2016

Physics Revision
AS – REVISION (EXCLUDING MATERIALS)
ARBI H
Waves
- Cycle = One complete vibration of a wave
- Displacement = How far a point on the wave has moved from its undisturbed position
(metres)
- Amplitude = Maximum magnitude of displacement
- Wavelength, λ = length of one whole wave cycle from two similar points

- Period (T), s = Time taken for a whole cycle to complete or to pass a given point
- Frequency = The number of cycles per second passing a given point
- Phase = A measurement of the position of a certain point along the wave cycle
- Phase difference = Amount that one wave lags behind another à measured in angles
(degrees or radian) or as fractions of a cycle


- Reflection = Wave is bounced when it hits a boundary
- Refraction = Wave changes direction as it enters a different medium à speeding up or
slowing down


- Frequency is the inverse of period
#
- 𝑇= f = frequency - T=period Units = 1Hz = 1s-1
$


- Speed of a wave = wavelength x frequency
- 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆 3x108 for light in a vacuum


- Longitudinal waves vibrate along the direction of energy transfer à consists of
compressions and rarefactions of the medium it travels through (sound)
- Transverse waves vibrate at right angles to the direction of energy transfer à all EM
waves are transverse

- A polarised wave only vibrates in one direction à only transverse waves behave like
this so proof that EM are transverse
- Polarising filters only transmit vibrations in one direction
 o Polarising glasses uses this effect
à blocks unwanted glare at a certain
angle






Television and Radio signals are polarised
- Aerial rods are horizontal so they line up with the receiving aerial otherwise the
strength of the signal will be lower
- Same for radios à aligning aerial to transmits and receive



- Superposition = one thing on top of the other
à two or more waves cross, the resultant
displacement equals the vector sum of the
individual displacement



Interference can be constructive or destructive (diagram)
- If crest and trough aren’t same size, then destructive interference isn’t total.
- For the interference to be noticeable à two (A) need to be nearly equal

In phase means in step - two points in phase interfere constructively
- Two points on a wave are in phase if they are both at the same point in the wave cycle
o Points in phase have the same displacement and velocity (360° = 2π radians)

- A&B = In phase
- A&C = Out of phase







- Two points with a phase difference of 0 or a multiple of 360° (full cycle) are in phase
- Points with a phase difference of odd number – multiples of 180 (π radians, or a half
cycle) are exactly out of phase
o Two different waves can be considered à happens due to both waves coming
from same oscillators therefore have a phase difference between each other





To get interference patterns the two sources must be coherent
- Can still happen if there’s a different wavelength and frequency, its all just a jumble à
two sources are coherent if they have the same WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY and a FIXED
PHASE DIFFERENCE

- Can get destructive
interference when there is
a p.d of half a wavelength,
one and a half wavelength
two and a half etc. = out of
phase




- Amount by which the path travelled by one wave is longer than the path travelled
()*# + #
- Constructive when P.D = n𝜆 D.I = = 𝑛+ 𝜆
( (

Stationary Waves: Progressive waves reflected at a boundary à stationary (standing) wave
is the superposition of two progressive waves with the same frequency (wavelength),
moving in opposite direction
- No energy is transmitted by a stationary wave à demonstrated by setting up a driving
oscillator at one and of a stretched string with the other end fixed à wave generated
but the oscillation is reflected back and forth
- Most frequency the resultant pattern is a jumble à but if oscillators produce an exact
number of waves in the time it takes for the wave to get to the end and back
- At these ‘resonant frequencies’ you get a stationary wave where the pattern does not
move. It just bobs up and down


Stationary waves form oscillating loops separated by nodes
- Each particle vibrates at right angles to the string. Nodes where amplitude is zero
- First harmonic:
o


o Vibrating at lowest possible resonant
frequency. It has one “loop” with a node at
each end



 -

- Twice the frequency of the first
harmonic. There are two “loops” with a node in
the middle and one at each end



-
(.
- 𝜆𝑛 =
)
- Which mode its in




- Microwaves reflected off a metal surface/plate set up a stationary wave à First nodes
and anti-nodes
- Powder can show stationary waves in a tube of air à Lycopodium powder laid along
the bottom and the powder is shaken away from the antinodes but left undisturbed at
the nodes


Core practical: investigate factors affecting the resonant frequencies of a string
1. Measure mass (M) and length (L) of different string types using a mass balance and
0
ruler. Then find the mass per unit length à 𝜇 =
.

2. Set up apparatus as shown in diagram. Record µ, measure and record L and work out
the tension (T) à T=mg mà total mass of the masses in kg
3. Turn on the signal generator and vary the frequency till you find the first harmonic

- Then investigate how the length, tension or mass per unit length of the string affects
the resonant frequency
- Showed that:
1. Longest the string = lower the resonant frequency à half the wavelength at the
resonant frequency is longer
2. The heavier the string = lower resonant frequency à waves travel slower
making frequency lower
3. Looser string = lower resonant frequency à frequency of the first harmonic is
#
𝑓 = (𝑇/𝜇)
(1


Diffraction
- Amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength compared to the size of the gap
o Gap greater than the wavelength = diffraction unnoticeable
o Noticeable diffraction when gap several wavelength wide
o Most diffraction = same size wavelength
o Gap smaller = waves reflected back
- Light shone through a narrow slit can form diffraction patterns
o Need monochromatic [same wavelength and frequency], coherent light source
same colour

o
o Central bright fringe (central maximum), with dark and bright fringes alternating
on either side. The dark and bright fringes are caused by destructive and
constructive interference of light waves
- Diffraction of white light creates a spectrum
o Central maxima = white
o The black fringes are closer together and constructive fringes create different
colours (spectra)

Intensity of light means number of photons
- Central maxima are the brightest due to having the highest intensity
6789:
- Intensity =
;:7<< <9=>?7)@1 @:9@
- For monochromatic light, photons have the same energy, so an increase in the intensity
means an increase in the number of photons per second
- More photons per unit area hitting the central maximum per second than the other
bright fringes à p = n(hf), power equation

à Increasing slit width decreases the amount of diffraction meaning central maximum is
narrow and the intensity is higher
à Increasing the wavelength increases the amount of diffraction meaning the central
maximum is wider, and the intensity of the central maximum is lower

Two source interference in water and sounds
- Need coherent sources à same wavelength and frequency
- Need to use the same oscillator

Two source interference in light à Thomas Young’s Double Slit
1. Shine a laser though the two slits on a screen à slit should be roughly same size as
the wavelength of the laser light

Can do similar with microwave

2. Danger of working with lasers/ prevent:
o Damage retina, warning signs outside, wear laser safety goggles, turn off laser
when not needed

Young’s Double Slit formula
+B
Fringe spacing - 𝑤 = D= distance from slit to screen
<
S= Slit spacing
Fringe spacing – Distance from the centre of one minimum to the centre of the next
minimum or from one central maximum to the other

Young’s experiment: Evidence of wave nature of EM radiation
- Light could refract/ diffract and interfere
- Light made up of tiny corpuscles

Diffraction gradient
- Can repeat Young’s double slit experiment with more than two equally spaced slits
à same pattern but the bright bands are brighter and narrower and the dark becomes
darker
- Monochromatic light is passed through a grating with hundreds of slits per mm so the
interference patters is sharp à more accurate measurement

Monochromatic light on a diffraction grating gives sharp lines
1. Monochromatic light à all the maxima’s are sharp lines
2. There’s a line of maximum brightness at the centre called the zero order line
3. Lines just either side of the central one are called 1st orders
4. For a grating with slit distance d apart, the angle
between the incident beam and the nth order
maximum 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒏 𝝀




Deriving the equation:
1. At each slit, incoming waves are diffracted. These diffracted waves interfere with
each other to produce an interference pattern
2. Consider the first maximum, happens at the angle when
the wave from one slit line-up with the waves from the
next slit that are exactly one wavelength behind
3. Angle between first order and incoming light 𝜃
4. Angle 𝜃 (using geometry), d is the slit spacing and the
path difference is 𝜆
5. Therefore d sin 𝜃 = 𝜆 à other maxima’s can occur when
there is a different path difference so to make the
equation general you put an n in front where n is a integer
à If 𝜆 bigger, sin 𝜃 is bigger and so 𝜃 is bigger therefore larger wavelength = more spread
out
à If d is bigger, sin 𝜃 is smaller therefore the coarser the grating the less the pattern will
spread out
à Sin 𝜃 can’t have 𝜃 greater than 1 therefore you’ll get to a certain 𝜃 there is no more orders
that exist

Diffraction Gratings help to identify elements and calculate atomic spacing
1. White light is a mixture of colours, if you diffract white light you get a spectra due to
all the different wavelengths à spread out by different amounts
2. Each order = spectrum, red on the outside and violet on the inside. The zero order
maximum stays white because all 𝜆 pass through
3. Astronomers and chemists need to study spectra to identify elements à X ray have
similar wavelength to the spacing between atoms in crystalline solids à x ray forms
diffraction patterns and therefore x ray crystallography à structure of DNA

Refractive index à Measure of how much light slows down
- Light fastest in a vacuum, slows down in other materials due to interacting with particles
in them
- Absolute refractive index of a material n, measure of optical density à Ratio between
;
speed of light in a vacuum, c, and the speed of light in a material 𝑛 = à C = 3x108
;K
;#
- Relative refractive index between to materials, 1𝑛( =
;(
)M
Combining equations à 1n2 =
)N
- Because we assume nair= 1 you can say the refractive index for air to glass = absolute
refractive index of glass (or others)

Snell’s Law uses angles to calculate the refractive index
- Angle of the incoming light makes to the normal is called the angle of
incidence 𝜃1, angle of refracted ray makes with the normal and is the angle
of refraction 𝜃2
- Light is crossing a boundary ,going from a medium with the refractive index
n1 to a medium with refractive index n2
- Light enters an optically denser medium à reflected TOWARDS the
normal à 𝑛# 𝑠𝑖𝑛 # = 𝑛( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (
? :
- Light leaving an optically denser medium/material is reflected AWAY from normal

Light leaving optically denser
- Light refracted away from the normal à increase in angle of incidence
= angle of refraction getting closer to 90°
- Eventually 𝜃1 reaches a critical angle 𝜃c for which 𝜃2 = 90° à light
refracted along the boundary
)
- Sin 𝜃 = M à At 𝜃, greater than the critical angle refraction is impossible all light is
)N
reflected back à total internal reflected








Optical Fibres use Total Internal Reflection
1. Step – index optical fibres themselves have a high – refractive index but are
surrounded by cladding with a lower refractive index to allow total internal reflection
+ protects fibre from scratches (light could escape)
2. Light shone in at one end of the fibres, its narrow so light always hits a boundary
between the fibre and cladding at an angle bigger than the critical angle à all light
T.I.R from boundary to boundary






Dispersion & Absorption: Cause signal degradation
- Absorption causes loss in amplitude, some energy is from what the material is made up
of à causing loss of (A) of signal being reduced

z





Dispersion causes pulse broadening
- Two types:
1. Modal dispersion – light rays enter fibre at different angles causing different paths.
Rays will take longer to travel. Single mode fibre only light take one path à
stopping modal dispersion
2. Material dispersion – light consists of different wavelengths that travel at different
speeds à light reaching end of fibres faster than others à monochromatic light
stops this

- Both lead to pulse broadening, due
to overlap confusing the signal















Mechanics

- Scalar à magnitude but no direction (mass, temperature, time, speed, energy)
- Vector à Both magnitude and direction

- Representing vectors:
1. Length of the arrow represents magnitude
2. Direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector

Vector addition F1
- Vectors along the same straight line F2
- Resultant = F1 + F2 Resultant

Combining perpendicular vectors
- To find the resultant of two vectors (X, Y) acting at 90° to each other we draw vectors as
adjacent sides to each other. This is due to the horizontal and vertical components
being independent

Y
- Magnitude of R can be worked out by R2 = Y2+ X2
T
- Direction of the angle 𝜃 is worked out by tan 𝜃 =
U
X
Vector subtraction
- What is the boxes ∆ in speed?
10m/s
o Change in speed = new – old
6m/s
à 10 – 6 = 4ms-1

- What’s its change in velocity?
o ∆ in V = new velocity – old
o 10m/s (up) – 6 m/s down
o therefore à 10 – (-6) = 16m/s as down is negative

• Vector subtraction is the same as the addition of a vector of the same size acting in
the opposite direction

Combining on perpendicular vectors by calculations

6N X = 60°
3N
x

2N
1. Resolve the 3N like its horizontal and vertical
Horizontal à 3 x cos 30 = 2.6N
Vertical à 3 x cos 60 = 1.5N
2. Replace 3N component
2.6N

6N 1.5N

2N

 3. . Use Pythagoras and trig
Resultant = 4.9 at 46°

Forces

Gravitational force:
- Mass is the amount of matter you contain à measured in kilograms (Kg)
- Weight is the force of gravity pulling you down à measured in newton’s (N)




𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃




- Ideal friction – actual friction = [amount] friction

- Pressure à Force per unit area
Z7:=9 ([) Z
- 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = M
or 𝜌 =
\:9@ (] ) \

- E.g.: A man can safely lie on a bed of nails by spreading his weight over 750 nails. Man
weighs 600N and the area of each nail is 8x10-6. Calculate the average pressure on each
nail

_``
- Average weight acting on each nail = = 0.8𝑁 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑙
ab`

Z `.i
- Average pressure 𝜌 = = à 1 x 105 Nm-2 à 1 x 105 Pa
\ i j #`kl ]M


Floating and sinking
- Ocean liners float due to the huge amount of water that their hulls displace
- If an object floats up thrust = weight
- If an object sinks up thrust < weight

- When an object is completely or partly immersed in a fluid, it
experiences an up thrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced


Moments
- Moment is the turning effect of a force
à moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance to the line of action to the force
M (Nm) = F x d



 - A couple is a pair of coplanar forces
o When two forces that are equal in size and opposite in direction, we say they
form a couple
o Couples have resultant force, only producing a turning effect à sometimes
called torque
- Couple = magnitude of one force X Perpendicular distance

-

- Principle of moments à sum of clockwise = sum of anti - clockwise

Centre of Gravity
- Assume all the mass is concentrated and acts in one place
- Paper experiment in P3! With the rope and making holes in object

How stable an object is dependent on its centre of mass and base area
- Object will topple over if vertical line drawn downwards from its centre of mass is
outside its base area
- Low centre of mass and wide base = good

]@<< ]
- Density = → 𝜌 𝑘𝑔𝑚tu =
p71q]9 p


Describing Motion
- Distance and Displacement
o Distance is scalar
o Displacement is a vector à distance away from a point

-

B?<>@)=9 >:@p9119x (])
- 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
y?]9 >@z9) (<)
ms-1

B?<61@=9]9)> (])
- 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
y?]9 >@z9) (<)

 ;}@)~9 ?) p917=?>• ]< kN
- 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = → 𝑚𝑠 t(
y?]9 >@z9) (<)


Displacement – time graphs

- Graphs gradient is increasing à shows velocity is increasing therefore object is
accelerating
- WE could find the average velocity by s/t
- The instantaneous velocity is the gradient at that point

Velocity time graphs

- gradient = acceleration
- AREA UNDER CURVE = DISPLACEMENT



Equations of Motion
- Derivations:

=}@)~9 ?) p917=?>• $?)@1t?)?>?@1 ptq
1. Acceleration = → → 𝑎 =
>?]9 >@z9) >?]9 >@z9) >


x?<61@=9]9)>
2. Average velocity = à if acceleration is constant, the average velocity
>?]9 >@z9)
# < #
during motion will be halfway between v and U = 𝑢 + 𝑣 = → 𝑠 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑡
( > (

# # #
3. Using equation 1 and 2 à 𝑠 = 𝑢 + 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 → 2𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 → 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 (
( ( (


 ptq
4. From using equation 1 à t = à use this to replace in equation 2
@
# ptq
- 𝑠 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 ×
( @
- 2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑢
- 2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑣 ( − 𝑢(

*only can be done if acceleration is constant*

Acceleration due to gravity
- Free fall = only gravity
o Acceleration is a vector quantity à ‘g’ can act ↓ ±
o Magnitude of g à 9.81ms-2
o Only force acting on something in free fall is its weight

- All objects in free fall accelerate at the same rate
o Galileo measured the time it took a ball to roll down a smooth groove in an
inclined plane
§ Slows the balls fall and reduces air resistance
o He found that the distance the ball travelled was proportional to the square of
time taken
§ Acceleration of ball was constant









Projectile Motion
- Split into vertical and horizontal


15ms-1 à





150m







a. Work out the time taken for the stone to reach the ground




↔ ↕
# ( # (
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 150 = ×9.81×𝑡 S 150
( (
U 15 0
#b`
= t t= 5.55 (2 d.p) V 15
†.‡`b
A 9.81

T

b. Distance it lands from the foot of the cliff
S = D/t D= S x t à 15 x 5.5 = 83m


c. Magnitude of the stones velocity when it hits the ground
Vertical velocity = u + at à 54 ms-1
Horizontal velocity = 15ms-1

= 54( + 15( → = 56𝑚𝑠 t#

Newton’s Law and Momentum
1. The velocity of an object will not change unless a resultant force act on it
- Body will stay still or move in a straight line at a constant speed unless there’s a
resultant force
- If forces are unbalanced, the overall resultant force will cause it to accelerate

- otherwise it would float

2. Acceleration is proportional to the force
- Resultant force (N) = mass (kg) x acceleration (ms-2)
- F = m x a
- More force = more acceleration à more mass = less acceleration


3. If an object A exerts a force on object B then object B exerts an equal but opposite
force on A
- Every reaction has an equal and opposite reaction
- If you push against a wall, the wall pushes against you, just as hard
- Easiest way to think of is 2 ice skaters on the rink, if person A pushes person B, person A
will move backwards whereas person B will move forward

- Friction is a force that opposes motion:
à Dry friction and fluid friction (drag)

- Fluid friction:
o Fluid à liquid or gas
o Force depends on thickness or viscosity of fluid
o Increases as speed increases
o Projectile is slowed down by air
1. Always act in the opposite direction
2. Can never speed things up or start something moving
3. They convert kinetic energy into heat and sound


Impulse and Momentum:
- Momentum (p in kgms-1) = mass (kg) x velocity (ms-1)
- Vector quantity

- Momentum is conserved
o Assuming no other external force then momentum is conserved
o Momentum before = momentum after
- Collisions can be elastic or inelastic
o Elastic = momentum and kinetic energy is conserved
o Inelastic = only momentum is conserved
 - Newton’s 2nd law says that force is the rate of change of momentum
o Rate of change of momentum of an object
∆ ]p
o So 𝐹 = 𝑜𝑟 𝐹∆𝑡 = ∆𝑚𝑣
∆>
o Force x time = change in momentum

- Impulse = change in momentum
o Ft = mv – mu
o 1Ns = 1Kgms-1
o Area under curve = impulse

Work done
- Work Done, W(Joules) = Force, F(Newton’s) x displacement in dir. of force, s (metres)
- Work Done = energy transferred

- 1 Joule = Work done when a force of 1N moves through a distance of 1m (in direction of
force)


87:z x7)9,∆• 9)9:~• >:@)<$9::9x ∆‘
Power, P = = à unit of power = watt, W (1 W = 1J per s)
>?]9 >@z9),∆> >?]9 >@z9),∆>

à p = F x V


- Kinetic energy is the energy something has because of its motion
# #
- 𝐾𝑒 = ×𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠×𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ( → 𝑚𝑣 (
( (
- GPE (Joules) = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
- ∆Ep = mg∆h

Electromagnetic Radiation and Quantum Phenomena

Photoelectric effect
- Shining light on a metal can release electrons
• If you shine light of a high enough frequency on the surface of a metal, metal will
emit electrons à frequency falls in the UV range
1. Free electrons absorb energy from light
2. IF electrons absorb enough energy, the bonds holding it to the metal
break and the electron is released à photoelectric effect electrons
emitted are called photoelectrons


Conclusion 1 – No photoelectrons emitted if below the threshold frequency
Conclusion 2 – Photoelectrons are emitted with a variety of kinetic energies ranging from 0
– max à this value of maximum kinetic energy increases with frequency of radiation – but is
unaffected by intensity



 - The photoelectric effect couldn’t be explained by wave theory
According to wave theory:
• For a particular frequency of light, the energy carried is proportional to the intensity
of the beam
• Energy is carried by the light would be spread evenly over the water front
• Each free electron would gain a bit of energy
• Gradually each electron would gain enough energy à so the higher the intensity the
more energy from the wave so kinetic energy should increase with intensity
• There’s no explanation for the kinetic energy depending only the frequency. Also no
explanation for the threshold frequency

But it may be Einstein’s photon model
- Suggested EM waves exist in discrete packets à photons
- Energy carried by one of these photons is
}=
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = h = Plank’s constant c= speed of light in a vacuum
+

- Einstein saw photons of light as having one-on-one particle like interactions with an
electron is a metal surface à A photon would transfer all its energy to one, specific
electron

According to the photon model:
1. When light hits its surface, the metal is bombarded by photons
2. If one of these photons collide with a free electron, the electron will gain energy to
hf
3. Before electron can leave the surface of the metal, it needs enough energy to break
the bonds holding it there. This energy is called the work function (𝜙 𝑝ℎ𝑖) – its the
minimum thermodynamic work needed to remove an electron from the surface of
the metal

Photon model explains threshold frequency…
1. If energy gained by an electron from a photon is greater than the work function à
electron is emitted
2. If it isn’t the metal will heat up but no electrons will be emitted à for electrons to
∅
be released, hf ≥ ∅, the threshold frequency must be: 𝑓 =
}
…And the maximum kinetic energy
- Energy transferred to an electron is hf so the kinetic energy the electron has whilst
leaving the metal is hf – any energy lost on the way out.
- Electrons deeper in the metal lose more energy than the electrons on the surface,
which is why there are a range of energies
- Minimum amount of energy is can lose it the work function so the max kinetic energy =
#
ℎ𝑓 = ∅ + 𝐸z (max) where 𝐸z max = 𝑚𝑣 (
(
- Kinetic energy of the electrons is independent of the intensity (number of photons per
second on an area) as they can only absorb one photon at a time à increasing intensity
means more photons per second on an area – each photon has the same energy as
before



The stopping potential gives the maximum kinetic energy
- Max Ke can be measured using idea of stopping potential à emitted electrons are
made to lose their energy by doing work against an applied p.d
- Stopping potential Vs, is the p.d needed to stop the fastest moving electron with Ek
max
- Work done by p.d in stopping fastest electron is equal to the energy it is carrying
eVs = Ek(max) e = charge on e- (1.6 x 10-19) Vs = stopping potential in J


The electron-volt (eV)
- Energy of a photon is extremely small and far less than a joule à therefore a joule isn’t
a convenient unit for measuring photon energies therefore the eV was created
- When an electron travels through a p.d – energy is transferred.
- If an electron which has a charge of magnitude 1.6 x 10-19 C, it’ll travel through a p.d of
1V so Its energy change W is given by:
W = QV à W = 1.6 x 10-19 x 1 à W = 1.6 x 10-19
Therefore, 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

• eV: One electron-volt (1eV) Is the energy transferred when an electron travels
through a potential difference of one volt
• 1V = 1eV, 2V = 2eV and when five electrons move through 10V a total of 50eV are
transferred

à To convert from eV to J multiply by 1.6 x 10-19
à To convert from J to eV divide by 1.6 x 10-19

- When a charged particle is accelerated through a p.d difference V, its kinetic energy
#
increases. For an electron (charge e) accelerated from rest we can write 𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣 (
(
à need to be careful – it doesn’t apply when a charged particle is accelerated through a
voltage to speeds approaching the speed of light c (need to take into account mass of e-
(9›
𝑣= à used for protons and ions etc.
]

Electrons in atoms exist in discrete energy levels
1. Electrons in an atom can only exist in certain well defined energy levels à each level
is given a number à n = 1 representing the ground state – least amount of energy
2. Electrons can move down energy levels by releasing photons (packets of energy)
3. Energy of each photon emitted can only take a certain allowed value

4. Energies involved are so tiny that electron-volt
(eV) is used à the kinetic energy carried by an electron
after it has been accelerated though a p.d of 1 volt


• Energy gained by electron (eV) = accelerating
voltage (V) 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J
• Smaller frequency = bigger wavelength



5. Energy carried by electron = difference in energies between the two levels
6. Electrons can move up energy levels if they absorb a photon with the same exact
energy difference à EXCITATION
7. If electron removed from atom, it becomes ionised à The ionisation energy is the
energy needed to remove an electron from an atom in its ground state

Fluorescent Tubes use excited electrons to produce light
1. Fluorescent tubes contain mercury vapour, across which an initiated high voltage is
applied. This high voltage accelerated fast-moving free electrons that ionise some of
the mercury atoms à producing more free electrons
2. When flow of free electrons collides with other electrons in mercury atoms, electrons
in mercury become excited to high energy levels
3. When excited electrons release photons to return to the ground state, they emit a
photon in UV range
4. Phosphorus coating absorbs these photons exciting and causing light to be produced

Fluorescent tubes produce line emission spectra
- Splitting light from F.T with a prism
- Line spectrum = bright lines against black background
- Each line = particular wavelength à wavelength corresponds to these energies

Continuous Spectra contain all possible wavelengths
- Spectrum of white light is continuous , if you split the light up with a prism à colours all
merge into each other – there aren’t any gaps in the spectrum
- Hot things emit a continuous spectrum in the visible and infrared
- All the wavelength are allowed because the electrons are not confined to energy levels
in the object producing the continuous spectrum à electrons are not bound to atoms
that are free

Cool gases remove certain wavelengths from the continuous spectrum
- Line absorption spectrum when light with a continuous spectrum of energy passes
through a cool gas
- At low temperatures, most of the electrons in the gas atoms will be in their ground state
- Electrons can only absorb photons with energies equal to the difference between two
energy levels
- Photons of the corresponding wavelengths are absorbed by the electrons to excite them
to high energy levels
- These wavelengths are then missing from the continuous spectrum when it comes out
the other side of the gas
- You see a continuous spectrum with black lines in its corresponding to the absorbed
wavelengths








De Broglie
}
- 𝜆 = - proves the wave nature of electrons
]p

- Slower speeds = more widely spaced rings
- If velocity ↑ then 𝜆 ↓

• Interference and diffraction show light as a wave
à Interference pattern
o Photoelectric effect shows light behaving as a particle
à Photon only acts on one electron otherwise each free electron would gain a little bit of
energy

Electricity

Current is the rate of flow of charge à depends on rate and time
∆ž
o ∆Q = I∆t or 𝐼 = Q= Charge in coulombs and t= Time in seconds
∆>

- Coulomb is a unit of charge à amount of charge that passes 1 second if the current is 1
ampere (A)
- You can measure the current using a ammeter à always attached in series

Potential Difference is the energy per unit charge
•
- P.d or voltage is the work done per unit charge moved à 𝑉 =
ž
- Measured with a voltmeter à always in parallel
- Volt = The p.d across a component is 1 volt when you convert 1 joule of energy moving
1 coulomb of charge through the component 1V = 1JC-1

Resistance
- The amount of current for a particular p.d depends on the resistance of the
components
›
- Resistance measures how difficult it is to get a current to flow 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 Ω
o Component has 1 Ω if a p.d of 1V makes a current of 1A flow through it
- For Ohmic conductor, R is a constant à most metals obey ohms law
- If R is constant, then 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉

I/V Graph: I/V graph for filament lamp:

Resistance of
metal increases
as temperature
increases




Semi conductors à used in sensors
- Not as good conductors as metals à less charge available
- IF energy is supplies to semi conductor then more charge carries can be released à
excellent sensors for detecting changes in their environment: Semi conductors can be
Thermistors or Diodes
- As temp increases more electrons break free

Resistance in thermistors depend on heat/temperature
- NTC thermistors à negative temperature coefficient
- Resistance decreases as temperature increases

Has same graph as filament for I/V

- Warming thermistor gives more electrons energy to escape their atoms meaning more
charge carriers available so resistance decreases

Diodes
- Only allow current to flow in one direction

Resistivity
- Three things determine resistance:
1. Length (L) à Longer wire = Harder for current
2. Cross sectional area (A) à Wider wire = Easier for current to flow
3. Resistivity (𝜌) à Depends on material, may make it easier or harder for current to
pass . Usually environmental factors play a part such as temperature

à Resistivity: Resistance of a 1m length with a 1m2 cross sectional area (ohm metres)
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝐿
- To find the resistivity of a wire you need to find its resistance
• Need to know cross sectional area

Core practical:
- Use a micrometre to measure diameter in 3 different areas of the wire
1. Test wire should be clamped to a ruler with the circuit attached to the wire where the
ruler reads zero
2. Attach to the flying lead à lead with crocodile clips
3. Record the length of the test wire, current and voltmeter reading
 ›
4. Use readings to calculate the resistance 𝑅 =
5. Repeat measurements and take average
6. Repeat for several lengths à 0.1 – 1m
7. Plot resistance against lengths
¦ §
Gradient à = à so multiply gradient cross sectional area
\

Superconductors à Zero Resistivity
- Below a transition temperature the metal becomes a super conductor
- This could be useful in power cables as there would be no loss of current or in really
strong electromagnets that don’t need a constant power source + super fast electrical
circuits

Power
- Power is the rate of transfer of energy
‘
- Measured in watts (W), where 1 watt is equivalent to 1 joule per second à 𝑃 =
>
- Really simple formula for power in electrical circuits:
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
Combine P=VI & V=IR for more equations

Energy
- If you know power, you can easily work out energy
- Simply need to multiply power by time
- 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑇

E.M.F and Internal Resistance

Batteries have resistance
- Resistance is from electrons colliding with atoms and converting energy into other
forms
- Resistance from battery is called internal resistance

- E.M.F (electromotive force) = Amount of electrical energy per coulomb of charge à
‘
𝜀=
ž
- P.d across load resistance is the energy transferred when one coulomb of charge flows
through the load resistor à p.d = terminal p.d
- Energy waster per coulomb = lost volts
- Energy per coulomb supplied by the source = energy per coulomb transferred in load
resistance + energy per coulomb wasted in internal resistance

EQUATIONS***: 𝜀 = 𝑉 + 𝑣 𝜀 = 𝐼 𝑅 + 𝑟 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟



E.M.F of multiple cells in Series and Parallel

- Series:
𝜀>7>@1 = 𝜀# + 𝜀( + 𝜀u

- Parallel:
𝜀>7>@1 = 𝜀# = 𝜀( = 𝜀u

Investigating internal resistance and E.M.F
1. Vary the current by changing the load resistance (R) using
variable resistor. Add a lamp or bulb to limit the maximum
current that can pass through the cell
2. To find the 𝜀 and internal resistance of cell à 𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
o Rearrange to give v= -rI + 𝜀
o Since 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 are constants then its just the equation of a
straight line (y= mx + c)
3. So the intercept of the vertical is 𝜀 and the gradient is –r


Conservation of Energy and Charge
- Charge is conserved, what ever goes into junctions flows out again
- Current is the rate of flow of charge, it follows that whatever current flows into a
junction is the same as it goes out

Kirchhoff’s first law says:
- Total current entering a junction = total current leaving it



? must equal 1A
Wire 1 = 0.5A because total out
must be total in








Kirchhoff’s second law:
- Total e.m.f around a series circuit = the sum of the p.ds across each component

Combine Resistors in Series and Parallel

Series:
- Same current throughout
- 𝜀 splits between components 𝜀 = 𝑉# + 𝑉( 𝑒𝑡𝑐
- 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 if I is constant: IRtotal = IR1 + IR2 (cancel
I’s)
- 𝑅>7>@1 = 𝑅# + 𝑅( + 𝑅u

Parallel Circuits:
- Current is split in each junction
- Same p.d
# # # #
- = + +
¦ª«ª¬- ¦N ¦M ¦®

Potential Dividers:
- Sometimes we want to use only part of the voltage provide by a battery to do this we
use a potential divider circuit.
- Potential divider consists of two or more resistors in series with each other and with a
source of fixed potential difference. P.d of a source is divided between the
components in the circuit as they’re in series

Potential dividers can be used for:
- Supply a p.d which is fixed at any value between zero and the source p.d
- Supply a variable p.d
- Supply a p.d that varies with a physical condition such as temperature and pressure
( u
If you had a 2Ω resistor and a 3Ω resistor, you’d get of the p.d on the 2Ω and the on
b b
the 3Ω

To supply a fixed p.d

Consider two resists R1 and R2 in series connected to a source o
fixed p.d V0
- Total resistance of the combination = R1 + R2
- Therefore, the current I thorough the resistors is given by
6.x @=:7<< >}9 :9<?<>7:< ›
𝐼 = = ¯
>7>@1 :9<?<>@)9 ¦N *¦M

So the pdV1 across resistor R1 is given by
𝑉` 𝑅#
𝑉# = 𝐼𝑅# =
𝑅# + 𝑅(

›° ¦M
And the p.d V2 across resistor R2 is given by 𝑉( = 𝐼𝑅( =
¦N *¦M

The equations show p.d across resistor as a ration to the source p.d. Shows that id the
resistance are 5kΩ and 10kΩ:
# b ( #`
- P.d across the 5kΩ is (= ) and for the 10kΩ its (= )
u #b u #b

› ¦
Dividing V1 by V2 gives: N = N
›M ¦M
- ratio of the p.ds across each resistor is equal to the resistance of the the two resistors

LDR and Thermistors:
- Adding and LDR (light dependent resistor) has a very high resistance in the dark but
low in the light
- NTC thermistor has a high resistance at low temperature
o Either can be used as one of their resistors in a potential divider, giving a voltage
that varies with the light level or temperature.






Particles

Atomic Structure
Isotopes:
- Have the same proton number, but different amount of neutrons so a different mass
number
- Have same chemical properties but have different nuclear properties
- Radioactive isotopes:
o All living things contain the same percentage of radioactive carbon 14 taken in
from the atmosphere à When they die the percentage of C-14 decreases as it
becomes stable allowing scientists to calculate the approximate age

Specific charge
;}@:~9
- Ratio of its charge to its mass given in coulombs per kilogram à 𝑠. 𝑐 =
0@<<
- Calculate specific charge of a proton
o Proton has a charge of 1.6 𝑥 10t#‡ 𝐶 and a mass of 1.67 𝑥 10t(a kg so specific
#._j#`kN´
charge = = 9.58𝑥10a
#._aj#`kMµ

Stable and Unstable Nuclei
- Strong nuclear force binds hadrons together
o Electrostatic and gravitational forces act on the nucleons à repulsion from
electrostatic force is much bigger than gravitational attraction
o Strong nuclear force holds the nucleus together and must be stronger than
electrostatic
o Has a very short range – separated by a few femtometres (1x10-15) à strength
quickly falls beyond this
o At small separations the strong nuclear force is repulsive otherwise it would
crush the nucleus to a point

- 𝛼 Emission happens in very big, unstable nuclei
o Nucleus is to big for strong interaction so a 𝛼 (helium) particle is emitted
o Can measure in a cloud chamber or with Geiger counter

- ß- Emission happens in neutron rich nuclei
o ß- decay is the emission of a electron from the nucleus along
with a antineutrino (to conserve energy and momentum)
o Happens in isotopes that are unstable
o Neutron turns into a proton
 - Beta decay led to the understanding of neutrinos:
o Wolfgang Pauli saw that the energy of the particle after beta decay was less that
it was before it, which didn’t fit the principle of conservation of energy à so he
suggested another particle was being emitted and it carried missing energy.
o It had to be soothing small with zero massà a neutrino

Particles and Antiparticles
- Photons are packets of electromagnetic radiation
o Visible light is part of the E.M spectrum allowing all possible frequencies
o EM radiation exists as photons of energy. The energy of a photon depends on
}=
the frequency of the radiation à 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 =
+

- Every particle has an antiparticle
o Each particle has a matching antiparticle à same mass and rest energy but
opposite charge

- Matter and antimatter can be created from energy
o Energy can turn into mass and mass can turn into energy
o The rest energy of a particle is the ‘energy equivalent’ of the particles measured
in MeV
o When energy is converted into mass you get equal amounts of matter and
antimatter

- Each particle-antiparticle pair is produced by a single photon
o Energy that is converted into matter and antimatter is in the form of
a photon. Pair production only happens if one photon has enough
energy to produce that much mass à only gamma ray photons
o Happens near a nucleus where an electron-positron pair is usually
produced due to relatively low masses and conserving momentum
o Minimum energy for a photon to undergo pair production is the total rest
energy of the particle produced – if each have a rest energy of E0 à

 - Opposite of pair production is annihilation
o When particle meets antiparticle
o All mass of the particle and antiparticle gets converted to energy
o Antiparticle usually exist for fractions of a second à that’s why its not in
ordinary matter

o OR
o Annihilation between a particle-antiparticle pair, both have a rest energy of zero
(E0)
o Both photons need to have a minimum energy, Emin which when added together

equals at least 2E0 for energy to be conserved therefore à

Plank’s constant is in J so you need to convert E0 from MeV to J


Forces and exchange particles

- Forces are called by particle exchange (letting particles tell each other where they are)
o Repulsion:
§ Each time the ball is thrown or caughtà people
get pushed apart (ball carries momentum)


o Attraction:
§ Each time the boomerang is caught or thrown
people are pushed together




- Exchange particles are called gauge bosons
o Repulsion between protons is due to the exchange of virtual photons (gauge
bosons of the electromagnetic force) à if we intercept the virtual photon we
stop it from doing its job



 - Four Fundamental Forces
o Larger the mass = shorter range of the
force, photon has no mass and therefore
infinite range






Weak Nuclear Force
- Strong nuclear force holds neutrons and protons together but its doesn’t cause a
neutron to change into a proton in ß- decay or a proton into a neutron in ß+ decay
o Can’t be E.M force because the neutron is uncharged
- Strong nuclear force has to work on stable nuclei so there has to be a weaker force
o The weak nuclear force
- In both ß+ and ß- decay new particles are formed + a new particle à but not a
corresponding particle-antiparticle pair à one is an electron or a positron the other is
a neutrino or antineutrino

- Neutrinos and antineutrinos hardly interact but when they do
o Neutrino interaction with neutron causes neutron to turn into a proton + ß- is
created and emitted
o Antineutron interacts with a proton and causes it to become a neutron + ß+ is
created and emitted
- Interactions are due to the W+ boson:
o W bosons have a non-zero mass
o Very short range (0.001fm)
o Positively charged or negatively charged










If no neutrino and antiparticle present
à W- Bosons decays into a ß- and antineutrino
à W+ Boson decays into a ß+ and a neutrino

Electron Capture
- Sometime a proton in a proton rich nucleus turns into a neutron due to the interaction
through the weak interaction with inner shell electrons
- Same thing happens when an electron collides with a proton at high speed

Force carriers à Photon, W bosons and Pion’s
Hadrons
- Protons and neutrons à Feel strong nuclear force
- Hadron’s aren’t fundamental particles à Made up of quarks
- Two types:
o Baryons (3 Quarks)
o Mesons (2 Quarks)
- Protons and neutrons are baryons but its better to think of them as different versions
of the same particle à nucleon (just different charge)

- All baryons except protons decay to a proton
o Baryons (expect protons) are all unstable meaning they decay to become other
things
- Antiprotons, antineutrinos are antibaryons
o Antiparticles are annihilated when they meet corresponding particles

Baryon number
- Number of baryons in an interaction
- Proton and neutron have a +1 baryon number
- Antibaryons have a -1 baryon number
- Other particles have a 0 baryon number
- Total before = Total after

à 1 = 1 + 1 – 1 à therefore 1 = 1 so it works

Mesons à Pions and Kaons
- All mesons are unstable and have a baryon number of 0
- Pions (π- mesons) are the lightest, with 3 versions à +, - and neutral (0)
- You get loads of these in high energy particle collisions
- Kaons are heavier ad more unstable à you get K+ and K0 à longer lifetimes and decay
INTO pions
- Discovered in cosmic rays
- Mesons interact with baryons via the strong nuclear force
















Leptons è Don’t feel the Strong Nuclear Force
- Leptons are fundamental particles and are not made up of other internal structures
- Only interact via weak interaction (also gravity and E.M if charged)
- Electrons (e-) are stable and familiar but there are other leptons à muon (𝜇) that are
heavy electrons

- Muons are unstable and decay into ordinary electrons
o Electrons and muon leptons all come with their own neutrino
o Neutrino has zero charge, and almost zero mass and only takes part in weak
interaction

antiparticles will have a -1 number

Quarks
- Protons & neutrons only need two types of quark – up quark (u) and down quark (d)
- Another strange(s) quark allows for particles to have a property called strangeness

Strangeness is conserved some of the time
- Strangeness is a quantum number à can only take some values
- Strange particles (like kaons) are created via strong interaction but decay via the weak
interaction
- Strangeness is conserved in the strong interaction but NOT in the weak interaction
o Means strangeness particles are always produced in pairs (K+ & K-) one has
strangeness +1 the other -1

à Quarks also have antiquarks which are just the opposite

Baryons are made up of 3 quarks
- Evidence from hitting protons with high energy electrons

Strangeness:
- Because particles to exhibit strange properties such as longevity. It is a quantum
property (essentially particle-counting) and can range from -3 to 3+, with the
strangeness of +1 being given to a particle with an ant strange. It has a charge of -1/3
like a down quark and is a second generation quark, thus does not exist in ordinary
matter.

- You need to know that strangeness is not conserved in the weak interaction, but is
conserved in the strong