Module 17 –PROPELLER

CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS

MODULE 17

SUB MODULE 17.1

FUNDAMENTALS

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Contents Page
Introduction.............................................................................. 2
Propeller Principles – The Aerofoil .......................................... 4
Propeller Blade Description ..................................................... 6
Propeller Theory.................................................................... 11
Slip ........................................................................................ 19
Forces Acting On Propellers.................................................. 31
Vibration And Critical Range ................................................. 37

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“The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up to
date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.

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INTRODUCTION Power to rotate an aircraft’s propeller blades is provided by the

engine. On low-horsepower piston-type engines, the propeller is
The earliest concept of the use of a turbine engine in aircraft was
mounted on a shaft that is usually an extension of the
for the turbine to drive the propeller. Turbojet engines showed so
crankshaft. On high-horsepower engines, such as a turboprop
much promise that some believed they would make propellers
engine, the propeller is mounted on a propeller shaft driven by a
obsolete. Fortunately, this has proven to be untrue. Turboprop
turbine through a reduction gearbox. In either case, the engine
powerplants fill an important place between turbojet or turbofan
rotates the aerofoils of the blades through the air at high speeds,
engines and reciprocating engines. They combine the high
and the propeller transforms the rotary power of the engine into
propulsive efficiency with the low weight and high time between
thrust.
overhauls of the turbine engine.
The gas-turbine engine in combination with a reduction gear
assembly and a propeller has been in use for many years, and
has proved to be a most efficient power source for aircraft
operating at speeds of 300 to 450 mph [482.70 to 724.05 km/h].
These engines provide the best specific fuel consumption of any
gas-turbine engine, and they perform well from sea level to
comparatively high altitudes (over 20,000 ft [6096 m]). At higher
speeds and altitudes, the efficiency of the propeller deteriorates
rapidly because of the development of shock waves on the blade
tips.
Although various names have been applied to gas-turbine
engine/propeller combinations, the most widely used name is
turboprop. Another popular name is ‘propjet’.
The whole purpose of a propeller is to provide the thrust required
to move the aircraft forward. The aircraft propeller consists of 2
or more blades and a central hub to which the blades are
attached. Each blade of an aircraft propeller is essentially a
rotating wing. As a result of their construction, propeller blades
produce forces that create thrust to pull or push the aeroplane
through the air.

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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL
PROPELLER PRINCIPLES – THE AEROFOIL
The aerofoil is a particular streamlined shape which, when
moving through the atmosphere, will produce a force
approximately at right angles to the direction of movement.
When the aerofoil is the wing of an aircraft, we call the force
produced ‘lift’, but when the aerofoil is the blade of a propeller
we call this force ‘thrust’. It is the thrust produced by the
propeller that moves the aircraft forward and the lift of the wings
that support the aircraft in the air. A typical aerofoil is shown in
Figure 17.01.
When an aerofoil moves through the air its special streamlined
shape causes a particular airflow pattern to develop. Air passing
over the curved aerofoil surface is caused to increase in velocity
relative to the velocity of the air flowing over the flat surface and,
as a consequence, the pressure of the air over the curved
surface is reduced relative to the pressure of the air flowing over
the flat surface. This relative change in pressure creates a
resultant net force as shown in Figure 17.02.
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Only the air that passes over the curved and flat surfaces will
exhibit relative changes in velocity and pressure, and the air that
is some distance in front of the leading edge will remain
undisturbed.
Since the propeller blade and the wing of an aeroplane are
similar in shape, each propeller blade may be considered as a
rotating wing. It is true that it is a small wing that has been
reduced in length, width and thickness, but it is still a wing in
shape. At one end this small wing is shaped into a shank, thus
forming a propeller blade.
When the blade starts rotating, air flows around the blade just as
it flows around the wing of an aeroplane, except that the wing,
which is approximately horizontal, is lifted upward, whereas the
blade is ‘lifted’ forward. Figure 17.03 shows the typical aerofoil
section of a propeller.
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Curved or cambered
Top surface

Leading
edge

Trailing
edge

Flat
undersurface

Fig 17.01

Fig 17.03

Fig 17.02

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PROPELLER BLADE DESCRIPTION COMPARISON OF AEROFOIL AND BLADE FORCES

The identification of the various parts of the propeller blade are The illustrations in Figure 17.05 below show the comparison
shown in Figure 17.04. between the aerodynamic forces generated from an aircraft
aerofoil and from a propeller blade.

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Fig 17.04

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Fig 17.05

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PRODUCING THRUST
The propeller has a number of blades of an aerofoil shape that
will produce thrust when the propeller turns and the blades move
through the air. The low pressure created in front of the blades
attracts more air towards the propeller and this in turn is thrown
rearwards by the movement of the blades until the propeller is
moving a column of air towards the rear (Figure 17.06). The
amount of useful thrust produced by a propeller depends upon
the amount of air that the propeller can move and the increase in
velocity that it can add to the moving air mass.

From the equation: Force = mass x acceleration

Thrust = m [v2 – v1]

Where:
m = mass airflow
v2 = velocity of the propeller wake
v1 = velocity of the aircraft
Compared with a jet engine, the mass airflow of the propeller is
large and the increase in velocity small.

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Fig 17.06

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PROPELLER THEORY The blade element theory considers a propeller blade to be

made of an infinite number of aerofoil sections, with each section
The thrust produced by a propeller blade is determined by five
located a specific distance from the axis of rotation of the
things:
propeller. Each blade can be marked off in one inch segments
- The shape of the aerofoil section known as blade stations. The cross section of each blade station
- The area of the aerofoil section will show that the low-speed aerofoils are used near the hub and
high-speed aerofoils towards the tip. By using the blade element
- The angle of attack theory, a propeller designer can select the proper aerofoil
- The density of the air section and pitch angle to provide the optimum thrust distribution
along the blade.
- The speed the aerofoil is moving through the air

There are two aspects of the overall theory that explain the
operation of a propeller:
- The momentum theory
- The blade-element theory

The momentum theory considers a propeller blade an aerofoil

that, when rotated by the engine, produces a pressure
differential between its back and face which accelerates and
deflects the air. The amount of thrust is determined by the
change in momentum of air passing through the propeller,
multiplied by the area of the propeller disc. The amount of thrust
produced depends on the aerofoil shape, RPM and angle of
attack of the propeller blade sections.

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PITCH DISTRIBUTION
The pitch distribution (blade twist), as shown in fig Figure 17.07,
and the change in aerofoil shape along the length of the blade is
necessary, because each section moves through the air at a
different velocity, with the slowest speeds near the hub and the
highest speeds near the tip.
To illustrate the difference in the speed of aerofoil sections at a
fixed RPM, consider the 3 blade stations indicated on the
propeller shown in Figure 17.08. If the propeller is rotating at
1800 RPM, the 18-inch station will travel 9.42 feet per revolution
(193 mph), while the 36-inch station will travel 18.84 feet per
revolution or 385 mph. And the 48-inch station will move 25.13
feet per revolution, or 514 mph.
The aerofoil that gives the best lift at 193 mph is inefficient at
514 mph. Thus the aerofoil is changed gradually along the length
of the blade. This progressive change in blade angle ensures
that the angle of attack remains constant along the total length of
the blade.

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Fig 17.08
Fig 17.07

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BLADE ANGLE
Technically, the blade angle is defined as the angle between the
face or chord of a particular blade section and the plane in which
the propeller blades rotate. Figure 17.09. illustrates a 4-bladed
propeller (only 2 blades are shown for simplicity) indicating the
blade angle, plane of rotation, blade face, longitudinal axis and
the nose of the aeroplane.
In order to obtain thrust, the propeller blade must be set at a
certain angle to its plane of rotation, in the same manner that the
wing of an aeroplane is set at an angle to its forward path. While
the propeller is rotating in forward flight, each section of the
blade has a motion that combines the forward movement of the
aeroplane with the circular or rotary movement of the propeller.
Therefore, any section of the blade has a path through the air
that is shaped like a spiral or a corkscrew, as shown in Figure
17.10.
The amount of bite (amount of air) taken by each blade is
determined by its blade angle, as shown in Figure 17.11.
An imaginary point on a section near the tip of the blade traces
the largest spiral, a point on a section midway along the blade
traces a smaller spiral and a point on the section near the shank
of the blade traces the smallest spiral of all. In one turn of the
blade, all sections move forward the same distance, but the
sections near the tip of the blade move a greater circular
distance than the sections near the hub. Four-bladed
Fig 17.09propeller.
Fig 16.29

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Fig 17.11
Fig 17.10

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PROPELLER PITCH
If the spiral paths made by various points on sections of the A propeller with a blade angle of 14° at the 42-inch station has a
blades are traced, with the sections at their most effective geometric pitch of 65.9 inches.
angles, then each individual section must be designed and
Geometric Pitch = Tan pitch angle x 2 π r
constructed so that the angles gradually decrease towards the
tip of the blade and increase towards the shank. This gradual
change of blade section angles is called pitch distribution and = Tan 14° x 6.28 x 42
accounts for the pronounced twist of the propeller blade.
= 0.25 x 6.28 x 42
GEOMETRIC PITCH
= 65.9 inches
Since the pitch angle of a propeller blade varies along its length,
a particular blade station must be chosen to specify the pitch of a
blade. This is normally done by specifying the angle and the
blade station, e.g. 14° at the 42-inch station.
EFFECTIVE PITCH
Rather than using blade angles at a reference station, some
propeller manufacturers express pitch in inches at 75% of the The effective pitch is the actual distance the aeroplane moves
radius. This is the geometric pitch, or the distance this particular forward during one revolution (360°) of the propeller in flight.
element would move forward in one revolution along a helix, or ‘Pitch’ is not a synonym for ‘blade angle’ but the two terms are
spiral, equal to its blade angle. commonly used interchangeably because they are so closely
related. Figure 17.12. shows two different pitch positions. The
black aerofoil drawn across the hub of each represents the cross
The geometric pitch is found by the formula: section of the propeller to illustrate the blade setting.
Geometric Pitch = Tan pitch angle x 2 π r When there is a small blade angle, there is a low pitch and the
aeroplane does not move very far forward in one revolution of
Where: Tan pitch angle = the tangent of the pitch angle
the propeller. When there is a large blade angle, there is a high
2π = a constant, 6.28 pitch and the aeroplane moves further forward during a single
revolution of the propeller.
r = radius of the blade element (blade station)

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Fig 17.12

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SLIP
Slip is defined as the difference between the geometric pitch and
the effective pitch of a propeller (Figure 17.13). It may be
expressed as percentage of the mean geometric pitch or as a
linear dimension.

Geometric pitch – advance per revolution

Slip = x 100 %
Geometric pitch

If a propeller has a pitch of 50 inches, in theory, it should move

forward 50 inches in one revolution. But, if the aircraft actually
moves forward only 35 inches in one revolution, then the
effective pitch and the propeller is 70% effective.
Although the terms blade angle and pitch are often used to
express the same thing, pitch will vary relative to the forward
speed of the aircraft, whereas blade angle can be locked in any
position regardless of forward speed. Figure 17.14 compares the
advance per revolution (effective pitch) with the geometric pitch,
in relation to aircraft forward speed and propeller rotation.

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Fig 17.13

Fig 17.14

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THE ANGLE OF ATTACK

An aerofoil encourages a smooth airflow when it moves through
the atmosphere but it becomes a thrust producer only when it is
inclined at an angle to the airflow (Figure 17.15). The angle at
which the aerofoil strikes the air is called the angle of attack: the
best results are obtained when this angle is about 4°.
Thrust produced by a propeller, in the same way as lift produced
by a wing, is determined by the blades angle of attack. Angle of
attack relates to the blade pitch angle, but it is not a fixed angle.
It varies with the forward speed of the aircraft and the RPM of
the engine. As shown in Figure 17.16, any change in the forward
or rotational velocities alter the angle of attack. An increase in
forward velocity decreases the angle of attack and an increase in
rotational velocity increases the angle of attack.

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Fig 17.15

Fig 17.16

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EQUIVALENT SHAFT HORSE POWER
One horsepower is equal to 33,000 foot pounds of work done
per minute, which is the same as 550 foot pounds per second or
375 mile pounds per hour. Shaft horsepower (shp), is the
horsepower delivered to the propeller shaft and can be
calculated using the formula:
shp = actual propeller rpm x torque x K
Where K is the torque-meter constant (K = 2 π ÷ 33,000)
With a turboprop engine, some jet velocity is left at the jet nozzle
(net thrust developed at the engine exhaust) after the turbines
have extracted the required energy for driving the compressor,
reduction gear and accessories etc. This velocity can be
calculated as net thrust (Fn), that also aids in propelling the
aircraft. If shaft horsepower and net thrust are added together, a
new term, ‘equivalent shaft horsepower’ (eshp) results. However
the net thrust must be converted to equivalent horsepower.
Under static conditions, one shp is approx. equal to 2.5 lbs of
thrust.
In flight, the eshp considers the thrust produced by the propeller,
which is found by multiplying the net thrust in pounds by the
speed of the aircraft in mph. Divide this by 375 times the
propeller efficiency, which is considered to be 80%.
Fn x v
eshp (flight) = shp +
375 x η
where: v = aircraft speed (mph)
η = propeller efficiency; an industry standard of 80%
375 = a constant; mile pounds per hour for one horsepower
Example: Find the equivalent shaft horsepower produced by a
turboprop aircraft that has the following specifications:
Airspeed = 260 mph
Shaft horsepower indicated on the cockpit gauge = 525 shp
Net thrust = 195 lbs

The formula for calculating eshp is: Fn x v

Fn eshp (flight) = shp +
eshp (static) = shp + 375 x η
2.5
195 x 260
eshp (flight) = 525 +
375 x η

= 525 + 169 = 694

Under these conditions, the engine is producing 694 eshp

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PROPELLER EFFICIENCY The efficiency of the propeller is the ratio of the thrust
horsepower to the shaft horsepower:
The thrust horsepower is the actual amount of horsepower that
an engine-propeller unit transforms into thrust. This is less than Thrust horsepower
the shaft horsepower developed by the engine, since the
Propeller efficiency = X 100
propellers are never 100% efficient. Propeller efficiency varies
shaft horsepower
from approx. 50% to 90% depending on how much the propeller
‘slips’. Example: The drag on an aircraft travelling at 200 mph is
1125 lbs. The engine produces 750 shp. Calculate the propeller
Some of the work performed by the engine is lost in the
efficiency (one hp = 375 mile pounds per hour).
production of noise. Normally, about half of the noise made by
the propeller-driven engine is made by the propeller itself. When In level flight, drag is equal to thrust
the propeller blade tips approach the speed of sound, vibrations
are produced that cause the noise. When the blades operate in
the transonic range, they not only produce noise, but the drag
becomes excessive and the efficiency drops off dramatically. For
the propeller disc to be as large as possible while keeping the
tips below the speed of sound, most high-powered engines are
geared so the propeller turns slower than the engine driveshaft.
The maximum propeller efficiency that has been obtained in
practice under the most ideal conditions, using conventional
engines and propellers, has been only about 92%. And, in order
to obtain this efficiency, it has been necessary to use thin
aerofoil sections near the tips of the blades and very sharp
leading and trailing edges.
Since the efficiency of any machine is the ratio of the useful
power output to the power input, propulsive efficiency is the ratio
of thrust horsepower [work done by propeller] to shaft
horsepower [work done by engine]. The usual symbol for
propulsive efficiency is the Greek letter η (eta).

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POWER ABSORPTION
When engine power is changed into thrust by the propeller, the
drag or torque created by the propeller being forced through the
air limits the engine speed. For maximum efficiency, the
propeller must be able to absorb all the engine power available.
Power can be absorbed by propeller design but each method
used has its limitations and a compromise has to be made for
the final propeller design.

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NUMBER OF BLADES
The number of blades has been an option for propeller
engineers. The logical choice for fixed pitch wood and forged-
metal propellers is two blades, that have the advantage of ease
of construction and balancing, low manufacturing cost and
efficient operation.
When more thrust is needed the blade area can be increased by
lengthening the blades, but only to a point at which the tip
speeds approach the speed of sound, or if tip clearance from the
structure or ground is a factor. To keep the blades short, more
blades can be used. Three and four-bladed fixed pitch propellers
have been constructed, but usually, propellers with more than 2
blades are made so their pitch can be adjusted. Some modern
propellers have 4, 5 or 6 blades; and Propfan and Unducted Fan
propellers have as many as 12.

SOLIDITY
Solidity is calculated at the blade master station which is about
0.7 of the blade length from root to tip.

The greater the solidity, the greater the power which can be
absorbed by the propeller. Figure 17.17 shows the disc area
swept by the propeller.

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Fig 17.17

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FORCES ACTING ON PROPELLERS THRUST BENDING FORCE

The propeller is one of the most highly stressed components in Thrust bending force is caused by the aerodynamic lift produced
an aeroplane, and 5 basic forces act on a propeller turning at by the aerofoil shape of the blade as it moves through the air
high speed. These are: (Figure 17.19). It tries to bend the blade forward and the force is
at its greatest near the tip. Centrifugal force, trying to pull the
- Centrifugal force
blade out straight, opposes some of the thrust bending force.
- Thrust bending force
- Torque bending force
- Aerodynamic turning moment (ATM)
- Centrifugal turning moment (CTM)
Note: ATM and CTM may also be referred to as Aerodynamic
Twisting Force (ATF) and Centrifugal Twisting Force (CTF).

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Centrifugal force puts the greatest stress on a propeller as it tries
to pull the blades out of the hub (Figure 17.18). It is not
uncommon for the centrifugal force to be several thousand times
the weight of the blade. For example, a 25 pound propeller blade
turning at 2700 RPM may exert a force of 50 tons (100,000
pounds) on the blade root.

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Fig 17.18 Fig 17.19

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TORQUE BENDING FORCE

Torque bending force tries to bend a propeller blade in its plane
of rotation opposite to the direction of the rotation (Figure 17.20).

AERODYNAMIC TURNING MOMENT

Centrifugal force, thrust bending force, and torque bending force
require a propeller to be strong and heavy, and they serve no
useful function. But 2 twisting forces are useful in the pitch
change mechanism of controllable pitch propellers.
Aerodynamic Turning Moment (ATM) tries to increase the blade
angle. The axis of rotation of a blade is near the centre of its
chord line, and the centre of pressure is between the axis and
the leading edge. Figure 17.21 shows how the aerodynamic
force acting through the centre of pressure ahead of the axis of
rotation tries to rotate the blade to a higher pitch angle.

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Fig 17.21
Fig 17.20

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CENTRIFUGAL TURNING MOMENT

Centrifugal Turning Moment (CTM) tries to decrease the blade
angle. As the propeller turns, centrifugal force acts on all the
blade components and tries to force them to rotate in the same
plane as the blade’s axis of rotation. This rotates the blade to a
lower-pitch angle. CTM opposes ATM, but its effect is greater,
and the net result of the twisting forces is a force that tries to
move the blades to a lower pitch (Figure 17.22).
Many controllable-pitch propellers have counterweights that are
on arms clamped around the blade shank, and provide a
Counterweight Turning Moment that opposes the CTM. The
centrifugal effect is to try to move the counterweights into the
plane of rotation and, therefore, the blades towards coarse pitch.
Unless a propeller is balanced so that each blade produces the
same centrifugal force, aerodynamic forces and CTM, then
severe vibration will occur. Therefore, each propeller is
subjected to a comprehensive balancing process before it can
be fitted to the engine of an aircraft.

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Fig 17.22

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VIBRATION AND CRITICAL RANGE ASYMMETRIC EFFECT

When a propeller produces thrust, aerodynamic and mechanical
forces are present which cause the blade to vibrate. If this is not
compensated for in the design, this vibration may cause
excessive flexing and work-hardening of the metal and may even
result in sections of the propeller blade breaking off in flight.
Aerodynamic forces cause vibrations at the tip of a blade where
the effects of transonic speeds cause buffeting and vibration.
With an aircraft in a nose up attitude (high angle of attack) and in
straight flight, the axis of the propeller will be inclined upwards to
the direction of flight. This causes the down moving blade to
have a greater effective angle of attack than the up going blade
and, therefore, develops a greater thrust. (Figures 17.23a and
17.23b).

GYROSCOPIC EFFECT
A rotating propeller has the properties of a gyro. If the plane of
rotation is changed, a moment will be produced at right angles to
the applied moment. For example, if an aircraft with a right
handed propeller (clockwise rotation viewed from rear) is yawed
to the right, it will experience a nose down pitching moment due
to the gyroscopic effect of the propeller. Similarly, if the aircraft is
pitched nose up it will experience a yaw to the right. On most
aircraft the gyroscope effects are small and easily controlled.

Rev. 00 37 17.1
Oct 2006 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS

Fig 17.23a

Fig 17.23b

Rev. 00 38 17.1
Oct 2006 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS

Student Notes

Rev. 00 39 17.1
Oct 2006 For Training Purposes Only