Network topologies

Topology: Is the layout of the connections formed

between computers. In some computers a single
computer is designated as the control computer or
server. To some extent the reliability and efficiency
of a network depends on its topology or structure.

Bus network: If the computers are all attached to one

single cable we call that a broadcast buses. Such a
topology is the bus network topology. Messages are
sent along the bus. The connected computers can hear
the message and determine whether it is for them or
not. A bus network is commonly used in LANs. In
this network the failure of one computer does not
affect the performance of the rest of the network.
Computers can be added or removed from the
network.

STAR Networks: When all communications must go

through a central point, we call that topology as a star
topology. A good example is the telephone-switching
computer in the office. To call someone you pick up
your phone receiver and dial. Your phone attached to
the central switch communicates to that switch to
which it is that you are trying to communicate. The
conversation is between you and the other party but
connection must go through the central switch. State-
of-the-art switching computers are called PBXs. They
can handle medium speed comm. between computers
at 64kbps.

It has a server at its center. All messages must go

through the server. When a message is going through
from one computer to another, it is first sent to the
server, which then retransmits the message to its
destination.

In all star topologies, when communication between

nodes is to occur, a complete circuit is dedicated to
the connection for the duration of the call.

A star network is vulnerable only if the server fails. If

this happens the entire network does not work. It is
reasonably easy to add or remove computers from a
star network.

RING NETWORKS: In a ring network, the

computers and peripheral devices are arranges so that
the communication links connect the components in a
ring. In this structure, any computer can comm. With
any other by sending a signal around the ring. Each
message is tagged with the destination. As the
message proceeds around the ring, each computer
determines whether it is the recipient of the message.
If not the message is sent to the next computer.

Now they are like broadcast buses, but the media

interconnecting the machines makes a complete loop.
Each station takes active role in transferring the
messages. They are highly vulnerable. If single
computer fails atleast a portion of the network will
not work. Another problem with ring network is that
it is difficult to change its structure. Extensive
rewiring has to be done to add or remove computers
within this network.

HYBRID NETWORKS: They are part ring part star,

and part bus. They are common in very large
networks.
Here again we can have Multidrop or Mesh or loop
or ring network.

Multidrop: Connect all devices to a single

meandering set of links. These are inexpensive full
time networks, but loss of service at any point will
deny access to those further links.

Mesh, LOOP or RING : networks permit any two

devices within the network to communicate directly.
This type of configuration is very dependable, since it
provides multiple routes into and out of reach
location.
They Form an endless loop, they are relatively
inexpensive, and can provide an alternate route in
case of loss of service at a given point.

Communication techniques within networks:

Each network structure has rules that define how and

when a computer may send a message and how the
message is received by the destination.

A star network generally uses some form of

addressing scheme. Each message has an address on
it. The server examines the address and sends the
message to its destination. If there are many
messages for a single destination, the server form a
waiting line, or queue, of messages. In some systems,
messages have various levels of priority and high
priority messages can move to the front queue, ahead
of other low-priority messages.

Bus and ring network have no server to direct traffic,

so some other scheme must be used to keep order in
the network. Two common schemes are carrier-
sensed multiple access (CSMA) and token passing.
In CSMA network, a computer that wants to send a
message listens to the line. If it hears no traffic, it
begins sending. There are two problems with the
CSMA sceme. First long messages may monopolize
the network for long periods of time. Second two
computers may start transmitting at the same time,
causing a collision between the two signals. Breaking
long messages into smaller messages called packets
generally solves the first problem. Each packet has
address information tells the receiver where it fits
within the longer message. Once a packet has been
transmitted, the other computers have a chance to
grab the network.
The problem of collision is handled by having each
computer wait a random length of time and try
retransmitting the message.

TOKEN passing is an alternative to CSMA. In this

scheme, a collection of bits called a token is passed in
a certain order, among the computers in the network.
The computer currently holding the token has the
right to send the message over the network. If it
doesn’t have any message it passes the token to the
next computer. If the message is long again here it
has to broken to packets since the time for which it
can hold a token is limited in some networks.
LAN COMPONENTS

P
C

PRINTER
 LAN COMPONENTS
• Workstation
• Shared peripherals
• The network operating system
• Several distinct components like- file server, workstation active
hub, passive hub, network interface and LAN cables etc.

Every computer on the LAN is either a stand-alone computer, file server or a

gateway.

Media- coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. Media is the term that
refers to the LAN components that carry the communication
signals between computers. The communication is transmitted by
means of electric signals.

Workstation: This is the most common component of a LAN. A

workstation is a single user microcomputer with communications
capabilities added. Term includes the microcomputer as well as its
attached pieces like floppy disk drives, hard disks and printers. A
workstation is distinguished from a personal computer by the
network operating systems software that controls what the
workstation can do and what it cannot and by a network interface
unit that supplies the communication capabilities.

A workstation must allow a LAN interface board to be plugged in

to the motherboard. Every workstation has the network interface
card or unit (NIC or NIU) which is the hardware interface between
network and a workstation.
 A workstation can send and receive messages from other
workstations or file server. Every workstation will run
memory resident software called a workstation shell, which
is the software interface between the server and
workstation.

Workstations divided into two types:

User
Servers

Users have a primary responsibility to the individual user.

They cannot fulfill request from other workstations.
Resources attached to the user are only for that user.

Whereas a server resources can be shared by all users of the

Network.

Server workstations can be of two types

Dedicated: This server is restricted to network functions.

Have more powerful capabilities than other workstations.
It cannot be used as a user workstation. Thus increase in
overall system cost, but it can handle network support
features like mails and multiple hard disks, provides faster
system response. These are usually chosen for larger
networks

Non-dedicated server: Here the server also acts a user

sometimes and has the capacity to perform server
functions. Network operation usually requires 1MB of
memory. So under light load, performance of a non-
dedicated server may slightly be less than that of a
workstation.

NOTE: Some network are capable of operating in both

dedicated and non-dedicated mode , depending on the
user’s selection.

FILE SERVER: File server is a powerful computer which

runs special software to act as a file server.
Its functions:

• Serves the files to networked computers

• Completely enclosed logical structure to prevent any
abuse of data.
• Has comparatively larger volume of memory used for
caching directories and files.
• It’s a resource that should be available to all
workstations at all time.

PRINT server: In some cases a separate workstation is

dedicated to serve a print server, which queues the print
request according to priority and thus maks it appear to
each workstation as if the printer is local to that WS only.
GATEWAY: Acts a bridge between two LANs. It assists in
transferring bits from one LAN to the other. A LAN may
also be connected to another Mainframe through a gateway.
Network adapter cards are inserted into both the types of
LANs and special set of programs transfers the bits from
one LAN to the other.

Gateway:
LANs may have component called gateway.
Suppose the sales department in a particular
organization installed its LAN several years
ago. Today the organization’s accounting
department wants to install a LAN but it wants
to use the latest technology. The hardware will
be different, but now the two depts. Want their
LANs to communicate with each other. They
can connect the two different LANs with a
special component called a gateway (also
called bridge).
The gateway assists in transferring bits from
one LAN to the other. A workstation is
dedicated to act as a gateway. Network adapter
cards for both types of LANs are inserted in the
machine, and a special set of Novell programs
transfer the bits from one LAN to the other. A
LAN can also be connected to another
mainframe computer by a gateway. A server
can also act as the bridge by installing a card
from both the old and the new LANs. This
eliminates the need to tie up a workstation.
Network Interface Unit: The network interface
unit is a microprocessor based device
containing hardware and software which
supply the intelligence to control access to and
communications across the network and to
perform all communications processing. It is
the means by which the workstations are
connected functionally and physically to the
network.
Depending on the vendor it may be called the
network interface card, network adapter or
network interface unit.
Through the network interface, data on the
medium is available to all attached
workstations and peripherals. System users
never need to know what it takes to get from
one point to another, they simply indicate the
desired destination.
Two parts of the network interface can be
identified
• The communication interface.
containing the network oriented functions
• The host interface, containing computer
specific functions.

The communication interface is the unit, which

logically interfaces to the network. It performs
all transmission-related functions. It accepts
the data from the attached workstation, buffers
the data until the communication channel is
available and then transmits the data. The
communications interface also monitors the
channel for messages addressed to its
workstation stores the data and transfers the
data to the device.

The host interface supplies the connection

between a specific workstation’s internal
circuitry and the communications interface
unit. It fits into the input/output structure of a
particular computer and governs all data
exchange between the workstation and the
communications-oriented portion of the
network interface.
ACTIVE HUB : An active hub is a powered
distribution point with active devices which drive
distant nodes up to 1 Km away. Active hubs can be
cascades to connect 8 connections to which passive
hubs, file servers or another active hub can be
connected. The maximum distance covered by an
active hub is about 2000 ft.

PASSIVE HUB: As the name suggests it is a passive

distribution point which does not use power or active
devices in a network to connect up to 4 nodes within
a very short distance. The maximum distance covered
by a passive hub is about feet.

LAN CABLE: LAN uses coaxial cable RG-62. This

is a relatively superior cable that allows for base band
transmission. The cable is capable is transferring up
to 10 MBPS. Special end connectors are used to
interface card or hubs.

The advantages of the coaxial cable are:

• Wider band width
• Interference resistant
• High conductivity without distortion.
• Longer distances covered
 New technologies are making inroad in the
traditional interconnection techniques. One
commercially important new technology is fibre
optics. Flashes of very pure light do Signaling in this
medium.

NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM

Unifying all the LAN components is the LAN
operating system. The LAN OS is the S/W that
facilitates file and print serving, as well as ordinary
communications between workstations such as
electronic mail. There are two popular OS Novell
Advanced NetWare and PC network program.

Each provides its services transparently to the user.

Which means the user spends no extra effort in
retrieving data from a file or to print a file over the
LAN

The typical features of Network OS S/W:

1. 26 logical drives can be mapped
2. elevator seeking disk access algorithm
3. directory hashing
4. disk file caching
5. file/record locking
6. system fault tolerance
7. transaction tracking system
8. LAN security system
9. Printer spooling
10. On-line HELP
11. Menu utilities
12. Simple DOS-like operating system commands

The major task of a server is running the network OS.

Network performance is directly dependent on the
quality of the network OS that manages the shared
resources of the network. Like a computer OS the
network OS constantly governs and monitors
network activities.

In most LANs the Network OS exists in conjunction

with the computer’s O. When a request is made
locally then the immediate OS of that workstation
responds, whereas if the request is made that requires
network resources or network activities, it is passed
to the network S?W for processing.

It also :
Control access to data
Allocates disk space
&
Controls sharing of printers.
SHARING DATA:
Now in a single user environment the request for
data is handled simply by opening the file and
retrieving the data.
But in a network environment there should be some
mechanism to synchronize various users attempting
to access the data at the same time.

FILE AND RECORD LOCKING:

File locking restricts use of a whole file to one user
at a time. When a file is accessed, the program sets a
flag or marker. Flag consist of bytes of data that are
stored along with file names in a table on disk or in
memory. Thus the OS rejects further request till the
flag is on and then resets the flag once the job is over.

Alternatively the system may simply post a notice

that a particular file is in use. Users are responsible
for controlling their own use of a file.

RECORD LOCKING: restricts use of of record in a

file to one user at a time.
• It could also be multi user locking
• Read all and write one locking
• May be implemented through specifically designed
S/w to run on a network.
DISK SPACE ALLOCATION:

• In LAN several users share the hard disk

• It could mean dividing the hard disk so that each
user owns a portion
• Allocation of disk space is fixed
• Disadvantage is we cannot share all the files

In newer LANs, hard disks are divided into volumes

The portion of total network disk space that is to be

devoted to particular task or set of users is controlled.

• A pubic volume contains data that may be read by

all network users. These files are write protected.
Several users can access the data simultaneously.
• Shared volumes contain files that are available to a
defined group of users.(May both read and write)
• Private volumes contain personal or confidential
data. Access is restricted to the creator.
• Each volume contain number of subdirectories.
Access privileges to the volume and to the
individual subdirectories are defined so that a user
can be granted access to precisely that data.
Some network provides File “caching”. Server
memory, designated as a cache block, is reserved for
holding current data, much like a mailbox. When the
file server processes a request for information, the
data is read into the cache block. All subsequent
requests will be retrieved from memory rather than
the disk. This improves response time and decreases
the number of times the disk is read from or written
into. The file caching and also directory caching will
make the system work 100 times faster.

NOTE: Network OS also may include routines for

prioritizing file retrieval requests, for alphabetizing
the directory, for password protection. And for error
checking.

Sharing the Printer: - A print server is a workstation

with an attached printer and spooler and S/W to
process and manage printing tasks. Print spoolers are
designed to help keep the printer from becoming a
bottleneck to the entire network.

How they work:

• Create a buffer from unused memory
• Files are routed to the buffer until the printer is
ready
• New spoolers are devices containing additional
memory, installed between the computer and the
printer. Files to be printed are routed to a print
buffer in the spooler. This way the user need not
wait for the printing to be completed and can
proceed with the next task after giving the printing
request.