
2400.00 2.55 57.01 178.56 1295.41 4.03
2460.00 2.65 57.83 183.28 1324.21 4.16
2500.00 3.84 58.70 188.29 1354.55 5.39
Y.C.Wong 181
2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.14 20.03 0.10 0.88 0.14
120.00 0.41 20.24 0.97 8.51 0.42
180.00 0.56 20.55 2.21 19.25 0.58
240.00 0.72 20.95 3.81 33.19 0.76
300.00 0.80 21.36 5.47 47.56 0.85
360.00 0.72 21.72 6.95 60.25 0.79
420.00 0.72 22.09 8.46 73.24 0.80
480.00 0.75 22.45 9.93 85.80 0.84
540.00 0.71 22.81 11.39 98.24 0.82
600.00 0.61 23.11 12.65 108.97 0.73
660.00 0.68 23.45 14.04 120.70 0.82
720.00 0.69 23.76 15.32 131.48 0.83
780.00 2.18 24.73 19.39 165.61 2.37
840.00 1.65 25.74 23.63 200.80 1.87
900.00 2.04 26.76 27.99 236.58 2.31
960.00 1.72 27.70 32.06 269.64 2.03
1020.00 2.15 28.75 36.60 306.19 2.49
1080.00 2.27 29.83 41.34 343.99 2.65
1140.00 2.31 30.99 46.52 384.78 2.74
1200.00 2.65 32.30 52.37 430.34 3.13
1260.00 2.50 33.56 58.11 474.46 3.03
1320.00 3.13 34.99 64.72 524.58 3.72
1380.00 3.62 36.54 71.97 578.79 4.27
1440.00 3.58 38.09 79.33 632.99 4.30
1500.00 5.34 40.76 92.32 726.77 6.16
1560.00 5.82 43.48 105.86 821.97 6.75
1620.00 5.28 46.05 118.96 911.81 6.31
1680.00 4.68 48.10 129.67 983.66 5.79
1740.00 4.87 50.27 141.17 1059.35 6.07
1800.00 6.11 52.51 153.35 1137.90 7.40
1860.00 4.59 54.11 162.18 1193.81 5.95
1920.00 4.34 55.48 169.88 1241.90 5.75
1980.00 4.02 56.91 177.95 1291.68 5.49
2040.00 3.37 57.99 184.16 1329.55 4.88
2100.00 3.39 58.93 189.63 1362.62 4.94
2160.00 3.36 59.93 195.46 1397.55 4.96
2220.00 3.30 60.85 200.87 1429.70 4.93
2280.00 3.13 61.73 206.11 1460.57 4.80
2340.00 3.29 62.57 211.14 1489.97 5.00
2400.00 3.24 63.42 216.27 1519.71 4.97
2460.00 3.07 64.27 221.43 1549.42 4.84
2500.00 3.00 64.98 225.76 1574.18 4.80
Y.C.Wong 182
2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.15 20.03 0.11 0.97 0.16
120.00 0.41 20.25 1.02 8.88 0.42
180.00 0.56 20.56 2.25 19.66 0.58
240.00 0.74 20.96 3.84 33.47 0.78
300.00 0.78 21.38 5.57 48.36 0.84
360.00 0.77 21.76 7.12 61.71 0.84
420.00 0.73 22.14 8.66 74.94 0.81
480.00 0.76 22.51 10.16 87.78 0.85
540.00 0.68 22.85 11.59 99.90 0.79
600.00 0.70 23.18 12.94 111.39 0.82
660.00 0.71 23.54 14.40 123.76 0.85
720.00 0.72 23.84 15.66 134.33 0.87
780.00 1.90 24.67 19.13 163.39 2.08
840.00 2.11 25.72 23.56 200.18 2.34
900.00 1.91 26.65 27.53 232.84 2.17
960.00 1.99 27.67 31.92 268.54 2.29
1020.00 1.99 28.63 36.08 302.05 2.33
1080.00 2.23 29.74 40.96 340.94 2.61
1140.00 2.37 30.88 45.99 380.67 2.80
1200.00 2.41 32.03 51.15 420.90 2.88
1260.00 2.41 33.27 56.79 464.36 2.93
1320.00 2.66 34.52 62.56 508.25 3.24
1380.00 3.56 35.90 68.97 556.44 4.19
1440.00 3.09 37.31 75.65 605.98 3.77
1500.00 5.93 40.03 88.70 700.89 6.72
1560.00 5.80 42.69 101.86 794.06 6.69
1620.00 5.34 44.92 113.15 872.21 6.33
1680.00 5.78 47.22 125.03 952.69 6.86
1740.00 5.55 49.45 136.82 1030.90 6.72
1800.00 5.28 51.71 149.00 1109.99 6.54
1860.00 4.58 53.38 158.13 1168.27 5.90
1920.00 4.59 54.92 166.69 1222.05 5.98
1980.00 4.17 56.31 174.54 1270.74 5.62
2040.00 2.94 57.47 181.19 1311.51 4.43
2100.00 3.20 58.49 187.08 1347.27 4.74
2160.00 3.18 59.37 192.20 1378.04 4.75
2220.00 3.71 60.46 198.57 1416.07 5.33
2280.00 3.18 61.19 202.92 1441.78 4.82
2340.00 3.05 61.86 206.88 1465.10 4.72
2400.00 3.10 62.64 211.56 1492.40 4.80
2460.00 3.11 63.34 215.76 1516.74 4.84
2500.00 3.29 64.03 219.95 1540.96 5.06
Y.C.Wong 183
2
0.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
60.00 0.19 20.04 0.15 1.33 0.19
120.00 0.46 20.29 1.16 10.12 0.47
180.00 0.62 20.61 2.44 21.25 0.65
240.00 0.84 21.04 4.18 36.40 0.88
300.00 0.75 21.47 5.92 51.41 0.80
360.00 0.77 21.85 7.48 64.86 0.84
420.00 0.79 22.26 9.14 79.02 0.88
480.00 0.83 22.63 10.68 92.20 0.93
540.00 0.64 22.96 12.04 103.77 0.76
600.00 0.75 23.32 13.52 116.33 0.88
660.00 0.75 23.66 14.91 128.04 0.89
720.00 0.67 23.99 16.28 139.53 0.82
780.00 1.52 24.67 19.15 163.62 1.70
840.00 1.92 25.56 22.89 194.68 2.14
900.00 1.48 26.33 26.17 221.68 1.72
960.00 1.89 27.20 29.88 251.96 2.17
1020.00 2.18 28.03 33.47 281.03 2.49
1080.00 1.82 28.83 36.95 309.00 2.16
1140.00 1.94 29.78 41.14 342.39 2.32
1200.00 2.08 30.71 45.27 374.96 2.50
1260.00 2.16 31.64 49.41 407.38 2.62
1320.00 2.31 32.67 54.06 443.37 2.81
1380.00 2.66 33.76 59.05 481.63 3.20
1440.00 2.73 34.94 64.49 522.83 3.32
1500.00 4.39 37.14 74.82 599.87 5.07
1560.00 4.16 39.42 85.74 679.56 4.92
1620.00 3.79 41.24 94.66 743.39 4.63
1680.00 4.35 42.98 103.30 804.15 5.25
1740.00 3.98 44.98 113.43 874.14 4.97
1800.00 3.90 46.68 122.24 933.94 4.95
1860.00 3.02 48.03 129.28 981.09 4.13
1920.00 3.38 49.32 136.08 1026.05 4.54
1980.00 3.41 50.38 141.78 1063.36 4.62
2040.00 3.11 51.32 146.84 1096.14 4.35
2100.00 3.26 52.23 151.79 1127.94 4.54
2160.00 3.15 53.01 156.12 1155.48 4.47
2220.00 2.81 53.78 160.37 1182.40 4.16
2280.00 2.82 54.46 164.16 1206.26 4.19
2340.00 2.51 55.04 167.40 1226.48 3.91
2400.00 2.59 55.64 170.75 1247.33 4.00
2460.00 2.86 56.46 175.41 1276.10 4.32
2500.00 3.92 57.30 180.23 1305.64 5.41
Y.C.Wong 184

30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00 FDS
10.00 CaPaFi
5.00
0.00 Time [s]
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

80.00
60.00
40.00
FDS
20.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

60.00
Total Heatfluxes [kW/m2]
50.00
40.00
30.00
FDS
20.00
10.00 CaPaFi
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00 FDS
5.00 CaPaFi
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 185

8.00
6.00
4.00
FDS
2.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

8.00
6.00
4.00
FDS
2.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

8.00
Total Heatfluxes [kW/m2]
6.00
4.00
FDS
2.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0.00 500.00 1000.00 1500.00 2000.00 2500.00 3000.00
Time [s]

6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
FDS
2.00
1.00 CaPaFi
0.00
0.00 500.00 1000.00 1500.00 2000.00 2500.00 3000.00
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 186
Appendix 26 Data temperatures model 7 (hidden beams)

0 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
60 20.37 20.04 20.57 20.08 20.58 20.03
120 21.09 20.60 21.72 21.08 21.69 20.44
180 22.05 21.64 23.39 22.94 23.21 21.21
240 23.34 23.14 25.23 25.57 24.96 22.32
300 24.64 25.03 27.12 28.84 26.75 23.72
360 25.78 26.86 28.96 32.03 28.39 25.09
420 26.89 28.65 30.77 35.13 30.00 26.42
480 27.90 30.40 32.44 38.15 31.61 27.72
540 28.98 32.10 34.03 41.08 32.94 28.99
600 29.99 33.76 35.59 43.95 34.29 30.23
660 31.10 35.38 37.00 46.73 35.80 31.44
720 32.11 36.96 38.30 49.45 37.07 32.62
780 33.80 38.61 43.21 52.55 38.85 34.23
840 36.45 41.39 48.29 60.53 40.86 40.77
900 38.70 44.09 53.19 68.25 42.58 47.10
960 40.33 46.73 57.80 75.73 44.28 53.25
1020 42.76 49.35 62.88 83.07 46.26 59.24
1080 44.88 52.52 68.24 91.20 48.78 65.53
1140 46.84 56.22 74.27 100.05 51.48 72.07
1200 49.03 60.40 80.78 109.57 54.70 78.85
1260 51.28 65.04 87.72 119.73 58.11 85.85
1320 54.10 70.12 95.65 130.82 61.65 93.05
1380 56.86 75.63 104.93 143.37 65.64 100.52
1440 61.14 81.77 116.21 157.95 69.71 109.13
1500 65.42 88.90 136.55 174.83 89.38 119.38
1560 69.15 100.35 154.28 199.03 107.55 136.96
1620 72.25 108.26 163.20 220.47 115.87 154.19
1680 76.18 114.33 170.71 238.24 123.46 171.01
1740 82.29 120.20 180.88 255.95 129.59 188.66
1800 85.89 126.58 187.43 276.29 135.82 210.04
1860 88.39 131.67 191.50 292.08 139.90 226.96
1920 90.59 135.55 194.53 302.70 143.44 238.77
1980 92.00 138.87 196.22 311.50 146.49 248.96
2040 93.35 141.63 197.22 318.50 148.70 257.49
2100 94.15 143.87 197.60 324.04 150.62 265.08
2160 94.83 145.67 197.29 328.76 152.12 272.54
2220 95.26 147.04 196.18 332.65 153.58 279.89
2280 95.24 147.99 194.91 335.74 155.06 287.55
2340 95.07 148.53 193.59 338.07 156.76 295.78
2400 94.92 148.98 192.67 340.09 158.88 304.55
2460 94.71 149.37 192.87 341.95 163.08 341.01
2500 94.51 149.82 192.48 343.96 163.78 322.80
Y.C.Wong 187

0 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
60 20.34 20.01 20.04 20.00 20.03 20.00
120 21.04 20.10 20.27 20.03 20.24 20.03
180 22.09 20.28 20.64 20.08 20.55 20.08
240 23.29 20.55 21.03 20.15 20.95 20.16
300 24.48 20.89 21.47 20.24 21.36 20.26
360 25.72 21.22 21.88 20.34 21.72 20.36
420 26.90 21.55 22.26 20.43 22.09 20.45
480 27.93 21.87 22.61 20.51 22.45 20.55
540 29.06 22.18 22.99 20.60 22.81 20.64
600 30.17 22.48 23.32 20.68 23.11 20.73
660 31.03 22.78 23.65 20.77 23.45 20.82
720 31.92 23.07 23.98 20.85 23.76 20.90
780 33.28 23.46 24.78 20.94 24.73 21.00
840 34.71 25.04 25.70 21.16 25.74 21.26
900 36.28 26.59 26.56 21.37 26.76 21.51
960 37.75 28.09 27.39 21.58 27.70 21.76
1020 39.27 29.57 28.30 21.78 28.75 22.00
1080 41.13 31.13 29.17 22.02 29.83 22.28
1140 43.27 32.78 30.18 22.29 30.99 22.59
1200 45.72 34.50 31.33 22.58 32.30 22.92
1260 48.46 36.29 32.46 22.91 33.56 23.29
1320 51.02 38.16 33.79 23.25 34.99 23.68
1380 53.82 40.10 35.09 23.63 36.54 24.10
1440 57.07 42.37 36.55 24.05 38.09 24.58
1500 59.56 45.23 38.67 24.55 40.76 25.14
1560 62.47 51.57 40.98 25.30 43.48 26.02
1620 64.43 57.58 42.92 25.96 46.05 26.79
1680 66.18 63.29 44.80 26.52 48.10 27.47
1740 68.12 69.07 46.78 27.08 50.27 28.16
1800 69.59 75.68 48.69 27.73 52.51 28.95
1860 70.63 81.20 50.04 28.25 54.11 29.59
1920 71.87 85.73 51.04 28.65 55.48 30.09
1980 72.77 89.93 52.10 29.00 56.91 30.52
2040 73.85 93.81 53.03 29.30 57.99 30.91
2100 74.85 97.42 53.68 29.57 58.93 31.24
2160 76.40 101.30 54.43 29.81 59.93 31.56
2220 77.38 105.41 55.02 30.03 60.85 31.86
2280 79.05 109.75 55.57 30.22 61.73 32.13
2340 80.42 114.29 56.35 30.40 62.57 32.38
2400 82.55 119.10 57.01 30.57 63.42 32.64
2460 87.57 124.47 57.83 30.74 64.27 32.90
2500 87.88 130.54 58.70 30.91 64.98 33.15
Y.C.Wong 188

t[s] FDS CaPaFi FDS CaPaFi
0 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
60 20.03 20.00 20.04 20.00
120 20.25 20.03 20.29 20.02
180 20.56 20.07 20.61 20.05
240 20.96 20.14 21.04 20.10
300 21.38 20.23 21.47 20.16
360 21.76 20.32 21.85 20.23
420 22.14 20.41 22.26 20.29
480 22.51 20.49 22.63 20.35
540 22.85 20.57 22.96 20.40
600 23.18 20.66 23.32 20.46
660 23.54 20.73 23.66 20.52
720 23.84 20.81 23.99 20.57
780 24.67 20.90 24.67 20.63
840 25.72 21.15 25.56 20.83
900 26.65 21.40 26.33 21.02
960 27.67 21.63 27.20 21.20
1020 28.63 21.87 28.03 21.38
1080 29.74 22.14 28.83 21.58
1140 30.88 22.43 29.78 21.81
1200 32.03 22.75 30.71 22.04
1260 33.27 23.09 31.64 22.30
1320 34.52 23.46 32.67 22.57
1380 35.90 23.85 33.76 22.86
1440 37.31 24.30 34.94 23.20
1500 40.03 24.83 37.14 23.60
1560 42.69 25.68 39.42 24.26
1620 44.92 26.43 41.24 24.86
1680 47.22 27.11 42.98 25.40
1740 49.45 27.79 44.98 25.96
1800 51.71 28.58 46.68 26.60
1860 53.38 29.22 48.03 27.12
1920 54.92 29.72 49.32 27.53
1980 56.31 30.16 50.38 27.90
2040 57.47 30.55 51.32 28.22
2100 58.49 30.89 52.23 28.52
2160 59.37 31.22 53.01 28.80
2220 60.46 31.54 53.78 29.08
2280 61.19 31.84 54.46 29.36
2340 61.86 32.12 55.04 29.63
2400 62.64 32.41 55.64 29.90
2460 63.34 32.70 56.46 30.19
2500 64.03 32.99 57.30 30.47
Y.C.Wong 189

200.00
Tempearture [oC]
150.00
100.00
FDS
50.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

400.00
Temperature [oC]
300.00
200.00
FDS
100.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

400.00
Temperature [oC]
300.00
200.00
FDS
100.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

150.00
Temperature [oC]
100.00
FDS
50.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 190

80.00
Temperature [oC]
60.00
40.00
FDS
20.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time [s]

80.00
Temperatture [oC]
60.00
40.00
FDS
20.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time[s]

80.00
Temperature [oC]
60.00
40.00
FDS
20.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

80.00
Temperrature [oC]
60.00
40.00
FDS
20.00
CaPaFi
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 191
Appendix 27 Comparison heat fluxes model 6 and 7

The data used for the graphs are presented in the previous appendices.

30
25
20
10 Without Obstacles (M7)
5
CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

80
60
20 Without obstacles (M7)

CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

60
50
40
10
CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 192

25
20
15
With obstacles (M6)
10
Without obstacles (M7)
5
CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

8

CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
8

2
CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 193

8

CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

6

CaPaFi
1
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 194
Appendix 28 Comparison temperature model 6 and 7

The data used for the graphs are presented in the previous appendices.

160
140
Temperature [oC]
120
100
With obstacles (M6)
80
60
40 With obstacles Side (M6)
20 CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

400
350
Temperature [oC]
300
250
With obstacles (M6)
200
150
50 CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Axis Title

350
300
Temperature [oC]
250
50 CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 195

140
120
Temperature [oC]
100
20 CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

70
60
Temperature [oC]
50
10 CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

70
60
Temperature [oC]
50
10 CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 196

70
60
Temperature [oC]
50
10 CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]

70
60
Temperature [oC]
50
10 CaPaFi
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [s]
Y.C.Wong 197

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STEEL STRUCTURE IN AN

OPEN CAR PARK

The influence of trapped smoke on the fire

Delft University of Delft

This thesis has been carried out in cooperation with

Name: Ir.R. Abspoel

Name: Dr.ir. A.F. Hamerlinck

Name: Ir. R.A.P. van Herpen

Name: Ir. A.D. Lemaire

Name: Dr.ir. K.C. Terwel

Name: Ir.L.J.M. Houben

At last, information about each chapter is given:

§5.3 Software ............................................................................................................................ 33

Latin case letters

Am Perimeter of the area that is heated of the member [m]

Greek case letters

Figure 1 Sketch of the problem

§1.5. Preconditions and assumptions of the study

The preconditions are as followed:

Assumptions that are made:

- There are only normal sized cars 1

§1.6 Research strategy

 CaPaFi version 2.1

Figure 2 Flow chart of the research methodology

Chapter 2 The car park

§2.2 The car park

A) An enclosed (closed) or integrated car park

B) An open car park

§2.3 The layout of the car park

W - Width of the aisle

P2 - Depth of the double parking stroke

- Direction of the car flow

For parking straight the minimum width of

Figure 5 Deep double parking [3]

B1 – The length of the parking unit (one side)

Figure 8 Columns layout -1 [3] Figure 9 Column layout -2 [3]

In Figure 8 the columns placed in the

X Figure 10 Column layout-3 [3]

§2.4 The floor systems in a car park

The different floor systems are briefly explained [12]:

1) Concrete hollow core slabs

2) Composite decks/ slabs

3) Precast concrete planks

Figure 14 Floor system car park

Figure 16 Car Park “Medimall” Figure 18 Car Park “Q-Park Tilburg”

After visiting some open car parks in the

Combining what was found in previous

Chapter 3 Fire and smoke

§3.2 Localized fire and a compartment fire

To have a fire there are 3 components necessary:

A) The fuel (combustible material)

Figure 19 The fire triangle [http://www.academyfire.com/extinguisherguide.html]

A compartment fire can be described in 3 phases which is shown Figure 20 [28]:

Figure 20 The temperature- time curve of a fire

Figure 21 Measured temperature of gasses (fire) [4]

T= 20+ 345*log (8*t+1) Eq. (1)

§3.3 The combustible material

Table 2 Definition of the European cars [4]

From [1], the following can be said:

Table 4 Cars in Full-scale Fire Experiment at VTT of 1994 [32]

Test no. Car model Mass before fire without

Table 5 Fuel tank features [32]

Test Fuel tank Filler pipe Fuel hose to engine

T= 20+ 345log (8t+1) Eq. (1)