Revision Note Unit - 2

Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

Unit 2: Solution

Q1. What is the molarity 0.05N of oxalic acid?

Ans:
Here,

Normality  0.05N
Basicity of oxalic acid  2

By the formula,
Normality  Basicity  molarity
 0.05  2  molarity

0.05
 molarity 
2
 0.025M
Q2. Why is the molality considered as better for expressing concentration than molarity?
Ans: Molality involves mass of the solvent which does not change with temperature. But the
molarity involves volume of the solution which changes with temperature
So, molality is considered as better for expressing concentration than molarity.
Q3. Calculate the mole fraction of solute of 1m aqueous solution.

Ans: 1m aqueous solution means 1mole of the solute dissolves in 1000g of H2O

1000
Now, number of moles of H 2O, n1   M H 2O  18 g / mol 
18 

 55.55 moles

Number of moles of solute , n2  1

n2
 Mole fraction of solute 
n1  n2

1

1  55.55
1

56.55
 0.0176

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

Q4. What are azeotropes? Give an example.

Ans: Mixtures of liquids which boil at constant temperature like a pure liquid such that the distillate
has the same composition as that of the liquid mixture are called azeotropes.
eg. Methyl alcohol + water mixture.
Q5. State Raoult’s law. Show that relative lowering of vapour pressure of solution containing
non- volatile solute is directly proportional to mole fraction of solute.
Ans: Raoult’s law
This law states that the relative lowering of vapour pressure of the solution is equal to the
mole fraction of the solute in the solution

Let p  vapour pressure of the pure solvent

0

p  Vapour pressure of the solution

From the general definition of Raoult’s law,

Vapour pressure of the solvent in the solution

= (Mole fraction of solvent in the solution) × (Vapour pressure of the pure solvent) 1
Subtracting each side from 1 , we get

p n1
1  1
p 0
n1  n2
p 0  p n1  n2  n1
 
p0 n1  n2
p0  p n2
 
p 0
n1  n2

p0  p
i.e. ∝ x2 Where x2  mole fraction of solute
p0

Hence, shown.
Thus, the relative lowering in vapour pressure of solution is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of the solute

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

Q6. The vapour pressure of pure water at 30 0 C is 31.80mm of mercury. How many grams of
urea should be dissolved in 1000 g of H2O to lower the vapour pressure by 0.25mm of Hg ?

Ans: Here,

p0  31.80mmHg

MB  60g / mol

p0  p  0.25mm
M A  18g / mol
WA  1000g

WB  ?
By Raoult’s law,

p 0  p M AWB

p0 M BWA

0.25 W 18
  B
31.80 60 1000
3
25  60  1000 500
 WB 
3180  18 9
159 3
12500
 WB 
477
 26.25g

 26.25g of urea should be dissolved in 1000 g of H2O to lower vapour pressure by 0.25mm of
Hg

Q7. An aqueous solution freezes at  0.186 0 C  k f  1.86, k b  0.512  . What is the elevation in
boiling point?
Ans: Here,

Tf  0.1860 C

T f 0  00 C

k f  1.86

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

kb  0.512
By the formula,

Tf  k f  m

 T f 0  T f  1.86  m
 00  0.186  1.86  m
0.186
m 
1.86

 0.1m
Again,

Tb  kb  m

 0.512  0.10 C
 0.05120 C

So, the elevation in boiling point is 0.0512 0 C

Q8. Two aqueous solutions containing 7.5g of urea  mol.wt  60  and 42.75g of substance X
in 100g of water freeze at the same temperature. Calculate the molar mass of X .

Sol:
Here,

Tf  k f  m As in same for the two solutions, their molarity will be equal

7.5 1000 42.75 1000

i.e.   
60 100 MX 100

42.75  60
 MX 
7.5

171855 2
4275  60

25 750
5

 M X  342g / mol

 Molar mass of g mole X is 342 g / mol

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

Q9. What is Van’t Hoff factor? How does it help in determining the degree of dissociation and
association of solute in a solution?
Ans: Van’t Hoff factor is defined as the ratio of the experimental value of the colligative property to
the calculated value of the colligative property.
i.e.
experimental value of the colligative property
i=
calculated value of the colligative property

When i  1, the solute undergoes dissociation in solution.

When i  1, the solute undergoes association in solution.

Q10. What is Van’t Hoff equation for dilute solution? In what ways is it helpful in calculating
the osmotic pressure of a solution?
According to Boyle – Van’t Hoff law

The osmotic pressure   of dilute solution is directly proportional to its, molar

concentration provide temperature remain constant.

i.e.  ∝ C

n
 ∝ 1
V
Where n  no of moles of the solute
dissolved in 'V ' volume of the solution
According to Charle’s Van’t Hoff law,

i .e . ∝ T  ii 
The osmotic pressure of a solution is proportional to its absolute temperature for a solution of
some definite concentration

Combining  i  and  ii 

n
 ∝ T
V

RnT
  Where R is solution constant
V
 V  nRT Which is Van’t Hoff Equation.

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

From the equation,

nRT
Osmotic pressure,  
V
In this way, Van’t Hoff equation is helpful in calculating the osmotic pressure of a solution.
Q11. Why is Osmotic pressure considered as better for determination of molar mass of solute?
Ans: This is because osmotic pressure uses molarity instead of molality.
Q12. Calculate molarity of pure water.

Ans: Density of water  1g/cm

3

Mass of 1000 cm 3 i.e 1000 ml of pure water

 1000ml 1g / ml
 1000 g

Mass
Moles of water in 1000 g 
Molar mass

1000 g

18 gmol 1
 55.55mol
moles of water
Molarity  M  
volume of water in litres
55.55mol

1L
 55.55M
Q13. A 5% solution of sucrose is isotonic with 0.877% solution of substance X . Calculate the
molar mass of X .
Ans:
5% solution of sucrose means 5 g of sucrose in 100 ml of the solution

WB
 V  RT  where WB  5g , M B  342g / mol 
MB
5
 V  RT
342 V
5 1000  100 
  RT i   V  100 ml  L
342 100 1000 

Also, 0.877% solution of X means 0.877g of X in 100ml of the solution

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

WB  100 
 V  RT  where W  0.877 g , V  100ml  L
1000 
B
MB
0.877 1000
  RT  ii 
M B 100

From equation  i  and  ii 

5  1000 0.877  1000

 
342  100 M B  100
 MB  59.98

≈ 60 g / mol

So, the molar mass of X is 60 g / mol .

Q14. 2g of benzoic acid dissolved in 25 g of benzene shows a depression in freezing point equal
1
to 62k .Molar depression constant for benzene is 4.9k kg mol .What is the percentage
association of the acid?
Ans:

Mass of solute  benzoic acid  , WB  2.0g

Mass of solvent  benzene  , WA  25.0g

Observed

Tf  1.62k
k f  4.9k kg mol 1

 Observed molar mass of benzoic acid

1000  k f  WB
MB 
T f  WA
1000  4.9  2.0

1.62  25
 242 g mol 1

calculated molar mass of benzoic acid  C6 H 5COOH 

 72  5  12  32  1
 122 g mol 1

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

calculated molar mass

Van’t Hoff factor, i 
observed molar mass

122
  0.504
242
  C6 H 5COOH 
2C6 H 5COOH  2

Initial moles 1 0

After association 1 
2
 
 Total number of moles after association  1     1
2 2

1
 i 2  0.504
1

or  1   0.504
2
   1  0.504   2
 0.496  2  0.992
 % association  99.2%

Q15. Out of 1M of NaCl aqueous solution and 1m NaCl aqueous solution, which one has higher
concentration?

Ans: In aqueous solution, 1M has higher concentration than 1m

This is because 1mNaCl  1mol in 1000 g of solvent or 1000cc of solvent  d  1g / cc  but

1MNaCl  1mol in 1000cc of solution which contains less than 1000cc of the solvent because solute
is also present in the solution. Hence, 1000cc of the solvent will contain more than 1mole of the
solute
Q16. Define molal depression constant?
Ans: It is defined as the depression in freezing point for 1 molal solution.

 i.e. a solution containing 1mol of solutein 1000 g of solvent  .

Q17. Define Van’t Hoff factor. What does it indicate when Van’t Hoff factor of a solution is
less than 1?
Ans: Van’t Hoff factor is defined as the ratio of experimental value of colligative property to
calculate value of colligative property.

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

When the Van’t Hoff factor  i  of a solution is less than 1,the solute will undergo association.

Q18. What do you understand by depression of freezing point?

Derive the relationship between depression of freezing point and molar mass of solute.
Ans: The difference between the freezing point of the solvent and the solution is called the
depression of freezing point
Here,

WB  Weight of the solute in g

WA  Weight of the solvent in

MB  Molar mass of the solute

We have,
WB 1000
m
M B  WA
Now, T f  k f  m
k f  WB  1000
 T f 
M B  WA
k f  WB  1000
 MB 
T f  WA

Which is the required relation.

Q19. What type of deviation is shown by a mixture of ethanol and aceton? Give example
Ans: Positive deviation is shown by a mixture of ethanol and aceton.
This is because the interaction between the components i.e. ethanol and aceton are less than in the
pure component.

Q20. What are azeotropes? Name the two types of azeotropes with suitable examples?
Ans: Mixture of liquids which boil at constant temperature like a pure liquid such that the distillate
has the same the composition as that of the liquid mixture are called constant boiling mixture or
azeotropes

The two types of azeotropes are

i) Minimum boiling point azeotropes
ii) Maximum boiling point

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

Q21. What are colligative properties? Derive an equation to express the relative lowering of
vapour pressure of solution is equal to the mole fraction of the solute in it when solvent alone is
volatile?
Ans: Those properties of ideal solutions which depend only on the number of particles of the solute
dissolved in the definite amount of the solvent and do not depend on the nature of the solute are
called colligative properties.
We have,

 vapour pressure  mole fraction of the × vapour pressure 

of solvent of the pure solvent 
 solvent in the solution i 
in solution 

If the solute is non - volatile, it will not contribute to the vapour pressure of the solution.
 vapour pressure of solution
 vapour pressure of solvent in solution
 mole fraction of the × vapour pressure 
  from i 
solvent in solution of the pure solvent 

Symbolically,

p  x1  p

p
  x1
p0
p n1
 
p0 n1  n2

Subtracting both sides of equation from 1 we get,

p n1
 1  1
p0 n1  n2
p0  p n1  n2  n1
 
p0 n1  n2
p0  p n2
 
p0 n1  n2

Hence, shown.

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

Q22. A solution containing 15g of urea  molar mass  60 g / mol  per litre of solution in water
has the same osmotic pressure as a solution of glucose  molar mass  180 g / mol  in water.
Calculate the mass of glucose present in 1litre of its solution.
Ans: For urea solution,
15 g  R  T
1 
60 g mol 1  1L

For glucose solution

WB  R  T
2 
180 g mol 1  1L

For isotonic solution,

1  2

15 g WB
 1

60 g mol 180 g mol 1
180 15
3
 WB   45 g
60
 mass of glucose  45g

Q23. Define Osmotic pressure.

Ans: The minimum pressure which should be applied on the solution, so as to prevent the migration
of solvent molecules into the solution through a semi - permeable membrane is called Osmotic
pressure.
Q24. State Raoult’s law. How do you say that it is a special case of Henry’s law?
Ans: Raoult’s law: In a solution, the vapour pressure of a component at a given temperature is
equal to the mole fraction of that component in the solution multiplied by the vapour pressure of that
component in the pure state.
According the Raoult’s law for any volatile component of the solution,

p  x  p0
A A

p  p0  x
A A A
i.e. Vapour pressure of the volatile component (solvent or solute) is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of that component in the solution.

Now, if the gas is a solute and liquid is the solvent, than according to Henry’s law pA  kH xA

i.e. Partial pressure of the volatile component (gas) is directly proportional to the mole fraction of
that component (gas) is the solution.

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

Thus, Raoult’s law and Henry’s law becomes identical except that their proportionality constant are
different, being equal to p 0 for Raoult’s law and kH (Henry’s constant) for Henry’s law.
A

Hence, Raoult’s is a special case of Henry’s law.

Q25. What are ideal and non ideal solutions?
Ans: In ideal solution is a solution in which each component of a solution obeys Raoult’s law
e.g. Chlorobenzene and bromobenzene
A non ideal solution is solution in which each component of the solution does not obey Raoult’s law.

e.g. HNO3  water mixture.

Q26. Draw vapour pressure curve showing the depression of freezing point of solution and
pure solvent.
Ans:

Q28. Explain the positive and negative deviation with suitable example.
Ans: Non - ideal solution shows positive deviation if the interactions between the component are less
than in the pure components

i.e. vmixing  ve, H mixing  ve

Non –ideal solution show negative deviation if the interaction between are different than the pure
components. i.e. vmixing  ve, H mixing  ve

Q28. Show how the vapour of a solvent is affected when a non volatile solute is dissolved in it.
Ans: The vapour pressure of the pure solvent decrease when a non volatile solute is dissolved in it
this is due to the presence of less no of solvent molecules on the surface of the solution than that of
the pure solvent.

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Revision Note Unit - 2
Class XII –Chemistry Solution (5marks)

Q29. What mass of a solute  molar mass  62 g / mol  must be added to 5.50kg of water to lower
freezing point of H2O from 00 C to 10.00 ?  k f forwater  1.86 kkgmol 1 

Ans: Here,
WB  ?
WA  5.50 kg
k f  1.86
62
M B  62 g / mol  kg / mol
1000
T f  0   10   100 C

Now,

Tf  k f  m

WB
 1.86 
M B WA

WB
 10  1.86 
62
 5.50
1000
31
10  62  5.50 62  55
 WB    1.833kg
1.83 1000 1860
930

 1.833 kg

 The mass of the solute is 1.833 kg

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Revision Note Unit - 3
Class XII –Chemistry electrochemistry

Unit 3: electrochemistry

Q1. Define the terms

a) Molar conductivity at infinite dilution
b) Equivalent conductivity
c) Electro chemical series
d) Cell constant
f) Specific conductivity

Ans: a) Molar conductivity at infinite dilution ( m ):-

If we keep diluting an electrolytic solution, the value of m keep on increasing until they
attain maximum value .The maximum m are called molar conductance at infinite dilution(
m ).

b) Equivalent conductivity at infinite dilution:-

If we keep on diluting an electrolytic solution the value of eq keep on increasing until they
attained maximum value .The maximum value of eq are called equivalent conductivity at
infinite dilution.
c) Electro chemical series:-
The arrangement of various electrons in decreasing or increasing order of their standard
reduction potential is called electrochemical series
d) Electro chemical equivalent:-
It is the amount of substance deposited when current of 1 A is passed for 1 sec i.e. for 1C of
charge.
e) Cell constant:-

l
It is the ratio of distant between the electrodes and area of cross section .It is denoted by .it
A
unit is cm1 .And Its SI unit is m1
f) Specific conductivity Specific conductance
It is defined as conductance of electrolyte when distance between electrolytes is 1cm and area
of cross section is 1cm 3.

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Revision Note Unit - 3
Class XII –Chemistry electrochemistry

Q2. What are the fuel cells? Mention its advantages.

Ans: It is a cell which converts chemical energy of the combustion of the fuel directly into electrical
energy.

Advantages of the fuel cells:-

i) The efficiency is very high

ii) It causes no pollution

Q3. What is the relation between molar conductivity  m and equivalent conductivity  e ?

Ans:  m  n e Where n  total positive or negative valency

Q4. What is the effect of dilution on specific conductance or conductivity?

Ans: On dilution, number of ions present per unit volume of solution decrease and hence the value of
conductivity decease in case of both weak and strong electrolyte.

Q5. What is the role of ZnCl2 in a dry cell?

Ans: ZnCl2 Combines with NH 3 released in electrodes reaction, Otherwise the cell may damage due
to extra pressure of ammonia gas ZnCl2  4 NH 3   Zn  NH 3  4  Cl2

Q6. How many coulombs of electricity are required for the reduction of 1mole of Cu 2 ions to
Cu ( s)

Ans: Cu 2  2e   Cu ( s )

1 mole 2F

2  96500C

 Amount of electricity require for the reduction of 1 mole of Cu 2 ions to Cu ( s)  2  96500C

 1,93,000C

Q7. Predict the product of electrolysis in each of the following:

a) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with platinum electrode

b) Aqueous solution of NaCl

Ans: a) At cathode :  Ag  ions are reduce to Ag

Ag   e  Ag ( s )

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Revision Note Unit - 3
Class XII –Chemistry electrochemistry

At anode :  OH  ions are oxidized to produce oxygen

4OH   H 2O  O2  2e 

b) In Aqueous state,

NaCl  Na   Cl 

H 2O  H   OH 

When electric current is passed through, we obtained

At cathode :  H   1e  H [H 
Has high reduction

H  H  H2 potential than Na

]
1
At anode :  Cl   1e  Cl2 ( g )
2

Cl  Cl  Cl2

Q10. How would you determine the standard electrode potential of Mg 2 / Mg ?

Ans: Standard reduction potential of Mg 2 / Mg can be determine by forming a cell with standard
hydrogen electrode.

Mg ( s ) / Mg 2  (1m)  H  (1m) / H 2 (atm), Pt

0
Ecell  Ecathode
0
 Eanode
0

 EH0  / H  EMg
0
2
/ Mg
2

 0 E 0
Mg 2 / Mg

 E 0
M g 2 
/ M g
 E 0
c e ll

Q11. What is the different between emf of a cell and potential difference?
Ans:
EMF of cell Potential difference
i) It is the potential difference between the i) It is the difference of electrode potential of
electrodes current is flowing in the circuit the two electrodes when the cell is under
operation
ii) It is the maximum voltage offered by the
cell ii) It is always less than the maximum voltage

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Revision Note Unit - 3
Class XII –Chemistry electrochemistry

Q12. What volume of Oxygen (measured at NTP) is produced by Oxidation of water in the
electrolysis of CuSO4 during the passage of 2.50 ampere of current for 45 mins?

Ans: 2 H 2O  O2  4 H   4e 

1mole 4  95600C
 386000C
Q  I  t  2.5  45  60  6750C

Volume of O2 released by passing 386000C of electricity

 22.4L at NTP

 Volume of O2 released by passing 6750C of electricity

(22.4  6750)

386000
 0.3917L

Q13. State Faraday’s law of electrolysis.

Ans: 1) Faraday’s first law of electrolysis: It state that The amount of chemical reaction and the
mass of any substance deposited or liberated at any electrode is directly proportional to the quantity
of electricity passed through the electrolyte” .Thus, if w gram of substance is deposited on passing Q
coulombs of electricity then,

wQ

w  ZQ

Where Z is the constant of proportionality and is called electrochemical equivalent of the

substance deposited

If a current 0of 1ampere is passed for ' t ' seconds

Then, Q  I  t

w  ZQ

w  Z  I t
Thus, if Q  1 coulomb, I  1 ampere, t  1 second; then
wZ

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Revision Note Unit - 3
Class XII –Chemistry electrochemistry

2) Faraday’s second law of electrolysis : 

It state that when the same quantity of electricity is passed through solution of different
electrolyte connected in series ,the wt of the substance produced at the electrode are directly
proportional to their equivalent wts.

Eg:For AgNO3 solution and CuSO4 solution connected in series, if the same quantity of
electricity is passed.
Wt. of deposited  Equivalent wt.of Ag
Wt.of Cu deposited Eq.wt of Cu

Q14. The conductivity of 0.001M acetic acid is 4 105 Scm1 calculate the dissociation constant
of acetic acid if molar conductivity at infinite dilution for acetic acid is 390Scm2 / mol .
Ans: Calculation of
k 1000
 cm 
M
4 105 1000

0.001
 4 10Scm 2 mol 1
Calculation of degree of dissociation, 
 cm 40
    0.1024
 m 390.5
Calculation of dissociation constant ( ka )
C 2
(ka )   1.85  105
(1   )

Q15. What type of battery is lead storage battery? Write the anode and cathode reaction and
overall reaction acquiring in a lead storage battery when it discharging.
Ans:

At cathode
PbO2 ( s )  SO4 2  (aq )  4 H  (aq )  2e   PbSO4  2 H 2O (l )
Overall reaction
Pb( s)  PbO2 ( s)  2 H 2 SO4 (aq)  2 PbSO4 ( s)  2 H 2O(l )

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 5

Revision Note Unit - 3
Class XII –Chemistry electrochemistry

Q16. An iron wire is immersed in a solution containing ZnSO4 and NiSO4 with reason predicts
which of the following reaction is lightly to proceed.
a) Iron reduced Zn 2 ions
b) Iron reduced Ni 2 ions

Ans:
0
Given: EZn 2
/ Zn
 0.76V ; EFe
0
2
/ Fe
 0.44V ; E Ni0 2 / Ni  0.25V
a)
Fe  Zn 2 (aq )  Zn  Fe 2 (aq )
0
Ecell  EZn
0
2
/ Zn
 EFe
0
2
/ Fe

 0.76( 0.44)  0.32V

The reduction of Zn 2 by iron is not possible as Ecell
0
has negative value
b)
Fe( s )  Ni 2 (aq )  Fe 2 (aq )  Ni ( s )
0
Ecell  Ec0  E A0

 ENi0 2 / Ni  EFe
0
2
/ Fe

 0.25  (0.44)
 0.19V

0
Since, Ecell has positive value, iron reduce Ni 2 to Ni( s)

Q17. Calculate the cell emf and  G for the cell reaction at 298k for the cell.
Zn( s ) / Zn 2 (0.0004 M  Cd 2 (0.2 M ) / Cd ( s )
Ans: Given
0
EZn 2
/ Zn
 0.783V
0
ECd 2
/ Cd
 0.403V
R  8.314 Jk 1mol 1
0
Ecell  ECd
0
2
/ Cd
 EZn
0
2
/ Zn

 0.403  (0.783)
 0.36V
Zn( s )  Cd 2 (aq )  Zn 2 (aq )  C
Cell reaction is Zn( s )  Cd 2 (aq )  Zn 2 (aq )  Cd ( s )

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 6

Revision Note Unit - 3
Class XII –Chemistry electrochemistry

0.0591 Q
Ecell  Ecell
0
 log10
n
0.0591 0.004
 0.36  log
2 0.2
 0.44
G   nFEcell
 2  96500  0.44
 84920 J

Q18. With help of the graph explain why it is not possible to determine  0m for a weak
electrolyte by extrapolation.
Ans: Conductance of a weak electrolyte increase exponentially is dilution due to increase in no of
ions as well
as inter-ionic distances. The curved meets the axis at infinity. Thus  0m of weak electrolyte
cannot be determined by extrapolation electrochemical series.
m


Q19. State Kohlrausch’s law .How will you determined using Kohlrausch’s
 c

a) Degree of dissociation of weak electrolyte

b) For a weak electrolyte
c) Solubility of a sparingly soluble salt

Ans: Kohlrausch’s law

It state that the molar conductance at infinite dilution of an electrolyte is equal to the sum
of the conductance of the cation and anion of a electrolyte
Mathematically,
m    m (  )  m ( )
Where
m  Molar conductance of infinite dilution
m (  )  Molar conductance of cation at infinite dilution
m ( )  Molar conductance of anion at infinite dilution
   no. of cation
   No. of anion

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 7

Revision Note Unit - 3
Class XII –Chemistry electrochemistry

a) Determination (calculation) of a degree of dissociation for a weak electrolyte:

For a weak electrolyte if mc be the molar conductivity of a solution at any concentration c and m0 be
the molar conductivity at infinite dilution (zero conc.) then, we have

mc
Degree of dissociation ( ) 
m0

The value of m0 for the weak electrolyte can be calculated in Kohlrausch’s law

b) Determination of m for a weak electrolyte:

Molar conductivity of weak electrolyte at infinite dilution cannot be determined

experimentally however this can be calculated using Kohlrausch’s law

 0 (CH 3COOH )  CH

0
3COOH
 H0 

c) Determination of solubility of a sparingly soluble salt:

Salts such as AgCl , BaSO4 , PbSO4 etc. which dissolve to a very small extent in water are
called sparingly salt

By determining the specific conductivity (k ) and the molar conductivity (m ) such a solution, we
can obtain solubility as follows

1000
m0  k 
molarity

1000
k
Solubility

k  1000
 Solubility 
m0

In which m0 can be obtained by using Kohlrausch’s law

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 8

Revision Note Unit 4
Class XII –Chemistry Chemical kinetics

Unit 4: Chemical kinetics

For general reaction,

aA  bB  cC  dD

1 d  A 1 d  B
*Rate of the reaction   
2 dt 2 dt

1 d C  1 d  D
 
2 dt 2 dt

*Unit of rate of constant  k 

  concentration  time 1  k 
1 n

Where, n  order of the reaction

  mol 1 
1 n
sec 1

 Ea
*Arrhenius equation, k  Ae RT

Where, k  rate constant, A  frequency factor

Ea  Activation energy
R  Gas constant
Ea
ln K  ln A 
RT
Ea
log K  log A 
2.303RT
*Rate constant at two different temperatures:

k2 Ea  T2  T1 
log   
k1 2.303RT  T1T2 

*Integrated rate equation for zero order reaction:

 R 0   R   kt , where  R 0  initial conc.of reactant

 R  Conc.of reactant after time ' t '
*Integrated rate of equation for the first order reaction:

2.303  R 0
k log
t  R

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 1

Revision Note Unit 4
Class XII –Chemistry Chemical kinetics


*Half life of zero order reaction:

1  R 0
t1
t1 
2 k 2 2

*Half life of first order reaction:

t1 
0.693
slope  tan  
1  R  0

2 k 2k


*Radioactive decay follows first order reaction: t1
Ea  EThr  ER , Where EThr  Threshold energy, 2
ER  Energy of reactant

Q1 Define the order of reaction.  R  0

Ans: It is defined as the sum of powers of all the concs. terms present in the experimental rate law equation.

E.g. N 2  O2  2 NO

Rate law   N 2 O2 

order  1  1  2 nd order
Q2 Define molecularity of a reaction.
Ans: Molecularity of an elementary reaction is the total no. of reactant molecules that gives the products.

Q3 what is the different between order and molecularity of a reaction?

Order Molecularity
i) It is experimental quantity i) It is theoretical quantity
ii) It can have fractional value ii) It has whole no value
iii) It can be zero iii) It cannot be zero

Q4 Define activation energy.

Ans: The Extra minimum amount of energy required by the reactant species so that reaction occurs to
form product is called activation energy.
Q5 How is the rate constant related to concentration of the reactants?
Ans: Rate constant of a reaction does not depend on the concentration of the reactant.

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 2

Revision Note Unit 4
Class XII –Chemistry Chemical kinetics

Q6 How can the effect of temperature on rate constant be expressed quantitatively?

Ans: The effect of temperature on rate constant can be expressed by temperature co-efficient.

Temperature co-efficient  Rate constant at (T  10) k

Rate constant at Tk

Q7 Mention the factors that affect the rate of a Chemical reaction.

Ans:
i) Concentration of reactants
ii) Temperature
iii) Catalyst
iv) Nature of reactants
Q8 what is rate law? How is it different from law of mass action?
Ans: The mathematical expression which gives the relation between the concentration of reactants
and the reaction rate is called rate law
The rate law is different from law of mass action which takes into account the no
of molecules of the reactants given by the balanced chemical reaction.

Q9 Explain the difference between the average rate and instantaneous rate of a chemical
reaction
Ans: Average rate of reaction:
The rate of reaction measured over a long time interval is called average rate of reaction.
It depends upon the change in conc.of reactants or products and time taken for the
change to occur.

x
In general rav 
t

Instantaneous rate:
It is the rate of reaction when the average rate is taken over a small interval of time

dx
It is equal to .
dt
Instantaneous rate  Average rate as t approaches zero.

dy d  R d  P
rinst   
dt dt dt

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 3

Revision Note Unit 4
Class XII –Chemistry Chemical kinetics

Q10 Distinguish between the rate of reaction and rate constant of a reaction
Ans:
Rate of reaction Rate constant
i) This stand for the rate of decrease of the i) It is the rate of reaction when the conc. of
conc.of the reactants on the rate increase of the reactant is unity rate
conc. Of product with time
ii) It is independent of the conc. of the reactant
ii) It depends upon the conc.of the reactants at but depend upon the temperature
the particular moment
iii) The unit of the rate constant depend upon
1 1 1 1 the order of the reaction.
iii) Units mol sec or mol min

Q11 The rate of reaction triples when temperature changes from 20 0 c to 50 0 c calculate energy
of activation for the reaction for the reaction assuming that it doesn’t change with temperature.
Ans: Given:

k2
 3, T1  20  273  293k
k1

T2  50  273  323k

R  8.314 Jk 1mol 1
Arrhenius equation is

k  Ea  T2  T1 
log  2    
 k1  2.303RT  T1T2 

Ea  323  293 
 log 3   
2.303  8.314  293  323 

 Ea  28811.8Jmol 1

 28.8118kJmol 1

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 4

Revision Note Unit 4
Class XII –Chemistry Chemical kinetics

Q12 A reaction of the second order w.r.t. a reactant. How is the rate of reaction affected if the
conc.of the reactant is reduced to half? What is the unit of the rate constant for such a reaction?

Ans: Rate1  k  R 
2

When the conc. is reduced to half,

2
R
Rate2  k  
2
2
1
   .k  R 
2

2
1
 Rate1
4
The rate of the reaction is reduced to one-fourth of its initial rate.

Q13 Decomposition of N 2O5 is expressed by the equation.

1
N 2O5  2 NO2  O2
2

At a certain time interval, the rate of decomposition of N 2O5 is 1.8  10 3 molL1 min 1 ,what will
be the rates of formation of NO2 and O2 during the same time interval?

Ans: The expression for the decomposition of N 2O5 is

  N 2O5 
1   N 2O5   O2 
Rate   2
t 2 t t
3 1 1
 1.8 10 molL min

  NO2    N 2O5 
Rate of formation of NO2 , 2
t t

 2  1.8  103
 3.6  103 molL1 min 1

 O2  1   N 2O5 
Rate of formation O2 , 
t 2 t
1
  1.8  103
2
 0.9  103 molL1 min 1

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 5

Revision Note Unit 4
Class XII –Chemistry Chemical kinetics

Q14 Half life and three-fourth life of a first order reaction are t1 and t2 respectively. What is the
relation between them?
Ans:

0.693 0.693
t1  or k 
2 k t1
2

2.303 a
t log
k ax
3
When x a , t  t2
4
2.303 a
 t2  log
k 3
a a
4
2.303  2 log 2

k
2.303  0.3010

0.693
t1
2

 2  t 1  2t1
2

 t2  2t1

Q15 For the reaction 2 NO  2 H 2  N 2  2 H 2O , the kinetics of this reaction is explained by the
following steps

i) 2NO  H 2  N 2  H 2O2  slow 

ii) H 2O2  H 2  2 H 2O  fast 

What is the predicted rate law?

As the slowest step is the rate determining step
Q16 Give an example of a first order reaction.

1
Ans: H 2O  H 2O  O2 or CH 3COOH 3  H 2 O  CH 3COOH  CH 3OH
2 acid

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 6

Revision Note Unit - xv
Class XII –Chemistry Polymers 3marks

Unit XV: Polymers

Polymers:
These are the molecules of high mass formed by the combination of a large number of simple
molecules .The simple molecules are called monomers.
Polymerisation: It is the reaction in which the monomers are converted into polymers.

Classification of polymers:
Polymers are classified into many ways as followed:
i) Classification based on the nature of repeating unit
ii) Classification based on the source
iii) Classification based on the structure
iv) Classification based on mode of reaction
v) Classification based on molecular force

I Classification based on the nature of repeating unit:

Here, polymers are classified into two
i) Homopolymers: these are the polymers whose repeating units are derived from one type of the
monomers e.g. polythene
Polymerisation

polymerisation
nCH 2  CH 2  ( CH 2  CH 2  ) n
The repeating unit is  CH 2  CH 2 

ii) Copolymers: These are the polymer which are derive from the two or more different monomers
e.g Nylon – 66

Hexameltyenediamine
  CH 2 6  NH 2  nHOOC   CH 2 4  COOH 

Adipic acid

  NH   CH 
2 2 6  NH  CO   CH 2 4  CO    H 2O
n

Nylon 66

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 1

Revision Note Unit - xv
Class XII –Chemistry Polymers 3marks

II Classification based on the source:

Here, the polymers are classified into three
i) Natural polymers: These are the polymers which are found in nature. e.g. Proteins, Nuclic acids
cellulose,etc
ii) Synthetics polymers: These are the polymers which are artificially made in the laboratory.
e.g. Polythene, Neoprene, Nylon-66 etc.
iii) Semi-Synthetic polymer: These are the polymers which are derived from the natural polymers
e.g. cellulose diacetate vulcanise rubber etc.

III Classification based on the structure:

Here, polymers are classified into three
i) Linear polymers: In these polymers, the polymer molecules are long straight chain and they lay
side by side .the long molecules are stacked over one another to give a well packed structure. They
have high melting point, high density and high tensile strength.
e.g. P.V.C., Nylon, etc.
ii) Branched chain polymers: In these polymers, the polymer molecules t only form the linear chain
but also form branches of different length along the main chain .they are not well packed due to
branching.
e.g. Amylopectin, Glycogen, etc.
iii) Cross link polymers: In these polymers the linear polymer molecules are joined to one another
through covalent bonding and it forms a three dimensional network structure .they are hard, rigid and
brittle
e.g. melamine formaldehyde, Bakelite etc.

IV Classification based on mode of reaction:

Here, polymers are classified into two
i) Addition polymers: These are the polymers which are formed by addition reaction
e.g: Polythene PVC et
ii) Condensation polymer: These are the polymers which are form by condensation reaction
e.g. Nylon -66, Bakelite etc

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 2

Revision Note Unit - xv
Class XII –Chemistry Polymers 3marks

V Classification based on molecular force:

Here, polymers are classified into four.
i) Elastomer: These are the polymers in which the polymer molecules are held by weak
intermolecular force. They have the elastic character like rubber. They can be stretched and they can
regain their original shape when the applied stress is removed e.g: natural rubber.

ii) Fibres: These are the polymers in which the molecules have strong intermolecular force of
attraction. The intermolecular force is either hydrogen bond or dipole - dipole interactions. They
have high tensil strength and low elasticity. They have sharp melting point e.g: Nylon-66 Dacron etc

iii) Thermoplastics: These are the polymers which can be easily softened when heated and can be
hardened when cooled with little change in the properties. They have intermolecular force between
those Elastomer and fibres e.g: polythene p.v.c

iv) Thermosetting polymers: These are the polymer which undergoes permanent change on heating
On Heating; they get highly cross- linked thereby holding molecules so rigid that the molecules
cannot move freely.
e.g: Bakelite, melamine formaldehyde etc.

Plasticizers: Certain do not soften much on heating, but they can be softened easily by the addition
of some organic compounds. These organic compounds are called plasticizers.
e.g: P.V.C

Vulcanisation of rubber: It is a process in which a little amount of sulphur is added to natural

rubber. The rubber is called vulcanized rubber. During vulcanisation cross linked take place.

Biodegradable polymers: these are the polymers which can be degradable by micro- organism so
that biodegradable polymers and their degraded products do not cause any kind of pollution to the
environment. In true sense, biodegradable polymers are environment friendly.
e.g Polyactic acid .Polgycolic acid PGA etc

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 3

Revision Note Unit - xv
Class XII –Chemistry Polymers 3marks

Commercially important polymers

Addition polymers
1) Polythene: It is manufactured by heating pure ethylene to 465k – 485k under high pressure (1500-
2000 atm) in the presence of oxygen.

High pressure   CH 2  CH 2  n

465  485 k
nCH 2  CH 2 
ethene
Polythene

2) Polystyrene: It is prepared by the polymerisation of styrene in the presence of benzoyl provides

Q1 Write a brief note on: a) Chain growth polymerisation or addition polymerisation.

b) Step growth polymerisation or condensation polymerisation.
Ans:
a) Chain growth polymerisation: It involves a series of reaction each of which consumes a reactive
species and produces another similar species. It occurs in a chain reaction. it involves an initiative. It
occurs in three steps: chain initiation, chain propagation and chain termination step.

b) Step growth polymerisation: It occurs in stepwise manner. It is condensation of two or more

manners with the elimination of simple molecules like water. It needs no imitation for the reaction to
start with.

Q2 Distinguished between chain growth polymerisation and step growth polymerisation and
give one examples of each process.
Ans:

Chain growth polymerisation Step growth polymerisation

i) Only one repeating unit is added to a time.
ii) Reaction is fast and polymer is formed at
once.
e.g. Polythene
i) Any two spies present can react
ii) Polymer is formed in gradual steps.
e.g. Nylon-66

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 4

Revision Note Unit - xv
Class XII –Chemistry Polymers 3marks

Q3 How is Bakelite made and what is its major used? Why is baketlite a thermosetting
polymer?
Ans: Bakelite is formed by the condensation reaction of Phenol with formaldehyde i.e. the presence
of acid or base catalyst.
Uses:
It is mainly used in making electrical goods. Bakelite is thermosetting plastics because plastics
because it cannot be reshaped on heating due to high degree of cross –linking between polymers
chain

Q4 What are polycrytes give one examples?

Ans: Polycrates are obtained from ester of acrylic acid, C H 2  C H .C O O H

e.g. Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)

Uses: - It is used in the manufacture of lens Air craft windows etc.

By: Mdm. Sanahanbi Page | 5