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Received: March 20, 2016; Accepted: April 9, 2016; Published: October 21, 2016
Abstract
Investigation was carried out on the effect of process parameters on oil yield from sweet almond seed (Terminalia catappia)
expressed using a mechanical oil rig. A four factor, five levels central composite design (CCD) under response surface
methodology was applied to determine the effect of four independent variables (moisture content (6, 7, 8, 9, 10%w.b),
temperature (80, 85, 90, 95, 100°C), heating time (10, 14, 18, 22, 26min.) and applied pressure (20, 21, 22, 23, 24KN)) on oil
yield. Results showed that all the variables significantly affected the oil yield at 95% confidence level. The maximum oil yield
of 37.138%, was obtained at temperature, pressure, heating time and moisture content of 90°C, 24KN, 18minutes and 8%w.b
respectively.
Keywords
Almond Seed, Oil Extraction/Expression, Oil Yield, Response Surface Methodology
release its oil from the cell under rupture [15, 16]. It is the husk through winnowing. Then the kernel was further dried
most common method of oil extraction [17, 18] and for three days under the sun (at average temperature of 51°C)
equipment such as screw press, hydraulic press, mechanical to safe moisture content for storage in air tight bucket till the
oil rig, expellers [19], rolling press etc can be used for this date of the experimentation. Therefore, 300kg of dried peeled
method. almond fruit was used for the experiment.
The oil yield from Mechanical oil extraction method is
affected by factors such as applied pressure, moisture content,
pressing time, heating duration, particle size, and temperature,
[20, 21, 22]. Research on roselle seed showed that Oil yield
increases by 5%–6% with an increase in the processing
parameters of pressure up to 30 MPa, temperature of 100°C
and decreased beyond these points where as it increased by
7% –8% with an increase in moisture content. Finely ground
samples were found to have higher yield than coarsely
ground samples at the different processing parameters [22].
Reports from work carried out on sesame seed showed that
the oil yield increased with decrease in moisture content of
sample after heating. The highest oil yield (based on total
mass expressed) of 33.5% corresponding to an expression
efficiency (based on seed oil content) of 65.7% was obtained
when sesame seeds were conditioned to moisture content of
6.1%, heated at 85°C for 20 min, and expressed at a pressure
of 20 MPa [23].
Response surface methodology (RSM) was adopted in the
design of experimental combinations. It is a useful
mathematical approach that is widely used to investigate and
optimize the combinational effects of several process
variables influencing response(s) with a reduced number of
experimental runs while varying the variables simultaneously
[24]. Works done using this method recorded that it is
capable of determining the effect of given parameter(s) on a Fig. 1. Almond seed obtained from the dried fruit after cracking.
given factor(s) and can be used in predicting the optimum
value(s) of such given parameter(s) [24, 25]. 2.2. Seed Conditioning
There are limited research on the process parameters The initial moisture content of the sun dried almond seeds
necessary for the optimum extraction of almond seed oil. was determined using oven drying method based on
Hence the knowledge of the appropriate set of parameters for Association of Analytical Chemists [26] standard. Based on
the extraction of almond seed oil will enhance the production this standard, at temperature 130°C for 6hour, 100g of seed
almond oil. The main objectives of this work is to evaluate sample was oven dried to a constant weight. After 6 hours
the effect of temperature, heating duration, applied pressure, the sample was allowed to cool in a desiccator for over 30
and moisture content on the oil yield of almond seed minutes and then reweighed to determine the final weight
(M2). The moisture content was determined using the
2. Materials and Methods equation below;
2.1. Materials % ∗ 100 (1)
The sweet species of almond fruits (Terminalia catappia)
The method used by [27] was adopted for the seed
were harvested manually from Benue, Anambra and Imo
conditioning. The dried almond seeds were reduced in size
state of Nigeria by hand picking those that fell by wind
using motorized attrition mill. The reduced seed samples
action and by shaking the trees to release the ripe ones. The
were graded into the coarse particle size of Ф ≥ 2 mm using
harvested fruits were then washed with water to remove sand.
manual sieve. The sample was then subdivided into five parts
The pulp/mesocarp was manually peeled using knife to
and the moisture content of each was properly adjusted to 7,
expose the endocarp (shell). The peeled fruits were sun dried
8, 9 and 10% (wet basis) by adding calculated quantity of
for 5-7 days to avoid seed breakage during cracking and
water to the sample. Sample with 6% moisture content was
kernel rancidity. The dried almond fruits were dehulled
not tempered with as it is within the moisture content level to
manually using hammer. Each fruit was cracked along the
be used. The specific quantity of water required to be added
margin to release the brown spindle-shaped kernel from the
to each portion was determined using the equation below as
endocarp and then cleaned by separating the nut from the
given by [28];
American Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Research 2017; 4(1): 1-8 3
∆
1 (2) 24KN, four other heating duration levels of 14, 18, 22 and
26minutes and four other moisture content levels of 7,8, 9,
Where Wm is water to be added (g), W1 is initial weight of and 10%(w.b).
the seed at M1 (g), ∆M = M2 – M1 (for M2 > M1) and ∆M =
M1-M2 (for M1 >M2), M1 is initial moisture content (%w.b)
and M2 is final moisture content (%w.b). The coarse seed
samples conditioned with water were sealed in polyethylene
bags and stored in the freezer for not less than 48 hours for
the moisture to be evenly distributed within the sample.
Before any experimental run, the samples were removed
from the freezer and allowed to thaw completely until
equilibrium is attained.
2.3. Experimental Design
Coded Working
Parameters Unit
Symbol range Coded levels
Min Max
Temperature X1 °C 80 100 80 85 90 95 100
Pressure X2 KN 20 24 20 21 2 2 23 24
Heating time X3 Min. 10 26 10 14 18 22 26
Moisture
X4 %w.b 6 10 6 7 8 9 10
content
!
LEGEND % oil yield = ∗ 100 (3)
"#
A Plunger
B Frame Wcs = weight of crushed almond seed sample (g)
C Compression piston Woe = weight of oil expressed (g).
D Digital force measuring device The oil content of almond seed was determined through
E Press cage cylinder proximate analysis using standard solvent extraction method
F Heating band [26]
G Support platform
H Load cell 3. Results and Discussion
I Discharge channel
J Hydraulic press handle The result of the experiment is shown in table 2. The
K Temperature controller individual, interactive and quadratic effects of such process
Fig. 3. Pictorial view of the mechanical oil rig mounted on hydraulic press. parameters such as pressure, temperature, heating time and
moisture content on the oil yield were evaluated using design
The oil yield was determined using the equations given by expert 8.0. The oil content of the seed from the proximate
[16, 19] as stated below: analysis is 49.38%.
Table 2. Experimental design matrix and results for Oil yield.
(Where * denotes those factors significant at 5% confidence level while ** denotes insignificants terms)
The analysis of variance result is shown in table 3. This Figure 6 indicates the response plot for interaction effect
table shows that the individual, interactive and quadratic of temperature and moisture content on oil yield. As heat
effects were significant (*) at p≤0.05 except for interaction treatment increases (temperature) from 80-100°C with
between temperature and moisture content (X1X4) and the moisture content from 6-9%w.b, moisture is lost, this loss
interaction between pressure and heating time (X2X3). The F- creates a void that serves as a migratory for the release of the
values also indicated the order of significance of the process oil from its cells as viscosity is also lowered thereby
parameters giving moisture content as the most important enhancing oil flow through the oil cells, hence increasing oil
variable that affected the oil yield followed by temperature, yield. The gradual decrease in oil yield as moisture migrates
applied pressure and heating time. This trend of significance beyond 9%w.b suggests that optimum oil yield could be
is in agreement with findings on sesame seed by [23] and on within the area below 10%w.b.
dika nut by [20] which revealed moisture content as the From figure 7, it was observed that there was a slight
process factor with the most significant effect on oil yield. decrease in oil yield as heating time increased from 10-26
Figure 4 shows the interaction effect of pressure and minutes and oil yield increased with increase in pressure
temperature on oil yield. Oil yield increases with pressure at from 20–24KN. This suggests that high oil yield will be
constant temperature, heating time and moisture content. It favoured at lower heating time and higher pressure and this
can also be observed that the oil yield tend to decrease or finding is in agreement with the work on groundnut which
level off as the pressure increases from 23 to 24KN. This revealed that lower heating time and higher applied pressure
observation may be due to the blocking of oil path between would favor oil yield more than higher heating time and
some inter-kernel voids because of compaction of particles or lower applied pressure [24].
may suggests boundary were optimum pressure for oil yield The interaction between moisture content and pressure is
could be obtained for range of values used. The plot also shown in figure 8. At constant temperature and heating time,
reveals that oil yield increases with increase in temperature oil yield increases with increase in moisture content from 6.0
and pressure. High oil yield of 37.138% and 36.125% were – 8% w.b but decreases as the moisture content migrates
obtained at high pressure of 24KN and temperature of 100°C from 8 – 10% w.b. And as pressure increases from 20 – 24
respectively while low oil yield of 35.388% and 32.75% KN oil yield is favoured.
were obtained at low pressure of 20KN and temperature of The response surface plot for moisture content and heating
80°C respectively. This temperature trend is in agreement time is shown in figure 9. At constant temperature and
with previous works which attribute this behaviour of oilseed applied pressure, oil yield increased slightly as moisture
to the fact that heat coagulates the protein and reduces the content increased from 6 – 8%w.b and decreased as the
viscosity of the oil thereby facilitating oil expression process moisture content increased from 7 – 10% w.b. And as the
as moisture reduction takes place simultaneously. At higher heating time increases from 10 – 18minutes oil yield is
temperature, prolonged heat treatment causes a substantial favoured but decreases as it moves from 18 – 26 minutes.
moisture loss leading to hardening of oil seed sample which
best explains the reason behind the reduction in yield at
higher temperature [31, 22, 23]. This observation conforms
to findings on previous works carried out on dika nut,
groundnut, and shea kernel [20, 24, 19].
Figure 5 shows the interaction effect of heating time and
temperature on oil yield. Increase in temperature and heating
time favours oil yield as pressure and moisture content are
held constant. High oil yield of 36.125% and 31.625% were
obtained at high temperature of 100°C and heating time of 26
minutes respectively while low oil yield 32.75% and 32.063%
were obtained at low temperature of 80°C and heating time of
10 minutes respectively at constant pressure of 22KN and
moisture content of 8 % w.b. The oil yield increases towards
the centre of the response surface plot and moves away from
the centre as temperature and heating time is further increased
resulting to reduction in oil yield. This suggest the centre area Fig. 4. Response surface plot showing the combined effect of interaction of
as boundary were optimization of oil yield could be obtained. pressure and temperature on oil yield.
6 Vivian C. Akubude et al.: Effect of Process Parameters on Oil Yield Mechanically Expressed from Almond Seed
(Using Response Surface Methodology)
Fig. 5. Response surface plot showing the combined effect of interaction of Fig. 8. Response surface plot showing the combined effect of interaction of
heating time and temperature on oil yield. moisture content and pressure on oil yield.
Fig. 6. Response surface plot showing the combined effect of interaction of Fig. 9. Response surface plot showing the combined effect of interaction of
moisture content and temperature on oil yield. moisture content and heating time on oil yield.
4. Conclusion
This study on effect of process parameters on oil yield from
almond seed using RSM revealed that the most important
variables are moisture content and heating temperature.
Moisture content had the most significant effect while heating
time had the least effect on oil yield. The maximum oil yield
of 37.138%, was obtained at temperature, pressure, heating
time and moisture content of 90°C, 24KN, and 18minutes and
8%w.b respectively. This implies that these process parameters
must be controlled to effectively extract oil from almond seed.
Hence, this knowledge is a great guide to researchers and
designers for future work on almond oil production.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the Department of Agricultural and
Fig. 7. Response surface plot showing the combined effect of interaction of
heating time and pressure on oil yield. Bioresource Engineering in Federal University of Technology,
Owerri, Imo state, Nigeria, Daniel Jemirin of Chemistry
American Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Research 2017; 4(1): 1-8 7
Department University of Illorin, Kwara state and National [14] Kalia, V. C., Sadhana, L. and Rashmi (2002). Modified cold
Centre for Agricultural Mechanization, Ilorin, Kwara state. percolation method for extracting oil from oil seeds. Journal
of Scientific and Industrial Research, 61: 630-634.
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