Module 11.13 - B1 - Rev 00 PDF

Module 11 – AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS AND STRUCTURES
CATEGORY B1 - MECHANICAL Sub Module 11.13 – LANDING GEAR
MODULE 11
SUB MODULE 11.13
LANDING GEAR (ATA 32)
Rev. 00 11.13
Oct 2006 For Training Purposes Only
Table of Contents Page Table of Contents Page
Function........................................................................................ 2 Electrical Retraction System ....................................................... 30

Landing Gear Classification .......................................................... 2 Landing Gear Control.................................................................. 32
Landing Gear Configuration (Wheel Arrangement)....................... 4 Landing Gear Position Indication ................................................ 34
Conventional Or Tail Wheel-Type Landing Gear .......................... 4 Safety Features........................................................................... 36
Tricycle-Type Landing Gear ......................................................... 4 Additional Features ..................................................................... 40
Tandem Landing Gear.................................................................. 4 Maintenance ............................................................................... 42
Retractable Vs. Fixed ................................................................... 6 Powered Steering........................................................................ 46
Fixed Landing Gear ...................................................................... 8 Hydraulic Steering System.......................................................... 48
Fixed Landing Gear Shock Absorbers .......................................... 8 Steering Control .......................................................................... 50
Spring Steel Legs ....................................................................... 10 Maintenance ............................................................................... 52
Rubber Cord ............................................................................... 10 Aircraft Wheels............................................................................ 56
Oleo-Pneumatic Shock Absorber................................................ 12 Introduction ................................................................................. 56
Shimmy Dampers ....................................................................... 16 Construction ................................................................................ 58
Retractable Landing Gear........................................................... 18 Split Hub Wheel Construction ..................................................... 60
Landing-Gear Components ........................................................ 20 Wheel Inspection – On The Aircraft ............................................ 62
Bogie Undercarriages ................................................................. 24 Wheel Inspection – Off The Aircraft ............................................ 63
Hydraulic Retraction System ...................................................... 26 Aircraft Tires And Tubes ............................................................. 70
Simple Hydraulic Retraction System........................................... 28 Tire Classification........................................................................ 70
Rev. 00 i 11.13
Type............................................................................................ 70 Inflation ....................................................................................... 82

Size............................................................................................. 70 Tread Condition........................................................................... 84
Ply Rating ................................................................................... 72 Sidewall Condition....................................................................... 86
Tube Or Tubeless ....................................................................... 72 Tire Inspection Off Of The Aircraft............................................... 88
Tire Construction ........................................................................ 74 Tire Retreading ........................................................................... 90
Bead ........................................................................................... 74 Tire Storage ................................................................................ 90
Carcass (Bias Tire) ..................................................................... 74 Aircraft Tubes.............................................................................. 92
Carcass (Radial Tire).................................................................. 76 Tube Construction And Selection................................................ 92
The Tread ................................................................................... 76 Tube Inspection........................................................................... 92
Deflector ..................................................................................... 78 Tube Storage .............................................................................. 94
The Sidewall ............................................................................... 78 Tire Mounting – Tube-Type Tires ................................................ 96
Tire Markings .............................................................................. 80 Tire Balancing ............................................................................. 97
Part Number ............................................................................... 80 Aircraft Brakes............................................................................. 98
Serial Number............................................................................. 80 Internal Expanding-Shoe Brakes............................................... 100
Speed Rating .............................................................................. 80 Expander-Tube Brakes ............................................................. 102
Other Markings ........................................................................... 80 Single-Disk Brakes.................................................................... 106
Retreads ..................................................................................... 80 Multiple-Disk Brakes ................................................................. 108
Tire Inspection On The Aircraft ................................................... 82 Segmented Rotor-Disk Brakes.................................................. 110
Rev. 00 ii 11.13
Carbon Composite Brakes........................................................ 112 Auto-Brake System ................................................................... 164

Aircraft Brake Systems ............................................................. 114 Brake Controls .......................................................................... 170
Independent Brake Systems..................................................... 116 Brake Indications....................................................................... 171
Power Assisted Or Boosted Brake Systems............................. 120 Brake Temperature ................................................................... 172
Power Brake System ................................................................ 122 Brake Pressure ......................................................................... 174
Multiple Power Brake-Actuating Systems ................................. 126 Brake Accumulator Pressure .................................................... 174
Emergency Brake System ........................................................ 128
Braking Heat Energy................................................................. 130
Brake Inspection And Service................................................... 132
Typical Brake Malfunctions And Damage ................................. 136
Bleeding Of Brakes................................................................... 138
Skid Protection.......................................................................... 140
Anti-Skid Requirements ............................................................ 142
Mechanical Anti-Skid Systems.................................................. 144
Electronic Anti-Skid Systems .................................................... 148
System Tests ............................................................................ 160
System Maintenance ................................................................ 162
Auto Brakes .............................................................................. 164
Rev. 00 iii 11.13

“The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up to
date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.
Rev. 00 1 11.13
FUNCTION LANDING GEAR CLASSIFICATION

The functions of a landing gear are to support an aircraft during A landing gear usually takes the form of two or more main
ground manoeuvres, dampen vibration, and absorb landing undercarriage units in the wings or fuselage, and an auxiliary
shocks; when required, it also performs the functions of steering undercarriage unit at the nose or tail, which carries only a small,
and braking. proportion of the total load and is used for steering purposes.
These objectives are achieved by many different designs, The Main Landing Gear (or undercarriage) provides the main
depending on the type of aircraft to which the landing gear is support of the aircraft on land or water. It may include a
fitted and the degree of sophistication required. combination of wheels, floats, skis, shock absorbing equipment,
brakes, retracting mechanism, cowling, fairing, and structural
members needed for attachment to the primary structure of the
aircraft.
The Auxiliary Landing Gear consists of tail or nose landing-wheel
installations, skids, outboard pontoons, outrigger wheels, etc.,
with necessary cowling and reinforcements.
Landing gear is classified by the configuration (or wheel
arrangement), provisions for cushioning the landing shock, and if
the landing gear is retractable or not.
Rev. 00 2 11.13
PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Rev. 00 3 11.13
LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATION TRICYCLE-TYPE LANDING GEAR

(WHEEL ARRANGEMENT) Tricycle landing gear is characterized by having two main gear
assemblies, one on each side of the aircraft located behind the
CONVENTIONAL OR TAIL WHEEL-TYPE LANDING GEAR airplane's center of gravity and the nose of the airplane
The so-called “conventional", Tail wheel or Tail dragger type supported by the nose wheel assembly. Control on the ground
landing gear is normally associated with older aircraft and those for small airplanes is provided by steering the nose wheel
designed for rough field operations. through connections to the rudder pedals, but large airplanes
have hydraulic steering cylinders to control the direction of the
In this configuration two main wheel assemblies are located on nose wheel.
each side of the aircraft, ahead of the aircraft center of gravity,
and the tail is supported by a much smaller wheel. This arrangement places the aircraft fuselage in a level attitude
when the aircraft is on the ground. In this attitude the pilot has
Steering on the ground is done by moving the tail wheel through good forward visibility and the cabin area is level, making it
a connection with the rudder pedals. Some aircraft have no easier for passengers to move inside the cabin when the aircraft
provision for steering the tail wheel, but the wheel is locked in is on ground. This configuration also makes the aircraft stable
line with the fuselage for takeoff and landing and is unlocked, during ground operations and easy to control, which is especially
making it free to swivel, for taxiing. Control on the ground is then important during takeoff and landing. (Figure B)
achieved by differential use of the brakes.
TANDEM LANDING GEAR
This arrangement has the advantage of reduced drag in the air
and reduced landing-gear weight. There is some loss of forward The tandem wheel arrangement is seldom used on civilian
visibility for the pilot when maneuvering on the ground due to the aircraft, but some of the military aircraft use it. The main wheels
aircraft nose-high attitude. This configuration is less stable on are located in line under the fuselage and the wings are
the ground and requires more skill when taxiing and during supported by outrigger wheels. (Figure C )
takeoff and landing when compared to a tricycle-geared aircraft
as there is a tendency to cause the airplane to ground loop. The
pilot must be careful to keep the airplane rolling straight, or the
center of gravity will swing around ahead of the wheels, causing
the airplane to spin around on the ground. (Figure A)
Rev. 00 4 11.13
Fig. A – Conventional Landing gear
Fig. B – Tricycle Landing Gear
Fig. C – Tandem Landing Gear
Rev. 00 5 11.13
RETRACTABLE VS. FIXED

With slow, light aircraft, and some larger aircraft on which
simplicity is of prime importance, a fixed (non-retractable)
landing gear is often fitted; the reduced performance caused by
the drag of the landing gear during flight is offset by the
simplicity, reduced maintenance and low initial cost.
With higher performance aircraft, drag becomes progressively
more important, and the landing gear is retracted into the wings
or fuselage during flight; there are, however, penalties of
increased weight, greater complication and additional
maintenance.
Rev. 00 6 11.13
Rev. 00 7 11.13
FIXED LANDING GEAR FIXED LANDING GEAR SHOCK ABSORBERS

There are three main types of fixed landing gear; those which
Fixed (Non-retractable) landing gear is generally attached to have a spring steel leg, those which employ rubber cord to
structural members of the airplane with bolts, but it is not actually absorb shocks, and those which have an oleo-pneumatic strut to
‘fixed’, because it must absorb stresses; therefore, the wheels absorb shocks. Exceptions include aircraft with rubber in
must move up and down while landing or taxiing in order to compression, spring coil, and liquid spring struts.
absorb shocks.
The landing gear is often equipped with a fairing where it joins
the fuselage or wing to reduce the drag (air resistance). Chafing
strips are used to prevent excessive wear between the sections
of the fairing, because there is usually some motion between
these sections.
Wheel pants are often used to cover the wheel and tire to reduce
their drag.
Fixed landing gear may have bracing, or it may be of the
cantilever type without any additional bracing.
Fixed landing gear is usually found on small aircraft and aircraft
where aerodynamic cleanliness for an efficient cruise
configuration is not a major factor.
Rev. 00 8 11.13
Fig. A – Fixed Landing gear
Fig. B – Wheel Pants
Rev. 00 9 11.13
SPRING STEEL LEGS RUBBER CORD

Spring steel legs are usually employed at the main When rubber cord is used as a shock absorber, the
undercarriage positions. The leg consists of a tube, or strip of undercarriage is usually in the form of tubular struts, designed
tapered spring steel, the upper end being attached by bolts to and installed so that the landing force is directed against a
the fuselage and the lower end terminating in an axle on which number of turns of rubber in the form of a grommet or loop.
the wheel and brake are assembled.
Rubber cord is colour coded to indicate the date of manufacture
MAINTENANCE and the specification to which it conforms, by replacing some of
the fibres in the outer cotton covering with coloured threads
Spring steel undercarriages should be inspected regularly for
wound in a spiral.
damage and corrosion. The aircraft should be jacked up
periodically, so that all loads are taken off the wheels, and the MAINTENANCE
security of each undercarriage checked by attempting to move it
The undercarriage should be examined for damage, corrosion,
against the restraint of its attachments to the airframe structure.
wear or cracks at the pivot points, and bent pivot bolts, and
If there are signs of looseness, the bolts should be removed for
should be lubricated as specified in the approved Maintenance
detailed inspection and the bolt holes should be checked for
Schedule. The rubber cord should be inspected for chafing,
cracks or fretting. Axle fittings should be similarly inspected, and
necking, or other deterioration, and it is advisable to replace it if
all nuts and bolts should be tightened to the specified torque.
it is more than five years old, regardless of its external condition.
Rev. 00 10 11.13
Fig. A – Spring Steel Main Gear
Fig. B – Rubber Cord or Bungee Type Shock Absorbers
Rev. 00 11 11.13
OLEO-PNEUMATIC SHOCK ABSORBER OPERATION

Some fixed main undercarriages, and most fixed nose - Under static conditions the weight of the aircraft is balanced
undercarriages, are fitted with an oleo-pneumatic shock- by the strut gas pressure and the inner cylinder takes up a
absorber strut. The design of individual struts varies position approximately midway up its stroke.
considerably, and reference should be made to the appropriate
- Under compression (e.g. when landing), the strut shortens
Maintenance Manual for a particular type, but operation and
and fluid is forced through the gap between the piston orifice
maintenance procedures for a typical design are covered in the
and the metering rod, this restriction limiting the speed of
following paragraphs.
upward movement of the inner cylinder.
CONSTRUCTION
- As the internal volume of the cylinders decreases, the gas
Figure B shows the construction of a simple oleo-pneumatic pressure rises until it balances the upward force.
strut, in this instance a nose undercarriage, which also includes
- As the upward force decreases, the gas pressure acts as a
a steering mechanism. The outer cylinder is fixed rigidly to the
spring and extends the inner cylinder. The speed of
airframe structure by two mounting brackets, and houses an
extension is limited by the restricted flow of fluid through the
inner cylinder and a piston assembly, the interior space being
orifice.
partially filled with hydraulic fluid and inflated with compressed
gas (air: or nitrogen). The inner cylinder is free to rotate and - NOTE: On some struts an additional valve is fitted to the
move up and down within the outer cylinder, but these piston or inner cylinder, to further restrict the flow of fluid
movements are limited by the torque links, which connect the during extension, and prevent violent extension of the strut if
inner cylinder to the steering collar. The steering collar arms are upward force is suddenly released, such as when a bounce
connected through spring struts to the rudder pedals, and a occurs.
shimmy damper is attached to the steering collar. - Normal taxiing bumps are cushioned by the gas pressure
and dampened by the limited flow of fluid through the orifice.
- Movement of the rudder pedals turns the nose wheel to
facilitate ground manoeuvres, the spring struts being
provided to allow for vertical movement of the nose wheel,
and prevent shocks from being transmitted through the
rudder control system.
Rev. 00 12 11.13
Fig A – Oleo-pneumatic Shock Absorber Fig B

Rev. 00 13 11.13
MAINTENANCE SERVICING STRUTS

Oleo-pneumatic undercarriages should be subjected to When it becomes necessary to check the fluid level in a strut, the
inspections similar to those recommended for spring leg and following procedure should be carried out:
rubber cord types, such as examinations for cracks or damage to
1. Jack up aircraft to take the weight off the strut.
mounting structure, corrosion, and wear at pivot points. In
addition, the following maintenance is necessary: 2. Remove inflation valve cap and release air pressure
completely.
- Machined surfaces of the strut inner cylinder should be wiped
free of dust or dirt at frequent intervals, to prevent damage to 3. Remove valve housing.
the lower cylinder seals. A lint-free cloth, soaked in the fluid 4. Compress strut and check fluid level is at bottom of filler
used in the strut, should be used for this purpose. hole; if not, top-up with the approved fluid.
- The extension of the inner cylinder, i.e. the length of the 5. Extend and compress strut several times to expel any
visible portion of the inner cylinder, should be checked trapped air, then repeat step 4.
frequently against the centre of gravity/loading graphs
provided in the approved Maintenance Manual. 6. With strut compressed, replace valve housing and inflate
strut to specified gas pressure, checking that the leg extends
NOTE: Because of the tightness of the sealing glands in the completely.
strut, it may be necessary to rock the aircraft to free the inner
cylinder and obtain the true extension. 7. NOTE: It is usually recommended that a new seal be fitted
when replacing the valve.
- The strut should be inspected frequently for fluid leaks. If
leaks are due to faulty glands the glands may be replaced, 8. Lower aircraft and check that extension of the inner cylinder
but if they are due to a scored inner cylinder, the strut should is in accordance with the tables or graphs supplied by the
be changed. manufacturer, for the particular aircraft weight and centre of
gravity position. (Figure A)
- Torque links, steering arms, and damper attachments should
be checked for security, and for cracks, wear or any other
damage.
- All moving parts of the undercarriage should be lubricated on
assembly, and at the intervals specified in the approved
Maintenance Schedule.
Rev. 00 14 11.13
Fig A – Oleo-pneumatic Shock Absorber Servicing
Rev. 00 15 11.13
SHIMMY DAMPERS MAINTENANCE

Most nose and tail wheels are fitted with shimmy dampers to Friction disc dampers should be inspected for security, damage,
prevent rapid oscillation during ground manoeuvres. and wear of the friction material. Piston type dampers will not
operate satisfactorily if air is present in the cylinder, and should
A simple damper consists of two friction discs, one connected to
be inspected frequently for oil leaks; they should be removed at
a fixed part of the undercarriage and the other connected to the
the periods specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule,
oscillating part. The discs are held in contact by spring pressure
and the oil level should be checked.
and resist relative movement between the parts to which they
are connected.
Piston Type
The piston rod is connected to the steering collar and the
cylinder attached to a fixed part of the strut. The cylinder is
completely filled with fluid, and small holes in the piston allow a
restricted flow of fluid when force is applied to the piston rod.
Movement of the nose undercarriage is therefore slowed down,
and oscillations damped. (Figure A)
Vane Type
Vane-type dampers are designed with a set of moving vanes
and a set of stationary vanes. The moving vanes are mounted
on a shaft, which extends outside the housing. When the shaft is
turned, the chambers between the vanes change in size, thus
forcing hydraulic fluid from one to the other. The fluid must flow
through restricting orifices, providing a dampening effect to any
rapid movement of the vanes in the housing. The body or
housing of the vane-type damper is usually mounted on a
stationary part of the nose landing gear, and the shaft level is
connected to the turning part. Thus any movement of the wheel
right or left causes a movement of the vanes in the shimmy
damper. (Figure B)
Rev. 00 16 11.13
Fig. A – Piston type Damper
Fig. C – Piston type Damper Installation
Fig. B – Vane type Damper
Rev. 00 17 11.13
RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR

The majority of modern transport aircraft, and an increasing
number of light aircraft, are fitted with a retractable landing gear,
for the purpose of improving aircraft performance. Retraction is
normally effected by a hydraulic system, but pneumatic or
electrical systems are also used. In some instances power is
used for retraction only, extension being effected by gravity and
slipstream. Retractable landing gear is also provided with
mechanical locks to ensure that each undercarriage is locked
securely in the retracted and extended positions; devices to
indicate to the crew the position of each undercarriage; and
means by which the landing gear can be extended in the event
of failure of the power source. In addition, means are provided to
prevent retraction with the aircraft on the ground, and to guard
against landing with the landing gear retracted. Undercarriage
wells are normally sealed by doors for aerodynamic reasons, but
one particular aircraft type employs inflatable rubber bags to seal
the main undercarriage wells.
Retractable undercarriages normally consist of an oleo-
pneumatic shock-absorber strut supported in a trunnion bearing
which is fixed to a spar or strengthened box section in the wings
or fuselage; the strut is braced longitudinally by drag struts, and
laterally by sidestays. In some designs the drag strut or sidestay
is in two parts, and hinges about the centre point to provide a
means of retraction, while in others, the retraction jack operates Fig. A – Typical Retractable Undercarriage Unit
on an extension of the shock absorber strut housing. Figure A
shows a typical retractable undercarriage unit, which is
hydraulically operated in both directions and locked by means of
a geometric (overcentre) lock.
Rev. 00 18 11.13
Fig. B –Retractable Gear

Rev. 00 19 11.13
LANDING-GEAR COMPONENTS DRAG LINK

Landing-gear assemblies are made up of various components A drag link (also called a drag strut) is designed to stabilize the
designed to support and stabilize the assembly. The following landing-gear assembly longitudinally. If the gear retracts forward
terms identify many of these components. The terms are or aft, the drag link will be hinged in the middle to allow the gear
presented here as they relate to retractable landing-gear to retract.
systems. When the terms are used with fixed landing gear, the
SIDE BRACE LINK
exact use of the components may vary. Be aware that different
manufacturers will occasionally use different terms for the same A side brace link is designed to stabilize the landing-gear
basic components. assembly laterally. If the gear retracts sideways, the side brace
link is hinged in the middle to allow the gear to retract. This is
TRUNNION
also called a side strut.
The trunnion is the portion of the landing-gear assembly at-
OVERCENTER LINK
tached to the airframe. The trunnion is supported at its ends by
bearing assemblies, which allow the gear to pivot during An overcenter link is used to apply pressure to the center pivot
retraction and extension. The landing-gear strut extends down joint in a drag or side brace link. This prevents the link from
from the approximate center of the trunnion. pivoting at this joint except when the gear is retracted, thus
preventing collapse of the gear during ground operation. The
STRUTS
overcenter link is hydraulically retracted to allow gear retraction.
The strut is the vertical member of the landing-gear assembly This component is also called the jury strut or downlock.
that contains the shock-absorbing mechanism. The top of the
UP-LOCKS
strut is attached to, or is an integral part of, the trunnion. The
strut forms the cylinder for the air-oleo shock absorber. The strut Landing Gear and L/G Doors are usually maintained locked in
may also be called the outer cylinder. the retracted and closed position by means of up-locks. The Up-
lock is an assembly that is mounted to the aircraft structure and
The piston is the moving portion of the air-oleo shock absorber.
consists of a hook that engages a roller attached to the landing
This unit fits inside the strut, and the bottom of the piston is
gear or door. The hook itself is maintained in the lock position by
attached to the axle or other component on which the axle is
a pin or a roller that engages a suitable provision on the hook.
mounted. Other terms used for the piston are piston rod, piston
tube, and inner cylinder. Generally the up-lock engagement is mechanical but the release
is either hydraulic or mechanical. (Figure B)
Rev. 00 20 11.13
Fig. A - Retractable Main L/G Fig. B - MLG Up-lock
Rev. 00 21 11.13
TORQUE LINKS SWIVEL GLAND

Torque links or torque arms, often referred to as a scissors A swivel gland is a flexible joint with internal passages that route
assembly, are two A-frame-type members used to connect the hydraulic fluid to the wheel brakes and the bungee cylinder of a
strut cylinder to the piston and axle. The torque links restrict the landing gear. Swivel glands are used where the bend radius is
extension of the piston during gear retraction and hold the too small or space limitations prevent the use of coiled hydraulic
wheels and axle in a correctly aligned position in relation to the lines. A swivel gland, which is illustrated in Figure B, may be
strut. mounted on a bracket secured to the main-gear trunnion fitting.
The gland remains stationary and is the terminus of the
The upper torque link is connected to a clevis fitting on the lower
stationary hydraulic lines. The movable portion of a swivel gland
forward side of the shock strut. The lower torque link is
is connected to the hydraulic lines that are routed down the strut
connected to a clevis fitting on the axle. The upper and lower
of the bungee cylinder and the wheel brakes.
torque links are joined together, as shown in the drawing, by a
bolt and nut spaced with washers- Each link is fitted with flanged In Figure C, it can be seen that the gland consists of annular
bushings. The gap between the flanged ends of the bushings is grooves separated from one another by means of slipper rings
taken up by a spacer washer. This spacer establishes the and packing to isolate the pressure fluid from the return fluid.
alignment of the wheel. Thus the gear can be raised and lowered without disturbing the
fluid passage to and from the brakes and bungee cylinder.
TRUCK
The truck is located on the bottom of the strut piston and has the
axles attached to it. A truck is used when wheels are to be
placed in tandem (one behind the other) or in a dual-tandem
arrangement. The truck (often referred to as a bogie) can tilt fore
and aft at the piston connection to allow for changes in aircraft
attitude during takeoff and landing and during taxiing.
Rev. 00 22 11.13
Fig B – Swivel Gland Installation
Fig C – Swivel Gland
Fig A
Rev. 00 23 11.13
BOGIE UNDERCARRIAGES MAINTENANCE

On heavy aircraft, the need to spread the weight over a large In addition to the lubrication, testing and maintenance of landing
area has resulted in the use of multiple wheel undercarriages. A gear described in previous paragraphs, particular care and
typical four-wheeled bogie is illustrated in Figure A, but a larger higher standards of workmanship are necessary with bogie
number of wheels are used on some undercarriages. undercarriages. Since this type of undercarriage is fitted to
heavy aircraft, the materials used are of very high strength, and
The undercarriage unit normally consists of a shock-absorber
great care is taken in the manufacture, heat treatment and finish
strut, at the lower end of which a bogie beam is pivoted, and the
of the components. However, these materials are usually more
axles are attached to each end of the beam. On some aircraft the
susceptible to failure from scratches, indentations or corrosion,
rear pair of wheels swivels on the bogie beam, and castors when
than materials of lower strength. All servicing functions should,
the nose wheel is turned through a large angle; on others, the
therefore, be carried out with special care, particularly with
upper torque link member is replaced by a pair of hydraulic
regard to lubrication, the lack of which could result in corrosion
jacks, which, when nose wheel steering is applied, rotates the
or hydrogen embrittlement. If any surface damage is found
whole bogie. Castoring or steering prevents excessive torque on
during inspection, it should be repaired strictly in accordance
the undercarriage leg and minimises tyre scrubbing during turns.
with the instructions and limitations specified in the
For normal operation, the swivelling pair of wheels is locked in
manufacturer's manuals, or, if no adequate guidance is given, in
line with the fixed pair. Brake torque at each wheel is transmitted
accordance with an approved repair scheme.
through compensating rods to the shock-absorber strut, thus
preventing excessive loads on the bogie beam. When changing wheel or brake assemblies, the axle should be
fitted with a protective sleeve to prevent damage, and the
On retractable landing gear a levelling strut, truck positioner or
surface and threads should be inspected for damage and
'hop damper' provides a means of positioning the bogie beam at
corrosion before re-assembling the wheel or brake.
suitable angles for retraction and landing; this strut is usually
connected into the hydraulic system to prevent retraction if the When carrying out retraction or steering tests, operation of the
bogie is not at a suitable angle, and combines the functions of levelling strut and locking/unlocking of the swivelling wheels
hydraulic ram and damper unit. should be checked in accordance with the appropriate
Maintenance Manual.
Rev. 00 24 11.13
Rev. 00 25 11.13
HYDRAULIC RETRACTION SYSTEM

A hydraulic system for retracting and extending a landing gear
normally takes its power from engine driven pumps, alternative
systems being available in case of pump failure.
On some light aircraft a self-contained 'power-pack' is used,
which houses a reservoir and selector valves for the landing
gear and flap systems; an electrically driven pump may also be
included, or the system may be powered by engine driven
pumps. This type of system normally provides for powered
retraction of the landing gear, extension being by 'free-fall', with
the assistance of spring struts.
Figure A on page 27 is a schematic diagram of a simple
hydraulic retraction system. The various components shown
illustrate operation of this system, but are not intended to
represent a typical design; actual components often operate in a
different manner, but their purpose is the same.
Rev. 00 26 11.13
Rev. 00 27 11.13
SIMPLE HYDRAULIC RETRACTION SYSTEM

RETRACTION EXTENSION
- When the landing gear selector is moved to the 'up' position, - When the landing gear selector is moved to the 'down'
fluid under pressure is directed to the 'up' line and fluid from position, fluid under pressure is directed to the 'down' line,
the 'down' line is directed back to the hydraulic reservoir. and fluid from the 'up' line is directed back to the reservoir.
- Fluid flows to the sequence valves (SV3, SV4), retraction - Fluid flows to the sequence valves (SV1, SV2), door jacks
jacks (MJI, MJ2, NJI), main undercarriage down-lock jacks (DJI, DJ2), door locks (DL1, DL2), nose undercarriage
(LJ1, LJ2), and nose undercarriage down-lock (NL2); it retraction jack (NJ1) and the nose undercarriage up-lock
cannot pass the sequence valves, which are closed, but (NL1). The sequence valves are closed, so fluid pressure
operates the retraction jacks and down locks. releases all the door locks and the nose undercarriage up-
lock, and the doors and nose undercarriage extend, the nose
- The locks operate first, releasing the landing gear and
undercarriage engaging its down-lock (NL2) at the end of its
allowing the retraction jacks to raise each undercarriage, the
travel.
nose undercarriage engaging its spring-loaded up-lock (NL1)
first, because of the jack's smaller size. - When the doors are fully open, the door jacks strike the
plungers of their associated sequence valves (SV1, SV2)
- At the end of upward travel of the main undercarriage units, a
and open the valves, allowing fluid to flow through the
striker on each leg contacts the plunger of its associated
restrictor valves (RI, R2) to the main undercarriage up-locks
sequence valve (SV3, SV4), and opens the valve, allowing
(ML1, ML2) and retraction jacks (MJI, MJ2).
fluid to flow to the door jacks (DJI, DJ2).
- These locks are released, and the retraction jacks lower the
- The main undercarriage engages the up-locks (ML1, ML2)
main undercarriage fully, the spring-loaded lock-jacks (LJ1,
and the doors close, engaging locks DL1, DL2. Fluid in the
LJ2) imposing a geometric lock on the sidestays. Main
'down' lines returns to the reservoir, flowing unrestricted
undercarriage doors are held open by fluid pressure.
through the restrictor valves (RI, R2) and overcoming the
small restriction of the spring loading of the sequence valves NOTE: Restrictor valves are normally fitted to limit the speed of
(SV1, SV2). lowering of the main undercarriage units, which are influenced in
this direction by gravity. The nose undercarriage often lowers
NOTE: The nose undercarriage doors are operated mechanically
against the slipstream and does not need the protection of a
by linkage to the nose shock absorber housing.
restrictor valve.
Rev. 00 28 11.13
Fig A – A Simple Hydraulic Retraction System
Rev. 00 29 11.13
ELECTRICAL RETRACTION SYSTEM

An electrical retraction system is often fitted to light aircraft which
do not otherwise require the use of a high-pressure fluid system.
The main and nose undercarriage units are similar to those used
in fluid retraction systems, but push and pull forces on the
retraction mechanism are obtained by an electric motor and
suitable gearing. Figure A illustrates a typical system, in which a
single reversible electric motor provides the power to retract and
extend the landing gear.
- The motor operates a screw jack, which provides angular
movement to a torque tube; a push-pull rod from the torque
tube acts on the drag strut of the nose undercarriage, and
cables and rods from the torque tube act on the main
undercarriage sidestays, rubber cord being used to assist
extension of the main undercarriage units.
- Down-locks are imposed by over-centering of the drag strut
and sidestays during final movement of the operating
mechanism, with the assistance of springs.
- Limit switches on the drag strut and sidestays cut off
electrical power and brake the motor when the down-locks
have engaged, while a limit switch on the torque tube stops
and brakes the motor when the landing gear is fully retracted.
- Undercarriage doors are operated by linkage to the shock
absorber housings.
Rev. 00 30 11.13
Rev. 00 31 11.13
LANDING GEAR CONTROL ALTERNATE EXTENSION

Landing gear control includes cockpit controls and control Alternate extension is a function available on some aircraft in
systems that manage following functions of the landing gear. which the landing gear can be extended with the aid of an
alternate hydraulic system / accumulator or the pneumatic
- Normal retraction/extension
system in case of a normal hydraulic system failure.
- Alternate extension
For activation of the alternate extension system the landing gear
- Gravity / Emergency extension selector lever usually has to be lowered and an alternate system
NORMAL RETRACTION / EXTENSION activation switch or lever should be selected. This will lead to the
opening of a valve that will supply hydraulic or pneumatic
Normal Retraction and Extension is commanded via a Landing pressure from an alternate system to extend the landing gear.
Gear selector lever that is located on the right hand side of the After an alternate extension, all hydraulically operated gear
main instrument panel on most aircraft. doors will remain open.
The L/G selector lever can have either two or three selectable GRAVITY / EMERGENCY EXTENSION
positions.
Gravity or emergency extension is available to extend the
- In a system with only two selectable positions, the positions landing gear in case of a normal system failure.
will be identified as L/G ‘Retract’ or ‘Up’ when the lever is
raised and L/G ’Extend’ or ‘Down’ when the lever is lowered. Gravity extension system can be either a mechanical or an
electromechanical system. When activated by selecting a lever
- In a system with three selectable positions an additional or switch the hydraulic supply is cut-off landing gear circuit is
centre position that is marked ’Neutral’ will be available for rearranged to form a run-around-path or connected to return and
positioning the selector lever after gear retraction to the landing gear and door up-locks are released.
depressurise the landing gear hydraulic circuit.
- In a mechanical system the movement of cables or linkage
Landing gear retraction/extension may be mechanically attached to the emergency selector lever achieves this.
commanded and controlled, electrically commanded and
mechanically controlled or electrically commanded and - In an electromechanical system switches will supply power to
controlled by a system incorporating a control computer where electromechanical actuators that will drive a linkage perform
the sequencing is also achieved by the same control computer. the extension.
A gravity extension system is discussed in page 38.
Rev. 00 32 11.13
L/G Selector
Lever
Electrical
Electrical
or
Hydraulic Position
Supply Feedback
L/G Control
Module
Hydraulic Pressure to
Landing Gear and
Hydraulic L/G Doors
Supply
Hydraulic Pressure to
Landing Gear and
Fig. A – Mechanically or Electrically L/G Doors Fig. B – Electrically commanded
commanded Mechanically controlled system Electrically controlled system
Rev. 00 33 11.13
LANDING GEAR POSITION INDICATION

Although the landing gear, when selected down, may be visible On some transport aircraft, provision is also made for the crew to
from the crew compartment, it is not usually possible to be examine the locks during flight in the event of failure or incorrect
certain that each undercarriage is securely locked. An electrical operation of the indicating system. Whichever indicating system
indicating system is used to provide a positive indication to the is used, it is important that the micro switches are adjusted so
crew of the operation of the locks and of the position of the that operation of the lights coincides with the corresponding
landing gear. position of the landing gear.
The system usually consists of micro switches, on the up-locks
and down-locks, which make or break when the locks operate,
and which are connected to a landing gear position indicator on
the instrument panel.
A mechanical indicator may also be provided, to show that the
landing gear is down and locked when the electrical system is
inoperative. (Figure A)
On British manufactured aircraft, the electrical undercarriage
indicating system operates in such a manner that a green light is
displayed when the undercarriage is locked down, a red light is
displayed when the undercarriage is in transit, and no lights are
visible when the undercarriage is locked up: bulbs are usually
duplicated to avoid the possibility of false indications as a result
of bulb failures.
On other aircraft, similar indications may be obtained by the use
of magnetic indicators or lights, but on some light aircraft a single
green light indicates that all undercarriages are locked down,
and an amber light indicates that all undercarriages are locked
up.
Fig. A – Landing Gear
Mechanical Indication
Rev. 00 34 11.13
Fig. B - L/G Position Sensing
Fig. C - L/G Cockpit Indication
Rev. 00 35 11.13
SAFETY FEATURES SELECTOR LOCK

Since the correct operation of the landing gear is of the utmost To prevent inadvertent retraction of the landing gear when the
importance, a number of safety features are included in the aircraft is resting on its wheels, a safety device is incorporated
retraction system to ensure its correct operation under all which prevents movement of the selector lever; mechanical
conditions. ground locks are also provided for servicing purposes. The
safety lock consists of a spring-loaded plunger, which retains the
NOSE-WHEEL CENTERING
selector in the down position and is released by the operation of
To avoid damage to the airframe structure, the nose wheel must a solenoid. Electrical power to the solenoid is controlled by a
always be aligned in a fore and aft direction during retraction, switch mounted on the shock-absorber strut; when the strut is
and a number of methods are used to ensure that this happens compressed the switch is open, but as the strut extends after
automatically. One method utilizes a cam and cam track take-off, the switch contacts close and the electrical supply to the
between the inner and outer cylinders on the shock absorber. solenoid is completed, thus releasing the selector lever lock and
The cam is fixed to the top of the inner cylinder, and the track to allowing the landing gear to be selected up. A means of
the bottom of the outer cylinder. As the strut extends under overriding the lock, such as a separate gated switch to complete
internal gas pressure after take-off, the cam engages the track the circuit, or a mechanical means of avoiding the locking
and centres the nose undercarriage before it retracts. A second plunger, is provided for emergency use and for maintenance
method is the use of a peg located at the top of the shock- purposes. (Figure B)
absorber strut, which engages a track fixed to the strut housing
or in the wheel bay, and this device centres the undercarriage as
it retracts. (Figure A)
Rev. 00 36 11.13
Selector Lever Lock Manual Release
Fig. A - Nose Landing Gear Centering Mechanism Fig. B - L/G Selector Incorporating Safety Lock
Rev. 00 37 11.13
WARNING DEVICES EMERGENCY EXTENSION

To guard against landing with the landing gear retracted or A means of extending the landing gear and locking it in the down
unlocked, a warning horn is incorporated in the system and position is provided to cater for the eventuality of main system
connected to a throttle-operated switch. If one or more throttle failure. On some aircraft the up-locks are released manually or
levers are less than approximately one third open, as would be by means of an emergency pneumatic system; the landing gear
the case during approach to land, the horn sounds and the red 'free-falls' under its own weight and the down locks are engaged
warning lamp illuminates if the landing gear is in any position by spring jacks. On other aircraft the landing gear is extended by
other than down and locked. A horn isolation switch is often an emergency pressure system which often uses alternative
provided to allow certain flight exercises and ground servicing pipelines to the jacks. Pressure for the emergency system may
operations to be carried out without hindrance. be supplied by a hydraulic accumulator, a hand pump, a
pneumatic storage cylinder, or an electrically powered pump.
Rev. 00 38 11.13
Fig. A - Landing Gear Gravity Extension System
Rev. 00 39 11.13
ADDITIONAL FEATURES
AIR / GROUND SENSING LANDING GEAR SHORTENING
Air/Ground or Flight/Ground sensing system is used for declaring Landing gear shortening is one option that is available to
aircraft ‘on ground’ or ‘in air’ (airborne) status. designers when the landing gear cannot be accommodated in
the available wheel well, when retracted, because of excessive
Aircraft ‘on ground’ or ‘in air’ status is essential for activation/de-
height of the shock absorber when it is extended after lift-off.
activation of certain functions in the landing gear and other
aircraft systems (such as air conditioning, pressurization, interior Such a landing gear will incorporate a landing gear shortening
compartment lights, etc.). mechanism to shorten the landing gear during retraction. This
mechanism usually does not require any additional power but is
Aircraft ‘on ground’ or ‘weight on wheels’ condition is monitored
designed to be actuated by the movement of the gear during
by using mechanical means in older generations aircraft and in
retraction.
later model aircraft using ‘squat’ switches (proximity sensors).
Safety systems are in-built to prevent retraction in case of a
The aircraft is considered to be on ground when the landing gear
malfunctioning shortening mechanism to prevent gear or
is compressed under the aircraft weight, which is usually
structural damage. Also warnings may get activated to inform the
detected by the angle of the torque links.
pilot of a malfunctioning shortening mechanism during gear
On aircraft equipped with a mechanical sensing system one end extension (lengthening fault).
of the mechanical linkage is connected to the torque links with
the other end connected to the system requiring air/ground
status
On later model aircraft equipped with electrical sensing system
the proximity sensors and their targets are installed on the
torque links and the signal is either send to a switch control unit
or the landing gear control unit. The other systems receive the
aircraft air/ground status from the above control units electrically.
Suitably equipped aircraft rely on this air/ground sensing to
prevent landing gear lever selection to retract until the aircraft is
in air.
Rev. 00 40 11.13
Fig A – Air/Ground Sensors
Fig B – L/G Shortening
Rev. 00 41 11.13
MAINTENANCE
The landing gear performs an important function and every care - Care should be taken to ensure that the fluids used for
should be taken to ensure that the instructions for its inspection topping up the hydraulic system or shock-absorber strut are
and maintenance contained in the relevant Maintenance Manual perfectly clean. Funnels and containers must be kept clean
and approved Maintenance Schedule are correctly carried out. and should be rinsed in clean fluid before use.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS - Fluid bled or drained from the system, or used for flushing,
must be discarded.
The following precautions are relevant to most types of landing
gear, and will help ensure the safety of personnel and correct - Care should be taken to prevent spillage of fluid, which may
operation of the system. have a detrimental effect on paint, rubber, cable insulation,
etc. Some fluids are also irritant to the skin and eyes.
- Ground locks should be fitted whenever the aircraft is out of
service, and the appropriate circuit breakers tripped, or fuses - Air pressure should be released slowly, particularly in
removed, when work is carried out on the system. confined spaces.
- Replacement or adjustment of components in the retraction - Ground equipment used for replenishing fluids, or for
system should be followed by a retraction test. providing hydraulic power or air pressure, should be kept
scrupulously clean and should be serviced at stipulated
- Components should never be removed while the system is intervals.
under pressure, i.e. by hydraulic accumulator or pneumatic
supply bottle. - Unless otherwise specified, components should usually be
installed using the appropriate lubricant or anti-seize
- When components are removed, the open pipelines should compound on mating surfaces.
be properly blanked; rags or masking tape must not be used
for this purpose. . - Only the recommended lubricants and fluids should be used,
and any tests necessary should be carried out strictly in
- New components should be inspected for cleanliness before accordance with the relevant Maintenance Manual.
installation, and it is usually recommended that components
containing fluid should be completely filled before
installation, or primed and bled after installation.
Rev. 00 42 11.13
Fig A - Landing Gear Ground Lock Installation
Rev. 00 43 11.13
ROUTINE SERVICING COMPONENT INSTALLATION

- At the periods specified in the approved Maintenance Whenever a new component is installed in the retraction system,
Schedule, the landing gear should be lubricated and the it should be carefully adjusted to prevent physical damage and
relevant inspections carried out. ensure correct operation. A common method of adjusting
components and linkage after installation is to jack-up the
- The retraction mechanism should be inspected for security,
aircraft, install ground locks on the undercarriages not being
damage, wear of moving parts, fluid leaks and chafing of
worked on, make the system electrically safe, and operate the
pipelines and electrical cables.
individual retraction jack using a hand pump rig. This ensures
- Doors and wheel bays should be inspected for damage slow, controlled operation, and allows individual adjustments to
resulting from debris thrown up by the wheels, or witness be made to the mechanism in accordance with measurements
marks from the tyres indicating faulty adjustment or damaged quoted in the relevant Maintenance Manual. Mter adjustment,
linkage. the system should be reconnected and bled, and retraction tests
- Minor damage may usually be blended out and the part re- carried out.
protected as appropriate, but cracks, kinks in pipelines, or
wear beyond the limits specified in the Maintenance Manual
are not acceptable.
- Some leakage from the components of a pneumatic system
is usually permissible, since the operating medium is
replaceable, but serious leaks could affect operation of the
system. Leakage from a hydraulic system may sometimes be
corrected by cleaning and remaking a connection, but a
component with a persistent leak should be replaced.
Rev. 00 44 11.13
RETRACTION TESTS
Retraction tests should be carried out following replacement of a - Locks, switches, warning devices and mechanical indicators
faulty component, whenever incorrect operation is reported or for correct operation.
suspected, and after a hard or overweight landing. The
- Freedom from fouling during retraction or extension,
sequence of operations will depend on the particular installation
especially of flexible pipes.
and type of retraction system concerned, and full details should
be obtained from the relevant Maintenance Manual. The - General smooth operation of the mechanism.
following procedure is applicable to most retractable landing 12. Remove servicing equipment, lower aircraft and fit ground
gears. locks.
9. Raise the aircraft so that the wheels are clear of the ground, 13. Finally tighten and lock any equipment installed immediately
and lock the lifting jacks. Ensure that no ground equipment or prior to the test.
personnel are in the vicinity of the undercarriages and doors.
NOTE: Retraction tests following initial assembly, replacements
NOTE: In some aircraft the arc described by the wheels during or significant adjustments, should be carried out with the wheel
retraction brings them nearer to the ground, and additional doors disconnected from their operating struts, and, if necessary,
ground clearance must be allowed in these instances. the sequence valves operated by hand; loose operating rods
10. Connect electrical power and external hydraulic or pneumatic should be guided clear of structure. This procedure will permit
servicing equipment as appropriate. direct inspection for clearance and alignment, and will also
permit adjustment of mechanical stops, sequence contact points,
11. Carry out several retractions and extensions, initially at low
up and down locks, and over-centre linkage.
power to ensure slow operation, and using both the normal
and emergency systems, and check the following:
- Undercarriages for proper operation.
- Doors for correct operation and fit.
- Clearance in the wheel bays with the landing gear retracted,
making due allowance for the effects of centrifugal force on
tyre diameter.
- Linkage for correct operation and adjustment.
Rev. 00 45 11.13
POWERED STEERING
Light aircraft generally employ a simple steering system, in
which the nose wheel is mechanically linked to the rudder
pedals. Larger aircraft require powered steering arrangements,
in which the nose wheel is turned by hydraulic, pneumatic, or
electrical power. A powered steering system generally includes a
cockpit steering wheel or tiller, a control valve, steering cylinders
to actuate the nose undercarriage, a follow-up device to hold the
nose wheel at the correct angle, and a power source.
Rev. 00 46 11.13
Fig A - Powered Steering System
Rev. 00 47 11.13
HYDRAULIC STEERING SYSTEM CASTORING

Main operating pressure is derived from the under carriage Whenever the control valve is in its neutral position, fluid is free
'down' line, and a limited emergency supply is provided by a to flow between the steering jacks, thus allowing the aircraft to
hydraulic accumulator. In the system shown in Page Figure A, be towed, or the nose wheel to return to the central position after
hydraulic pressure passes through a changeover valve, which a turn has been initiated with the steering wheel. Angular
ensures that the steering system is only in operation when the movement of the nose wheel during towing will be transmitted
nose undercarriage is down. through the follow-up linkage to the steering wheel. Some form
of quick-release pin is often provided to enable the steering jacks
STEERING OPERATION
to be disconnected so that the nose wheel may be turned
Pressure is directed through the control valve to the steering through large angles during ground servicing.
jacks, which retract or extend to rotate the nose shock-absorber
DAMPING
strut within its housing. Movement of the steering wheel is
transmitted through mechanical linkage to the control valve, in Restrictors in the pipelines between the control valve and the
accordance with the amount and direction of turn required. steering jacks, provide damping for the nose undercarriage.
Follow-up linkage from the nose undercarriage gradually resets
the control valve as the nose wheel turns, and when the selected
angle is reached a hydraulic lock is formed between the control
valve and the steering jacks, preventing further movement.
When the steering wheel is released, the control valve returns to
neutral under the action of its centering springs, and the nose
wheel is free to castor.
An inner cylinder in each steering jack is connected to the
landing gear 'up' line and is supplied with fluid under pressure
when the landing gear is selected up. The steering jacks extend
equally to centralise the nose wheel before pressure is applied to
the nose retraction jack, and the by-pass valve allows fluid from
the steering jacks to flow to the return line.
Rev. 00 48 11.13
Rev. 00 49 11.13
STEERING CONTROL RUDDER PEDAL STEERING

Steering control involve systems used to transmit steering During takeoff and landing the aircraft can be steered using
commands from the cockpit to the steering control valve that will commands from the rudder pedals. Rudder pedal authority for
meter the hydraulic fluid to the steering actuators. steering is limited compared to hand wheel input.
Steering commands can be generated by - On older aircraft with mechanical controls, rudder pedal
steering commands are parsed with hand wheel commands
- Steering hand wheels or tillers
by a mechanical mixer and sent to the servo using the same
- Rudder pedals mechanical control path.
- Autopilot (on latest model aircraft) - On later generation aircraft with electronic steering, rudder
STEERING HAND WHEELS pedal input is sent to the steering computer in an electronic
format. In this system, rudder pedal authority is progressively
Steering hand wheels are provided for the Captain or both reduced with increasing speed.
members of the flight crew for steering the aircraft on ground
during taxiing. Maximum authority of steering is available AUTOPILOT STEERING
through the steering hand wheels but in latest model aircraft the On later model aircraft, steering commands are sent from
authority is steadily reduced with forward speed. autopilot computers to the steering control computer to control
- On older generation aircraft the steering commands from the the aircraft on ground during an autoland with automatic rollout.
hand wheels are transmitted to the steering control servo via STEERING DEACTIVATION FOR TOWING
a mechanical linkage that usually comprises of cables. A
To facilitate aircraft towing, the steering system can usually be
feedback is provided from the gear to the servo to hold the
deactivated by installing a steering by-pass pin that selects the
gear in the selected position until a new command is
actuators to by-pass mode.
received. (Figure A on page 47)
On aircraft equipped with mechanical controls, the steering
- On later model aircraft, steering commands from the hand
bypass pin mechanically locks the control path to the servo
wheels are transmitted to the steering control servo as an
control when installed.
electrical signal via a steering control computer that
computes the necessary commands. The position feedback On aircraft with electronic steering, the pin is used to lock a lever
from the gear is sent to the computer in such a system for on a control box in a steering deactivated position that sends a
holding the gear in the selected position. (Figure A) signal to the computer to select a bypass mode on the servo.
Rev. 00 50 11.13
Figure B - Mechanical Steering De-activation
Autopilot
Computers
Figure C - Electronic Steering De-activation
Figure A- A Modern steering control system
Rev. 00 51 11.13
MAINTENANCE
The lubrication and inspection requirements of the steering
system are broadly similar to those detailed in for retractable
landing gear. Installation and adjustment of the mechanical
linkage, and functional testing of the system are described in the
following paragraphs.
MECHANICAL LINKAGE
Proper adjustment of the mechanical linkage is most important,
since slackness or faulty installation could lead to incorrect
operation of the steering system. To facilitate installation of
components, rigging pins are usually inserted through jig-drilled
holes in the steering wheel, drum assembly and follow-up
linkage in order to fix their positions. The nose wheel can then
be centralised, and the cables and rods fitted and adjusted,
accordingly. Cables should be tensioned using a tension-meter,
and rods adjusted so that the connecting pins and bolts can be
easily fitted. When new pulleys or cables are fitted, it is usually
recommended that they are 'bedded-in' by operating the steering
wheel a number of times over its full range of travel; cables
should then be re-tensioned.
Rev. 00 52 11.13
FUNCTIONAL TEST
The following test is applicable to the system described earlier 8. Carry out further retractions to check that the steering is only
and contains the basic essentials for tests on similar steering operative when the nose undercarriage is down.
systems. The hydraulic installation on a particular aircraft may
9. NOTE: Operations (6), (7), and (8) could lead to extensive
necessitate additional operations, and these will be fully
damage if malfunction occurs, and should be performed with
described in the appropriate Maintenance Manual.
the test rig adjusted to give a slow rate of operation of the
1. Ensure that the shock strut is correctly serviced. retraction system.
2. Jack the aircraft so that the wheels are clear of the ground 10. Check that the stand-by accumulator is correctly charged
and ensure that no ground equipment or personnel are in the with air pressure and operate the test rig to pressurise the
vicinity of the landing gear. accumulator.
3. Depressurise the main hydraulic system and check that the 11. Select stand-by steering and check that the nose wheel can
nose wheel has freedom of movement over the full be steered satisfactorily. This check may involve a specified
castoring range. number of turns before the accumulator is exhausted or the
stand-by system low pressure warning lights illuminate.
4. Connect a hydraulic test rig and ground electrical power, and
set controls and switches for normal hydraulic operation. 12. Set the stand-by selector to off, and disconnect the test rig
and external electrical power.
5. Operate the steering wheel over its full range, and check that
the nose wheel follows smoothly and stops at selected 13. Lower the aircraft and finally lock any components installed
positions. prior to the test.
6. Set the nose wheel a few degrees to one side and select the
landing gear up, checking that the nose wheel centres before
the down-lock breaks.
7. Lower landing gear and repeat operation (6) with the nose
wheel displaced inthe opposite direction.
Rev. 00 53 11.13
WHEEL ALIGNMENT
Alignment of the main gear wheels is very important in that Alignment check on an aircraft equipped with a spring steel
misalignment adversely affects landing and take-off, roll landing gear is difficult carry out since the landing alignment
characteristics, tire wear, and steering during ground operations. changes with the changes in aircraft weight. Therefore prior to
Severe misalignment can cause malfunction and failure of some an alignment check, roll each wheel onto a pair of aluminum
of the major components of the landing gear system. plates with grease between them. If the aircraft is rocked back
and forth a bit before the measurement is taken, the greased
Alignment consists of checking and adjusting the toe and the
plates will allow the wheels to assume their true position of
camber of the gear. The aircraft maintenance manual normally
alignment. (Figure D)
specifies the amount of toe and camber the landing gear should
have. Wheel alignment of oleo-equipped landing gear is adjusted by
means of shim washers installed between the torque links at the
Toe is the amount wheels are angled from the horizontal axis.
joint between the upper and lower torque links. (Figure F)
An aircraft's wheels are configured in a toe-in position if lines
For spring steel landing gear alignment is adjusted by the use of
drawn through the center of the two wheels, perpendicular the
tapered shim plated installed between the landing gear leg and
axles, cross ahead of the wheels or toe-out if the lines cross
the axle. (Figure E)
behind the wheels. (Figure B)
Camber is the amount wheels are tilted from the vertical.
If the top of the wheel leans outward, the camber is positive. If it
leans inward, the camber is negative.
In order to measure toe-in, a carpenter's square is held against a
straightedge placed across the front of the main wheels. The
straightedge should be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the aircraft. If this is correct, then the distance between the blade
of the carpenter's square and the front and rear flanges of the
wheel will indicate toe-in or toe-out. (Figure C)
Camber can be measured by using a spirit level protractor held
vertically against the outboard flanges of the wheel. (Figure A)
Rev. 00 54 11.13
Fig. C
Fig. D
Fig. E Fig. F
Rev. 00 55 11.13
AIRCRAFT WHEELS
INTRODUCTION
Wheels and Tires provide the means by which the aircraft can
move and maneuver while maintaining contact with ground. In
addition wheels and tires cushion some of the shock loads
encountered during landing and taxiing.
Aircraft wheels operate in some of the harshest environments
known and the extremely high loading and landing speeds of the
transport category aircraft exacerbate the effects further.
Therefore a high standard of maintenance and inspection is
essential at all times to ensure the continued serviceability of the
tires.
In all cases where doubt exists regarding the condition of aircraft
tires or wheels, the wheel should be changed and the
manufacturer's representative should be consulted.
Rev. 00 56 11.13
Rev. 00 57 11.13
CONSTRUCTION
Heat generated by braking action is dissipated by radiation and
There are three main types of aircraft wheels, known as conduction through the wheel and tire, and every effort is made
well-base, detachable flange and split hub. (Figure A) to keep heat transference to a minimum. Wheels are designed to
Tires used on many of the small aircraft are flexible enough that permit optimum ventilation, and cylindrical stainless steel heat
they could be forced over the wheel rim with tire tools in much shields may be installed around the brake unit. On some aircraft,
the same way we force tires on automobile wheels today. an electric motor mounted within the axle or the brake housing,
Therefore these aircraft are usually equipped with well-base drive fans, which provides forced cooling of the brake. (Figure C)
wheels, which are of single piece construction. To prevent the danger of tire explosion, the main wheels of many
But modem aircraft tires are normally so stiff they cannot be modern aircraft are fitted with fusible plugs which melt at a
forced over the rims, and as a result, almost all modem wheels predetermined temperature (approximately 150°C), allowing a
are of two-piece construction. piston to be blown out of the plug bore and thus deflating the tire.
The development of tubeless tires promoted the development of Some aircraft wheels are also fitted with a pressure relief valve,
two-piece wheels that are split in the center and made airtight the purpose of which is to prevent over-inflation of the tire.
with an a-ring seal placed between the two halves. Today, this In general wheels are mounted on ball or roller bearings, which
form of wheel is the most popular for all sizes of aircraft, from the fit directly on to the axle, or on to a bearing sleeve, which is
small trainer up through the large jet transports. (Figure B) keyed to the axle. Some nose wheels are mounted rigidly on to a
Since aircraft wheels must be both lightweight and strong, most ‘live’ axle, which itself rotates within bearings in the nose wheel
of them are made of either aluminum alloy or magnesium alloy leg.
and, depending upon their strength requirements, may be either Nose wheels for aircraft are often smaller in diameter and width
cast or forged. than the main wheels, and only a few aircraft use brakes on the
The bead seat area is the most critical part of a wheel, and to nose wheel but in some instances all wheels on an aircraft are
increase its strength against the surface tensile loads applied by interchangeable for ease of provisioning.
the tire, these areas are usually rolled to pre-stress their surface If a nose wheel is not designed to accept a brake assembly, a
with a compressive stress. fusible plug is not used, but a pressure relief valve may still be
used.
Rev. 00 58 11.13
Fig. A
Fig. B Fig. C
Rev. 00 59 11.13
SPLIT HUB WHEEL CONSTRUCTION

INBOARD WHEEL HALF OUTBOARD WHEEL HALF
This is the half of a two-piece wheel into which the brake fits. This half of the wheel bolts to the inboard half, and it also holds a
Rotating brake disks are driven either by tangs on the disk which shrunk-in bearing cup in which a tapered bearing cone rides. A
ride in steel-reinforced keyways, or by steel keys bolted inside seal protects the roller and bearing surfaces from water and dirt,
the wheel which mate with slots in the periphery of the disk. as well as retaining the lubricant in the bearing.
Stainless steel heat shields are installed between the drive keys A cap is held in place with a retaining ring to cover the end of the
to form a barrier around the brake unit to reduce the amount of axle shaft and the bearing. If the aircraft is equipped with an
heat transferred to the wheel. (Figure A) antiskid system, this cap is fitted with a bracket to drive the
wheel-speed sensor, which is mounted in the axle.
A polished-steel bearing cup is shrunk into the bearing cavity of
the wheel, and a tapered bearing cone slides over the landing An inflation valve in the outboard wheel half allows air to be put
gear axle to support the wheel. A grease seal covers the bearing into a tubeless tire, or if a tube-type tire is installed, a hole in this
to hold grease in the bearing and prevent any dirt or water half of the wheel is provided for the valve stem of the tube to
getting to its surfaces. stick through. Wheels used on aircraft equipped with tire
pressure remote indication systems are equipped with an
One or more fusible plugs are installed in the inboard half of the
adaptor similar to the valve stem for the installation of the tire
main wheels of jet aircraft to release the air from the tire in the
pressure sensing transducer.
event of an extreme overheat condition, such as might exist from
the heavy braking required during an aborted takeoff. Provision may also be available for mounting a fairing cover on
the wheel for aircraft equipped with retractable landing gear
without a corresponding landing gear door. A cutout is available
on the fairing to provide access to the inflation valve.
Wheels installed on aircraft equipped with brake cooling fans
require the installation of a cover that acts as an air guide to
properly direct the air to the brake unit.
Rev. 00 60 11.13
Fig. B
Fig. A
Rev. 00 61 11.13
WHEEL INSPECTION – ON THE AIRCRAFT

CHECK FOR AXLE NUT TORQUE
CHECK FOR DAMAGES
If too little torque is used on the axle nut, it is possible for the
Check for any damages to the wheel such as cracks, nicks, bearing cup to become loose and spin, enlarging its hole and
visible corrosion, and for possible heat damage due to the high requiring a rather expensive repair to the wheel. On the other
temperatures developed during severe brake applications. hand, if the torque is too high, the bearing can be damaged
During inspection pay special attention to broken or loose wheel because the lubricant will be forced out from between the mating
tie bolts, because wheel tie bolt failure is common on heavily surfaces. The amount of torque required varies with the
loaded aircraft such as freighters. Also check for loose or installation, and the procedure used for installing and securing
missing items such as hubcap and balance weight fasteners. the axle nut must be that recommended by the airframe
CHECK FOR PROPER INSTALLATION manufacturer.
Visually check the wheel for proper installation and clearances
between wheel and the brake unit or adjacent structure.
It is possible with some types of wheel and brake assemblies
that the wheel can be installed with the disk drive tangs between
the drive slots, rather than mating with the slot itself. Be sure
when inspecting the wheel that the brake is correctly installed
and everything is in its proper place.
Rev. 00 62 11.13
WHEEL INSPECTION – OFF THE AIRCRAFT

LOOSEN THE TIRE FROM THE RIM
Before a wheel can be inspected, the tire must be removed, and
before loosening the wheel half retaining bolts,
be sure the tire is completely deflated.
For safety, let the air out of the tire by using a deflator cap
screwed onto the valve and, after most of the air is out,
removeand discard the valve core.
After all of the air is out, break the bead of the tire from the wheel
by applying an even pressure to the tire as close to the wheel as
you can get the tool. Never use a screwdriver or any type of tire
tool to pry the bead away from the rim, as it is easy to nick or
damage the soft wheel in the critical bead area, and any damage
here will cause a stress concentration, which can lead to wheel
failure.
DISASSEMBLE THE WHEEL
Place the wheel on a clean, flat surface and remove the bearing
seals and cones from both wheel halves.
Remove the nuts from the wheel bolts so the halves can be
separated.
Fig. A
Rev. 00 63 11.13
CLEAN THE WHEEL ASSEMBLEY INSPECT THE WHEEL HALVES

Use Stoddard solvent or some similar dry cleaning fluid to The most difficult area of an aircraft wheel to inspect is the bead
remove any grease or dirt from the wheel. A soft bristle brush will seat region. This area, which is highly stressed by the inflated
aid in removing stubborn deposits, but don't use any kind of tire, can be distorted or cracked by a hard landing. But, when all
scraper that will remove any of the protective finish from the of the forces are removed and the tire dismounted, these cracks
wheel. After all of the parts have been cleaned, dry them with may close up so tightly, especially on forged wheels that no
compressed air. penetrant can get in. Therefore, eddy current inspection should
be used for the bead seat area, as it is better able to detect
CLEAN THE BEARINGS
failures such as tight cracks. (Figure A)
Use clean solvent to wash the wheel bearings. Soak them to
Dye penetrant inspection procedures can be used to check for
soften the grease and any hardened deposits in the bearings,
cracks in the key slot areas, as cracks there have no tendency to
and then brush them with a soft bristle brush to remove all of the
close up.
residue.
Examine the entire wheel for indication of corrosion, which is
Dry the bearings by blowing them out with low-pressure dry
most likely to form at any place where moisture is held trapped
compressed air. Don't Spin The Bearings As You Dry Them,
against the surface of the wheel. Such as the rim area where
since rotating dry metal against dry metal will surely damage
moisture could be trapped between the tire and the wheel and
both the rollers and the races.
the surface of the wheel that is inside the tire when it is mounted.
Bearings should never be cleaned with steam, as the heat and (Figure B)
excess oxygen will cause a premature breakdown of the bearing
Any corrosion pits that are found must be completely dressed
surface.
out, without removing more metal than the manufacturer's
service manual allows. After all traces of the damage have been
removed, treat the surface of the metal to prevent further
corrosion.
A good visual inspection is one of the best ways to locate a
defect in a part. Examine all of the suspect areas in the wheel
magnifying glass. Check all of the dimensions specified in the
overhaul manual to be sure that there are no parts worn to the
extent that they will require repair or replacement.
Rev. 00 64 11.13
Fig. A Fig. B
Rev. 00 65 11.13
INSPECT THE WHEEL BOLTS CHECK THE FUSIBLE PLUGS

Inspect the bolts by magnetic particle inspection. Pay particular Carefully examine the condition of the fusible plugs in the wheel
attention to the junction of the head and the shank and to the and that none of them show any sign of core melting. All the
end of the threaded area. These two locations are where the plugs must be replaced even if only one indicates any
cross-sectional area of the shank changes and are most likely deformation. (Figure C)
locations for cracks to form.
CHECK THE BALANCE WEIGHTS
If self locking nuts are used to secure the bolts their self-locking
Almost all wheels having a diameter of more than 10” are
feature should be checked prior to them being reused. Self-
statically balanced when they are built, and they have balance
locking feature is considered serviceable if not more than one
weights attached. If the weights have been removed for any
and a half threads are visible on the bolt section protruding from
reason, be sure that they are put back in their original position.
the nut after engaging the nut on the bolt by hand.
The final balancing of the wheel is done after the tire is mounted,
INSPECT THE KEY AND KEY SCREWS and the weights are usually installed around the outside of the
rim of the wheel or at the wheel bolt circle. (Figure D)
The disk drive keys are subject to some of the most severe
forces acting on a wheel, as they try to rotate the disks against
the friction in the brake. No play can be tolerated between the
keys and the wheel half, so they must be checked for looseness,
for cracks, and for excessive wear. (Figure A & D)
Each of the key attachment screws is staked to prevent it
becoming loose in service, and these stakes must be checked.
INSPECT THE HEAT SHIELD
Segments of the heat shield should be checked for condition and
security of installation. There have been many occurrences of
displaced heat shield segments coming into contact with the
brake unit rotors and causing damages to the brake unit and the
wheel. These segments either become loose or warp due to
high temperatures and the failure will become evident only
during the removal of the wheel. (Figure B)
Rev. 00 66 11.13
Fig. B
Fig. C
Fig. E
Fig. A
Fig. D
Rev. 00 67 11.13
INSPECT THE BEARINGS

If a bearing is difficult to remove from the axle shaft, it should be The bearing cup should be carefully inspected for any signs of
removed with a special puller, but it should never be driven from water marks, discoloration, rust, or brinell marks, which are
the shaft with any form of drift. Bearings that have been difficult shallow, smooth depressions made by the rollers forced against
to remove from the shaft often have indications of galling on their the cup by excessive pressure. Any of these is a cause for
inner bore, and this galling is generally cause for rejection of the rejection. (Figure C)
bearing cone.
If it is necessary to remove the bearing cup, heat the wheel in
Water stains in a bearing may not look bad, but they are an boiling water or in an oven. When the wheel is at the proper
indication of intergranular corrosion in the surface of the rollers temperature, tap the cup out of its cavity with a fiber drift. Install
or the races, and any bearing showing these marks should be a new cup by again heating the wheel and chilling the cup with
rejected. (Figure A) dry ice. Coat the outside of the cup with zinc chromate primer
and tap it in place with a fiber drift. When heating the wheel, be
Any damage to the large end of the rollers is a reason for
extremely careful that it is not overheated, as this will impair its
rejection, but minor flattening at the small end will usually cause
heat treatment.
no problem, since this end does not provide rolling contact.
GREASE THE BEARINGS
Any spalling, which is a slight chipping of the rolling surface of
the bearing, is a reason to reject the bearing. Also, any grooves Use the grease specified by the aircraft manufacturer. If
on the roller surface that are deep enough to feel with your equipment is available for pressure-packing the bearings, it
fingernail will require replacement of the bearing. should be used, as it uniformly covers all of the rollers. But if the
bearings must be packed by hand, be sure to work the grease
Any indication of bearing overheating, which shows up as
up around each of the individual rollers until they are all
discoloration of the rollers, or of dry operation, which is indicated
uniformly covered, and check to be sure that the inner cone is
by rust on the rolling surface, is cause for rejection of the
completely covered. After the bearing is thoroughly greased,
bearing. (Figure B)
wrap the inner cone and roller assembly in clean waxed paper
The bearing cages hold the rollers spaced away from each other and store it until it is ready for installation. Spread a light film of
and aligned on the races, and if there are any bends or distortion grease on the bearing cups in the wheel halves, and protect
of the cage, it is likely that there is some hidden damage in the them from dirt or damage until the wheel is reassembled.
bearing. Since the cage is not a wearing surface, if it shows any
signs of wear, it is an indication of bearing damage, therefore the
bearing should be replaced.
Rev. 00 68 11.13
Fig. A Fig. B
Fig. C
Rev. 00 69 11.13
AIRCRAFT TIRES AND TUBES SIZE

A tire size could be shown on a tire as follows: (ref. Figure C)
TIRE CLASSIFICATION - A only (for example, 44”), or
Aircraft tires are classified according to their type, size, and ply - B-C only (for example, 8.50-10), or
rating and whether they use tubes or are tubeless. - AxB only (for example, 49x17), or
The United States Tire and Rim Association has established - AxB-C (for example, 49x19.0-20) or
nine types of aircraft tires, but only three of these types are of
primary concern today. - AxBRC (for example, 46x17R20) for radial-ply tires.
TYPE The size specifications shown above are the standards used for
tires of new design.
Type III is the most popular low-pressure tire found today on
piston-powered aircraft. The section width is relatively wide in A tire size could have a prefix (for example, H49x19.0-22). The
relation to the bead diameter. This allows lower inflation prefix tells you that the wheel rim on which the tire is to be
pressure for improved cushioning and floatation. (Figure A) installed must have a specified width between its flanges
(expressed as a percentage of the nominal width of the tire; also
Type VII extra-high pressure tires are the standard for jet aircraft. known as width ratio). Available prefixes are shown on the table
They have exceptionally high load-carrying ability. in figure D.
Type VIII tires are used for high performance jet aircraft with Dimensions A, B and C could be inches or millimeters. For
their extremely high takeoff speeds. They use extra high inflation example, for a tire size specified as 750x230-15, dimension A =
pressure and have a low profile. Because of their strength and 750 mm, dimension B = 230 mm, and dimension C = 15 in.
rigidity, such tires, whether tubed or tubeless, are normally fitted
only to divided or detachable-flange wheels. (Figure C) An inner tube size is specified the same as the size of its related
tire.
Rev. 00 70 11.13
Fig. C
Fig. A Fig. B
Prefix Width Ratio Bead Ledge
C 50%-60% 150
B 50%-60% 150
H 60%-70% 50
No Prefix 70% - Higher 50
Width Ratio – Section Width / Rim Width, Expressed as a
Percentage
Bead Ledge – Angle at the Base of the Bead
Rev. 00 71 11.13
Fig. D
PLY RATING TUBE OR TUBELESS

In the past, tires were rated for strength by the number of fabric Aircraft tires are manufactured as both tube type and tubeless,
plies used in the construction of their carcass. But newer with the basic difference between the two being the inner liner.
materials have comparatively so much greater strength that Tubeless tires have an inner liner that is about one-tenth of an
fewer actual layers of material are needed to get the same inch thick that serves as a container for the air, while tube-type
strength. Therefore, now tires are given a ply rating, rather than tires have no such liner, but are somewhat smoother on the
specifying the actual number of layers of fabric material used in inside so the tube will not be damaged by chafing against the
the carcass. inside of the tire.
The ply rating of a tire relates to its maximum static load and its Some of the advantages derived from the use of tubeless tires
inflation pressure. include about 7½% saving in weight compared with using a tire
and tube, a reduction in permeability losses, cooler running by
about 100C, less danger of deflation due to puncture, and the
elimination of tube troubles.
Tubeless tires are identified by the word TUBELESS on their
sidewall, and the lack of identification signifies that a tube should
be used in the tire.
Because it is necessary to keep the bead areas in good
condition, tubeless aircraft tires are not fitted to well-base
wheels.
Rev. 00 72 11.13
Rev. 00 73 11.13
TIRE CONSTRUCTION CARCASS (BIAS TIRE)

The carcass of the tire is made up of layers or plies of rubber-
Automobile and truck tires are required to operate for long coated nylon-cord fabric. This fabric is cut into strips on the bias,
periods of time, carrying a relatively large but steady load at meaning that the cords of the fabric run at an angle of about 450
reasonably high rotational speeds. Therefore these tires are to the length of the strip. These strips extend completely across
allowed to have only a relatively small amount of deflection. the tire and lap back over the beads to form the ply turnups.
Airplane tires, on the other hand, must be strong enough to Each successive ply of the fabric is put on in such a way that the
absorb the tremendous loads encountered on touchdown, and cords cross each other at about 90 degrees, so the strength of
while they must operate at very high speeds, far higher than that the carcass will be balanced.
of a car or truck, their ground rolls are of a limited duration. Chafers of fabric and rubber wrap around the edges of the
Because of these severe requirements, aircraft tires are allowed carcass plies and enclose the entire bead area. They also
a deflection of more than twice that allowed for automobile tires. provide good chafe resistance between the bead and the wheel.
BEAD A breaker is an added layer of fabric, which gives more strength.
The most important part of a tire is the bead, for it is the bead The breaker layers are laid directly on the top casing ply across
that anchors the carcass and provides a firm mounting for the the width of the tread.
tire on the wheel. Ultimately, all of the ground forces on the tire An undertread, which is a layer of specially compounded rubber,
terminate in the bead. is placed over the carcass to provide good adhesion between
The beads are made of bundles of high strength carbon steel the tread and the carcass.
wire, with one, two, or three of these bundles used in each side The tread reinforcement, made of one or more plies of nylon
of the tire. fabric, strengthens the tread and opposes the centrifugal forces
Rubber apex strips streamline the round bead bundles, so the that try to pull the tread from the carcass during high-speed
fabric will fit smoothly around them with no voids. And flippers, operation. It also stabilizes the tread on the cord body and
which are layers of rubber and fabric, enclose the bead bundles prevents its squirming or moving.
to insulate the carcass plies from the bead wires. Since the Tubeless tires are lined with a special compound of rubber that
greatest amount of heat in the tire is in the bead area, this is less permeable than the rubber used in the rest of the tire.
insulation increases the durability of the tire.
In tube-type tires, a thin coating of rubber over the inner ply
cords protects the tube from chafing.
Rev. 00 74 11.13
Fig. A
Fig. B
Rev. 00 75 11.13
CARCASS (RADIAL TIRE) There have been a number of basic tread patterns used on
aircraft tires, the most familiarof them are:
The casing of a radial-ply tire is not the same as that in a bias
tire. Casing fabric plies of a radial-ply tire is laid so that the cord PLAIN TREAD
direction is from bead to bead (at approximately 900). (Figure A)
The plain, or smooth tread was popular for tires used on
The breaker package (also known as the belt plies) is a number airplanes with no brakes, or for aircraft whose brakes were used
of plies attached below the tread of a radial-ply tire. The breaker primarily as a taxi aid, rather than for slowing the aircraft in its
package gives stiffness in the tread area, and helps to keep the landing roll. Today, this type of tread is found only on some
circumference constant as the tire expands when it is inflated. helicopters and on very light airplanes. (Figure B)
THE TREAD ALL-WEATHER TREAD
The tread is the wearing surface on the outer circumference of A diamond-shaped tread pattern is effective for aircraft operating
the tire. It is made of specially compounded rubber and has a on grass or hard-packed dirt, but good braking action can be
pattern of grooves molded into its surface to give the tire the obtained on both hard surfaced and dirt runways with a tire
required traction characteristics with the type of runway surface having a rib tread in the center and diamonds molded into the
the aircraft will encounter. shoulders. (Figure C)
One of the problems encountered with modem jet aircraft is that RIB TREAD
of hydroplaning. This condition occurs when the tire rides on the
This is the most popular tread pattern found on aircraft today. It
surface of water or slush, rather than contacting the runway
is designed especially for use on hard surface runways and
surface. The brakes stop the wheel, and the tire rides on the
gives long tread wear, good traction, and exceptionally good
water, in much the same way as a water ski. When this happens,
directional stability. (Figure D)
braking action is nil, and extreme heat is built up in a highly
localized area of the tire. Hydroplaning is minimized by the The width and depth of the grooves and their placement on the
proper design and placement of the grooves in the tread, so the tread are factors used to adapt the tire to the operating
water can pass under the footprint of the tire, and the tread can conditions of the aircraft for which they are designed.
contact the runway surface. Some nose wheels are fitted with tires having twin-contact tread,
Water dispersing treads, which have many small holes which consists of a large circumferential rib at each side of the
incorporated in the crown and shoulder rubber, are also fairly crown, which is designed to assist in preventing shimmy.
common as a means of helping to prevent aquaplaning.
Rev. 00 76 11.13
Fig. B
Fig. C
Fig. A
Fig D Fig. E
Rev. 00 77 11.13
DEFLECTOR THE SIDEWALL

Jet aircraft with aft-mounted engines have a problem with water The sidewall is a rubber covering that extends from the tread
or slush being thrown up by the nose wheel and entering the down to the bead heel to protect the carcass from such minor
engines, causing damage or flameout. To prevent this, tires used injuries as cuts or bruises and from exposure to moisture and
on the nose wheels of these aircraft have chines, or deflectors, ozone.
molded in the upper sidewall to deflect the water or slush away
Tubeless tires have an inner liner that is designed to hold air, but
from the engine intakes. Tires for dual nose wheel installations
some air does seep through. If the sidewall trapped this
have chines on one side only, while single nose wheel
escaping air in the body plies, it could expand when the tire was
installations have dual deflectors, one on either side of the tire.
heated and cause ply separation and possibly allow the tread to
(Figure A)
be thrown from the tire.
To prevent this, tubeless tires have vent holes in their lower with
a green or gray spot and must be kept open when the tire is
retreaded. Tube-type tires are also vented to release air that is
trapped between the tire and the tube when the tire is mounted.
Rev. 00 78 11.13
Fig. A
Rev. 00 79 11.13
TIRE MARKINGS OTHER MARKINGS

Other markings that may be found on new tires include the
Tires have certain markings imprinted on their sidewalls for following:
identification purposes. These markings vary according to the
manufacturer but usually include size, part number, serial - A Green or gray spots indicating the positions of the awl
number, date of manufacture, tubed/tubeless, speed rating, ply vents.
rating, and the type and number of retreads carried out - A red spot or triangle indicating the light part of the tire.
PART NUMBER RETREADS
The part number usually includes the manufacturer's Retreaded tires are usually marked in accordance with a system
identification, the drawing to which the tire is manufactured, and peculiar to each manufacturer. The markings usually include the
letters to indicate the tread type, and whether it is tubed or tire part number, the name of the retreader, the number and date
tubeless. The part number is the only positive means of of the last retread, and in the case of retreads in which the
identifying a tire, and size markings alone should not be used for sidewalls are covered with new rubber, the tire serial number,
this purpose. Example: DR 7153 T. manufacturer, speed, size and ply rating.
SERIAL NUMBER
The serial number is usually marked in conjunction with the date
of manufacture, which may be in the form of a code indicating
the day, week, or month, and the year. Example: 2283 Nov 72 or
23202283.
SPEED RATING
Most high-speed tires (those which may be used at speeds over
160mph) have the speed rating imprinted on the tire to indicate
the maximum speed for which they are designed, e.g. 200mph.
Rev. 00 80 11.13
Rev. 00 81 11.13
TIRE INSPECTION ON THE AIRCRAFT

The proper inflation pressure is that specified by the airframe
INFLATION manufacturer in his service manuals and, for the same tire,
The greatest enemy of an aircraft tire is heat, either the heat that varies from one aircraft type to another. The pressure specified
is generated within the tire as it flexes when rolling over the in the airframe manufacturer's manual is for a loaded tire. When
ground, or that from such external sources as the brakes or hot the tire is subjected to this load, it will be deflected the designed
runway surfaces. amount, and the volume of its air chamber will be decreased
enough to raise the pressure by about four percent.
It is the internally generated heat that causes damage that is not
likely to be discovered until it results in a tire failure. Aircraft tires Inaccurate pressure gages are one of the major causes for
are designed to withstand the heat generated by normal flexing chronic inflation problems. To be sure that your gage is accurate,
for a reasonable amount of time. have it periodically calibrated.
Deflection due to under-inflation of the tire will cause excess Inflation pressure should always be measured when the tire is
heat to be generated within the tire that it is not designed to cold, and for this reason you should allow two to three hours to
withstand and therefore can cause internal carcass damage. elapse after a flight before you measure the pressure. (Figure B)
Tires that have been operated with low inflation pressure will On some aircraft, each wheel is equipped with a tire pressure
have their tread worn away on the shoulders more than in the gauge that is integral with the inflation valve. This built-in
center, and any tire showing this pattern of wear should be pressure gauge allows monitoring and quick check of the tire
carefully examined for evidence of hidden damage. pressure at anytime. (Figure C)
Over-inflation causes accelerated centerline wear on the tread Inflation pressure of a tire varies with the ambient temperature
while leaving rubber on the shoulder. When a tire is worn in this by about one percent for every five degrees Fahrenheit. If an
way, it has much less resistance to skidding than it has when its airplane is to fly into an area where the temperature is much
tread wears uniformly. lower than that of the departing point, the pressure should be
The importance of maintaining the proper inflation pressure in a adjusted before the airplane leaves. The airframe manufacturer's
tire makes pressure checks one of the most important parts of manual should be consulted before adjusting the pressure.
routine preventive maintenance. Tire pressure should ideally be Nylon tires will stretch when they are first inflated and will
checked daily and before each flight. (Figure A) increase their volume enough to cause a pressure drop of about
5-10% of the initial pressure in the first 24 hours. Their pressure
should therefore be adjusted 12 to 24 hours after installation.
Rev. 00 82 11.13
Fig. B
Fig. A
Fig. C
Rev. 00 83 11.13
TREAD CONDITION
TREAD DEPTH AND WEAR PATTERN
Since the basic strength of the tire is in its carcass, a tire loses If the center ribs are worn away while the shoulder ribs still have
none of its strength as long as the tread does not wear down into an appreciable depth, the tire has been operated in an over-
the body plies of the carcass. But when the tread is worn away, inflated condition, and as such is highly susceptible to cuts and
tire traction characteristics are seriously affected. bruises. It should be carefully checked for this type of damage.
(Figure C)
A tire that has been properly maintained and operated with the
correct inflation pressure will wear the tread uniformly, and it Under-inflation will cause the shoulder ribs to wear more than
should be removed for retreading while there is still at least 1/32” those in the center. Any tire showing this wear pattern should be
of tread left at its most shallow point. When the tire is removed at carefully inspected for signs of bulges, which could indicate, ply
this point, there is still enough tread left to provide traction and separation. (Figure D)
handling during wet runway operation. (Figure B)
Tread that has been worn until the body plies are visible
indicates poor maintenance. If it is worn only to the point that the
tread reinforcement is showing, it is possible that the tire can be
salvaged by retreading. But if it is worn into the body plies, it has
to be scrapped. (Figure E)
Uneven tread wear can indicate that the landing gear is out of
alignment, and this should be checked and adjusted so it
conforms to the specifications of the aircraft service manual. If
the uneven wear is slight and the landing gear is not adjusted,
the tires may be dismounted, carefully inspected, and reversed
so the wear will be evened out.
Tread wear in spots can be caused by malfunctioning brakes,
improperly torqued bearings, or worn shock struts.
Rev. 00 84 11.13
Fig. B
Fig. C
Fig. D
Fig. A
Fig. E
Rev. 00 85 11.13
TREAD DAMAGE SIDEWALL CONDITION

Any time the tread is cut more than halfway across a rib, or any The main purpose of the sidewall of a tire is to protect the
of the carcass plies are exposed, the tire should be removed. carcass plies from damage, either from mechanical abrasion or
(Figure A) from deterioration by chemicals or by the sun. Small snags or
cuts or weather checking in the sidewall rubber that do not
If there are bits of glass, rock, or metal embedded in the tread,
expose the cords are not normally considered a cause for
they should be carefully pried out with a blunt awl or a small
removal of the tire, but if any of the ply material is exposed, the
screwdriver. Be very careful when you do this that you don't
tire must be removed.
puncture the tire. It is also a good policy to hold one hand over
the foreign matter to prevent its flying up into your eye when it The liner of a tubeless tire is there to hold the air, but some of
pops out. the air diffuses through into the body plies. The sidewalls of
these tires are vented to allow this air to escape, but if the vents
When a wheel locks up on a water-covered runway and rides on
do not adequately relieve the pressure, ply separation may
the surface of the water, a tremendous amount of heat builds up
occur.
at the point of contact and actually bums the rubber. Tires
showing this type of damage should be removed from service. NOTE
(Figure B)
Mark any damage or suspect area of the tire with a light colored
Operating on grooved runways can cause chevron-shaped cuts crayon before deflating the tire, because when the air is out,
across the ribs of a tire, and, as with any type of cut, if they these areas will be almost impossible to locate.
extend across more than one-half of the rib, the tire should be
Any tread damage should be carefully evaluated by a licensed
removed from service. (Figure D)
retreading agency to determine whether or not the tire is
repairable.
Rev. 00 86 11.13
Fig. A – Cut Damage Fig. B – Wet Braking Flats Fig. C – Dry Braking Flats
Fig. D – Chevron Cutting Fig. E – Tread Chunking Fig. F – Lateral Scoring
Rev. 00 87 11.13
TIRE INSPECTION OFF OF THE AIRCRAFT Punctures that do not exceed ¼” on the outside of the tire and
1/8” on the inside and injuries that do not penetrate more than
Any tire that has been involved in an aborted takeoff or severe 40% of the actual body plies can be repaired when the tire is
braking, or has been exposed to enough heat that the fusible retreaded.
plug in the wheel has blown and deflated the tire, should be If any bulges were marked when the tire was inflated, carefully
replaced. This excessive heat has caused damage to the tire check them to determine whether they are ply separations or
that, even though it is not obvious, has weakened the tire separations between the tread and the carcass. If it is a ply
enough that it will likely fail in service. separation, the tire must be scrapped, but tread separation may
If one tire in a dual installation fails, there have been enough possibly be repaired by retreading.
extra stresses put into the other tire that it should be discarded Carefully examine the sidewall for condition, and if any of the
too, even though no visible damage has been done to it. cords have been damaged or exposed, the tire cannot be
Carefully spread the beads apart so you can inspect the inner repaired, as it is reasonable to suspect that the exposed cords
liner. Don't concentrate the force used to spread the beads, and have been weakened by exposure to the elements.
don't spread them more than the section width of the tire. The Carefully examine all of the bead and the adjacent area for
use of improper procedure when breaking the bead or when indication of damage from tire tools or from chafing against the
spreading it can kink the wire bundles so the bead cannot seat rim. Any severe damage here would require the tire to be
against the wheel when it is reinstalled, and a tire with a kinked scrapped, but if the damage is only through the chafer, it can be
bead should be scrapped. repaired when the tire is retreaded.
Carefully examine the inner liner of tubeless tires for any bulges Damage from excessive heat will usually show up on the bead
or blisters, and have any suspect areas evaluated by a area because the heat can build up here faster than it can be
retreading agency. (Figure A) dissipated. If any of the bead area is damaged or has an unusual
Probe all of the suspected areas that were marked when the tire appearance or texture, the tire cannot be repaired. (Figure E)
was inflated. When checking any cuts, open them up enough The bead surface from the wheel flange to the toe of the bead is
that you can see into their depth, but be sure you don't puncture the sealing surface for a tubeless tire, and if it has been
the tire. (Figure B) damaged by tire tools or by slipping on the wheel it will not seal.
Bare chafer cords, however, if they are not broken, will not
normally cause a tire to leak, and they are not necessarily a
cause for removing the tire from service.
Rev. 00 88 11.13
Fig. A – Bulge Fig. B – Cut Damage Fig. C – Burst Tire
Fig. E –
Heat Damage
Fig. D – Sidewall Cracking

Rev. 00 89 11.13
TIRE RETREADING TIRE STORAGE

The great amount of abrasion a tire experiences on its tread All new and retreaded tires should be stored in a cool, dry area,
each time the airplane lands or taxis on a hard surfaced runway out of direct sunlight and away from any electrical machinery.
wears the tread away long before the carcass is worn out, and Fluorescent lights, electric motors, generators, and battery
so it is standard practice for commercial aircraft tires to be chargers all convert oxygen into ozone, which is very harmful to
retreaded. rubber.
When a tire is received by the retreading agency, it is thoroughly The storage room should not have extremes of temperature, but
inspected. The tread, sidewalls, and beads are checked for cuts, should be maintained between 320 and 800 F (00 and 270 C).
bruises, other damage, or wear, and air is injected into the
Special care should be taken to assure that no grease, oil,
sidewall to check for any ply separation. The tire is checked for
hydraulic fluid, or any other hydrocarbon compound comes in
fabric fatigue and for any indication of contamination by oil,
contact with the stored tire, as all of these compounds will attack
grease, or hydraulic fluid. The tires that pass this inspection then
the rubber to some degree.
have their old tread rubber removed by contour buffing, which
produces a smooth shoulder-to-shoulder surface. New tread Whenever possible the tires should be stored vertically in racks,
rubber and reinforcement are then applied to the buffed carcass, with the tire supported on a flat surface which is at least three or
and the tire is placed in a heated mold and cured. After it is four inches wide. If tubeless tires are stacked horizontally, the
taken from the mold, balance patches are bonded to the inside bottom tires in the stack may be distorted so much that the
of the tire to achieve the proper static balance, and the tire is beads will not seat on the wheel unless a special bead-seating
then given a final inspection. tool is used. If it is necessary, however, to stack them
horizontally, don't stack them more than five tires high, for tires
The tire is identified as a retreaded tire and a record made of the
with a diameter of up to 40”, four tires high for those between
number of times it has been retreaded. Some tire manufacturers
40”-49”, and three high for tires larger than 49”.
may specify the number of time a tire can be retreaded but for
some tires there is no specific limit to the number of times, but is
determined by the condition of the carcass.
Rev. 00 90 11.13
Fig. A
Rev. 00 91 11.13
AIRCRAFT TUBES
TUBE INSPECTION
TUBE CONSTRUCTION AND SELECTION
If a tube is suspected of leaking, first check the valve by
A great number of aircraft tires, ranging, from some of the small spreading a drop of water over the end of the valve, and watch
type Ill up to large type VII are of the tube type. to see if a bubble forms. If a bubble does form, the valve core
Tubes for these tires are available in either non reinforced rubber should be replaced. If the leak is not in the valve, the tire must
for normal applications or as a special heavy-duty reinforced be deflated and demounted and the tube removed. If the tube is
tube that has a layer of nylon fabric molded to its inside not too large, inflate it and submerge it in water to find the source
circumference to protect it from chafing against the rim and from of bubbles. If the tube is too large for the available water
heat caused by brake application. container, flow water over the surface of the tube as you look for
the leak.
All aircraft tubes are made of a specially compounded natural
rubber that holds air with a minimum of leakage. There are two It is extremely important, when inflating a tube that is not in a
primary causes for an aircraft tube leaking: a hole in the tube or tire, that you do not put more air into it than is required to just
a defective valve. round it out.
It is extremely important that only the tube recommended for a Check the tube carefully around the valve stem and the valve
particular tire be used with it. If the tube is too small for the tire, pad for any indication of the pad pulling away from the tube.
its splices will be overstressed and the tube will be weakened. Examine the inside circumference of the tube for evidence of
chafing against the toe of the bead or by corrosion on the wheel.
Any tube that is chafed enough to lose some of its thickness in
spots should be replaced.
Examine the inner circumference of the tube for any indication
that it has been heated enough for the rubber to have lost its
smooth contour and taken a set or developed square corners.
Any tube that is deformed in this way should be replaced.
Reinforced tubes should be used on installations where there is
enough heat to damage a regular tube.
Rev. 00 92 11.13
Fig. B
Fig. A
Fig. C Fig. D
Rev. 00 93 11.13
TUBE STORAGE
Tubes should be stored in their original cartons whenever
possible, but if their cartons are not available, they should be
dusted with tire talcum and wrapped in heavy paper.
Tubes may also be stored inflated by putting them in the proper
size tire and inflating them just enough to round them out. The
inside of the tire and the outside of the tube should be dusted
with tire talc to prevent the tube sticking to the tire.
Tubes should never be stored by hanging them over nails or
pegs, or supporting them in any way that would cause a sharp
fold or crease, as these creases will eventually cause the rubber
to crack. Tubes with creases should not be put into service.
Tubes, like any other rubber product, should be stored in a cool
dry, dark area, away from any electrical equipment that would
produce rubber-damaging ozone.
Rev. 00 94 11.13
TIRE MOUNTING – TUBELESS TIRES

Now, very carefully place the tire over the inboard wheel half
Most modem aircraft use the split-type wheel which makes tire with the red dot indicating the tire's light point adjacent to the
mounting far easier than it was with either the single-piece drop- wheel valve. Now place the outboard wheel half inside the tire
center wheel or with wheels having a removable flange held on and line up the boltholes.
with a locking ring. Apply an anti-seize compound such as Lubtork to the threads of
The fact that the wheel is so highly stressed makes it extremely the bolts, to both sides of the washers, and to the bearing
important that the manufacturer's service information be followed surface of the nuts. Install the bolts and nuts, and draw all of the
in detail when mounting and demounting the tires. nuts up in a criss-cross fashion to one-half of the required
torque. Then go back and bring them all up to the full torque. It is
Before the tire is mounted on a wheel, the wheel must be important when torquing the wheel bolts to use an accurate hand
carefully inspected to be sure that there are no damages and torque wrench. Never use an impact wrench on any bolt where
that thermal fuse plugs, inflation air valve and any balance the torque is critical, because its torque is applied in a series of
weights are properly installed. blows or jerks, and the actual stresses to which the bolt is
Clean the bead seat area and the O-ring seal area with a cloth subjected are considerably greater than the bolt is designed to
dampened with isopropyl alcohol, and place the inboard wheel take.
half on a clean, flat surface. Place the wheel and tire assembly in a safety cage, adjust the air
Lubricate the O-ring and carefully place the seal in the groove pressure regulator to the recommended tire pressure, and, using
without stretching or twisting it. a clip-on chuck, inflate the tire gradually. Watch while the tire is
inflating to be sure the beads seat against the wheel flange.
Check to be sure that the tire is approved for the aircraft on
which it is being mounted and that the word TUBELESS is All nylon tires stretch when they are initially inflated and should
marked on the sidewall. Be sure there is no foreign material be allowed to remain for 12 to 24 hours with no load applied.
inside the tire, and wipe the bead area with rag damp with This stretch may cause a five- to ten-percent decrease in
isopropyl alcohol. pressure, and the pressure should be adjusted after this period.
Continue to monitor the inflation pressure daily. There will be
Because of the tight fit between the bead of the tire and the
some pressure loss, but it should not exceed 5% in any 24-hour
wheel, apply a little tire talc to the toe, or inner edge, of the bead.
period.
Be sure, however, that no powder gets between the bead and
the wheel flange.
Rev. 00 95 11.13
TIRE MOUNTING – TUBE-TYPE TIRES

Lubricate the bolts with anti-seize compound and tighten the
Before mounting a tube-type tire on a wheel check that the tire nuts in a criss-cross fashion to one-half of the required torque.
and tube are both correct for the installation. Check that the Then, go back and bring all of the nuts up to the recommended
wheel is clean and free from oil or grease and any damage. value with a good smooth pull on the handle of the torque
Before mounting the tire, clean the bead seat area with a rag wrench.
damp with isopropyl alcohol. Put the tire in a safety cage and, using a clip on chuck, gradually
Check the inside of the tire to be sure that it is clean and free of bring the air pressure up to the recommended value to seat the
all foreign matter, and then dust it with an approved tire talcum beads and then deflate the tire. Now, re-inflate it to the correct
powder. Fold the inner tube and dust it with talc and slip it inside pressure. This inflation, deflation, and re-inflation procedure
the tire with the valve sticking out on the side of the tire having allows the tube to straighten itself out inside the tire and will
the serial number. Inflate the tube just enough to round it out and remove any wrinkles from the tube.
adjust it inside the tire so the yellow mark that indicates the The air pressure in a tube-type tire will drop after its initial
heavy point of the tube aligns with the red dot on the tire inflation because the nylon plies stretch in the same way they do
indicating its light point. If there is no balance mark on the tube, in a tubeless tire, and there may also be air trapped between the
you can assume that the valve is the heavy point. tube and the tire. When all this trapped air leaks out around the
Install the tire and tube on the outboard wheel half so the valve valve, under the beads, and through the sidewall vents, the
stem sticks out through the hole in the wheel. If you wish, a bit of inflation pressure will drop. All of this air should be out within the
tire talc may be rubbed on the toe of the bead to help it slide initial 12- to 24-hour period, and the pressure may then be
over the wheel and seat itself. adjusted and the tire put in service.
Now you can place the inboard half of the wheel in the tire, two
opposite bolts can be inserted to guide it into position: making
sure that tube is not pinched between the wheels. On pressing
the two halves of the wheel together, a metallic noise should be
heard when they meet; this is a good indication of whether or not
the tube has been nipped.
Rev. 00 96 11.13
TIRE BALANCING
As aircraft takeoff speeds increase, the vibration caused by
unbalanced wheels becomes annoying. And this vibration is
especially noticeable on nose wheels, since they extend quite a
distance below the airplane on a slender strut, and they usually
do not have a brake to help dampen the vibrations.
After the tire is mounted on the wheel, inflated, and allowed to
take its initial stretch, the assembly is mounted on a balancing
stand with the cones of the balancing shaft seating firmly against
the bearing cups in the wheel. Place the shaft on the balancing
stand and allow the wheel to rotate until its heavy point comes to
a rest at the bottom. (Figure A)
Counterbalance the wheel with test weights until the assembly is
balanced, and then install the correct amount of weight on the
wheel at the location identified by the test weights. Fig. B
Some balance weights are installed on special brackets that

mount under the head of the wheel bolts, and others fasten to
the wheel rim by a cotter pin through holes that have been drilled
in the rim for that purpose. (Figure B)
Fig. A
Many of the smaller wheels do not have provisions for
mechanically attaching balance weights, and for these wheel
lead strips having an adhesive backing may be used. (Figure C)
Be sure to use only the type of weight that is approved for the
particular wheel you are balancing, and follow the instructions in
the aircraft service manual for the installation of these weights.
Fig. C
Rev. 00 97 11.13
AIRCRAFT BRAKES
The various brake designs discussed in this section reflect the
variety of braking capabilities required for different size aircraft.
Light aircraft can rely on a single disk brake or a simple shoe
brake because the landing speeds are slow and the aircraft is
light in weight.
Large aircraft, such as transports, land at high speeds and weigh
several tons. These aircraft require very powerful multi-surfaced
brakes in order for the brakes to be effective at slowing the
aircraft.
Rev. 00 98 11.13
Rev. 00 99 11.13
INTERNAL EXPANDING-SHOE BRAKES

Shoe brakes will still be encountered on older aircraft and some
current models of home built aircraft.
The types of internal expanding-shoe brakes are;
1. One-way, or single servo, type
2. Two-way, or dual-servo, type
Servo action in a brake of this type means that the rotation of the
brake drum adds braking energy to the brake shoes and makes
them operate more effectively and with less effort by the pilot.
In single-servo type brakes, the servo action is effective when
the wheel rotates in one direction only, in contrast with a dual
servo, or reversible, type, which is able to give servo action in
either direction.
Brake-shoe assemblies are attached to the landing-gear strut
flange by means of bolts through the torque plate on the axle.
The brake drum is attached to the wheel and rotates with it.
A dual-servo brake assembly is shown in the drawing of Figure
A. As explained previously, dual-servo brakes are effective for
either direction of wheel rotation; therefore they can be
interchanged between the left and right wheels of the airplane
and are effective for both forward and backward motion of the
airplane.
These brakes may be operated hydraulically, mechanically, or
pneumatically.
Rev. 00 100 11.13

Fig. A
Rev. 00 101 11.13

EXPANDER-TUBE BRAKES
Expander-tube is type of brake that was used on older aircraft. OPERATION
CONSTRUCTION - The expander-tube brake is hydraulically operated and can
be used with any conventional hydraulic brake system.
Each expander-tube brake consists of four main parts: brake
frame, expander tube, return springs and brake blocks - When the brake pedal is pressed, the fluid is forced into the
expander tube. The frame prevents any expansion either
The single-type brake has one row of blocks around the
inward or to the sides. The pressure of the fluid in the tube
circumference and is used on small aircraft. The duplex-type,
forces the blocks radially outward against the brake drum.
expander-tube brake has two rows of brake blocks and is
designed for larger aircraft. - When the pressure is released, the springs in the ends of the
blocks tend to force the fluid out of the expander tube and to
An inner fairing, or shield, fits between the torque flange on the
pull the blocks away from contact with the brake drum. This
axle and the brake frame to protect the frame against water.
action is increased by the tube itself, since it is molded
The brake expander tube is a flat tube made of synthetic rubber slightly smaller in diameter than the brake frame and tends to
compound and fabric. It is stretched over the circular brake contract without the help of the springs.
frame between the side flanges, and it has a nozzle that is
- Each block is independent in its action; therefore, there is no
connected with the hydraulic-fluid line by means of suitable
buildup of servo action and no tendency to grab.
fittings.
Figure A shows the side and end views of an expander-tube-
The brake blocks are made of a material similar to that used for
type brake and Figure B illustrates the principle of operation.
molded brake linings. The blocks have notches at each corner to
engage with lugs on the brake frame and to prevent movement
with the brake drum as it rotates. There are grooves across the
ends of each block, and flat return springs are inserted in these
grooves. The ends of the springs fit into slots in the side flanges
of the brake frame, holding the blocks firmly against the
expander tube and keeping them from dragging when the brake
is released.
Rev. 00 102 11.13

Fig. A
Fig. B Fig. C
Rev. 00 103 11.13

MAINTENANCE
During the inspection and servicing of expander-tube brakes, the
Technician must make sure that no hydraulic pressure is applied
to the brakes when a brake is not enclosed in its drum. If the
brake blocks are not restrained by the drum when hydraulic
power is applied, the retaining grooves at the ends of the blocks
will brake and the blocks will pop out.
When the brake blocks are worn to their allowable limits, they
are easily replaced. The return springs that retain the blocks are
removed by pressing down on one end clip with a screwdriver or
other tool and sliding the springs out of the rectangular holes in
which they are held.
When all the blocks have been removed, the entire assembly is
cleaned and inspected before installing new blocks. The new
blocks are installed one at a time with the return springs to hold
them in place.
If the expander tube is found to be damaged upon removal of the
brake blocks, the tube must be replaced.
Rev. 00 104 11.13

Rev. 00 105 11.13

SINGLE-DISK BRAKES
One of the most popular types of brakes, especially for smaller Most hydraulic brake systems require a method for the removal
aircraft, is the single-disk brake. An exploded view of such a of air from the system. In Figs. A and C, items 16 through 20 and
brake is shown in Figure A, and a cutaway is shown in Figure B. 15 through 17, respectively, comprise the brake bleeder valve
assembly.
CONSTRUCTION
In order to bleed the air from the brakes, the valve is opened
The main disk (1) of the brake shown in Figure A is held in the
slightly and hydraulic fluid under pressure is applied to the
wheel by means of teeth or keys around the outer rim of the disk,
piston. A complete discussion of brake bleeding is found at the
causing it to turn with the wheel but allowing it limited in-and-out
end of this chapter.
movement on the keys. On each side of the disk linings (2) are
located, which bear against the disk when the brakes are Although modem aircraft operate the single-disk brake with
applied, causing the wheel to slow down or stop. hydraulic power, some older aircraft are designed with
mechanically operated single-disk brakes.
One lining of the brake is mounted in a recess in the plate
attached to the main axle structure. The other lining (2) is
mounted against the piston (11) and moves according to the
amount of hydraulic pressure applied to the piston. In Figure A,
three pistons are incorporated in the brake housing (25);
therefore, three linings must be mounted on the opposite side of
the disk to back up the movable linings. Single-disk brakes may
be constructed with as many separate pistons and linings as
deemed advisable for the airplane for which they are designed.
Each piston is equipped with separate sets of linings, which bear
against the brake disk (1) when the brakes are applied.
Rev. 00 106 11.13

Rev. 00 107 11.13

MULTIPLE-DISK BRAKES with each outer surface faced with a bronze sheet. The bronze
sheet takes the wear, whereas the stainless steel wear pads on
Multiple-disk brakes are used on large aircraft where a
the stator plates remain comparatively stable.
substantial amount of braking force is required. They are
operated by hydraulic pressure. The construction of a typical The torque tube is the structural drum-type member that links the
multiple-disk brake assembly is shown in Figure A. carrier with the back plate. It provides the keys for the stator
plates and ties the brake assembly to the axle flange. The torque
The brake assembly in Figure A is described as a dual-system,
tube is the structural backbone of the brake assembly and
five-rotor disk-type power brake.
transfers braking forces to the axle and gear strut.
Each brake contains two independent cylinder and passageway
Braking action is produced by hydraulic pressure forcing the
systems; and each system contains seven brake pistons, two
pistons against the pressure plate, which, in turn, forces the disk
bleed valves, and one hydraulic pressure port and its associated
stack together and creates friction between the rotating and
passageways. Each brake also contains one carrier, four stator
stationary disks.
plates, one pressure plate, one back plate, five rotor plates, and
one torque tube. An organic insulator fitted to each piston prevents brake-heat
transfer to the pistons and carrier.
The carrier houses the two independent internally drilled,
hydraulic passageway systems; 14 hydraulic pistons, 7 for each When hydraulic-fluid pressure is released from the brake
system; the brake-return assemblies; 4 bleed valves; and 2 pistons, the return springs and pins pull the pressure plate and
pressure ports, 1 for each system. the pistons to the full OFF position, thus releasing the brakes. A
self-adjusting mechanism on the return pins maintains a
The 4 stator plates and the pressure plate are keyed to the
constant running clearance throughout the life of the brake. No
torque tube of the brake.
adjustment is necessary. (Figure B)
The stator plates consist of a steel heat-sink-type core with 14
Although not shown in this example of a multiple-disk brake,
stainless steel pads riveted onto both outer surfaces. The pads
wear indicators are often included in the brake design. These
are comparable with brake linings on conventional disk-type
rods are extensions of the return pins. As the brake linings wear
brakes but resist wear more effectively. The heat-sink feature
and the adjuster operates, the wear indicator moves into the
helps to absorb and carry the heat away from the stainless steel
assembly. When the exposed length of the rod has decreased to
brake pads.
a predetermined minimum length, the brakes must be replaced.
The five rotor plates are keyed to the wheel and rotate with the
wheel. Each rotor plate consists of a steel heat sink-type core
Rev. 00 108 11.13

Fig. A
Fig. B
Rev. 00 109 11.13

SEGMENTED ROTOR-DISK BRAKES

Segmented rotor-disk brakes are heavy-duty brakes designed Alternating stator plates, with brake-lining material on both sides,
for use with high-pressure hydraulic systems using power brake and rotor assemblies are installed until the proper number of
control valves or power boost master cylinders. Braking action each is in place.
results from several sets of stationary, high-friction-type brake
After the last rotor segment plate is in position, a compensating
linings making contact with rotating (rotor) segments. This action
shim is installed to space the back plate out from the carrier, and
is the same as occurs with multiple-disk brakes. An exploded
then the back plate is installed. The back plate contains brake
view of this type brake is shown in Figure A, and a cross section
lining on the side toward the rotors. The compensating shims
of the brake is shown in Figure B.
allow the brake linings to wear down until the piston is out of
A carrier assembly is the brake component that is attached to travel. The shims are then removed, causing the pistons to be
the landing-gear shock strut flange and on which all of the other moved back into the cylinder, and more of the available brake
components are mounted. lining can now be used.
The piston cups and pistons are placed in two grooves, which Because of the gap between the rotor segments and the space
act as cylinders, in the carrier assembly. between the lining sections, more brake cooling can be achieved
than is possible with the multiple-disk brake, allowing more
The automatic adjusters, which compensate for lining wear, are
braking action to be achieved before a limiting temperature is
threaded into holes equally spaced around the face of the
reached.
carrier.
Each adjuster is composed of an adjuster pin, adjuster clamp,
return spring, sleeve, nut, and clamp hold-down assembly.
The pressure plate is notched to fit over the stator drive sleeve.
This component is stationary on the sleeve. An auxiliary stator
plate fits next to the pressure plate and has brake-lining material
attached to the side away from the pressure plate.
The rotor segment plate is installed next. This part is notched on
the outside to mate with the wheel and rotate with it. The plate is
made up of several segments, as shown.
Rev. 00 110 11.13

Fig. B
Fig. A
Rev. 00 111 11.13

CARBON COMPOSITE BRAKES

Carbon composite brakes have become a long-life, lightweight At the present time carbon brakes are more expensive to
alternative to steel brakes since their introduction to commercial produce and are generally found only on long-range aircraft,
aviation as standard equipment on the Concorde. where weight savings can have a significant impact on cruise
performance.
A carbon fiber rotor is illustrated in Figure A.
Carbon also offers reduced maintenance costs. Steel brakes
Carbon composites possess several unique properties that
normally last about 1000 landings before they must be replaced.
permit the combining of the overall brake disc functions of friction
Carbon brakes will last longer (1200-1500 landings) and, due to
surface, heat sink, and structural member into a single unit.
fewer brake changes, significantly reduce maintenance
The material has the unique property that its strength does not requirements.
decrease at elevated temperatures. This property, coupled with
low thermal expansion, yields a brake heat sink whose operating
temperature is limited effectively only by the temperature limits of
the surrounding structure.
When rubbed against itself, a carbon composite can perform
excellently as a friction material. It provides a high heat-storage
capability for each pound. This is important because in a
rejected takeoff, steel brakes are designed to reach a
temperature of about 2000°F. Carbon brakes have the capability
of exceeding 3000°F. The maximum temperature for carbon
brakes ranges from 3200 to 3400°F.
In addition, good thermal conductivity characteristics serve to
dissipate the heat rapidly.
Another major factor is weight. Carbon brakes weigh 40 percent
less than aircraft brakes with conventional steel rotors and
linings, meaning greater fuel efficiency and the ability to carry a
heavier payload in commercial aircraft.
Rev. 00 112 11.13

Fig. A
Rev. 00 113 11.13

AIRCRAFT BRAKE SYSTEMS

Brake-actuating systems for aircraft can be classified as
mechanically operated, hydraulically operated, or pneumatically
operated. All brake-actuating systems provide for applying
brakes either on one side of the aircraft or all the aircraft brakes
by operating foot pedals or hand levers.
Mechanical brakes are found on only a few of the older, small
airplanes. A mechanical brake-actuating system includes
pulleys, cables, and bell cranks for connecting the foot pedals to
the brake-shoe operating mechanism.
In some airplanes, the hydraulic brake system is a subsystem of
the main hydraulic system. In other airplanes, there is an entirely
independent brake system.
Pneumatic brake systems utilize air pressure instead of fluid
pressure to operate the brakes. Some hydraulic brake systems
are arranged with a pneumatic backup system for operation in
case of hydraulic-fluid loss or failure of hydraulic pressure.
Rev. 00 114 11.13

Rev. 00 115 11.13

INDEPENDENT BRAKE SYSTEMS It is a simple but effective unit, normally connected by a linkage
to the brake pedal mounted on the rudder pedal. The hydraulic
An independent brake system, such as is shown in Figure A, is
fluid enters the master cylinder through the inlet port and
usually found on small aircraft. This system is self-contained and
compensating port from the external reservoir, which supplies
independent of the aircraft's main hydraulic system. The basic
the master cylinders for both the right and left brake systems.
components of this type of system are a reservoir, a master
The application of the brake forces the piston into the cylinder
cylinder operated by the brake-control pedal or handle, a brake
and causes hydraulic fluid to flow toward the brake-actuating
assembly on the wheel, and necessary lines, hoses, and fittings.
cylinder in the wheel.
Expander-tube, shoe, or disk-brake assemblies may be used
with this type of system. The illustration shows the cylinder in the horizontal position, but
when it is installed in the aircraft, it is in a vertical position with
The reservoir is a storage tank that supplies the fluid to
the eye of the piston rod downward. When the piston moves
compensate for small leaks in the connecting lines or cylinders.
against the return spring, the compensating port is closed and
The reservoir may be a part of the master cylinder or it may be a
the fluid in the cylinder is trapped under pressure. Continued
separate unit, as shown in the drawing. It is vented to the
pressure applied through the brake pedal forces the fluid
atmosphere to provide for feeding the fluid to the master
pressure to the brake-actuating cylinder and applies the brake.
cylinders under the force of gravity; therefore, the fluid must be
When the force is removed from the brake pedal, the piston is
kept at the correct level, or air will enter the system and reduce
returned to the OFF position by means of the return spring, and
its effectiveness.
the compensating port is again open to the reservoir. The
The master cylinder is the energizing unit. There is one for each compensating port permits the fluid to flow toward or away from
main landing-gear wheel. The master cylinder is actually a foot- the reservoir as temperature changes, thus preventing a build-up
operated, single-action reciprocating pump, the purpose of which of pressure when the brake is off.
is to build up hydraulic fluid pressure in the brake system.
With this type of master cylinder, the brakes are locked in the
One type of master cylinder for light aircraft is illustrated in
ON position for parking by means of a ratchet-type lock that is
Figure B.
constructed as part of the mechanical linkage between the foot
pedal and master cylinder. If an increase of temperature occurs,
expansion increases the volume of fluid. This is compensated for
by means of a spring built into the linkage. To unlock the brakes,
the pilot applies enough force to the brake pedals to unload the
ratchet-type lock.
Rev. 00 116 11.13

Fig. B
Fig. A
Rev. 00 117 11.13

Another type of master cylinder is used on a number of light OPERATION

aircraft. This cylinder is illustrated in Figure A. These cylinders
As pressure is applied to advance the piston rod into the
are mounted on the rudder pedals, as shown in the drawing of
cylinder, the piston remains stationary until the lock-o-seal is
Figure B.
seated on the piston. When the lock-o-seal is seated, fluid
CONSTRUCTION cannot pass the piston, and with continued movement of the
piston rod forcing the piston into the cylinder, pressure in the
In the illustration of Figure A, this type of master cylinder
cylinder is increased. At any time during the stroke if the force on
incorporates a fluid reservoir (8) on the top of the cylinder (11)
the piston is eased, the piston return spring will tend to keep the
within the same body (7). A plastic filler plug (18) is used to close
piston seated against the lock-o-seal, maintaining pressure in
the opening in the cover (4), which is threaded into the body.
the cylinder.
The filler plug is not vented because sufficient ventilation is
provided by clearance between the piston rod (3) and the piston- As the force is further eased, allowing the piston-return spring to
rod opening through the cover boss (6). force the piston to retreat, the upper end of the compensating
sleeve will contact the cover boss; thus the piston is forced to
With the exception of the piston return spring (12), all internal
unseat itself from the lock-o-seal. This allows additional fluid
operating parts are assembled onto the piston rod. These parts
from the reservoir to enter the cylinder. This positive unseating
are the piston (15), piston spring (14), "lock-o-seal" (16), and
also allows unrestricted passage of fluid from the cylinder to the
compensating sleeve (17). A seal between the piston and the
reservoir while the piston is in the static position. This action is to
cylinder walls is provided by the a-ring (9) installed in a groove
compensate for any excess fluid that may be present in the
around the piston.
system due to pumping or from thermal expansion.
Rev. 00 118 11.13

Fig. A Fig. B
Rev. 00 119 11.13

POWER ASSISTED OR BOOSTED BRAKE SYSTEMS

There is a size of airplane which requires more braking force
than can be applied with an independent master cylinder, yet it
does not require the complex system of a power brake; the
boosted brake fills this need.
The boosted brake master cylinder of Figure B is typical for this
type of operation. This cylinder is mounted on the rudder pedal
and attached to the toe brake pedal in such a way that
depressing the pedal pulls on the rod and forces fluid out to the
brake cylinder. If the pilot needs more pressure on the brakes
than he can apply with the pedal, he continues to push, and as
the toggle mechanism straightens out, the spool valve is moved
over so it will direct hydraulic system pressure behind the piston
where it assists the pilot in forcing fluid out to the brake.
When the pedal is released, the spool valve moves back to its
original position and vents the area on top of the piston back to
the system reservoir. At the same time the compensator poppet
unseats and vents the brakes to the reservoir.
Rev. 00 120 11.13

Fig. A
Fig. B
Rev. 00 121 11.13

POWER BRAKE SYSTEM acting on the end of the rod creates a return force tending to
close the valve. This return force varies with the intensity of
A power brake system is used to operate the brakes of large
braking force and provides "feel" at the pedals. The desired
aircraft where the independent and power boost systems are not
braking effort is obtained by depressing the pedals a greater or
adequate.
lesser distance. Cable stretch and adjustment of pedal position
The pilot initiates braking by depressing the brake pedal. This permits the valve rod to move back until both pressure and
causes a power brake-control valve to direct hydraulic system return ports are closed. At this point the braking effort remains
pressure to the brakes and operate the brake assembly. The constant. This condition is shown schematically in Figure A.
brake pedal is connected to the power brake control valve Releasing the brake pedals allows the pressure in the
through an arrangement of cables, pulleys, bell cranks, and compensating chamber to move the valve rod out and open the
linkages. brake line to the return line. When the pressure in the brake line
The power brake control valve for a transport aircraft is falls, the brakes are released and return force on the valve rod is
illustrated in Figure B. These are also called brake metering also reduced.
valves. One metering-valve assembly is used for each main Automatic braking to stop the rotation of the wheels during
landing-gear brake. retraction is provided by a small-diameter piston actuating
In a typical system, four hydraulic lines are attached to each cylinder attached to the metering valve. The cylinder is
valve. These lines are for pressure, return, brakes, and connected to the landing-gear-retract hydraulic line. When the
automatic braking. Valve ports are opened or closed by landing-gear control is placed to ‘UP’, hydraulic pressure is
operating a circular grooved, sliding valve rod (spool). The directed to the automatic cylinder and the piston extends. One
linkage end of the valve rod projects beyond the valve body, end of the piston rod rests on the valve rod; therefore, extension
whereas the opposite end is supported in a sealed of the piston opens the metering valve and applies the brakes.
compensating chamber.
When the brake pedals are depressed, an inward movement is
imparted to the metering valve rod through the mechanical
linkage and cables. As the rod moves in, the return port is
closed, and the pressure port is opened to direct hydraulic fluid
pressure to the brakes. A passage through the valve rod permits
the hydraulic fluid under pressure to enter a compensating
chamber enclosing the inner end of the valve rod. Pressure
Rev. 00 122 11.13

Fig. B
Fig. A
Rev. 00 123 11.13
DEBOOSTER VALVE
A brake debooster valve is installed in systems where the high The debooster has a pin-operated ball valve that allows fluid in
pressure of the hydraulic system is used to operate brakes that the line to the brakes to be replenished if there should be a leak
are designed to work with lower pressure. in the line. If the debooster piston should move down enough for
the pin to push the ball off its seat, fluid under system pressure
This valve is positioned in the hydraulic line between the power
will flow into the lower chamber and replenish the lost fluid. As
brake-control valve and the brake assembly.
soon as enough fluid enters the chamber, the piston will rise and
These are primarily pressure-reducing valves that operate on the the ball will reseat.
basis of a pressure differential being produced by an area
Lockout debooster, such as the one shown in Figure B allow the
differential. The principle of the debooster is illustrated in Figure
piston to go all the way to the bottom. The pin pushes the ball off
A, where we have a system pressure of 1,500psi applied to a
its seat, but the spring-loaded valve prevents fluid entering the
piston having an area of two square inches. This generates
lower chamber until the reset handle is lifted.
3,000 pounds of force. If the other end of the piston has an area
of ten square inches, the 3,000 pounds of force will produce a
pressure of 300psi.
The other function of the debooster is to increase the volume of
fluid going to the brakes. When the 1,500psi system pressure
moves the small piston down one inch, two cubic inches of fluid
is used, but this same travel of the larger piston moves ten cubic
inches of fluid to the brakes.
Rev. 00 124 11.13

Fig. A Fig. B
Rev. 00 125 11.13
MULTIPLE POWER BRAKE-ACTUATING SYSTEMS

The brake-actuating system for a transport turbine aircraft The schematic diagram of Figure A shows the operating
involves many components and a number of subsystems and is components and subsystems of the DC-10 brake system. As can
described briefly here to provide the technician with a general be seen in the drawing, the brake pedals of the airplane are
understanding of how such a system operates. This information mechanically connected to the brake valves, which control
also emphasizes the need for careful work on the part of the hydraulic pressure to the brakes. Each brake pedal controls two
technician while servicing, maintaining, and repairing such a cable systems. These cable systems operate a pair of
system. corresponding dual-brake-control valves that are located in the
right and left main-gear wheel wells.
The brakes are operated by two completely independent
hydraulic power systems. The no.1 hydraulic system supplies
pressure to the no.1 brake system, and the no.3 hydraulic
system supplies pressure for the no.2 brake system. Each wheel
brake is actuated by power from both systems through
independent pressure-metering valves. Each brake system
consists of a dual-brake-control valve, pressure accumulator,
brake-pressure transmitter and indicator, brake system manifold,
eight skid-control valves, eight fluid quantity-limiter valves, a
skid-control manifold for each gear, and a parking-brake valve,
all of which contribute to the actuation of the independent
cylinders in the eight main wheel brakes. Although both brake-
pressure systems are normally used at all times, either system is
capable of stopping the airplane on a maximum-gross-weight
landing.
Rev. 00 126 11.13

Fig. A
Rev. 00 127 11.13

EMERGENCY BRAKE SYSTEM

In the case of a total failure of the hydraulic system, the pilot of
most large aircraft can operate a pneumatic valve on the
instrument panel and direct compressed air or nitrogen into the
brake system. When the pilot turns the handle, he is actually
adjusting a regulator that controls air pressure to the brake.
When sufficient pressure reaches the brake line, the piston
moves up against the force of the control spring and shuts off the
inlet valve. The compression of the spring determines the
amount of pressure supplied to the brake. When the brake
handle is rotated in the direction to release the brakes, the air is
exhausted overboard.
Rather than allow compressed air to enter the wheel cylinders,
which would require the entire brake system to be bled of this
air, the emergency air may be directed into a transfer tube. The
air forces hydraulic fluid from this tube into the brake system.
Rev. 00 128 11.13

Fig. A
Rev. 00 129 11.13

BRAKING HEAT ENERGY

Stopping a high-speed aircraft, either upon landing or as These are as follows:
required for an aborted takeoff, involves the conversion of a
Zone I, normal zone: Below 1.0 million ft-lb [3.8x105J]
great amount of kinetic energy to heat at the brakes and main
wheels. This energy may be specified in foot-pounds or joules. 1. No special requirement under normal operations.
Brake limitation charts have been prepared for some airplanes to Zone II, normal zone: 1.0 - 2.05 million ft-lb [3.8 x105 - 2.8x105J]
give crew members and maintenance personnel a means of 2. Delay subsequent takeoff as indicated by chart.
determining how to deal with hot brake situations safely and
effectively. One such chart for a comparatively small jet airplane Zone Ill, caution zone: 2.05 - 4.0 million ft-lb [2.8x105 - 5.5x105J]
is shown in Figure A. The specified purpose of the chart is to 3. Move the airplane to clear the active runway, because
avoid in-flight fires and to ensure adequate brake capacity at all uneven braking could cause one or more tires to deflate if
times for a rejected takeoff. energy is in the upper range.
Note in the chart of Figure A that the factors used in determining 4. Use brakes sparingly to maneuver.
the amount of energy absorbed by the brakes in a given situation
are (1) the indicated airspeed in knots at the time the brakes are 5. Do not set parking brake.
applied, (2) the gross weight of the airplane, and (3) the density 6. Allow brakes to cool for the time indicated by chart.
altitude at the airport where the braking occurs. The proper use
of the chart will establish a condition zone for any particular 7. After brakes have cooled, make a visual check of brakes.
braking event. For each zone, a particular set of requirements is Zone IV, danger zone: Over 4.0 million ft-lb [5.5 x105J]
set forth.
8. Clear the runway immediately as fusible plugs will blow 2 to
30 min after stop.
9. Do not apply dry chemical or quench until fusible plugs have
released tire pressure.
10. Do not approach for ½ hour or until fusible plugs have blown.
11. When artificial cooling is not used, 2 to 3 hours are required
for brakes to cool enough for safe removal.
12. Tires, wheels, and brakes must be replaced.
Rev. 00 130 11.13

The dotted lines in the chart of Figure A are to show how a

particular braking event can be evaluated and the appropriate
zone located. The steps are as follows:
1. Locate aircraft gross weight on the chart.
2. Project vertically to the indicated airspeed line.
3. Project from the airspeed line horizontally to intersect the
zero-altitude line.
4. Project parallel to the nearest density line to intersect the
correct altitude vertical line.
5. Project horizontally to give correct zone, kinetic energy, and
ground cooling time.
The example demonstrated on the chart is for an airplane with a
gross weight of 15,000Ib [6804kg]. The indicated airspeed at the
time the brakes were applied was 110kg. The density altitude
was 5000ft [1524m]. When these values are applied to the chart,
it is revealed that the kinetic energy is 2,350,000ft-lb [3186172J]
in the caution zone, and the cooling time is 28 min.
If an airplane is equipped with thrust reversers, the energy
absorbed by the brakes is reduced from the values shown here.
The amount of reduction depends upon the time that the thrust
reversers are operated.
Fig. A
Rev. 00 131 11.13

BRAKE INSPECTION AND SERVICE

Flexible hoses used in the brake system must be examined for
The technician should always refer to the aircraft manufacturer's swelling, sponginess, leakage, and wear of the outer covering. A
instructions when inspecting and maintaining brake systems. brake hose that has become soft or swollen is likely to cause
The information presented here is meant as an introduction to "spongy" brakes, because the hose will expand and take up
brake maintenance tasks. some of the fluid volume. The effect is similar to the presence of
WARNING: Brake systems may include compounds using air in the system.
asbestos in the construction of the brake-lining material. Use During the inspection of brakes and brake systems, the
appropriate respiratory and other health-protective measures technician should follow up on any discrepancies, defects, and
when working with these systems. malfunctions reported by the pilot or other crew member.
Brake inspection is accomplished at the same time that wheels CHECK FOR LINING WEAR
are removed for other inspections.
The most important inspection for an installed brake is that
The brake disks should be inspected for pitting and grooving. If regarding the wear of the brake lining material.
these surface defects exceed the manufacturer's limits, the disk
must be resurfaced or replaced. This check should be done with the brakes applied unless
instructed otherwise. The manufacturer's service manual
Check the retaining clips that hold the brake disk in the wheel on specifies the minimum extension allowed before the brake
some types of disks. If the disk is distorted or the clips are should be disassembled and the linings replaced.
broken, the brake disk will not stay in the correct position and
brake failure will result. The amount of wear on single-disk brakes is usually indicated by
the amount the return pin of the automatic-adjusters sticks
During major inspections brakes are disassembled and disks through the bushing.
examined for wear and for damage resulting from heat. The lugs
or keys holding the rotor disks in the wheels are examined for If the brake does not have automatic adjusters, the lining wear
wear and security. The actuating parts, such as the pistons and can be measured by measuring the distance between the disk
pressure plates, must also be examined for condition. Leaking and the housing.
pistons must be repaired as directed. The total stack wear of the disks in a multiple-disk brake may be
checked by applying the brake and measuring the amount of
clearance between the back of the pressure plate and the edge
of the housing.
Rev. 00 132 11.13

Fig. A
Rev. 00 133 11.13

CHECK FOR AIR IN THE SYSTEM Almost all brake housings are made of either cast aluminum or
cast magnesium alloy, and it is possible that porosity of the
Spongy brake action is nearly always in indication of air in the
casting could cause a seep-type leak. If it is determined that this
system, and if any air is found, it must be removed by bleeding
is the cause of fluid on the outside of the brake, the casting
before proper braking action can be restored.
should be returned to the manufacturer for repairs.
CHECK THE FLUID QUANTITY AND TYPE
CHECK FOR THE PROPER BOLT TORQUE
The hydraulic system of modem aircraft may use either a
All of the components of an aircraft landing gear are subject to
synthetic fluid or mineral-base. Before servicing the system, be
hammering action, and it is vital that all of the bolts have the
extremely sure that you sure the proper fluid, as the use of the
proper torque, as any looseness will accelerate wear and
wrong type will damage any of the seals it contacts and will
damage.
contaminate the entire system.
After a bolt has been properly torqued, a small touch of paint
On aircraft equipped with independent or boosted brake systems
should be placed across the end of the bolt and the nut or across
the fluid quantity of the brake reservoir should be checked and
the bolt head and the adjacent structure. Any break in the paint
serviced regularly. On some aircraft the reservoir may be integral
will show if there has ever been any motion between the fastener
with the brake master pump. If frequent fluid servicing is required
and the structure. If this paint line is unbroken, you can be
a leak check of the system should be performed.
reasonable sure that the torque is still adequate. If there is no
Separate brake system servicing is not required on aircraft paint mark, the brake attachment bolts should be checked for the
equipped with powered brakes using hydraulic system pressure proper torque. Use a torque wrench of known accuracy and
CHECK THE ENTIRE SYSTEM FOR LEAKS recent calibration, to be sure that the bolt has the torque recom-
mended in the aircraft service manual.
Brake system leakage can be an indication of hidden or
impending damage, and the cause of the leakage must be found
and corrected.
Leaking fluid line connections deserve special care, as tightening
the fitting is not necessarily a sure way to stop the leak. If a
fitting is leaking, remove the pressure from the system and
check the fitting for proper torque. If it is obviously loose, tighten
it and re-check it with pressure.
Rev. 00 134 11.13

Rev. 00 135 11.13

TYPICAL BRAKE MALFUNCTIONS AND DAMAGE GRABBING

OVERHEATING As the brakes are applied, build up of the braking action should
normally be gradual and linear. Upon application if the braking
One of the most demanding requirements for the modern aircraft
action is sudden and uneven then the brakes are said to be
brake is that of its ability to absorb tremendous amounts of heat
grabbing. Grabbing brakes are usually caused by oil or some
energy.
other foreign matter on the disks and linings. In addition, worn
Any time a brake shows signs of overheating, or if it has been disks and drums can also cause grabbing.
involved in an aborted takeoff, it must be removed from the
CHATTERING OR SQUEALING
aircraft and given a complete inspection and rebuilt.
An extremely annoying condition can exist when the brakes are
DRAGGING
applied if, instead of exerting a smooth and even friction
When a brake fails to completely release after the pressure is between the surfaces of the disks, the friction is applied and
removed, it is said to be dragging, and if this condition is not released many times a minute. This produces a loud chattering
immediately corrected, it will lead to excessive heating and wear noise, and if the frequency of this chattering is quite high, the
of the disks. noise will be a loud squeal. Chattering and squealing brakes are
Dragging may be caused by disks that have become dished from not only annoying to hear, but the vibration generated is harmful
overheating or by weak or missing return springs or by a slipped to the landing gear and brake structure.
pin in the return system. Air trapped in the system will also cause Warped or glazed disks will cause chattering, as will any
brakes to drag as air expands when heated keeping the brakes unparallel condition of the surface of the disk stack.
partially applied.
If the disks have been overheated, there is a possibility that
When brakes are released, all hydraulic pressure should be some of the mix has been transferred from a rotating disk to a
released from the brake cylinders; however, if a valve sticks stationary disk, and the uneven friction caused by this transfer
closed or are plugged, the pressure may not be released and the will produce chattering.
brakes will drag.
Rev. 00 136 11.13

SPONGY
Spongy brakes are caused by air in the brake hydraulic system.
This problem occurs because the air contracts and expands as
pressure is applied or released, thus creating the spongy feeling
and reducing the positive pressure that should be available for
brake operation.
FADING
Fading brakes are usually caused by the condition of the lining. If
the brakes have been overheated and the linings burned, glazing
is likely to take place on the surface of the linings, and this
condition can result in brake fade.
Any drum-and-shoe-type brake in which a great deal of heat is
generated has a problem of fading. As the drum is heated, it
expands in a bell-mouth fashion and loses a great deal of its
effectiveness.
EXCESSIVE PEDAL TRAVEL
Excessive brake pedal travel can be caused by worn brakes,
lack of fluid in the brake system, air in the system, or improperly
adjusted mechanical linkages. In some very large aircraft, the
brake-control cylinders are located in the wheel wells in the
wings. The control cylinders are connected to the brake pedals
through a system of levers, cables, and pulleys. If this system is
worn or not adjusted properly, excessive pedal travel will result.
A leaking piston seal in a brake master cylinder will cause the
pedal to slowly creep down while pedal pressure is applied. In
such a case, the master cylinder should be overhauled.
Rev. 00 137 11.13

BLEEDING OF BRAKES Gravity Method

MASTER CYLINDER BRAKES This type of brake may also be bled by forcing trapped air out of
the system at the wheel cylinder. Slip one end of a section of
There are two general methods of bleeding Master cylinder
flexible tubing over the bleeder valve on the brake, and immerse
equipped brakes. They are the pressure method and the gravity
the other end of the tubing in a container of clean hydraulic fluid.
method.
Check to be sure that the reservoir is full of fluid, and depress
Pressure Method the master cylinder. Hold the piston down and crack the bleeder
For this type of bleeding, brake fluid is forced through the system valve on the wheel. Allow the piston in the master cylinder to go
by means of a pressurized reservoir connected to the system all of the way down, and then close the bleeder valve before you
brake-bleed fitting. Fluid is forced through the system and back release the master cylinder. Continue this procedure, being sure
to the reservoir until no bubbles appear in the fluid outflow. This to keep the reservoir full until fluid flows from the brake with no
is illustrated in Figure B. bubbles.
To bleed this type of brake, remove the screw from the bleeder POWER BRAKES
valve and connect the brake bleeding pressure pot to the brake Remove the bleeder screw from the brake's bleeder valve and
with a flexible hose. Before tightening the line on the bleeder install a length of flexible hose. Place the end of the hose in a
valve, be sure to purge all of the air from it. clean container of hydraulic fluid. Open the bleeder valve and,
CAUTION: Be sure that the pressure pot is filled with the proper with the hydraulic system pressure in the proper operating
type of hydraulic fluid, as improper fluid can cause serious range, very carefully apply the brakes. Allow the fluid to flow
damage to the system. from the brake until there are no more air bubbles. Close the
bleeder valve, remove the hose, and replace the bleeder screw.
Attach a flexible hose to the brake reservoir vent and place the
end of the hose in a clean container. Open the bleeder valve It is especially important that the airframe manufacturer's service
with pressure applied from the pot to force fluid up through the manual be followed in detail when power brakes are bled, as
brake, the master cylinder, and reservoir into the container. there may be antiskid components, deboosters, or hydraulic
Allow the flow to continue until there are no more air bubbles. fuses in the lines that must be given special consideration.
Close the bleeder valve and the valve on the pressure pot and The bleeding procedure is not complete until both the main and
remove the line from the brake. Replace the bleeder screw, and the emergency, or backup, systems are free of air.
remove the line from the reservoir. Check to be sure that there is
the proper amount of fluid in the reservoir.
Rev. 00 138 11.13

Fig. A
Fig. B Fig. C
Rev. 00 139 11.13
SKID PROTECTION
BRAKING ACTION AND SKID PREVENTION
INTRODUCTION
For maximum brake effectiveness, the friction between the tire
Our modern high-speed jet aircraft usually have more than one and the runway surfaces should closely relate to the friction in
wheel on each side, and all of the brakes on one side are the brake so that the peripheral speed of the tire will be just
controlled with one pedal. With this arrangement, the pilot has no slightly less than the speed of the aircraft. When this is true, the
way to know when one of these wheels begins to skid so that he tire will grip the runway surface and slip just a little. This
can take corrective action. But, if corrective action is not taken produces the maximum tire drag.
within a few seconds to release a locked-up wheel, the tire is
likely to blowout and control of the aircraft can be lost. Maintaining this optimum friction is no easy matter, because if
the brake pressure is held constant after the slip starts and the
When the aircraft touches down on a water covered runway and wheel begins to decelerate, the brake friction will rapidly
the pilot applies the brakes, the friction on the runway surface is increase to the point that the wheel will lock up. The tire will skid
so much less than that generated in the brake that the wheel over the runway and produce very little effective braking.
locks up and the tire hydroplanes down the runway, supported
on the surface of the water in much the same way a water skier We use a very simple form of manual anti skid control in an
is supported. automobile when we drive on ice. For the most effective
stopping, we pump the brakes, applying them only enough to
All braking action and directional control is lost for a slow the wheel, but releasing them before the wheel decelerates
hydroplaning wheel. enough to lock up.
This same on-and-off type of operation was employed in some of
the early aircraft antiskid systems, but it has a major drawback if
the control valves do not operate fast enough.
Rev. 00 140 11.13

In Figure A, we see the way this problem comes about.

- When the brakes are applied, the pressure rises until the
wheel starts to slip, but not skid (Point A). This is the ideal
condition, but the pilot has no indication that it has been
reached, so he continues to increase the force on the brake
pedal.
- A pressure is soon reached which produces enough friction
in the brake to cause the tire to start to skid on the runway
(Point B).
- The wheel now decelerates fast enough that the pilot can
feel it, so he releases the pedal. But since the braking force
needed becomes less as the wheel slows down, the wheel
continues to decelerate even though the brake pressure is
decreasing.
- At point C, the wheel has completely locked up, and the
pressure continues to drop.
- At point D, the pressure is low enough for the friction
between the tire and the runway surface to start the wheel
rotating again, and soon after this the brake pressure drops
to zero.
Fig. A
- The wheel then comes back up to speed.
Rev. 00 141 11.13

ANTI-SKID REQUIREMENTS
All anti-skid systems work on the principle of releasing the brake
on a wheel that has, or is about to lock up, this is termed skid
anticipation.
Information of a wheel about to skid (rapid deceleration) can be
received by either mechanical or electrical devices.
The mechanical system uses the principle of inertial weights; the
electrical system uses wheel speed signals sent to a computer
which in turn transmits signals to the anti-skid valves to release
the appropriate brake unit.
The advantages of anti-skid systems are:
- maximum braking efficiency,
- reduces the landing run,
- no skidding or locking of the wheels, increased tire life,
- the pilot can apply any degree of braking effort without fear of
loss of directional control of the aircraft or tire scrub damage.
Rev. 00 142 11.13

Rev. 00 143 11.13

MECHANICAL ANTI-SKID SYSTEMS Axle mounted maxarets are mounted inside the wheel axles.
They are driven by the aircraft wheel via the hub cap and a
This type of anti-skid system uses components that are situated
flexible drive to prevent damage in case of seizure of any of the
around the wheel area, they are self contained systems which
components. The hydraulic connections are made via a self
can when required, interrupt the supply of metered brake
sealing hydraulic coupling on installation. An extractor tool is
pressure going to the brake unit. There are two types of
normally used when removing the maxaret. The advantages of
mechanical systems in common use:
axle mounted maxarets over external types are:
- externally mounted
- that they are less susceptible to damage as the entire unit is
- axle mounted enclosed by the axle,
These mechanical units are referred to as MAXARETS - that they are easier to replace as no pipeline connections are
(Maximum Retardation Units). The principle of operation is the involved,
same for both types so we will only discuss one type.
- that there are no drive problems, such as oil on the aircraft
INSTALLATION wheel to cause slip
Figure A shows the installation of externally mounted and axle OPERATION
mounted maxaret units.
The maxaret unit is connected to the hydraulic line between the
Externally mounted maxarets are mounted either on the brake pilot metered pressure from the brake metering valve and the
torque plate, the leg or the bogie beam. The maxaret is driven by associated brake unit. The unit is sensitive to the angular
a rubber tired wheel which contacts the aircraft wheel. The deceleration which occurs when entering a skid, at such a
maxaret is adjusted so the tire will firmly contact the aircraft moment sufficient energy is released by the flywheel to operate
wheel, about 1" of tire contact is normal. This adjustment can be the valve system and release the brake. When the wheel regains
carried out by two methods, depending on the type. speed the flywheel setting is restored and the brake reapplies
The methods of adjustment are: until there is a further tendency to skid.
- shimmed installation,
- self adjusting (by spring loading)
Rev. 00 144 11.13

Fig. A
Rev. 00 145 11.13

SEQUENCE OF OPERATION
Figure A shows the non skid condition with brakes applied. The
aircraft wheel and the maxaret are spinning at the same speed
and pressure is allowed to pass to the brake unit.
Figure B shows the assemblies in a skid condition, the following
events have taken place:
- the wheel has slowed down (impending skid) and the outer
tired drum has decelerated too as it is being driven by the
aircraft wheel,
- the flywheel, due to inertia, continues to rotate against the
main spring, and travels about 60 relative to the drum,
- the thrust balls are driven up the cam profile and operate the
push rod,
- the inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is opened thus
releasing the brake,
- the flywheel is gradually slowed down by the drag of the
main spring and with the brake off the landing wheel regains
speed,
- the drive drum begins to drive the flywheel again and the
thrust balls return to base of the cam and normal braking is
returned.
Rev. 00 146 11.13

Fig. A
Fig. B
Rev. 00 147 11.13

ELECTRONIC ANTI-SKID SYSTEMS

Many modern aircraft have electronic anti-skid systems, which
also prevent skids by releasing the brake pressure, they are
much more sensitive and can modulate the brake pressure for
optimum braking efficiency. The electronic systems are more
reliable and require less maintenance than the mechanical
types. Only one item of this system is around the wheel area, the
transducer, all the rest of the components are out of harm's way
from stones and other debris.
An anti skid system consists basically of three components; the
wheel speed sensors, the control box, and the control valves.
There are two types of systems in use, an AC system and a DC
system. They are essentially alike except for the wheel speed
sensors and one circuit in the control box.
Rev. 00 148 11.13

Fig. A
Fig. B
Rev. 00 149 11.13

WHEEL SPEED SENSORS DC Sensor

The purpose of the wheel speed sensor is to relay to the control The DC sensor is essentially a small permanent-magnet direct-
unit the speed of the wheel to which it is fitted, there is one current generator whose voltage output is directly proportional to
sensor per wheel/brake assembly. Sensors are fitted in the axle the rotational speed of its armature. When this type of sensor is
and driven by the hub cap as shown in Figure A. used, there is no need for the converter in the control box, and
there is less danger of stray voltages induced into the system
AC Sensor
causing brake interference.
The AC sensor is a variable-reluctance AC generator, which
The shaft of the armature is fitted with a blade driven by a
uses a permanent magnet surrounded by a pickup coil in the
bracket in the wheel hubcap and rotates with the wheel.
axle of the landing gear (Figure B). The outside of this sensor
has four equally spaced poles with teeth cut into their periphery.
A soft iron exciter ring with internal teeth is mounted in the
hubcap of the wheel so that it rotates around the sensor. The
two sets of teeth pass near each other and, as the exciter ring
rotates, the teeth approach each other and then separate. As the
distance between the teeth changes, the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit is alternately increased and decreased, and
each time the distance changes, the amount of magnetic flux
cutting across the coil changes and induces an alternating
current in the pickup coil.
The faster the wheel turns, the higher the frequency of the
induced current.
The control box used with the AC sensor converts the varying
frequency AC into a DC signal whose voltage is proportional to
the frequency of the AC.
Rev. 00 150 11.13

Fig. B
Fig. A
Rev. 00 151 11.13

CONTROL VALVES
A three-port antiskid control valve is located in the pressure line The DC signal from the control box flows through a coil around
between the brake valve and the brake cylinder, with a third line the armature of the flapper valve. This armature is free to pivot
connecting the control valve to the system return manifold. and is centered between two permanent magnets.
For normal operation of the brakes, when no skid is being When the signal from the control box indicates that no skid is
indicated, the valve allows the brake fluid to flow into and out of impending, and the braking action should be normal, the
the brake, with the valve serving only as a passage. But, if the magnetic field of the coil reacts with the fields of the permanent
wheel speed sensor determines that one of the wheels is magnets and holds the flapper centered between the nozzles.
beginning to decelerate fast enough to cause a skid, its changing
Fluid from the brake valve flows through the filter and discharges
output voltage is measured in the control box, and a DC signal is
equally from each nozzle. Since the amount of flow is the same
sent to the control valve to close off the pressure port and open
through each orifice, the pressure drop across the orifices will be
the passage between the brake and the system return.
the same, and the second-stage spool valve will assume a
This valve operates fast enough to maintain an output pressure position that allows free passage between the brake valve and
that is directly proportional to the amount of signal current from the brake.
the control box.
But when the control box receives a signal from the wheel speed
sensor telling it that a skid is impending, it sends current through
the coil of the armature to create a polarity in the armature that
causes it to pivot and unbalance the flow from the nozzles.
Rev. 00 152 11.13

Fig. A
Fig. B - direct-current signal from the control box energizes the coil on the
armature of the flapper valve, and the movement of the flapper changes the
pressure drop across the fixed orifices. This varies the pressure on the lands
of the second-stage spool to control the flow of fluid through the valve.
Rev. 00 153 11.13

In our illustration of Figure B, the flapper has moved over,

restricting the flow from the left nozzle and opening the flow from
the one on the right. There is now more flow through orifice O2
and therefore a greater pressure drop across it, leaving P1
greater then P2. This imbalance of pressures moves the second
stage spool over, shutting off the flow of fluid from the brake
valve to the brake, and opening a passage from the brake to the
return manifold.
The extremely fast reaction time for this type of valve allows it to
maintain a pressure at the brake that is directly proportional to
the amount of current flowing in the armature coil.
Rev. 00 154 11.13

Fig. A - When the flapper is centered between the nozzles, the Fig. B - When the armature of the flapper valve is energized, the
pressure drop across the two orifices is the same, and P1 is flapper moves over and restricts the flow through orifice O1 while
equal to P2. increasing it through O2. The increased pressure drop across O2
causes P1 to be greater than P2
Rev. 00 155 11.13

CONTROL BOX A deceleration threshold of around 20 feet per second per

second, with a wheel speed that is at least six miles per hour
Touchdown Protection
below the speed of the airplane, is designed into the skid
Before the airplane touches down, the locked-wheel detector detector circuit as a reference. Any time a wheel decelerates at a
sends a signal into the amplifier, which causes the control valve rate greater than this threshold value, a signal is sent to the
to open the passage between the brakes and the system return amplifier and then to the control valve to dump the brake
manifold. This makes it impossible to land with the brakes pressure. At this time, the skid detector sends a signal to the
applied. modulator which, by measuring the width of the skid detector sig-
As soon as the airplane touches down, the squat switch opens nal, automatically establishes the amount of current that will
and the wheel starts to spin up. By the time it reaches a speed of continue to flow through the valve after the wheel has recovered
about 20 miles per hour, the voltage generated in the wheel from the skid. When the amplifier receives its signal from the
speed sensor is high enough to cause the locked wheel detector modulator, it maintains this current, which is just enough to hold
to remove the touchdown control signal from the amplifier, and the flapper over to prevent the pressure being completely
the control valve will allow full pressure to be applied to the dumped, but will maintain a pressure slightly less than that which
brakes. caused the skid. A timer circuit in the modulator then allows this
pressure to increase slowly until another skid starts to occur and
Anti-Skid Protection the cycle repeats itself.
When the airplane is on the ground and the wheels are turning
more than 20 miles per hour, almost all of the antiskid control is
by the skid detector and the modulator.
The AC voltage is converted for comparator purposes to DC
which is then a voltage reference for wheel speed. This voltage
is compared to a reference voltage which has been set at the
maximum deceleration rate for the aircraft. If any rapid reduction
occurs during braking this will be reflected as a sudden fall in
transducer output voltage. This information from the control box
is sent to an anti-skid valve to release the brake, the wheel will
then regain speed, the transducer voltage rises and the control
box de-energizes the valve and the brake will then be re-applied.
Rev. 00 156 11.13

Fig. A – Before landing, the squat switch completes the locked Fig. B - On touchdown, the squat switch removes the ground
wheel arming circuit. The locked wheel detector sends a signal from the locked wheel arming circuit, and the wheel speed
into the amplifier which supplies current to hold the control sensor generates a signal which allows the control valve to send
valve in the dump position. full pressure to the brakes.
Rev. 00 157 11.13

Locked Wheel Protection AC system

When the aircraft is operated on a wet or icy runway, the antiskid The control box for antiskid systems using AC sensors operates
system will hold the wheels in the slip area. But if one wheel in the same way as those using DC generators, the only
begins to hydroplane or hits a patch of ice and slows down to difference being the addition of a converter circuit. This circuit
less than ten miles per hour, while its mated reference wheel is receives the varying frequency alternating current and converts it
still rolling more than 20 miles per hour, the locked wheel into a varying voltage direct current. The changes in the DC
detector gets into the act. The timer measures the width of the voltage follow exactly the frequency changes in the AC.
skid detector signal, and if it is more than about one-tenth of a
second. It will send a "full dump" signal to the valve, and the
valve will remain in the full dump position until the wheel spins
back to more than ten miles per hour.
Low Speed Disarming
When all of the wheels are turning at less than 20 miles per
hour, the locked wheel arming circuit becomes inoperative,
giving the pilot full braking action for low-speed taxiing and
parking.
Rev. 00 158 11.13

Fig. A – When the airplane is on the ground and all wheels are rotating more
than 20 miles per hour, the skid detector and the modulator provide signals
for the amplifier.
Fig. C – The difference between the control box of an antiskid

system using an AC wheel speed sensor and one using a DC
sensor is in the converter between the sensor and the control
circuit.
Fig. B – When the airplane is on the ground and all three wheels are rotating
at less than 20 miles per hour, the locked wheel arming circuit is inoperative
and the pilot has full control for low speed taxiing and parking
Rev. 00 159 11.13

SYSTEM TESTS IN-FLIGHT TEST

Because it is so important that the pilot know the exact condition A part of the pre-landing cockpit check gives an indication of the
of his brake system before he uses it, antiskid systems are condition of the entire antiskid system. With the airplane
equipped with test circuits and control switches. These allow the configured for landing, depress the brake pedals and the brake
pilot to test the integrity and operation of the entire system and to lights should remain off. This indicates that the control valves are
disable the antiskid system without affecting the normal braking holding the brakes fully released.
action if any faults are found.
Depress the test switch and the brake lights should come on.
GROUND TEST Depressing this switch sends a signal through the wheel speed
sensors, simulating a wheel speed of greater than 20 miles per
The integrity of the antiskid system can be tested on the ground
hour. If the system is operating properly, this will cause the
before flight. With the antiskid control switch on, depress the
control valve to direct normal pressure to the brake. The light
brake pedals, and both the left and right brake lights should
should remain on as long as the test switch is held depressed.
come on, indicating that all of the pressure from the brake valves
is going to the brakes. When the switch is released, the two brake lights should go out,
indicating that the anti skid system is holding all of the pressure
Now, with the brakes still applied, press the test switch and hold
off of the brakes.
it for a few seconds. This sends a signal through the wheel
speed sensors into the control box to simulate a wheel speed of Any time a system fails either the ground test or the in-flight
more than 20 miles per hour. The lights should remain on. portion, the antiskid system may be disabled without affecting
the normal braking in any way.
Release the test switch, and the two brake lights should go out
and stay out for a couple of seconds and come back on. This
simulates a wheel lockup that causes a release of pressure, and
then the pressure is restored.
This test checks the continuity of all of the wiring and the
operation of the locked wheel circuits, the amplifiers, and the
control valves.
Rev. 00 160 11.13

Fig. A
Rev. 00 161 11.13

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE A wheel speed sensor that passes both the resistance and the
polarity test and shows no physical signs of damage is probably
Before condemning the antiskid system for a brake malfunction,
good and any trouble must be elsewhere. Be sure the drive tube
be sure that no relevant faults exist in the rest of the system. If
in the hubcap is tight, that there are no dents in the cap, and that
the fault is identified to be of the anti-skid system then the most
the alignment rivet is properly seated in the recess in the wheel.
logical place to start troubleshooting is with the wheel speed
sensor. CONTROL BOX
WHEEL SPEED SENSOR The control box is checked by the substitution method. Remove
both of the connector plugs from the box and swap them left to
The DC wheel speed sensor can be checked in-situ by first
right. If, for example, the trouble indication was originally on the
removing the wheel hubcap to expose the blade of the sensor.
left side of the airplane, when the leads from the box are switch
Secondly with the brakes applied and the antiskid switch on give
and the indication remains on the left side, in all probability the
the blade a sharp spin in its normal direction of rotation with a
trouble is not with the control box. But if the indication switches
finger. It will not turn more than about 180 degrees; it is not the
over to the right side, you have a good reason to suspect the
amount of rotation that is important, however, but the rate at
control box, and it should be replaced with one that is known to
which it is turned. If the system is operating properly, the brakes
be good.
should momentarily release and then reapply. You can tell if this
is happening by watching the disk stack; it should relax and then Any time the leads have been switched, be sure that they are
tighten back up. reinstalled on the proper receptacles and are properly secured
before returning the aircraft to service.
If this "tweak" test does not cause the brakes to release, check
out the sensor before going to any other part of the system.
Remove the connector plug from the back of the sensor, and
measure the resistance of the armature while rotating the blade
through a full 360 degrees. Rotate the blade slowly and note the
amount of resistance, as well as the evenness of the reading. It
must be within the tolerance specified in the manufacturer's ser-
vice manual. If the resistance is correct, then check for the
proper polarity by placing the meter on its lowest DC voltage
scale, with the positive lead to pin B, and the negative lead to pin
A. Tweak the blade in a clockwise direction, as viewed from its
drive end, and the meter should read upscale.
Rev. 00 162 11.13

CONTROL VALVE
If the trouble remains after checking the two devices that were
the easiest to get to, all that remains in the antiskid system is the
control valve. These valves are electro-hydraulic, and the trouble
could be either electrical or hydraulic.
The easiest check is the electrical resistance of the coil. Remove
the connector plug and measure the resistance of the coil with
an accurate ohmmeter. It should measure within the tolerance
specified in the service manual.
If the trouble has been traced to the control valve and it is not
electrical, the valve must be removed, as the difficulty is most
probably in the hydraulic portion of the valve.
The extremely close tolerances used in the manufacturer of this
valve make the use of absolutely clean fluid imperative. To be
sure that no contaminants reach the inside the valve, a fifteen
micron steel-mesh screen is installed in the line before the
orifices. If this screen clogs, the valve may malfunction. Check
with the manufacturer's service manuals to see if it is possible to
replace this filter in the field. If it is allowed, follow the service
instruction in detail.
If any field servicing is allowed on the valve, it must be done in
an area that is free from any contamination, and be sure to
follow, in detail, the manufacturer's latest service information.
Fig. A
Rev. 00 163 11.13

AUTO BRAKES
Let's look at some of the components in the auto-brake system.
INTRODUCTION They are the:
An automatic braking system can be of tremendous value to - selector panel,
pilots under normal and adverse landing conditions, for at any
time prior to landing the pilot can select an aircraft deceleration - auto-brake control box
rate to be achieved by the brakes. - solenoid valves
Once a setting has been made the auto-brake system on landing
will smoothly apply the brakes to achieve the selected
deceleration rate down to a complete stop, without any further
action from the crew.
AUTO-BRAKE SYSTEM
The auto-brake system represents a major advancement in
landing and take-off safety. It allows the pilot to concentrate on
other activities such as reverse thrust.
The auto-brake system utilizes the normal anti-skid and brake
units, but instead of using pressure from the brake metering
valves, hydraulic pressure is sent via solenoid valves which will
allow a predetermined amount of pressure through the anti-skid
valves to the brake units. Auto-brake is only available on aircraft
equipped with electrical anti-skid systems.
Figure A illustrates the inter-relationship between the brake
pedals and the anti-skid in auto-brake mode.
Rev. 00 164 11.13

Fig. A
Rev. 00 165 11.13

SELECTOR PANEL AUTO-BRAKE CONTROL BOX

A typical selector panel is shown in Figure A. It consists of a Selection on the panel will send an electrical signal to the auto-
solenoid latched switch which will hold in a selected position only brake control box, which is normally in the aircraft's electrical
if all the arming requirements are met. If the auto-brake system bay. The control box is a microprocessor which commands the
cannot be armed the switch will return to the disarm position and solenoid valve to port pressure to the brake units. Because the
the warning light will illuminate to warn the pilot that the system pressure must be gradually built up and released to prevent
will not function or is not armed. brake snatch and jerking, a time delay and an electrical ramp
(Figure B) are used to achieve these ends. The terminology
Let us consider the various switch positions on the auto-brake
used to indicate the operation of the auto-brake is:
selector panel.
- ON RAMP
1, 2, 3, 4, Max Auto - These are preset deceleration rates which
the auto-brake control box will signal to the solenoid valve to port - OFF RAMP
pressure to the brakes.
- DROP OUT
OFF - The system is off.
DISARM - The system is unable to be armed.
ON RAMP - A gradual build up of brake pressure to the amount
RTO - (Rejected Take-Off) This setting is armed on the ground required for the selected deceleration rate.
prior to take off. If after a certain speed has been achieved
OFF RAMP - A gradual decrease in pressure down to zero at the
during the take off run the throttles are retarded to idle, the
termination of the landing run or cancellation of auto-brake.
brakes will automatically receive full pressure and bring the
aircraft to a rapid stop. If the aircraft makes a normal take off, as DROP OUT - Instantaneous pressure release to zero e.g. 'go
soon as the air/ground sensor detects an air mode the RTO around' mode.
mode will be cancelled and the switch will move to OFF.
Rev. 00 166 11.13

Fig. A
Fig. B
Rev. 00 167 11.13

AUTO-BRAKE SOLENOID VALVE

These valves are electrically controlled hydraulic valves that
allow pressure to the brake units at a specific setting; the greater
the deceleration rate, the higher must be the pressure allowed to
the brake units. These valves are usually fitted in the
undercarriage bays just upstream of the anti-skid valves. The
solenoid valve will open when all the arming requirements have
been met and the aircraft is on the ground. It is also this solenoid
valve that 'snaps shut' on DROP OUT.
The servo valve modulates the brake pressure to regulate the
deceleration rate. The pressure switch is connected to a disarm
warning light to monitor zero pressure when the auto-brakes are
armed.
Figure A shows a typical auto-brake solenoid valve.
Rev. 00 168 11.13

Fig. A
Rev. 00 169 11.13

BRAKE CONTROLS
Most airplanes have the master cylinders mounted on the rudder
pedals, although a few aircraft have the master cylinders
mounted remotely from the pedals. Such a configuration utilizes
a system of rods, levers, bell cranks, and cables to carry the
mechanical energy to the master cylinders.
Other control arrangements make use of heel brakes, operated
by the pilot pressing the heel on the brake pedal, and a central
hand-brake lever, which operates all brakes at the same time.
PARKING BRAKE CONTROLS
The parking-brake mechanism is a subassembly of the usual
hydraulic brake system. The parking brake is usually applied by
a pull handle or lever. When the brake pedals are depressed and
the parking-brake lever is pulled back by hand, the brakes are
locked in the ON position.
Depressing the brake pedals or releasing a parking-brake
handle, depending on the system, again releases the brakes.
Depending upon the type of master cylinder used, depressing
the pedals will either build up enough pressure to unseat the
parking valve, or it will unload a ratchet-type parking lock.
Note: With respect to parking brakes, the setting of these brakes

when the main brakes are hot may cause serious damage. Hot
brakes should be allowed to cool before the parking brakes are
applied.
Rev. 00 170 11.13

BRAKE INDICATIONS
The following parameters are indicated in the cockpit with
respect to brake systems.
- Brake Temperature
- Brake Pressure
- Brake Accumulator Pressure
Rev. 00 171 11.13

BRAKE TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT Since the temperature measured are that of the torque tube and
not that of the heat pack it takes some time before the correct
- Brake unit temperature is typically measured using
brake temperature is displayed.
thermocouples.
Manufacturers’ manuals usually specify certain actions based on
- The hot junction of the thermocouples is affixed to the brake
the indicated brake temperature.
unit; usually accommodated in a recess in the torque tube.
This is to measure the heat stack temperature as accurately If the temperature is above a certain value take-off may need to
as possible. be delayed unless the brake unit is force cooled.
- The cold junction is located in the indicator in simple If the temperature is at the danger levels the aircraft should be
systems. taxied only to clear the runway and personnel should be kept
clear of the landing gear as a possibility of a tire explosion exists.
- In more complex systems the cold junction is located within a
control box that is located on or near the landing gear. The Unusually high brake temperatures, especially when compared
control box converts the measured voltage into an analogue with the indication of other brake units are a good indicator of a
or digital signal and transmits it to be indicated in the cockpit. faulty brake unit.
INDICATION
On aircraft equipped with conventional instruments brake
temperature is indicated individually for each brake unit on a
mechanical indicator with cautionary and danger areas marked.
On aircraft equipped with electronic instruments brake
temperature indication is in a numerical format on a display unit
and cautionary and danger levels are indicated by the change in
color of the numerical indication or by a symbol such as an arc
appearing close to the indication of the affected wheel.
Rev. 00 172 11.13

Fig. B
Fig. A
Rev. 00 173 11.13

BRAKE PRESSURE BRAKE ACCUMULATOR PRESSURE

Brake pressure is not a standard indication of the brake system. Aircraft equipped with power brakes supplied from hydraulic
Brake pressure, which essentially means the fluid pressure systems usually utilize accumulators to provide pressure for
supplied to the brakes are indicated on aircraft where the crew is back-up or emergency brakes if the hydraulic system is not
supposed to limit applied brake pressure to prevent an unsafe powered. Accumulators will also be utilized to maintain pressure
condition; Such as nose over of a tail-wheel type aircraft or to in the brakes when the parking brakes are applied.
prevent skidding.
MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT
A pressure transducer will measure the pressure of the brake
Brake supply pressure is usually measured by a pressure accumulators and transmit the signal to the cockpit for display.
transducer downstream of the power brake control valve and the
INDICATION
electrical signal is sent to the indicator directly or via a control
box. Brake pressure is indicated utilizing mechanical indicators which
show pressure of fluid in the accumulator.
INDICATION
Since the accumulator supplies the back-up or emergency
Brake pressure is indicated utilizing mechanical indicators which
brakes manufacturers’ specify a minimum accumulator pressure
shows the brake pressure supplied to the right hand and left
for departure, for setting the parking brakes and for brakes prior
hand brakes individually.
to an engine ground run.
A green arc will indicate the safe margin for brake application
and amber or red for pressures to be avoided.
Rev. 00 174 11.13

Backup Accumulator
Pressure
Left Brake Pressure Right Brake Pressure
Fig. A
Rev. 00 175 11.13

Rev. 00 176 11.13


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Module 11 – AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS AND STRUCTURES

CATEGORY B1 - MECHANICAL Sub Module 11.13 – LANDING GEAR

SUB MODULE 11.13

LANDING GEAR (ATA 32)

Table of Contents Page Table of Contents Page

Function........................................................................................ 2 Electrical Retraction System ....................................................... 30

Table of Contents Page Table of Contents Page

Type............................................................................................ 70 Inflation ....................................................................................... 82

Table of Contents Page Table of Contents Page

Carbon Composite Brakes........................................................ 112 Auto-Brake System ................................................................... 164

Rev. 00 iii 11.13

“The training notes and diagrams are

FUNCTION LANDING GEAR CLASSIFICATION

PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATION TRICYCLE-TYPE LANDING GEAR

Fig. A – Conventional Landing gear

Fig. B – Tricycle Landing Gear

Fig. C – Tandem Landing Gear

RETRACTABLE VS. FIXED

PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

FIXED LANDING GEAR FIXED LANDING GEAR SHOCK ABSORBERS

Fig. A – Fixed Landing gear

Fig. B – Wheel Pants

SPRING STEEL LEGS RUBBER CORD

Fig. A – Spring Steel Main Gear

Fig. B – Rubber Cord or Bungee Type Shock Absorbers

OLEO-PNEUMATIC SHOCK ABSORBER OPERATION

Fig A – Oleo-pneumatic Shock Absorber Fig B

MAINTENANCE SERVICING STRUTS

Fig A – Oleo-pneumatic Shock Absorber Servicing

SHIMMY DAMPERS MAINTENANCE

Fig. A – Piston type Damper

Fig. C – Piston type Damper Installation

Fig. B – Vane type Damper

RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR

Fig. B –Retractable Gear

LANDING-GEAR COMPONENTS DRAG LINK

Fig. A - Retractable Main L/G Fig. B - MLG Up-lock

TORQUE LINKS SWIVEL GLAND

Fig B – Swivel Gland Installation

Fig C – Swivel Gland

BOGIE UNDERCARRIAGES MAINTENANCE

HYDRAULIC RETRACTION SYSTEM

PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

SIMPLE HYDRAULIC RETRACTION SYSTEM

Fig A – A Simple Hydraulic Retraction System

ELECTRICAL RETRACTION SYSTEM

LANDING GEAR CONTROL ALTERNATE EXTENSION

LANDING GEAR POSITION INDICATION

Fig. B - L/G Position Sensing

Fig. C - L/G Cockpit Indication

SAFETY FEATURES SELECTOR LOCK

Selector Lever Lock Manual Release

WARNING DEVICES EMERGENCY EXTENSION

Fig. A - Landing Gear Gravity Extension System

Fig A – Air/Ground Sensors

Fig B – L/G Shortening

Fig A - Landing Gear Ground Lock Installation

ROUTINE SERVICING COMPONENT INSTALLATION

Fig A - Powered Steering System

HYDRAULIC STEERING SYSTEM CASTORING

STEERING CONTROL RUDDER PEDAL STEERING

Figure B - Mechanical Steering De-activation