Running head: GROUNDWATER IN THE CENTRAL REGION OF PANAMA 1

Current State of Groundwater Knowledge in the Central Region of Panamá

Miguel Salceda González

Technological University of Panamá

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Summary

In the Republic of Panama, traditional importance has been given to surface water

resources, being a country that has an established and well-known network of meteorological and

hydrological stations, however, the quantity and quality of groundwater, as well as aquifers that

contain them, require further studies aiming the quantification and management of water

resources.

In Azuero, located central area of Panama, a large amount of research has been done to

depict the existing aquifers, since this area belongs to the region known as The Dry Arch, which

has low rainfall (Sjunnesson & Svendenius, 2004). The Azuero peninsula is located within the

central area of Panama and is comprised of the provinces of Herrera, Los Santos and Veraguas.

The area of greatest water fragility is called The Dry Arch, and forms part of the western side of

the Azuero peninsula.

This essay will focus on the hydrogeological knowledge of the central region of Panama,

in the area of Azuero, because during the dry season, there is little availability of surface fresh

water. The study of quantity and quality of groundwater in order to meet the demand of the

population is of special importance. There will be a summary of some studies related to the study

and management of water, such as the doctoral thesis "Exploration of groundwater in the Dry

Arch of Panama (Las Tablas sector) through geophysical methods" (Caballero, 2009). It focuses

on the geological and hydrogeological characterization of Las Tablas, an area that belongs to the

Dry Arch. Official reports such as the "National Water Security Plan 2015-2050", which seeks to

draft a roadmap to follow, with the objective of guaranteeing the availability of water for the

development of Panama, and the information generated by public institutions with competence in

the subject, as well as research carried out by the Technological University of Panama, will be
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used to determine the degree of hydrogeological knowledge of the most fragile water region of

the Republic of Panama.

Knowledge of Groundwater in the Central Region of Panama

Underground hydrology aims at the knowledge and evaluation of existing water

resources in the subsoil, and the possibility of its capture and exploitation in a context of

sustainable management (Escuder et al., 2009). Based on this definition, we understand that

through underground hydrology, we can know the amount of water stored in different geological

formations located in a certain area, with the goal of carrying out a sustainable exploitation. To

know the characteristics of the aquifers, which are the subsoil water reservoirs, scientists must

support themselves on various disciplines such as: geophysics, geology, hydrology, hydraulics,

among others, because underground hydrology is a multidisciplinary character science (Escuder

et al., 2009). Due to little knowledge about the state of its resources, Panama suffers from an

apparent shortage of water, despite the fact of having a large amount of water resources. This

leads to poor management and infrastructure deficiency for sustainable use (Comité de Alto

Nivel de Seguridad Hídrica, 2016), the most impacted area in the country due to this apparent

water scarcity is the Central Pacific region of the Republic of Panama (located in Azuero) with

minimum rainfall of 1,027 l/m²/year and a maximum of 1,722 l/m²/year (Comité de Alto Nivel

de Seguridad Hídrica, 2016). In this area, a large part of the population uses groundwater to meet

the demand of water for human consumption and the realization of various economic activities

that are predominant in the area, such as livestock and agriculture. Due to the scarcity of surface

water during the dry season, we can find that in Azuero, a large quantity of wells have been built

for exploitation in order to provide water to communities for their consumption. Several other

wells are built to extract water for agricultural activities.

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Due to the need for water, groundwater exploitation increased by 75% from 2002 to

2010. However, the consequences of this increase have not been quantified due to poor

monitoring (Soufier, 2010).

Currently, the Technological University of Panama is conducting a research in the sub-

basin of the Estibaná River, which has a 296 km² area and is located in the province of Los

Santos. This project aims to complement the current network of water level monitoring, to

respond to that need. For this matter, monthly routine measuring campaigns have been started,

water samples have been taken to perform hydro chemical analyzes, and very soon, two wells

will be developed to be used as piezometers with the objective of monitoring levels and

performing pumping tests to determine the hydraulic parameters of the aquifer.

The National Climate Change Strategy seeks to reduce the vulnerability of the population

and protect public finances by generating knowledge for the prevention of risks, mitigation of

extreme events, adaptation to climate change, and monitoring of hydrological indicators, in order

to strengthen the capacity to respond to extreme events (Comité de Alto Nivel de Seguridad

Hídrica, 2016). For these reasons, an adequate monitoring of the piezometric levels is necessary.

Usually, when people hear about extreme events, they immediately think of floods, but in this

area of the country, extreme events with equal or worse repercussion are droughts which cause

an increase of water extraction on wells. There is no control over these extractions at this

moment.

According to the goal No. 4 of the National Water Security Plan "Water for all", Panama

is heading towards an integrated management of watersheds, for which we must necessarily learn

important aspects such as the actual dimensions of the aquifers, their transmissivity, and storage

coefficient, so we can discard the traditional approach of separating surface water from
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groundwater, because it is known that aquifers and rivers, depending on the piezometric levels of

each, share water from one to the other (Escuder et al., 2009).

Many countries use groundwater as a source of drinking water for human consumption

and for the irrigation of crops. This has resulted in a decrease of the phreatic level of aquifers,

increase in the leaching of nutrients and pesticides, subsidence, and the salinization of soils

(Caballero, 2009).

A determining aspect to begin to understand the dynamics of groundwater is the geology

that represents the matrix through which water flows in the presence of a hydraulic gradient.

The volcanic arc of the Azuero Peninsula was formed due to the subduction of Nazca and

Cocos' plates under Panama's micro-plate (Buchs, Arculus, Baumgartner, Baumgartner-Mora, &

Ulianov, 2010; Harmon, 2005). This led to the formation of Loma Montuoso's batholith and

Playa Venado formation's basalts. During the Cretaceous, volcanoclastic and marine sediments

were also deposited on the basalts of the ocean floor, which resulted on the Ocú formation

(Buchs, Baumgartner, Baumgartner-Mora, Flores, & Bandini, 2011; Kolarsky, Mann, &

Monechi, 1995).

Based on an inventory of natural resources, it was established that the volcanic and

sedimentary rocks of the Dry Arc have a matrix of low permeability. Laboratory tests were

performed on pyroclastic rocks of the region and it was found that the porosity had values lower

than 5%. This indicates that there was good compaction and fusion of the volcanic fragments

during the formation of the rocks. As for the sedimentary, they were composed of clays, silts,

and fine sands of low permeability (C.R.A., 1968; Caballero, 2009).

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From the stated above, we can infer that the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifers in this

area is due to the secondary permeability; in other words, because of the fractures (Caballero,

2009; Piersol, 2005; Sjunnesson & Svendenius, 2004).

In the Dry Arc region, some hydrogeological characterization studies have been carried

out; the first one was done with a regional focus and was meant to characterize rocks' hydraulic

properties (C.R.A., 1968; Caballero, 2009). Later, in 1968, a geophysical evaluation of the area

was made, however, they had to make some verifications that were never really executed, so the

work remained unfinished (Caballero, 2009; ECAISA, 1987).

(Sjunnesson & Svendenius, 2004) conducted studies in Pesé (a region within the Dry

Arc) and estimated the physical boundaries of various aquifers on which they had worked. They

also conducted tests to determine the quality of the water.

(Piersol, 2005) made an assessment of the aquifer's hydraulic properties in Aguadulce,

and studied its potential and vulnerability due to saline intrusion.

Subsequently, the Hydrogeological Map of Panama was developed, for which an

exhaustive compilation of hydrogeological, geological, topographic, hydrological, and

cartographic information was made. This map was developed on a scale of (1: 1,000,000) to

cover the largest possible area, so that it could be used as a basis to develop more detailed

hydrogeological maps (ETESA, 1999). The Hydrogeological Map of Panama has served as the

basis for several investigations, and it is expected that with the new projects being carried out by

the Technological University of Panama, we will be able to obtain a more detailed

hydrogeological cartography that will eventually be incorporated into the next version of the

map.
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In the zone of Las Tablas belonging to the region of the Dry Arc, hydrogeological units

formed mainly by igneous and sedimentary rocks were found. They had a variable constitution

(between compact and fissured), which also causes their productivity to oscillate in a range

between moderate and low (Caballero, 2009). Currently, through the IOMA17-006 project

developed in the Dry Arch, specifically in the Estibaná region, pumping tests are being

coordinated to determine the hydraulic parameters on certain areas of studied aquifer. Although

they are not constant in all its extension, they provide us with valuable information about their

local productivity. Subsequently, it is expected that the project can be replicated in several basins

and that the results can be consolidated to characterize a wider region and obtain an even more

valuable product.

The first of the hydrogeological units found in Las Tablas is made up of local aquifers

dominated by fractures formed by volcanic and fragmentary sedimentary rocks. The wells with

higher productivity are found in the fractured zones, as it was expected. The second

hydrogeological unit is also constituted by local aquifers dominated by fractures that comprise a

set of effusive rocks and whose fissures have been sealed mostly by mineral deposition

(Caballero, 2009).

In the case of a fractured rock aquifer, the study is even more complex due to the

heterogeneity of the fractures. This may result in a large water exploitation capacity at one site

(since the water caption area is well connected to the water fracture system), and that at a nearby

distance, another water capture structure does not have a good exploitation capacity, since it

simply is not connected effectively to the fracture system. Therefore, in these cases, it is very

important to carry out geophysical studies and to prepare structural geological maps in order to

ensure that the development of a specific capture structure is profitable.

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It has been proved that several researches have been carried out in order to understand the

hydrodynamics of aquifers in different areas of the Dry Arc. In terms of the quality of

groundwater, IDAAN (National Institute of Aqueducts and Sewerage) and MINSA (Ministry of

Health) are responsible to carry out the monitoring of the quality of water in the wells that they

administer. The tests performed to the water samples from the wells in the Dry Arch consist of

the measurement of the physical and chemical properties of the water, analysis of ions, and

determination of the alkalinity and hardness. These results are then interpreted using the Piper

diagram to chemically characterize the water (Caballero, 2009). One drawback that occurs with

the current groundwater quality monitoring system is that it is not carried out very often, and the

institutions in charge of monitoring do not have the equipment to perform the corresponding

tests, which causes an increase on time gaps between sampling and analysis campaigns.

Discussion

The geophysical evaluation carried out in 1968 remained unfinished due to the fact that

more studies of the area were never carried out (Caballero, 2009), reason why data and products

of little reliability are available.

In other studies, such as the one carried out by (Caballero, 2009), a relatively small area

near the population center and located in the lower part of the La Villa River basin (Azuero) was

hydro-geologically analyzed, however, the extraction of groundwater for human consumption

and agricultural activities occur on higher parts of the hydrological unit.

The study performed by the Technological University of Panama in the upper part of the

La Villa River basin has several level monitoring wells, although not enough piezometers have

been identified in order to have a detailed resolution of the studied area.

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The Hydrogeological Map of Panama is a general reference, but lacks precision, since it

was made from general information, so it cannot be considered a reliable source of information

when we work in small areas that require detailed information.

Limitations of the studies

There are some clearly identified limitations that make it difficult to carry out

hydrogeological studies, which is why most of the studies conducted to quantify water resources

have been based on the study of surface water, avoiding the direct relationship between these and

the underground waters.

Economic limitations

To carry out hydrogeological studies, it is required to have piezometers, either to develop

the piezometric surfaces and determine the direction of the flow lines and/or to perform pumping

tests, in order to know the hydraulic parameters of the aquifer in a certain area. In Panama, the

creation of a piezometric network is highly expensive and very difficult to afford if it is required

for academic purposes only.

Technical limitations

Currently, there are few specialized researchers in hydrogeology that are interested in

conducting studies in the region of Azuero, which is very fragile from a water security point of

view. The competent authorities and researchers do not have the required technology to perform

various tests in order to characterize the hydrological units, such as: pressure transducers, water

pumps, and geophysical equipment.

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Physical limitations

A large area of the upper part of the La Villa River basin has no record of pumping tests

or electrical topographies, not even wells for level monitoring. This is due to access difficulties,

because these are mountainous areas that have very underdeveloped rural roads, which challenge

the available vehicles assigned to the projects.

Conclusions and future studies

Although it was evidenced that some hydrogeological researches have been carried out in

the central region of Panama, specifically in the area of the Dry Arch in Azuero, these isolated

and small-scale works are not enough to develop a comprehensive characterization and analysis

of the state of conservation of underground water resources. Furthermore, no evaluations of the

behavior of the aquifers have been made, and no concrete actions have been taken to protect and

regulate their exploitation in case they are in danger of depletion and even pollution.

More studies should be carried out to provide additional hydrogeological information, for

example, the creation of a hydraulic conductivity map of the Azuero area, a map of piezometric

levels with a denser piezometry network. Also, geophysical and isotopic studies should be

carried out with the objective to delimit the aquifers and to determine their extension.

The aquifers of the central region of Panama are threatened by the constant increase in

the demand for groundwater and the lack of monitoring and knowledge of the capacities of the

aquifers. The institutions and researchers in charge of managing water are yet to know the

current state of conservation of the aquifers.

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