Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Form 4 (2.1)
Aim: To study the diffusion of particles
Apparatus: Gas jar and cover, dropper, beaker, test tube, rubber
stopper
Procedure:
1. Two drops of liquid bromine are dropped into a gas jar and
covered with glass cover.
2. Water is poured into a beaker and then put several small
potassium manganite (VII) crystals into the beaker.
3. A potassium manganite (VII) crystal is placed on the surface of
the solidified agar in a test tube which is then clamped inverted
and stoppered with a rubber stopper.
Observation
1. Brown liquid (reddish brown) vaporises to form brown vapour
that completely fills the gas jar
2. Purple potassium manganite (VII) spreads slowly throughout the
water
3. Purple potassium manganite(VII) spreads slowly throughout the
agar.
Conclusion
Diffusion takes place because bromine and potassium
manganite(VII) are made up of tiny and discrete particles that
move continuously and randomly from a region of high
concentration to region of low concentration through particles of
air (A), particles of water (B) or particles of agar (C)
Form 4 (2.2)
Aim: To deter mine the melting and freezing points of naphthalene
Procedure
1. Naphthalene is heated in a test tube and stirred with a
thermometer as in apparatus set-up P.
2. The temperature of the naphthalene is recorded every half
minute until its temperature reaches 90 °C.
3. Liquid naphthalene is allowed to cool down while stirred with a
thermometer in a conical flask as in apparatus set-up Q.
4. The temperature of liquid naphthalene is recorded every half
minute until its temperature goes down to 60 °C.
5. Graphs of temperature against time of heating and cooling of
naphthalene are plotted
Result
Table for heating and cooling of naphthalene
Time/s 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390
Tempe
rature/
°C
Analysis
Conclusion
The melting point and freezing point of naphthalene are 80°C
Discussion
1. Temperature of naphthalene does not change during melting.
This is because the heat supplied is absorbed to waken (or
overcome) the attractive force between naphthalene
molecules.
2. Temperature of naphthalene does not change during freezing.
This is because the heat lost to surrounding is balanced by heat
released during the formation of attractive force between
naphthalene molecules
3. During heating the naphthalene needs to be stirred
continuously to make sure the temperature of the naphthalene
is uniform
4. A hot water bath is used when heating the solid naphthalene to
make sure heating temperature is uniform
5. Liquid naphthalene must be stirred and placed in a conical
flask for slow and constant cooling. Otherwise, supercooling
may take place.
6. The boiling point of naphthalene is 120°C. If solid naphthalene is
heated directly without using hot water bath, naphthalene may
sublime and produce vapours that are flammable and
poisonous. A hot water bath reaches a maximum temperature
of 100°C and melts the naphthalene but prevents it from
subliming
7. If the naphthalene used is not pure, its melting and freezing
points will be below 80°C
Form 4 (3.1)
Aim: To determine the empirical formula of copper oxide
Procedure
1. Combustion tube and asbestos paper is weighed.
2. Dry copper oxide is placed onto the asbestos paper and
apparatus is weighed again
3. Dry hydrogen gas is passed through the apparatus for a few
minutes.
4. Gas coming out from the small hole X collected into a test tube
and tested with a burning wooden splinter. When the ‘pop’
sound is o longer heard, hydrogen gas at X is ignited.
5. The copper oxide in the combustion tube is heated.
6. Heating is stopped when no more changes takes place in the
combustion tube.
7. Hydrogen gas is passed through the combustion tube
continuously until the apparatus cools down to room
temperature.
8. After it has cooled down, the combustion tube and asbestos
paper containing copper is weighed again.
9. The heating, cooling, and weighing processes are repeated
several times until a constant mass is obtained.
Results
Mass of combustion tube + asbestos paper = x g
Mass of combustion tube + asbestos paper + copper oxide = y g
Mass of combustion tube + asbestos paper + copper = z g
Calculation
Element Cu O
Number of moles z – x / 64 y – z / 16
Simplest ratio p q
Conclusion
The empirical formula of copper oxide is CupOq
Discussion
1. Hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc granules to produce
hydrogen gas.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
2. Hydrogen is dried by passing through anhydrous calcium
chloride.
3. In the combustion tube, copper oxide is reduced by hydrogen
gas to copper and water is formed.
5. The empirical formula of the other metals like lead (II) oxide,
PbO, and iron(II) oxide, FeO, can also be determined by this
method.
6. Precautions
a) All connections in the apparatus must be air-tight.
b) Hydrogen gas is flowed through the apparatus for a few
minutes to displace all air present in the apparatus. A mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen gas is explosive if it is ignited.
Form 4 (3.2)
Aim: To determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide
Procedure
1. An empty crucible with lid is weighed.
2. 20cm magnesium ribbon is cleaned with sandpaper, rolled and
put into the crucible.
3. The lid and its contents are weighed again.
4. The crucible is heated strongly until the magnesium starts to
burn.
5. The moment the magnesium starts burning, the crucible is
closed with its lid.
6. Heating is continued and the lid of the crucible is opened and
closed quickly every once in a while to ensure the white smoke
is not lost to the surroundings during heating.
7. When the magnesium ribbon is no longer glowing, the lid is
opened and the crucible is heated strongly to ensure
combustion of magnesium is complete.
8. The crucible and its contents is cooled down to room
temperature and weighed again.
9. The crucible and its contents is repeatedly heated, cooled
down and weighed again until a constant mass is obtained.
Result
Mass of crucible + lid = a g
Mass of crucible + lid + magnesium = b g
Mass of crucible + lid + magnesium oxide = c g
Calculation
Element Mg O
Number if b – a / 24 c – b / 16
moles
Simplest ratio m n
Conclusion
The empirical formula of magnesium oxide is MgmOn
Discussion
1. Magensium reacts with oxygen to produce magnesium oxide
2. Precautions
a. Magnesium ribbon is cleaned with sandpaper to remove the
oxide layer on its surface
b. The crucible needs to be closed with lid when heating the
magnesium to prevent some of the magnesium oxide from being
lost to the surroundings as white smoke
c. The lid of the crucible is open once a while during heating to
allow oxygen (air)from outside to diffuse inside for complete
combustion of the magnesium to take place
d. The process of heating, cooling and weighing is repeated until a
constant mass of product is obtained. This is to make sure the
magnesium reacts completely with oxygen.
Form 4 (4.1)
Aim: To study the reactivity of Group 1 elements (alkali metals) with
oxygen.
Variables:
Manipulated: Type of alkali metal/ Type of Group 1 element
Responding: reactivity of alkali metals
Constant: Size of alkali metal
Apparatus: Gas jar with cover, gas jar spoon, Bunsen burner knife
Procedure
1. A small piece of lithium is cut using the knife.
2. The layer of oil on the lithium is dried using filter paper.
3. The lithium is placed on the gas jar spoon and heated until it
starts to burn.
4. The gar jar spoo is quickly placed into the gas jar filled with
oxygen.
5. The colour of the flame, how vigorous the reaction is, and the
properties of the residue is observed and recorded.
6. The experiment is repeated using sodium and potassium
Observation
Lithium burns slowly with reddish flame.
Sodium burns vigorously with a yellowish flame
Potassium burns very vigorously with a reddish-purple flame.
White fumes and a white solid are formed in all cases.
Analysis
The alkali metals burns in oxygen gas with a bright flame to form
white fumes of metal oxide that becomes a while solid when
cooled.
4Li + O2 → 2Li2O
4Na + O2 → 2Na2O
4K + O2 → 2K2O
Conclusion
The reactivity of group 1 elements with oxygen increases when
going down the group. The hypothesis is accepeted.
Discussion
If the metal oxide formed (combustion
4N product between alkali
metal and oxygen) is mixed with water, an alkali solution is formed.
If the phenolphthalein indicator is dropped into the solution formed,
the colourless solution turns pink.
Form 4 (4.2)
Aim: To study the reactivity of Group 1 elements (alkali metals) with
water.
Problem statement: Do element of Group 1 show different
reactivities in their reaction with water?
Variables
Manipulated: Type of alkali metal/type of group 1 element
Responding: Reactivity of the reaction
Constant: Size of metal
Materials
Lithium, sodium, potassium, water, filter paper
Apparatus
Glass trough, forceps, knife
Procedure
1. A glass trough is half filled with water.
2. A small piece of lithium is cut with a knife
3. The layer of oil on the lithium is dried using filter paper.
4. The piece of lithium is carefully placed on the surface of the
water. The reactivity of the lithium with water is observed and
recorded.
5. The experiment is repeated using sodium and potassium
Observation
Lithium moves slowly and randomly on the surface of water.
Sodium moves quickly and randomly with a “hssing” sound.
Potassium moves randomly and very quickly with a reddish purple
flame and produce “hiss” ad “pop” sounds.
In each case, a colourless solution if formed.
Analysis
The alkali metals react vigorously with cold water to form colourless
alkali solutions and release hydrogen gas.
Conclusion
The reactivity of Group 1 elements with cold water increases down
the group. The hypothesis accepted.
Discussion
Group 1 element are very reactive 4Nand react with oxygen and
water vapour in the air. Therefore, they need to be kept in paraffin
oil.
Form 4 (4.3)
Aim: To study the reaction of halogen with sodium hydroxide
solution
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable: Types of halogen used
(b) Responding variable: The products of reactions Constant
variable: Concentration of sodium hydroxide solution
Apparatus: Test tube, stopper, test tube holder and teat pipette.
Procedure
(A) Reaction of chlorine gas with aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution
1. Chlorine gas is bubbled into aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution.
2. The colour change of chlorine is recorded.
Results
Halogen Observation
Conclusion 4N
1. Chlorine, bromine and iodine react with sodium hydroxide
solution to form two types of salts and water.
X2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) NaX + NaOX + H2O, where X=Cl, Br, I
Form 4 (4.4)
Aim: To study the reaction between chlorine(halogen) and iron
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable: Types of halogen used
(b) Responding variable: Products of reactions and rate of the
reactions
(c) Constant variable: Iron wool
Procedure
Reaction of chlorine gas with iron wool
Results
Halogen Observation
Chlorine Hot iron wool glows brightly when chlorine gas is passed
over it. A brown solid is formed.
Bromine Hot iron wool glows moderately bright when bromine gas is
passed over it. A brown solid is formed.
Iodine Hot iron wool glows dimly when iodine vapour is passed
over it. A brown solid is formed.
Conclusion
1. Chlorine, bromine and iodine show the same chemical
properties when they react with iron wool, producing brown
iron (II) halides.
2. The reactivity of the halogen decreases down the group from
chlorine to iodine.
4N
Form 4 (5.1)
Aim: To prepare ionic compounds
Conclusion
1. Generally, the reaction between metals and non-metals
produces ionic compounds.
2. Ionic compounds such as magnesium oxide, sodium chloride
and iron(III) chloride can be prepared by direct combination of
the metal and non-metal elements.
Metal Non-metal Ionic compound
Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
Sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
Iron + chlorine → iron(III) chloride
4N
Form 4 (6.1)
Aim: To identify electrolytes and non-electrolytes
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of compounds
(b) Responding variable: Electrical conductivity
(c) Constant variable: Numbers of batteries, type of light bulb and
amount of substance used
Procedure
(A) To investigate the electrical conductivity of substances in the
solid state and in the molten state
1. A crucible is half-filled with lead(II) bromide solid.
2. The crucible with its contents is placed on a clay triangle on a
tripod stand.
3. Two carbon electrodes are dipped in the lead (II) bromide solid
and are connected to the batteries, rheostat, switch and a light
bulb with connecting wires (Figure 6.1.)
4. The switch is turned on and the light bulb is checked if it lights
up.
Results
Chemical Physical Does the Observation Inference
substances state light bulb Does reaction
lights occur?
up?
Lead(II) Solid No No noticeable Non-
bromide change electrolyte
Liquid Yes Brown gas is Electrolyte
(molten) evolved
Naphthalene Solid No No noticeable Non-
change electrolyte
Liquid No No noticeable Non-
(molten) change electrolyte
Potassium Solid No No noticeable Non-
iodide change electrolyte
Aqueous Yes Solution turns to Electrolyte
solution a brown colour
4N
Glucose Solid No No noticeable Non-
change electrolyte
Aqueous No No noticeable Non-
solution change electrolyte
Conclusion
1. Lead(II) bromide is an electrolyte in the liquid but not in the solid
state.
2. Potassium iodide is an electrolyte in aqueous solution but not in
the solid state.
3. Lead(II) bromide and potassium iodide are ionic compound.
Ionic compounds are electrolytes in the molten state or
aqueous solution but are non-electrolytes in the solid state.
4. Naphthalene and glucose are covalent compounds and are
non-electrolytes in any state.
Form 4 (6.2)
Apparatus: Crucible, spatula, graphite electrodes, batteries, light
bulb, ammeter, switch, rheostat, connecting wires, tripod stand,
clay pipe triangle and Bunsen burner.
Procedure
1. A crucible is half-filled with lead(II) bromide solid.
2. The solid lead(II) bromide is heated strongly until it melts to a
molten state.
3. Two carbon electrodes are dipped in the molten lead(II)
bromide and are then connected to batteries, rheostat, switch
and light bulb by the connecting wires (Figure 6.4).
4. Electric current is allowed to flow through for 15 minutes and
the changes that occur at the light bulb, ammeter, cathode
and anode are recorded.
Results
Conclusion
1. The lighting up of the bulb and the deflection of the ammeter
needle shows that molten lead(II) bromide is an electrolyte and
can conduct electricity.
2. Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide produces bromine gas at
the anode and lead metal at the cathode.
4N
Form 4 (6.3)
Aim: To investigate the effect of the concentration of ions on the
selective discharge of ions and the products of electrolysis of
aqueous solutions.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Concentration of ions in the solution
(b) Responding variable: Types of ions to be discharged at the
anode and cathode
(c) Constant variable: Types of ions in the electrolyte, types of
electrodes, duration of electrolysis
Procedure
1. Concentrated aqueous copper(II) chloride solution of 2.0 mol
dm-3 is put into an electrolytic cell with carbon electrodes.
Results
Electrolyte Observation Inference
Conclusion
1. In the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous copper(II) chloride
solution, copper metal is produced at the cathode and
chlorine gas is produced at the anode. At the anode, the Cl-
ions are selectively discharged, producing chlorine gas
because the concentration of Cl- ions is higher than that of OH-
ions.
2. In the electrolysis of dilute aqueous copper(II)chloride solution,
copper metal is produced at the cathode and oxygen gas is
produced at the anode. At the anode, OH- ions are selectively
discharged, producing oxygen gas because the concentration
of Cl- ions is low.
3. The type of ions that is selectively discharged at the electrode is
determined by the concentration of the ions. The hypothesis is
accepted.
4N
Form 4 (6.4)
Aim: To investigate the effect of the types of electrodes on the
selective discharge of ions and the products of electrolysis of
aqueous solution.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of electrodes
(b) Responding variable: Products of electrolysis
(c) Constant variable: Types of ions in the electrolyte and the
concentration of ions
Procedure
Result
Types of Observation Inference
electrodes
Carbon At the cathode: Copper metal is
Brown deposit is formed deposited.
At the anode: Oxygen gas is
Bubbles of colourless gas are produced.
produced
The gas lights up a4N
glowing
wooden splint
Colour of electrolyte: Concentration of
The blue colour of the solution Cu2+ ion
becomes paler decreases.
Copper At the cathode: Copper metal is
Formation of brown deposit produced.
makes the cathode thicker
Conclusion
1. In the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution:
(a) If a carbon electrode is used as the anode, OH- ions are
discharged and oxygen gas is produced.
(b) If a copper electrode is used as the anode, both OH- ions and
SO42- ions are not discharged. Instead the copper anode
dissolves to produce Cu2+ ions.
(c) Cu2+ ions are discharged at the cathode producing copper
metal whether the cathode used is a carbon electrode or a
copper electrode.
2. The types of electrodes used during electrolysis determine the
types of ions discharged and the products of electrolysis. The
hypothesis is accepted.
4N
Form 4 (6.5)
Aim: To investigate the electroplating of an iron spoon with copper
using electrolysis
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : The position of the iron spoon as an
electrode
(b) Responding variable: The deposition of copper on the iron
spoon
(c) Constant variable: Type of electrolyte and arrangement of
apparatus
Procedure
1. About 200 cm 3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 copper(II) sulphate solution is
poured into a beaker.
Results
Set Observation Inference
Conclusion
1. In electroplating an iron spoon with copper using electrolysis,
the on spoon is made the cathode and a piece of copper
metal is made the anode.
2. Copper metal is transferred from the copper anode to the iron
spoon and is deposited as a thin layer of copper metal.
3. Electroplating does not take place if the iron spoon and is
made the anode. The hypothesis is accepted.
4N
Form 4 (6.6)
Aim: To investigate the production of electricity from chemical
reactions in a simple voltaic cell
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Pairs of different metals
(b) Responding variable: Deflection of a voltmeter needle by the
electric
(c) Constant variable: Types of electrolyte and arrangement of
apparatus
Procedure
Results
Type of metal Observation Inference
used as
electrodes
Magnesium • Voltmeter needle • Electric current is
metal and deflects but the produced. The
copper metal deflection decreases voltage produced is
after awhile not constant and
• Magnesium metal decreases rapidly
corrodes • Magnesium dissolves
• Bubbles of colourless to form Mg2+ ions
gas are evolved • Hydrogen gas is
around the copper produced
metal
Two pieces of • 4N does
Voltmeter needle • Electric current is not
copper metal not show a deflection produced
• No noticeable change • No reaction occurs
occurs at the copper
electrode
Conclusion
1. An electric current is produced when a chemical reaction
occurs in a simple voltaic cell consisting of two different metals,
connected by wires externally and immersed in an electrolyte.
2. In a simple voltaic cell, chemical energy released from
chemical reactions is converted into electrical energy.
3. No electric current will be produced if both electrodes are of
the same material because there is no potential difference
between them. The hypothesis is accepted.
Form 4 (6.7)
Aim: To construct the electrochemical series from displacement
reaction.
Hypothesis: A metal that can displace another metal from its salt
solution is placed at a higher position in the electrochemical series.
The greater the number of metals that can be displaced by a
metal from their solutions, the higher its position in the
electrochemical series.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Different types of metal and their salt
solution
(b) Responding variable: Deposition of metals or colour change in
the salt solution
(c) Constant variable: Concentration of nitrate salt solutions
Procedure
1. Pieces of magnesium, zinc, copper, tin, lead and iron metals
are polished with sandpaper.
2. 10 cm of 0.5 mol dm-3 solutions of copper(II)nitrate, lead(lI)
nitrate, tin(I) nitrate, iron(lII)nitrate, zinc nitrate and magnesium
nitrate are placed into separate test tubes.
3. A piece of magnesium metal is placed in the solution of every
test tube except that of its salt solution (Figure 6.21).
Results
Solution Cu(NO3) Pb(NO3)2 Sn(NO3)2 Fe(NO3)2 Zn(NO3) Mg(NO3)2
2 2
Metal
Magnesium √ √ √ √ √ -
, Mg
Zinc, Zn √ √ √ √ - X
Iron, Fe √ √ √ - X X
Tin, Sn √ √ - X X X
Lead, Pb √ - X X X X
Copper, - X X X X X
Cu
Conclusion
1. Metals can be arranged according to the number of tick
symbols (√) recorded (or the number of metals displaced in
reactions). The more (√)symbols, the more reactive the metal is
and the position of the metal is placed higher in the
electrochemical series.
2. Magnesium is placed at the highest position in the
electrochemical series because it can displace all the other
metals from their solutions.
3. Copper is placed at the lowest position in the electrochemical
series because copper cannot displace any other metals in this
experiment.
4. The result of the experiment shows that the order of the order of
the positions of the metals in the electrochemical series is:
Mg Zn Fe Sn Pb Cu
Form 4 (7.1)
Aim: To investigate the role of water in showing the properties of
alkali.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of solvents-water and propanone
(b) Responding variable: Change in the colour of red litmus paper
(c) Constant variable: Type of acid and red litmus paper
Procedure
1. A piece of dry red litmus paper is placed in a stoppered test
tube of dry ammonia gas and the test tube is then stoppered
back immediately (Figure 7.6).
2. The effect of the dry ammonia gas on the red litmus paper is
recorded.
3. Another piece of dry red litmus paper is put in 5 cm3 of aqueous
ammonia solution in a separate test tube.
4. Step 3 of the experiment is repeated using ammonia dissolved
in propanone to replace aqueous ammonia solution.
Results
Condition of Observation Inference
ammonia
Dry No noticeable colour Does not show any
change in the red alkaline properties
litmus paper
Aqueous (dissolves Red litmus paper has Show alkaline
in water) changed to blue properties
Dissolve in No noticeable colour Does not show any
propanone change in the red alkaline properties
litmus paper
Conclusion
1. Aqueous ammonia solution turns the red litmus paper to blue,
indicating its alkaline property.
2. Dry ammonia gas or ammonia gas dissolved in organic solvents
does not show any alkaline property.
3. An alkali shows its alkaline properties only in the presence of
water. When water is present,4N ammonia ionises to produce OH-
ions that are responsible for its alkaline properties.
4. Water is essential for the formation of hydroxide ions that cause
alkalinity in an alkali. The hypothesis is accepted.
Form 4 (7.2)
Aim: To prepare 100 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution
Procedure
1. The mass of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) required to prepare 100
cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 aqueous sodium hydroxide is calculated as
follows:
Mass of NaOH required
MV
=( ) x (23 +16+1)
1000
2.0 x 100
=( ) x 40
1000
= 8.0 g
6. Distilled water is then distilled added slowly until the water level
is near the level mark of the volumetric flask. A dropper is then
used to add water drop by drop to finally bring the volume of
solution to the 100 cm3 graduation
7. The volumetric flask is then closed with a stopper. The
volumetric flask is then shaken several times to mix the solution
completely. The solution prepared is 100 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3
aqueous sodium hydroxide.
4N
Form 4 (7.3)
Aim: To find the end point of an acid-base titration during
neutralisation using an acid-base indicator cm3
Procedure
1. A clean 25 cm3 pipette is rinsed with distilled water and then
rinsed with a little of the potassium hydroxide solution.
2. 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 potassium hydroxide is transferred using
the pipette to a clean conical flask. Three drops of methyl
orange indicator are added to the alkali and the colour of the
solution is noted.
3. A 50 cm3 burette is rinsed with distilled water and then rinsed
with a little of the sulphuric acid.
4. The burette is then filled with sulphuric acid and is clamped to a
retort stand. The initial burette reading is recorded.
5. The conical flask containing 25 cm3 of potassium hydroxide is
placed below the burette. A piece of white tile is placed below
the conical flask for clearer observation of the colour
change(Figure 7.15).
6. Sulphuric acid is added slowly from the burette to the
potassium hydroxide solution in the conical flask while swirling
the flask gently.
7. Titration is stopped when the methyl orange changes colour
from yellow to orange. The final burette reading is recorded.
Results
Volume of sulphuric acid Rough Accurate
Conclusion
1. The volume of sulphuric acid used is calculated as follows:
Volume of sulphuric acid used
= Final burette reading – Initial burette reading
2. Average volume of sulphuric acid used
19.95+20.05
=(
2
) 4N
= 20.00 cm3
Form 4 (8.1)
Aim: To prepare potassium chloride by the reaction between an
acid and alkali
Procedure
1. 25 cm3 of potassium hydroxide is pipetted into a clean conical
flask.
2. Three drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added to the
alkali and the colour of the solution is noted.
3. A 50 cm3 burette is then filled with hydrochloric acid and is then
clamped to a retort stand. The initial burette reading is
recorded.
4. Hydrochloric acid is added gradually from the burette to the
potassium hydroxide solution in the conical flask while swirling
the flask gently.
5. Titration is stopped when phenolphthalein changes from a light
pink colour to colourless. The final burette reading is recorded.
6. The volume of hydrochloric acid used is calculated as follows:
V cm3 = Final burette reading –Initial burette reading
4N
Form 4 (8.2)
Aim: To construct a balanced ionic equation for the precipitation of
lead(II) chromate(VI) using the continuous variation method
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable: Volumes of lead(II) nitrate solution
(b) Responding variable : Height of yellow precipitate
(c) Constant variable: Volume of potassium chromate(VI) solution
and the size of test tubes
Apparatus: Test tubes of the same size, test tube rack, 50 cm3
burette, retort stand with clamp and ruler.
Materials: 0.5 mol dm-3 lead(II) nitrate solution and 0.5 mol dm-3
potassium chromate(VI) solution.
Procedure
1. A burette is filled with 0.5 mol dm-3 lead(II) nitrate solution and
another burette is filled with 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium
chromate(VI) solution.
2. Eight test tubes are labelled 1 to 8 and placed in a test tube
rack.
3. 5.00 cm3 of potassium chromate(VI) solution from the burette is
placed in every test tube. Potassium chromate( VI) solution is
yellow in colour.
4. Using another burette, 1 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 of lead(II) nitrate
solution is added to the first test tube. Progressively increase the
volume of the lead(II) nitrate solution by 1 cm3 to the rest of the
test tubes until 8 cm3 of lead(II) nitrate solution is added to the
eighth test tube (Figure 8.6(a)).
Test tube 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
number
Volume of 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
potassium 4N
chromate (IV)
solution (cm3 )
Volume of 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
lead (II) nitrate
solution (cm3 )
Conclusion
1. Since the diameter of the test tubes are the same, the height of
the precipitate is directly proportional to the mass of precipitate
formed.
2. The ionic equation for the precipitate of lead(lI)chromate(VI) is
Pb2+ + CrO4 2- → PbCrO 4 . The hypothesis is accepted.
Form 4 (9.1)
Aim: To compare the hardness of a pure metal and its alloy.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable: Types of materials (copper or bronze) to
make the metal block
(b) Responding variable : Diameter of the dent made by a steel
ball bearing
(c) Constant variable: Size of steel ball bearing, mass of weight
used, height from which it is dropped
Procedure
1. A metre ruler is clamped to a retort stand, and a piece of
copper block is placed on the base of the retort stand.
2. A steel ball bearing is placed on the copper block and a piece
of cellophane tape is used to hold the ball bearing in place.
3. A l kg weight is hung at a height of 50 cm above the copper
block.
4. The weight is dropped onto the ball bearing placed on the
copper block.
5. The diameter of the dent made by the ball is measured.
6. The experiment is repeated three times using different areas on
the surface of the copper block.
7. The average diameter of the dent is calculated.
8. Steps 1 to 7 are repeated using a piece of bronze block.
Conclusion
1. The average diameter of the dents made by the steel ball
bearing on the copper block is bigger than that on the bronze
block.
2. Hence, bronze, a type of alloy, is harder than pure copper
metal. The hypothesis is accepted.
Form 5 (1.1)
Aim: To investigate the effect of the surface area of a reactant on
the rate of reaction
Hypothesis: The smaller the size of the reactant particles, that is, the
larger the total surface area of the reactant particles, the higher
the rate of reaction.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Size of the marble chips
(b) Responding variable : Volume of gas given off at 30-second
intervals
(c) Constant variables : Temperature of the experiment, mass of
marble chips, concentration and volume of hydrochloric acid
Procedure
Experiment I
The rate of reaction using large marble chips
Time (s) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Burette reading (cm3 ) 50.0 45.5 41.5 38.0 35.0 33.0 31.0 29.0 28.0
Volume of gas (cm3 ) 0.0 4.5 8,5 12.0 15.0 17.0 19.0 21.0 22.0
Experiment II
The rate of reaction using powdered marble
Procedure
1. Step 1 to 4 in Experiment I are repeated using 5.0 g of
powdered marble. All other conditions
4N such as temperature,
volume and concentration of hydrochloric acid are kept
constant.
2. The results of the experiment are recorded in the following
table.
Time (s) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Burette reading (cm3 ) 50.0 42.0 35.0 29.5 25.5 22.0 19.5 17.5 16.0
Volume of gas (cm3 ) 0.0 8.0 15.0 20.5 24.5 28 30.5 32.5 34.0
Conclusion
1. The rate of reaction in Experiment II is higher than the rate of
reaction in Experiment I as powdered marble is used in
Experiment II, Thus, the rate is higher with powdered marble
than with marble chips. Hence, we can conclude that the
smaller the particle size, the larger the total surface area
exposed for reaction and the higher the rate of reaction.
2. The hypothesis is accepted.
4N
Form 5 (1.2)
Aim: To study the effect of concentration on the rate of reaction
between sodium thiosulphate solution and dilute sulphuric acid.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Concentration of sodium thiosulphate
solution
(b) Responding variable : Time taken for the cross ‘X’ to disappear
(c) Constant variables : Concentration and volume of dilute
sulphuric acid as well as the temperature of the solutions
Materials: 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulphate solution, 1.0 mol dm-3
sulphuric acid and distilled water
Procedure
Volume of Na2S2O3 50 40 30 20 10
(cm3)
Volume of water 0 10 20 30 40
(cm3)
Volume of 5 5 5 5 5
H2SO4(cm3) 4N
Concentration of 0.20 0.16 0.12 0.08 0.04
Na2S2O3 (cm3)
Time taken (s) 24 30 42 62 111
1
(s-1) 0.042 0.033 0.024 0.016 0.009
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Conclusion
1. The more concentrated the sodium thiosulphate solution, the
higher the rate of reaction.
2. The hypothesis is accepted.
Form 5 (1.3)
Aim: To study the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction
between sodium thiosulphate solution and dilute sulphuric acid
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable: The temperature of sodium thiosulphate
solution
(b) Responding variable: The time taken for the cross ‘X’ to
disappear
(c) Constant variables: The concentrations and volumes of both
sodium thiosulphate solution and dilute sulphuric acid
Materials: 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulphate solution and 1.0 mol
dm-3 sulphuric acid.
Procedure:
1. 50 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulphate solution is poured
into a clean, dry conical flask.
2. The temperature of the sodium thiosulphate solution is
measured with a thermometer.
3. The conical flask is placed on a white paper marked with a
cross 'X' (Figure 1.20).
4. 5 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid is quickly poured into the
sodium thiosulphate solution.
9. The hot conical flask is placed over a white paper with a cross
’X’.
10. 5 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid is measured out using a 10
cm3 measuring cylinder.
11. When the temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution falls to
40°C, the sulphuric acid is quickly poured into the thiosulphate
solution .
12. The stopwatch is started immediately and the conical flask is
swirled gently.
13. The cross ‘X, is viewed from the top and the time taken for the
cross to disappear from view is recorded.
14. Steps 7 to13 are repeated at higher temperatures as shown in
the following table.
Results
Experiment 1 2 3 4 5
Temperature (°C) 30 40 50 55 60
1
(s-1 ) 0.019 0.037 0.063 0.077 0.100
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Conclusion
The higher the temperature of the experiment, the higher the rate
of reaction.
Form 5 (1.4)
Aim: To study the effect of a catalyst on the rate of decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable: The temperature of sodium thiosulphate
solution
(b) Responding variable: The release of oxygen gas
(c) Constant variables: Volume and concentration of hydrogen
peroxide
Procedure:
1. A test tube is half-filled with hydrogen peroxide.
2. A glowing splint is placed at the mouth of the test tube to test
for the gas evolved (Figure 1.23).
3. The changes that take place inside the test tube and on the
glowing splint are recorded.
4. 0.5 g of manganese(IV) oxide, MnO2 is added to hydrogen
peroxide and shaken. The changes that take place in the test
tube and on the glowing splint are recorded.
Experiment Observation
Conclusion
The rate of evolution of oxygen gas increases when manganese(IV)
oxide is added to hydrogen peroxide. This proves that
manganese(TV) oxide acts as a catalyst and speeds up the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. The
hypothesis is accepted.
Form 5 (2.1)
Aim: To compare the chemical properties of alkanes and alkenes
having the same number of carbon atoms.
Procedure:
1. About 1 cm3 of hexane and hexene are placed separately in
two porcelain dishes.
2. The organic liquids are ignited with a glowing splint as shown in
Figure 2.8.
3. A filter paper is placed above the flame and the sootiness of
the flame is observed.
Result
Test Observation
Hexane Hexene
Form 5 (2.2)
Aim: To investigate the properties of ethanol.
Procedure:
1. About 1 cm3 of ethanol is added to an evaporating dish.
2. The ethanol is ignited using a lighted wooden splint as show in
Figure 2.12.
3. The flammability of ethanol and the nature of the flame are
recorded.
Results
Test Observation
Flammability Flammable
Conclusion
Ethanol undergoes complete combustion to form carbon dioxide
and water.
Results
Conclusion
When ethanol is boiled with acidified potassium dichromate(VI)
solution, it is oxidised to ethanoic acid which has the smell of
vinegar.
Results
Test Observation
Flammability of the gas Burns easily with a yellow
and sooty flame.
Liquid bromine Decolourise liquid bromine
immediately.
Conclusion
When ethanol vapour is passed over porcelain chips(aluminium
oxide), dehydration occurs and ethene is produced.
Form 5 (2.3)
Aim: To prepare ethyl ethanoate
Procedure
Procedure:
1. About 30 cm3 of pure ethanol is placed in a round-bottomed
flask, followed by about 25 cm3 of glacial ethanoic acid and 2-
3 pieces of tile chips. The tile chips are added to prevent
bumping and to ensure smooth boiling.
2. About 5 cm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid is added
cautiously (slowly and carefully) to the reaction mixture. The
mixture is shaken gently.(Caution! Concentrated sulphuric acid
is very corrosive).
3. The Liebig condenser is fitted vertically to the round-bottomed
flask as shown in Figure 2.21. The mixture of ethanol, ethanoic
acid and concentrated sulphuric acid is boiled under reflux for
about 30 minutes.
Conclusion
Ethyl ethanoate is produced when ethanoic acid and ethanol are
heated in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid as a
catalyst.
Form 5 (2.4)
Aim: Comparing the properties of vulcanised rubber with
unvulcanised rubber.
Apparatus: Clip, retord stand with clamp, weight, ruler and thread
Procedure
Procedure:
1. The original length of the vulcanised rubber strip is measured.
2. A weight of 50 g is hung on the strip of the vulcanised rubber.
3. The increase in the length of the vulcanised rubber strip is
measured.
4. The weight is removed and the final length of the vulcanised
rubber strip is measured.
5. Steps 1 to 5 are repeated using unvulcanised rubber strip
instead of vulcanised rubber strip.
Results
Type of Original Final Increase Final length
rubber length length in length when weight is
when (cm) removed (cm)
weight is
hung
(cm)
Unvulcanise 𝑥 𝑥1 𝑥1-𝑥 = y2 𝑥1 where 𝑥2 > 𝑥
d rubber
Vulcanised 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥3 -𝑥 = y2 𝑥4 where 𝑥4 = 𝑥
rubber
Conclusion
Vulcanised rubber is more elastic than unvulcanised rubber.
Form 5 (3.1)
Aim: To investigate the effect of other metals with different
electropositivity on the rusting of iron
Hypothesis
a) A metal more electropositivity than iron will protect iron from
rusting.
b) A metal less electropositivity than iron will increase the rate of
rusting.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable: Different metals used to wrap around
iron nails
(b) Responding variable : Colour change in the gelatin solution
(c) Constant variable: Iron nails
Materials: Iron nails, magnesium, zinc, tin and copper foils, gelatin,
potassium hexacyanoferrate(III),phenolphthalein indicator and
sandpaper.
Procedure
1. Five pieces of iron nails are cleaned using sandpaper.
2. The first clean iron nail is placed in test tube A.
3. Strips of magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), tin (Sn) and copper (Cu)
foils are cleaned with sandpaper.
4. Each iron nail is wrapped with a different metal foil and placed
in test tubes B, C, D and respectively.
5. A solution of gelatin in hot water is prepared. A few drops of
potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution, K3Fe(CN)6, and
phenolphthalein indicator are added to the hot gelatin
solution.
6. The mixture is stirred and then poured into each of the test tubes
(Figure 3.14).
7. The test tubes are set aside for three days and then examined.
The observations are recorded in the table below.
Results
Test tube A B C D E
Observation
Metal Fe Fe + Fe + Zn Fe + Sn Fe + Cu
Mg
Intensity of Low None None High High
blue colour
Intensity of pink None High High Low Low
colour
Gas bubbles None Plenty Plenty Few Few
Conclusion
1. The rusting of iron can be prevented if iron is in contact with
more electropositive metals such as magnesium or zinc.
2. The rusting of iron is speeded up if iron is in contact with less
electropositve metals such as tin or copper. The hypothesis is
accepted.
Form 5 (3.2)
Aim: To deduce the reactivity series of metals
Hypothesis
The more reactive a metal, the more brightly and more rapidly the
metal will burn in oxygen.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable: Type of metal
(b) Responding variable : The intensity of the flame
(c) Constant variable: The amount of metal and potassium
manganate (VII) used
Procedure
1. Two spatulas of potassium manganate(VII) crystals are placed
in a combustion tube. A small quantity of glass wool is then
placed inside the combustion tube to prevent potassium
manganate(VI)from spilling over. (Caution! If potassium
manganate(VII) is mixed with metal powder, an explosion may
occur during heating).
2. A spatula of zinc powder is placed on a sheet of asbestos
paper and put inside the combustion tube. The combustion
tube is then clamped to a retort stand.
3. The zinc powder is heated strongly (Figure 3.20).
Results
Form 5 (4.1)
Aim: To determine the heat of precipitation of silver chloride
Materials: 0.5 mol dm-3 silver nitrate solution and 0.5 mol dm-3
sodium chloride solution
Procedure
Conclusion
The heat of precipitation of silver chloride is -58.87 kJ mol-1.
Form 5 (4.2)
Aim: To determine the heat of neutralisation between an acid and
an alkali
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable: Different types of acids
(b) Responding variable: Heat of neutralisation
(c) Constant variable: Concentrations and volumes of acid and
alkali used
Materials: 2.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, 2.0 mol dm-3 ethanoic
acid and 2.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution.
Procedure
1. 100 cm3 of 2 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution into a plastic
cup by using a measuring cylinder. The initial temperature pf
the acid is recorded.
2. Using another measuring cylinder, 100 cm3 of 2 mol dm-3
hydrochloric acid is measured. The initial temperature of the
acid is recorded.
3. The hydrochloric acid is then poured quickly and carefully into
the sodium hydroxide solution. The mixture is stirred with a
thermometer and the highest temperature obtained is
recorded.
4. Steps 1 to 3 are repeated using 100 cm3 of 2 mol dm-3 acid
instead of hydrochloric acid.
Results
(A) Reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
solution
Conclusion
The heat of neutralisation for strong acids and strong alkalis in higher
than the heat of neutralisation for weak acids and strong alkalis. The
hypothesis is accepted.
Form 5 (4.3)
Aim: To determine the heat of combustion of various alcohols
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable: Type of alcohol
(b) Responding variable : Heat of combustion
(c) Constant variable: Volumes of water and alcohol, metal
container (calorimeter) and spirit lamp
Procedure
Results
Methanol 250 t3 t4 t4 – t3 m3 m4
Propan-1- 250 t5 t6 t6 – t5 m5 m6
ol
Butan-1-ol 250 t7 t8 t8 – t7 m7 m8
Conclusion
1. The heat of combustion of ethanol = -1371 kJ mol-1
2. The heat of combustion increases as the number of carbon
atoms per molecule in the alcohol increases.