International Geology Review

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Bubbling Magma Chambers, Cupolas, and

Porphyry Copper Deposits

Mark Cloos

To cite this article: Mark Cloos (2001) Bubbling Magma Chambers, Cupolas, and Porphyry
Copper Deposits, International Geology Review, 43:4, 285-311, DOI: 10.1080/00206810109465015

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International Geology Review, Vol. 4 3 , 2 0 0 1 , p. 2 8 5 - 3 1 1 .
Copyright © 2001 by V. H. Winston & Son, Inc. All rights reserved.

Bubbling Magma Chambers, Cupolas,

and Porphyry Copper Deposits
MARK CLOOS
Department of Geological Sciences and Institute for Geophysics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712

Abstract

Porphyry copper deposits are the major source of copper and significant sources of molybdenum,
gold, and other metals. They are associated with the near-surface intrusion of small stocks of inter-
mediate composition. They can form when H 2 O-unsaturated magma is emplaced into wall rock that
is cool enough that steep lateral thermal gradients create a narrow solidification front. At depths less
than ~4 km, cooling and crystallization cause fluid saturation to occur within sidewall magma that
is mobile because it contains less than ~ 2 5 % suspended crystals. After a sufficient volume of bub-
bles forms, mobile sidewall magma buoyantly rises instead of sinking. The bubbles expand as they
decompress, and at depths of ~2 km they become large enough to rise on their own. separate from
the upwelled magma, and charge the cupola at the top of the stock with magmatic fluid. The partially
degassed magma sinks into the interior of the stock.
Upwelling of saturated sidewall magma entrains deeper-seated, nearly saturated magma, which
decompresses and saturates as it rises. As the system cools, the depth of H2O saturation and sidewall
upwelling increases. Bubbles of copper-rich fluid are generated where the saturation front extends
to depths of ~6 km or more. Overall, the system is cooling, but the upward advection of heat main-
tains the cupola region at roughly constant position for the life of convective upwelling along the
sidewalls.
Porphyry copper ore deposits can form where draining of the fluid pocket beneath a cupola is
steady and a large volume of magma is cycled through the system. Magma in the stock that escapes
to intrude commonly has a porphyritic texture because crystal growth is enhanced, and nucleation
is suppressed when the magma is H2O saturated. Porphyry copper deposits of common size can form
during the solidification of large stocks. Super-giant porphyry copper deposits can form where the
saturation front propagates from a stock into an underlying batholithic chamber with a magma vol-
ume on the order of 1000 km 3 and a top at depths of 10 to 15 km.

Introduction Porphyry copper deposits of common size (a few

PORPHYRY COPPER ORE DEPOSITS are associated
with the intrusion of magmas of intermediate compo-
sition into shallow stocks. They are of great signifi-
cance to modern civilization for they are the major
source of copper. Their formation is the result of a
very focused flow of volatiles expelled from magma
followed by sulfide-mineral precipitation in a rock
volume of about one cubic kilometer. In most ore
bodies, the metal occurs primarily as chalcopyrite
and secondarily as bornite and covellite. In many
deposits, molybdenum or gold is sufficiently abun-
dant to be a co-product. Satellite deposits of lead
and zinc sulfide are common. Because bulk mining
methods process large amounts of ore, significant
quantities of silver, palladium, rhenium, and plati-
num are recovered as by-products.
hundred million metric tons of ore at 0.5 wt% Cu) in
the southwestern United States could form from
stocks with volumes of magma of tens of cubic kilo-
meters, provided the scavenging of copper was effi-
cient. Giant and s u p e r - g i a n t p o r p h y r y c o p p e r
deposits are much larger and rarer. They have ore
zones that total up to several billion tons and can
have significant volumes of ore with copper contents
as high as 2 wt% (e.g., Chuquicamata and Escon-
dida, Chile; Bingham, Utah; Grasberg, Indonesia).
Their formation must require the efficient scaveng-
ing of copper from magma volumes of many hun-
dreds of cubic kilometers. This corresponds to
plutons of batholithic size.
The processes by which metals originally dis-
persed as trace constituents in magma become con-
c e n t r a t e d by factors of 100 or m o r e to form
h y d r o t h e r m a l ore d e p o s i t s is of great i n t e r e s t

0020-6814/01/516/285-27 $10.00 285

286
(Krauskopf, 1967a). The concept that magmatic vol-
atiles can accumulate beneath cupolas at the top of
solidifying magma chambers and then act as a local-
ized source of mineralizing fluids was a major tenet
in the ore-deposit literature in the first half of this
century (e.g., E m m o n s , 1 9 3 3 ; B a t e m a n , 1950).
Notably, most modern textbooks (e.g., Guilbert and
Park, 1986) barely mention a fundamental role for
cupolas in the origin of hypogene ore deposits.
A cupola is a small dome-like roof. Much of the
older literature described cupolas at the contact
between an intrusion and its country rock. This is
appropriate terminology, of course, but in the con-
text of this paper, the term cupola refers to any dom-
i c a l r e g i o n at t h e u p p e r b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n
crystallized pluton and the remaining chamber of
magma. Heat loss is greatest from the top of a plu-
ton, and cooling is initially more rapid around irreg-
ularities in the roof. As a result, the solidification
front along the roof of a magma chamber will almost
always have one or more cupolas that migrate down-
ward over time. As crystallization progresses, cupo-
las become less pronounced and mobile magma
eventually resides in an ellipsoidal chamber with
boundaries that parallel the isotherms.
The most commonly cited model for porphyry
copper formation is that of Burnham (1967, 1979,
1997). H e relates mineralization to the downward
propagation of a fluid-saturation surface at the top of
a solidifying stock. Over time, hydraulic fractures,
emanating from the upper margin of the chamber,
are supposed to form a chimney-like fracture system
of vein mineralization in the solidified carapace and
wall rock. Ore-grade mineralization is thought to
occur where the fluids are exsolved from copper-
rich magma (hundreds of ppm copper). There is,
however, very little, if any, evidence for the exist-
ence of intermediate magmas with copper contents
in excess of 150 ppm, and thus the origin of giant ore
deposits is unexplained. Moreover, hydraulic frac-
turing would act to disperse rather than concentrate
fluid. This is the antithesis of the focused flow nec-
essary for concentrated mineralization. Finally, the
observation that similar fracturing and veining, with
or without traces of copper mineralization, does not
occur in almost all stocks of intermediate composi-
tion is unexplained. This constitutes the "barren
pluton problem" that plagues explorationists.
Krauskopf (1957, 1964) was among the first to
show that metals are in sufficient quantities in mag-
matic vapors to account for the formation of many-
kinds of ore deposit. Candela (1991). Giggenbach
MARK CLOOS
(1992), Lowenstern (1994), and Shinohara et al.
(1995) have argued that separation of H2O bubbles
can effectively scavenge copper and other metals
from magma. Copper concentration occurs as bub-
bles buoyantly rise to the apex of the chamber and
their migration into the roof rock leads to ore miner-
alization.
In this paper, the general concept of bubbling
magma chambers and fluid accumulation beneath
cupolas is merged with the ideas of Marsh (1989,
1996) for how crystallization occurs along the top of
a magma chamber. It will be argued that where lat-
eral thermal gradients are large in a steep-walled
stock, vigorous convection can be driven by the
buoyancy generated in the cooling sidewall magma
from the exsolution of fluid. This process brings
bubble-bearing magma to the top of the chamber.
T h e b u b b l e s e x p a n d as t h e y d e c o m p r e s s in
upwelling magma. At shallow depth, large bubbles
rise on their own, and charge the cupola at the top of
the stock with magmatic fluid.
As porphyry copper deposits are so commonly
attributed to arc magmatism at subduction zones,
our knowledge of arc volcanism and magma cham-
bers is first reviewed in order to ascertain critical
aspects of the geologic requirements for their forma-
tion. The size of magmatic systems that form super-
giant porphyry copper deposits is deduced from
metal mass-balance considerations. The depth of
the magmatic systems is estimated from measured
H2O contents of silicate magmas, the experimen-
tally determined understanding of the strong pres-
sure d e p e n d e n c e of H2O saturation in s i l i c a t e
magma, and the pressure conditions most favorable
for p a r t i t i o n i n g of c h l o r i n e and metal into an
exsolved fluid. Porphyry copper deposits of common
size can form during the rapid solidification of large
stocks. Super-giant deposits form where the satura-
tion front along the walls propagates downward from
a stock into the top of a batholithic chamber.
General Characteristics o f
Porphyry Copper Deposits
Almost all porphyry copper ore deposits are
associated with plutons of intermediate composition
(generally 5 5 - 6 5 wt% SiO 2 ). Wall rock type cannot
be a critical factor. Deposits in the southwestern
United States are hosted in stocks emplaced into
wall rock ranging from Precambrian igneous and
metamorphic rock to sediments of many types and
ages (Titley and Hicks, 1966; Nielsen, 1976; Titley,
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
1981, 1982, 1995). In British Columbia, the host
rock is commonly equigranular batholithic pluton
(Sutherland Brown, 1976). Regional structural and
stratigraphic relationships as well as the common
co-existence of vapor- and liquid-rich fluid inclu-
sions indicate copper mineralization typically
occurred at depths of 1 to 3 km (Sillitoe, 1973) and
perhaps as deep as 7 km (Dilles, 1987). Intermedi-
ate magma compositions (andesites and dacites) are
common, especially in the vicinity of volcanic arcs.
The recognition that porphyry copper deposits are
associated with convergent-margin magmatism
dates to the earliest application of plate-tectonic
theory to continental geology (Sillitoe, 1972; Mitch-
ell and Garson, 1972; Sawkins, 1972).
The name for this class of ore deposit could be
considered something of a misnomer. The classic
deposits at Bingham, Utah, and Morenci, Arizona,
a r e i n d e e d h o s t e d in p o r p h y r i t i c i n t r u s i o n s
(Emmons, 1927; Parsons, 1933). However, else-
where the host rock for porphyry copper-type ore
mineralization is commonly an equigranular pluton
and mineralization commonly extends into igneous,
metamorphic, or sedimentary wall rock. Nonethe-
less, a ubiquitous feature of this class of deposit is
the presence of one or more intrusions of porphyritic
m a g m a in or s o m e w h e r e n e a r t h e o r e b o d y
(Gustafson, 1978). Plagioclase phenocrysts with
complex oscillatory zoning commonly compose 2 0 -
4 0 % of the porphyritic intrusions. Where their long
axes have lengths of 5-20 mm or more, the porphy-
ritic texture is evident in hand specimen of even
highly altered samples.
A distinctive pattern of alteration is associated
with mineralization. It commonly extends outward
over distances of hundreds of meters to a kilometer
or so and vertically for more than a kilometer (Low-
ell and Guilbert, 1970). In large deposits, several
cubic kilometers of rock are commonly affected
(Beane and Titley, 1981). A high-temperature alter-
ation core (500 to 700+°C) rich in biotite and potas-
sium feldspar ("potassic alteration") grades into a
shell rich in sericite and pyrite ("phyllic alter-
ation"), which grades into a region of lower-temper-
ature, greenschist-facies metamorphism ("propylitic
alteration") where mafic minerals are altered to
chlorite and plagioclase to epidote. Meter-thick tab-
ular horizons and pipe-like conduits to irregular
masses hundreds of meters thick are composed of
kaolinite, montmorillonite, and other clay minerals
where "argillic alteration" interfingers or overprints
parts of the concentric alteration. Chemical analyses
287
show these clay-rich rocks are leached of many cat-
ions. Most of these clays formed at low temperature
(<~300°C) and the contact with less altered rock
varies from gradational to abrupt. Stable-isotopic
studies (O, H) generally indicate the high-tempera-
ture " p o t a s s i c " a l t e r a t i o n that formed b i o t i t e
involved only magmatic fluids, but the low-tempera-
ture "argillic" alteration involved an influx of large
volumes of meteoric H2O (Sheppard et al., 1969,
1971; Taylor, 1974, 1997; Gustafson and Hunt,
1975).
Significant copper is dispersed as sulfide grains
in the altered rock, but most of the copper in high-
grade ore zones occurs in complex networks of veins
and veinlets (Titley, 1990). Roedder (1984) has
shown that fluid inclusions in quartz from the cores
of porphyry copper deposits indicate very high tem-
peratures (400 to 700+°C) and high salinities (com-
monly >40 wt% NaCl e q ). Vapor-rich inclusions,
indicative of boiling conditions, are present in most
deposits. Typically the ore includes large amounts of
pyrite and in some cases magnetite. "Stockworks,"
in which veins compose 3 0 % or more of the rock
volume, are common and rich in quartz and/or sul-
fide in the potassic or innermost part of the phyllic
zone. Stockworks are up to a few hundred meters
across and a kilometer or so tall. The amount of
quartz veining decreases away from the core (Titley,
1990). The abundance of pyrite veining is generally
a maximum in the phyllic zone. In some deposits,
the inner part of the potassic zone is nearly barren of
copper mineralization and the ore zone is an
upright, crudely cylindrical half shell.
In all zones, the original rock texture may be eas-
ily recognizable, but the primary mineralogy and
bulk composition are commonly greatly modified in
the potassic and argillic zones. The characteristic
alteration pattern indicates the pervasive infiltration
of hot fluids upward and outward from a central
source that has a width of a few hundreds of meters.
Fracturing and vein mineralization is concentrated
in and around the potassic core. In most deposits,
biotite and magnetite in the outer part of the potas-
sic zone are variably replaced by sericite and pyrite
of the phyllic zone. Argillic alteration replaces rocks
in all zones. These overprinting alterations result
from the shutdown and cooling of t h e system
(Gustafson, 1978; Titley, 1993). The pattern of alter-
ation and variations in the intensity of veining are
routinely used to select sites for, and guide direc-
tions of, exploration drilling.
288 MARK CLOOS
Scarcity of Porphyry Copper Deposits
Most current introductory textbooks state or
imply that porphyry copper deposits form under
stratovolcanoes at subduction zones. If this is a com-
mon aspect of convergent-margin magmatism, this
important class of ore body should be abundant.
More than 1000 arc-type volcanoes have erupted in
just the past 10,000 years (Simkin and Siebert,
2000). However, porphyry copper-type alteration
and vein mineralization, let alone ore formation, are
very rare. The proof comes from the fact that intense
exploration efforts are required to discover new
deposits among the vast numbers of plutonic and
volcanic complexes exposed around the world that
have little or no mineralization (Legge, 1995).
Hedenquist and Lowenstern (1994, p. 526) empha-
sized this problem in the conclusion of their review
by stating, "an outstanding problem in the study of
hydrothermal ore deposits is to identify the factors
that distinguish systems with ore-forming poten-
tial—factors so uncommon that perhaps we have yet
to observe them in active systems."
Ore-Body Copper Content and Parent
Magma Volume
An ore deposit requires concentrations of metal
of sufficient grade and tonnage to be economically
extractable. Fourteen "super-giant" porphyry cop-
per deposits (>10,000,000 tons of contained Cu)
have been discovered (Clark, 1993). The largest vol-
ume of copper is reported for the deposit at El
Teniente, Chile, with nearly 50,000,000 tons pro-
duced and in the proven reserve. This is taken as an
upper bound for copper content for porphyry sys-
tems. At this point, it is important to emphasize that
some deposits are economic because "supergene"
weathering processes in arid regions have concen-
trated copper as secondary oxides, carbonates, and
sulfates (Guilbert and Park, 1986). It appears that
all supergene copper deposits were generated by
having surface water flow systems that concentrated
copper extracted from centers of hypogene mineral-
ization. Supergene enrichment, with the generation
of a plethora of beautiful copper m i n e r a l s , has
occurred in many deposits in Chile and Arizona.
This paper only addresses the generation of "hypo-
gene" deposits in which processes operating at mag-
matic temperatures concentrate copper and other
metals. Exploration geologists must be able to rec-
ognize supergene effects in their search for new
deposits. Notably, super-giant porphyry c o p p e r
deposits are largely, if not entirely, composed of
hypogene ore.
The range of copper content for "fresh" igneous
rocks of intermediate composition is reasonably well
known. According to Gill (1981), copper contents
for andesitic magmas range from 10 to 150 ppm,
with a median of about 6 0 ppm. Stanton (1994) pre-
sented a compilation of 585 island-arc lavas with
SiO 2 contents greater than 52 wt%. About 10% of
the samples have less than 30 ppm Cu and roughly
10% have more than 140 ppm Cu. Only 1% of the
samples have copper contents greater than 2 0 0 ppm
and only one sample had more than 250 ppm. The
median copper content in Stanton's compilation is
~50 ppm, and the average is reported as 70 ppm. It
seems most likely that some, if not all, of the sam-
ples with copper contents in excess of 100 ppm were
formed at centers where the processes described in
this paper acted to enrich the copper content in the
upper part of the parent chamber.
Assuming a parent magma with 60 ppm copper
and a mechanism for extraction that is 100% effi-
cient, a deposit such as the El Teniente orebody
requires a parent body of magma with a volume of
3100 cubic kilometers. By the same calculation, the
minimum amount of magma needed to form a super-
giant ore body is about 6 5 0 cubic kilometers of
magma. Magma volumes of batholithic dimensions
(> 100 km 2 area) are indicated.
The necessary volumes of parent magma needed
to form an ore body are reduced if their copper con-
tent is higher, but the likely increase is only a factor
of about two. This possibility is countered by the fact
that the efficiency of copper extraction can never be
100%. As deep-seated plutons of intermediate com-
position typically have copper contents on the order
of 30 ppm (Krauskopf, 1967a), an efficiency of cop-
per removal of 5 0 % is probably common, although
80 to 9 0 % may occur in the most efficient ore-form-
ing systems. More significant for the point of this
argument, the reported tonnage of copper represents
an underestimate of the total copper in the system,
as all deposits have an economically defined cutoff
value for copper content (commonly <0.3 wt% =
3 0 0 0 ppm) that defines ore g r a d e . S u b s t a n t i a l
amounts of copper are almost always dispersed in
nearby rock that is not classified as ore.
The conclusion is that super-giant porphyry cop-
per deposits require the scavenging of copper from
magma volumes on the order of 1000 to 2000 km3 or
more. This corresponds to a spherical chamber with
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
a diameter of 12 to 16 km. A disk-shaped chamber
is a far more likely geometry, however. Taking a
diameter of 20 km, the width of some giant calderas,
the parent chamber would need to be in the range of
3.5 to 7 km thick. A 30 km wide disk-shaped cham-
ber would need to be in the range of 1.5 to 3 km
thick.
Sizes of Magma Chambers
Is there evidence for the existence of chambers
of intermediate magma with volumes of 1000 to
2 0 0 0 k m 3 beneath arc volcanoes at subduction
zones? Ancient magma chambers are exposed in
many mountain belts. The Sierra Nevada batholith
of California is 400 km long and 50 to 80 km wide.
The Coastal batholith of Peru is ~1500 km long and
typically ~60 km wide. Both are widely considered
to be the plutonic roots of long-lived volcanic arcs.
Detailed mapping of textural and mineralogical
relationships reveals that these batholiths actually
consist of hundreds of intrusions. Some intrusions
are nested, but crosscutting contacts that are both
sharp and gradational are common (e.g., Krauskopf,
1968; Pitcher, 1978; Bateman, 1981). Geochrono-
logical studies show the plutons that form these
batholiths were emplaced over timespans of tens of
millions of years.
Individual plutons commonly extend over areas
of 10 to 100 km 2 . Vertical relief is locally up to sev-
eral kilometers and minimum magma volumes of 20
to 200 km 3 appear to have been common. Flow foli-
ations defined by elongate crystals paralleling plu-
ton margins indicate some of the bodies attained
their present positions as crystal-rich mushes. All
have undergone subsolidus modification (retrograde
metamorphism), causing highly varying degrees of
deuteric hydration of magmatic phases during slow
cooling.
It is always unclear how much of the volume of
an exhumed pluton was simultaneously molten, or to
what extent the interior served as a conduit for the
passage of magma to higher levels. Other unknowns
include the extent of pluton inflation after signifi-
cant solidification and/or deflation by outward or
upward intrusion and eruption.
The volume of composite volcanoes (stratovolca-
noes) is an indicator of magma volumes at depth
(Davidson and DeSilva, 2000). They are products of
numerous eruptions over time frames of about one-
half to one m.y. The largest cones have volumes of
about 250 km 3 . Constructive eruptions that build
289
the volcanic edifice of composite volcanoes are
rarely larger than a few cubic kilometers and most
are m u c h s m a l l e r . The 1 9 9 1 e r u p t i o n at Mt.
Pinatubo in the Philippines was a destructive erup-
tion that discharged a volume of magma of 4—5 km 3
and formed a caldera with an area of ~5 km 2 (Wolfe
and Hoblitt, 1996). The 1883 eruption of Krakatau
in Indonesia and the 1912 eruption of Katmai in
Alaska both expelled - 1 0 km 3 of magma and formed
calderas. The destruction of Krakatau volcano left a
sub-sea topographic depression with an area of ~50
km 2 (Self and Rampino, 1981). The summit of
Mount Katmai collapsed, forming a caldera when
the eruption occurred 10 km away at Novarupta cra-
ter (Hildreth, 1991). From these and other observa-
tions, it is clear that the geometry of the sub-arc
magma chambers and the nature of magma plumb-
ing systems vary from place to place.
From the historical record, it is clear that arc vol-
canoes commonly erupt magmas with volumes of 5
to 10 km 3 , but most eruptions of this size are
destructive funnel-shaped caldera-forming events
rather than constructive cone-building events (Lip-
man, 1997). Large caldera-forming eruptions of
magma with volumes on the order of 50 km 3 are
known from the geologic record. Many were so cata-
strophic that their effects were globally significant
(Lipman, 2000). Fortunately, these large events
occur on the time scale of millennia. The best known
examples include the 35 km 3 eruption at Taupo,
New Zealand at 1.8 ka, the 25 km 3 eruption at San-
torini, Greece at 3.6 ka, and the 55 km 3 eruption
that formed Crater Lake, Oregon at 7.7 ka. The
worldwide record of volcanic eruption directly indi-
cates that chambers of intermediate magma with
volumes of tens of cubic kilometers form commonly,
at least on a time scale of tens of thousands of years.
There is so little geophysical evidence for the
existence of large (100 + km 3 ) magma chambers
beneath active "steady-state" arc volcanoes that
some workers now doubt their existence (e.g., Ber-
gantz, 1995). Geophysical studies of crust and
upper mantle beneath arc volcanoes routinely reveal
anomalies that indicate the presence of hot rock
near the surface, but the direct detection of anoma-
lies indicative of mobile, crystal-poor magma in
chambers has proven elusive (Iyer, 1984). Following
deployment of many seismographs, a large low-
velocity region was detected beneath Mt. Pinatubo
at depths of 6 to 11 km. This indicates the presence
of very hot material with a volume of 4 0 to 90 km 3 ,
but the mobility of this magma body is debatable,
290 MARK CLODS
inasmuch as less than 5 km 3 was discharged in the
1991 eruption (Mori et al., 1996). The difficulty of
detecting magma chambers is explainable, at least
in part, by the existence of gently curving grada-
tional zones between the mobile magma of the
chamber and the very hot, crystalline pluton along
the edges. The gradational character of the walls of
a cooling magma chamber is discussed in detail
below.
Batholithic Magma Chambers
It is, nevertheless, proven that chambers with
volumes of mobile magma on the order of 1000 km 3
and thus large enough to form super-giant porphyry
copper systems have existed in many places over
geologic time. They are not located at steady-state
subduction zones, however.
The geologic evidence for mobile magma in
batholithic chambers comes from giant ash flow
deposits and their associated caldera structures
(Smith, 1979). The discharge of many hundreds to
several thousand cubic kilometers of silicic magma
has created calderas with diameters of 10 to 30 km
(Smith, 1979). Notably, giant eruptions occur in
clusters in both space and time. The best-studied
cluster is the San Juan volcanic field in southwest-
ern Colorado, with ~20 caldera-forming eruptions
with volumes of h u n d r e d s of c u b i c kilometers
between about 31 and 27 Ma (Lipman, 1984). The
largest and best documented ash flow deposit in this
field is the Fish Canyon Tuff, which erupted at 27.8
Ma with a volume in excess of 3000 km 3 (Whitney
and Stormer, 1985). The largest Quaternary eruption
appears to be the discharge of 2800 km 3 , forming
the giant 100 km long by 3 0 km wide Toba caldera
in western Sumatra, Indonesia, at 74 ka (Rose and
Chesner, 1987; Chesner et al., 1991). Although this
eruption occurred at a well-known convergent plate
margin, it is from a location near where the chain of
arc volcanoes ends because subduction is increas-
ingly oblique. Moreover, this arc-related caldera
appears to be tectonically anomalous, because it is
located in a pull-apart zone along the great Sumatra
fault zone (Bellier and Sebrier, 1994).
Several giant caldera-forming, ash-flow erup-
tions have occurred in the western United States
since 1 Ma, but none is in a normal subduction/arc
environment. Two well studied calderas are Yellow-
s t o n e , long recognized as the top of a hot-spot
plume, and Long Valley, an area of continental rift-
ing. Recent geophysical studies at Yellowstone,
Wyoming (Clawson et al., 1989) and at Long Valley,
California (Romero et al., 1993) detect masses of hot
material with volumes on the order of 1000 km 3 cen-
tered at depths of 10 to 15 km. Interpreting the geo-
physical data in terms of the proportions of crystals
and melt has been subject to great debate, because
different methods have different spatial resolving
power and detect different properties (see Iyer,
1992). At present, it only seems that magma cham-
bers with crystal-poor melt and sharp boundaries
against cold wall rock are ruled out.
It is important to know that all of these batholith-
draining eruptions discharged magma with copper
contents that are in the range that is typical for inter-
mediate magmas (<100 ppm Cu). Another important
matter is the depth of the bulk of the magma in the
giant chambers. The depth range has been debated,
because magmas have few indicators of confining
pressure. Lipman (1984) concluded that most giant
ash flows and calderas are generated from the defla-
tion of chambers in the middle to upper crust. Whit-
ney a n d S t o r m e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
concluded that the titanic eruption that generated
the Fish Canyon Tuff came from a chamber in the
lower crust. Chesner (1998) concluded that the giant
Toba Tuff eruption rose from a chamber at 10 km
d e p t h . Along with t h e g e o p h y s i c a l s t u d i e s at
recently active calderas, it appears that the tops of
batholithic c h a m b e r s are commonly l o c a t e d at
depths of 8 to 15 km.
In sum, there is little geological and no solid geo-
p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e for t h e e x i s t e n c e of l i q u i d
magma-filled chambers beneath normal arc volca-
noes with volumes capable of generating super-giant
porphyry copper deposits. There is, however, no
doubt that sufficiently large c h a m b e r s of silicic
magma have formed in many places over geologic
time. As porphyry copper deposits are found in tec-
tonic settings that are, or appear to have been, sites
of plate convergence, a common association with
subduction appears certain. The conclusion must be
that super-giant porphyry-copper deposits probably
rarely form during periods of "normal" steady-state
arc volcanism.
A more fundamental and yet more certain obser-
vation is that porphyry copper mineralization is cen-
tered on stocks with areas less than ~2 km 2 and
typically less than 1 km 2 . Common-sized deposits
may be generated by the scavenging of copper from
the magma that formed an underlying stock with
a volume of tens of cubic kilometers (Cline and
Bodnar, 1991), but super-giant porphyry copper
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 291

deposits must involve the solidification of tall, nar-

row stocks e m a n a t i n g from batholithic magma
chambers.

H2O C o n t e n t o f t h e M a g m a

The exsolution of hydrothermal fluid from a

magma is essential for the formation of a porphyry
copper deposit. H2O is highly soluble in silicate
magmas and a range of concentration from zero to
saturation values is possible (Fig. 1). The H2O con-
tent of a magma depends primarily upon the initial
content in the melt as it leaves the source region and
the amount of anhydrous mineral crystallization
along the sidewalls during transit or residence in a
c h a m b e r . A d d i t i o n a l factors t h a t i n c r e a s e or
decrease H2O content are wall rock assimilation and
magma mixing.
Ocean-ridge basalts are, by all standards, rela-
tively dry magmas. H2O contents are in the range of
0.1 to 0.5 wt% (Johnson et al., 1994). As there is no
evidence that such H 2 O-poor mafic magmas gener-
ate porphyry copper-type ore bodies, 0.5 wt% H2O
must be a lower limit. The most primitive basaltic
magmas (lowest SiO 2 and/or highest MgO) erupted
in arcs at subduction zones rarely have H2O con-
tents less than 1 wt% nor more than 3 wt% (Johnson
et al., 1994). This is probably the range of the H2O
content for the parent mafic magmas that ascend
from the mantle to form porphyry copper deposits in
the crust. Intermediate magmas, the source of por-
phyry copper ore deposits, form via assimilation of
felsic crustal materials and differentiation.
Determining the H2O content of extrusive mag-
mas is not straightforward because volatiles are lost
during eruption. Similar problems exist for intrusive
magmas, as H2O can be lost during crystal growth or
added during deuteric alteration. Experimentally
determined p h a s e relations provide broad con-
straints. One of the most cited constraints arises
from the common presence of hornblende. This min-
eral indicates a H2O content of at least 2 to 4 wt% at
confining pressures in excess of 1 to 2 kbar (Naney,
1983). Several recent eruptions have been inten-
sively studied and it seems likely that they are rep-
resentative of explosive systems. The sequence of
m i n e r a l crystallization observed in the dacite
expelled in the 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens com-
bined with experimentally determined phase rela-
tions indicate a pre-eruptive H2O content of 4.6
wt% (Rutherford and Devine, 1988). Analysis of the
volatile contents of glass inclusions in phenocrysts
FIG. 1. A. Solubility of H2O in silicate magmas. Abbrevia-
tions: B = basalt; G = granite; A = andesite. B. Solubility of
H2O in basaltic magma at 1100°C and 900°C. From McBirney
(1993, p. 36).
from the dacite expelled in the 1991 eruption at Mt.
Pinatubo indicates the pre-eruptive H2O content
was in the range of 6.1 to 6.5 wt% (Wallace and
Gerlach, 1994).
Similar studies indicate the great rhyolitic ash-
flow eruptions that expelled hundreds of cubic kilo-
meters of magma had H2O contents up to 8 wt%
(Johnson et al., 1994). In these eruptions, the high-
est H2O contents are found in the most siliceous
melt, which was discharged at the beginning of the
giant ash-flow eruptions and thus was probably from
near the top of the chamber (Spera, 1984).
It has also been shown that large gradients in
H2O content can develop in large chambers. Wal-
lace et al. (1995) analyzed the volatile contents of
glass inclusions in phenocrysts and showed that the
H2O content in the Long Valley magma chamber
that expelled the Bishop Tuff had a pre-eruption
gradient from ~6 wt% at 5 to 6 km depth down to ~2
wt% or less at depths of 8 to 10 km. They proposed
that the exsolution of H2O in the upper, cooler part
of the magma chamber caused a stable density strat-
ification to develop that inhibited convection, at
least until the giant eruption was triggered.
In sum, it appears that the H2O contents of inter-
mediate magmas that become charged enough to
erupt explosively is probably commonly in the range
of 4 to 6.5 wt%. Higher contents, up to about 8 wt%,
are associated with the extreme differentiation that
generates explosive rhyolitic magmas.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is 50 to 100 times less soluble in
basaltic and intermediate magma than H2O at the
same pressure and temperature conditions (Blank
292 MARK CLOOS

FIG. 2. Schematic diagram illustrating stock/batholith systems that would underlie regions of porphyry copper min-
eralization. A chamber exists in the lower crust because mafic magmas tend to pool at the contact between continental
crust and the mantle. Once established, a lower crustal magma chamber acts as a density filter that traps mafic magmas.
Assimilation of lower crust can be extensive and profoundly modify the chemical and isotopic characteristics of the
magma. Magmas that escape are more felsic because of assimilation and/or differentiation. The formation of an upper
batholithic chamber at the contact between sedimentary cover and crystalline basement is probably common because a
large density contrast exists at this contact. Stocks can rise because of melt buoyancy or tectonic movements. Cooling
effects dominate at shallower depths. H2O saturation can occur while a large fraction of the chamber is still mobile when
lateral thermal gradients are high.

and Brooker, 1994). It will dominate vapor exsolu-
tion processes at erustal pressures even where mag-
m a t i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are as small as 0.1 wt%
(Giggenbach, 1997). Carbonate minerals are found
as minor to trace components of veins and alteration
phases in many porphyry copper deposits, espe-
cially in the propylitic and argillic zones. More
importantly, however, they are not reported as
phases associated with hypogene ore mineralization.
Direct gas analysis of fluid inclusions from ore zone
materials are few, but reported values indicate that
carbon dioxide is at most a minor component (<3
mole % of the fluid) in porphyry copper deposits
( G r a n e y and K e s l e r , 1 9 9 5 ) . Gustafson (1979)
hypothesized that the reason most intermediate
magmas do not form ore systems is that deep-seated
saturation of carbon dioxide scavenges sulfur from
magma and thus prevents its later availability to
precipitate sulfide minerals at shallower depths.
Negligible carbon dioxide contents appear to be
characteristic of magmas that form porphyry copper
ore deposits.
Assimilation
Major chemical modification of magma from the
mantle by assimilation is most likely to occur in the
lower crust (>20 km depth) because this region is
already hot (Fig. 2). In most continental terranes,
the lower crust is at ambient temperatures in excess
of 500°C (amphibolite- and granulite-facies condi-
tions; C h a p m a n and F u r l o n g , 1 9 9 2 ; K e t c h a m ,
1996). In the shallower crystalline crust and over-
lying sedimentary cover, p i e c e m e a l assimilation
can occur, but overall cooling-related effects will
dominate.
At least initially, basaltic magmas from the man-
tle will intrude the crust as dikes and sills, and the
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 293

wholesale engulfment of pieces of lower crust is

probably common. Normal continental crust is less
dense than mafic magma. Thus, there is a strong
tendency for mafic magma to pool above the Moho
(Huppert and Sparks, 1988a, 1988b). As chambers
inflate, heating weakens the ceiling and may locally
cause partial melting. More dense parts of the roof
can sink into the chamber as stoped blocks. Heating
also can permit viscous entrainment of wall rock by
convective flow of magma in the chamber. Once
established, a lower crustal chamber acts as a "den-
sity filter" that traps mafic magma and periodically
releases batches of magma of intermediate composi-
tion (Leeman, 1983). FIG. 3. Variation in H2O content of residual melt with vary-
Convective movements blend pieces of crust ing initial magma H2O contents as a function of the extent of
with the magma in the chamber. New inputs of anhydrous mineral crystallization assuming complete separa-
magma from the mantle will recharge the chamber tion of crystals and no loss of H2O to the wall rock.
with heat, which reinvigorates convection. The over-
all result is to transform mafic magma from the man- become profoundly modified (Ishihara, 1978, 1981;
tle into magma of intermediate composition. That Candela, 1992).
massive lower-crustal interaction is common is evi-
dent from Nd and Sr isotopic studies, which indicate
the incorporation of crustal materials in many inter- Differentiation
mediate, ore-forming magmas as well as the typical
The crystallization of plagioclase, alkali feldspar,
barren pluton (e.g., Farmer, 1992; Farmer and
pyroxene, magnetite, and other anhydrous minerals
DePaolo, 1984, 1997; Lang and Titley, 1998).
causes the H2O content of the residual melt to
The effect of lower crustal assimilation on the increase. The sinking or floating of anhydrous
volatile content of magma is of primary interest phases causes differentiation to occur and this is
here. High-temperature metamorphism and melting
very important in hot, mafic systems. In magmas of
events dehydrate the lower crust over time. Xenolith
mafic and intermediate composition, the crystalliza-
studies by Rudnick (1992) indicate that large vol-
tion of anhydrous phases along the sidewall of a
umes of lower continental crust are granulite-facies
chamber, coupled with an efficient exchange of the
metamorphic rocks that have dehydrated as they
interstitial melt with the hotter, interior magma, will
reached peak temperatures of 700-1000°C at some
cause the same effect. These processes cause the
point in their history. The most common hydrous
contents of silica, alkalies, and H2O to progressively
mineral is amphibole, which only rarely comprises
increase in the remaining magma. T h e r a t e of
more than 5 0 % of a xenolith. Consequently, the
average H2O content of lower-crustal materials is buildup of H2O content for various initial values is
almost certainly less than 2 wt% and may generally shown in Figure 3.
be less than 1 wt%. The conclusion is that wholesale The most common hydrous magmatic phases in
assimilation of lower crustal materials will com- intermediate magmas are hornblende (1 to 2 wt%
monly make the magma more felsic, and can greatly H 2 O) and biotite (2 to 4 wt% H 2 O). Experimental
modify the isotopic characteristics, but it will gener- studies by Naney (1983) indicate biotite forms over
ally not appreciably change the H2O content. In a wide range of pressures even when magma H2O
fact, it is plausible that in some cases assimilated contents are less than 1 wt%. The generation of
materials are actually drier than the intruding magmatic hornblende, however, requires confining
magma. More important from the perspective of pressures in excess of 1 to 2 kbar and H2O contents
forming ore deposits, the assimilation of carbon- in excess of 2 to 4 wt%.
aceous materials can change the oxidation state of The volumetric abundance of biotite and horn-
the magma. When this occurs, the differentiation blende is commonly 5 to 10%, but is as much as
sequence and the partitioning of metals into melt, 30% in some rocks. Their crystallization only rarely
magmatic minerals, and hydrothermal fluids can takes up more than about 1 wt% of the magmatic
294 MARK CLOGS
FIG. 4. Variation in H2O content of residual melt as a func-
tion of the extent of total crystallization with 10% and 30%
biotite starting with an initial H2O content of 3 wt%, assuming
complete separation of crystals and no loss of H2O to the wall
rock.
H 2 O. This slows the rate of H2O increase during dif-
ferentiation, but the effect is modest. An extreme
case is shown in Figure 4.
The highest H2O contents in erupted silicic mag-
mas are observed to be ~8 wt% (Johnson et al.,
1994). Volatile build-ups to higher concentrations
must certainly occur, but it appears that H2O con-
centrations of this magnitude are the upper limit for
volumes of magma on the order of ten cubic kilome-
ters or more. It appears that when this occurs, buoy-
ancy forces generally trigger movements that lead to
eruption.
Magma Mingling and Mixing
Magma chambers in the lower crust are com-
monly recharged with primary mafic magma direct
from the mantle and the contrast in temperature,
composition, and viscosity can be large. Over time,
the magma in the chamber becomes intermediate in
composition because of assimilation and differentia-
tion. Lower crustal chambers supply derivative mag-
mas to chambers higher in the crust (Fig. 2). In turn,
shallower chambers undergo differentiation with
periodic recharge from below.
Banded pumices (Anderson, 1976) and pillow-
like bodies of basaltic rock in some plutonic gran-
ites (Wiebe, 1996) indicate the physical mingling of
distinctly different magmas is common. Disequilib-
rium chemical and isotopic compositions, reaction
textures, reverse chemical zoning of phenocrysts,
and glass inclusion compositions are more cryptic
evidence that differing magmas were thoroughly
blended and chemically mixed together (Grove et
al., 1982; Philpotts, 1990).
Hotter, more mafic magma injected into a cham-
ber of cooler, more felsic magma will have physical
contrasts that cause adjustments that can trigger the
rise of intrusions and even eruption (Sparks et al.,
1977; Sparks and Marshall, 1986). Intrusion may be
initiated by the rise of hotter, less viscous mafic
magma into overlying felsic magma. Such movement
will draw both compositions into the conduit and
constrained flow will form thin layers across which
diffusional exchange can occur (Blake and Camp-
bell, 1986; Freundt and Tait, 1986). Pallister et al.
(1992, 1996) reported delicate evidence of disequi-
librium between phenocrysts and glass, which led
them to conclude that the 1991 eruption of Mt.
Pinatubo was triggered by the injection of basaltic
magma into the bottom of a c h a m b e r of dacitic
magma only days before the event.
Volcanic activity is the result of near-surface
magma movement, and it occurs in spurts in arc vol-
canoes and at ocean ridges. It must be unusual for a
magma chamber with a volume of tens of cubic kilo-
meters, let alone hundreds of cubic kilometers, to be
inflated in one pulse. Episodic charging of a cham-
ber with new pulses of magma must be common.
Unless there is some fundamental change in the
source region, pulses of new magma will be hotter,
less differentiated, and contain less H2O than the
magma already in the intruded chamber. T h u s ,
while new pulses of hotter magma can profoundly
affect the dynamics of convective overturn in the
parent chamber, it seems unlikely that this com-
monly leads to H2O saturation in the region of mix-
ing. However, the mingling and cooling of a pulse of
magma with a high carbon dioxide content (hun-
dreds of ppm) can cause saturation, even at lower
crustal depths. This would, of course, profoundly
affect the dynamics of convection and may com-
monly trigger m a g m a m o v e m e n t a n d e r u p t i o n
(Turner et al., 1 9 8 3 ; Blake, 1 9 8 4 ; Cardoso and
Woods, 1999). But as discussed above, carbon diox-
ide does not appear to be a significant factor in sys-
tems that form porphyry copper deposits.
Similar phenomena could be associated with the
injection of sulfur-rich magma and subsequent exso-
lution of sulfur dioxide. Sulfur saturation has been
proposed to account for the enormous discharge of
SO 2 in the Mt. Pinatubo eruption (Hattori, 1993). It
is important to note that porphyry copper deposits
are actually larger sulfur anomalies than copper
anomalies when compared to common igneous rocks
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
FIG. 5. Pressure/depth of H2O saturation for basaltic and andesitic magmas as a function of the extent of anhydrous
mineral crystallization, assuming complete separation of crystals and no loss of H2O to the wall rock.
or average continental crust (Banks, 1982). As sul-
fur is an essential ingredient for fluids that form ore
bodies, this form of deeper-seated volatile saturation
could be an important factor limiting the extent of
mineralization in some systems.
Sulfur solubility is a strong function of confining
pressure, and the species of sulfur is very strongly
dependent upon temperature and oxidation state of
the magma or fluid (Carroll and Webster, 1994). The
concentration of sulfur in mafic and intermediate
magmas is commonly in the range of several hun-
dreds to a few thousand ppm, amounts that are
within the range of sulfur solubility for magmas at
crustal pressures (Wallace and Carmichael, 1992).
Consequently, the saturation of sulfur, in one form or
another, should be a fairly common phenomenon.
H 2 O-rich, intermediate magmas are relatively oxi-
dizing and the bulk of the sulfur is dissolved as sul-
fate i o n s . If sulfur s a t u r a t i o n o c c u r s , S O 2 is
exsolved. H2O has a much higher solubility than
sulfur, but it occurs in much higher concentrations.
Consequently, H2O saturation will generally occur
first and SO 2 will be strongly partitioned into the
fluid. In situations where sulfur becomes saturated
first, H2O would be strongly partitioned into the
fluid. As crystallization continues or pressures
decrease, the proportion of H2O in the fluid will
increase and eventually H2O will become the more
a b u n d a n t component. The r e d u c e d sulfur that
causes metal chlorides to dissociate and precipitate
metal sulfides is formed as the fluid cools and SO 2
reacts with H2O to form hydrogen sulfide and sulfu-
ric acid (Holland, 1965). The hydrolysis of SO 2 at
295
submagmatic temperatures causes the precipitation
of metal sulfides and anhydrite.
A s c e n t o f Silicate M a g m a a n d t h e D e p t h
o f H2O Saturation
The conclusion has been that primary magmas
from the mantle typically have H2O contents in the
range of 1 to 3 wt%. Derivative magmas formed by
assimilation of the lower crust and by differentiation
probably typically have H2O contents of 2 to 4 wt%.
Fractional crystallization causes H2O contents to
increase, and explosively erupting magmas com-
monly have H2O contents in the range of 4 to 6.5
wt%. The highest H2O contents are about 8 wt% and
these are found in highly differentiated, explosively
ejected rhyolitic ash flows. Burnham (1979) long
ago argued that the magmas that form porphyry cop-
per deposits must have had H2O contents of ~3 wt%
in order for them to intrude to depths of 2 km with-
out H2O saturation due to decompression. This
basic conclusion is accepted and the depth range for
ore-forming magma systems is further evaluated
below.
Within continental crust of normal thickness, the
pressure at the Moho is 8 - 1 0 kbar and the tempera-
ture is 500-700°C. The solubility of H2O in silicate
magma is an extremely strong function of confining
pressure (Fig. 1); magma composition and tempera-
ture are secondary factors. A fluid phase carries
copper and other metals to form ore bodies. The
energy released in expanding magmatic fluids has
long been recognized as the driver of explosive
296
eruptions. There are two end-member ways in which
H2O saturation can occur (Krauskopf, 1 9 6 7 b ) —
adiabatic decompression ("first boiling") and iso-
baric cooling ("second boiling").
Fundamental constraints on magma movement
and H2O saturation are apparent (Figs. 1 and 5).
Taking the extreme value of 8 wt% H 2 O, magma at
900°C is H2O undersaturated at confining pressures
greater than ~3 kbar (9-12 km depth). If the H2O
content is 4 wt%, magma is unsaturated at pressures
greater than ~1 kbar ( 3 - 4 km depth). If the H2O
content is 2 wt%, magma is unsaturated at pressures
greater than ~0.25 kbar (1-2 km depth).
The conclusion is that magma moving in the
lower and mid-crust is H2O u n d e r s a t u r a t e d . In
deep-seated plutons, saturation, if it occurs at all,
will only happen after extensive crystallization has
occurred. Excess magmatic waters will deuterically
hydrate earlier formed crystals and can infiltrate
into the wall rock. Differentiated magma that is
expelled from deep-seated chambers will be H2O
enriched (Figs. 3 and 4). The ascent of magma can
be halted well before saturation occurs because heat
loss to the wall rock causes cooling, crystallization,
and viscosity increase. Rising magma that attains
depths shallow enough to saturate due to decom-
pression will have added buoyancy from bubble
expansion and more fluid exsolution as ascent con-
tinues. Small bodies of intermediate magma that sat-
urate and reach the surface cause modest
e x p l o s i o n s . It is e v i d e n t that the near-surface
e m p l a c e m e n t of H 2 O - s a t u r a t e d , i n t e r m e d i a t e
magma with volumes larger than a few cubic kilome-
ters generally leads to destructive, caldera-forming
eruptions (Lipman, 1997). It appears a probable
generalization that when H2O saturation occurs dur-
ing the rise of large (several cubic kilometer-sized)
bodies of magma, the ascent becomes self-driving
and is generally unstoppable. This phenomenon
characterizes volcanism in arc environments and is
obviously not a situation favorable for the focused
flow of magmatic volatiles needed to form porphyry
copper deposits.
P r e s s u r e Effects o n Chlorine Partitioning
and the Metal Content o f Magmatic Fluid
An exceptionally important constraint on the
nature of the magma chambers that are parents to
porphyry copper ore deposits comes from experi-
mental studies on the partitioning of metals into
hydrothermal fluids. Krauskopf (1957) showed that
MARK CLOOS
metals are abundant in magmatic vapors. Helgeson
(1964) showed that metals such as Cu, Fe, Pb, and
Zn are highly soluble in hydrothermal fluids as chlo-
rine complexes. Holland (1972) pointed out that the
chlorine, and thus the trace-metal content of mag-
matic fluids, must be strongly controlled by the ini-
tial H2O content of the magma. For a given confining
pressure, magma with a lower H2O content will
require more crystallization of anhydrous phases to
attain fluid saturation than will a magma with a
higher initial H2O content. Consequently, the first
fluids exsolved from a relatively dry magma will be
more chlorine and trace-metal rich than will those
from a magma with a higher H2O content. Once sat-
uration occurs, further crystallization will progres-
sively deplete the residual magma in chlorine and
thus its metal complexing capability.
Kilinc and Burnham (1971) performed the first
experiments on granitic melts, which showed just
how strongly chlorine actually partitions into an
aqueous phase relative to a melt at pressures of 2 to
8 kbar. They also discovered that the partitioning of
chlorine into a fluid is stronger at higher confining
pressure. Candela and Holland (1984) performed
experiments on the partitioning of copper between
granitic melt and an exsolved aqueous fluid at 1.4
kbar and various salinities. They confirmed that the
partitioning of copper into the fluid is strongly
dependent on the chlorine content of the magma.
Shinohara et al. (1989) and Metrich and Rutherford
(1992) performed experiments on granitic melts and
discovered that the concentration of chlorine in the
aqueous fluid is drastically reduced at confining
pressures less than 1 to 2 kbar. Webster (1992a,
1992b, 1997a, 1997b) performed experiments on a
range of melt compositions at pressures up to 8 kbar
that further confirmed the dramatic effects of confin-
ing pressure. His work suggests the partitioning of
chlorine into an aqueous fluid from a granitic melt
may be maximized at p r e s s u r e s of ~ 6 kbar. No
doubt, the exact partitioning relationships depend
upon other compositional factors of the magma, but
it appears that the fundamental relationships that
control chlorine partitioning and thus the metal con-
tent of magmatic fluids are well determined. These
experiments indicate the initial bubble-bearing flu-
ids will be copper rich when they separate from
magmas at depths greater than ~6 km.
In a novel way, Cline and Bodnar (1991) com-
bined the experimental results on H2O solubility in
silicate magma with the fluid-melt partitioning rela-
tionships for chlorine and copper. Using plausible
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
values of initial H 2 O, chlorine, copper contents, and
partitioning relationships, they showed that the first
fluids that separate at pressures of 0.5 kbar or less
(< 2 km depth) are exsolved after only about 10% of
the melt is crystallized. These initial fluids have less
than 5 wt% chlorine and their Cu content is corre-
spondingly low. In striking contrast, at pressures of
2 kbar and higher (>6-8 km), H2O saturation only
occurs after 6 0 % or more of the melt is crystallized.
At these pressures, the initial fluids are brines with
salinities of 50 wt% or higher, and metals such as
Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn are strongly partitioned into the
fluid. Cline (1995) refined and integrated this work
with experimental phase relations for the H 2 O-NaCl
system. With an initial magma copper content of 50
ppm, the initial fluids exsolved at pressures greater
than 2 kbar would be highly saline brines with cop-
per contents in the range of 1,000 to 10,000 ppm.
She concluded that the rise of chlorine-rich fluids to
pressures less than 1 kbar (<3-4 km) would cause
boiling and the separation of the fluid into an immis-
cible liquid brine and a vapor. Fluid inclusion stud-
ies have shown that this phenomenon occurs and
this must be one of the factors that localizes sulfide
precipitation (Roedder and Bodnar, 1997).
The experimental work appears to clearly indi-
cate that copper-rich fluids are generated during the
initial saturation of magma at depths of 6 km or
more. As most copper ores are precipitated at
depths of 1 to 3 km, the ore-forming fluids must
have risen at least several kilometers from where
they exsolved from the parent magma.
Stock/Batholith Magma Chambers
The most favored conditions for mineralization
are when intrusions with H2O contents of ~ 2 - 4 wt%
are emplaced at depths of ~ 3 - 1 5 km. In this depth
range, cooling causes H2O saturation to occur along
the sidewalls of the chamber while a large propor-
tion of the intruded magma is still molten. The first
fluids separated at depths of 6 km or more are
copper rich and the fluids become more depleted
with time unless new magma is cycled through the
system.
The stocks in which porphyry copper mineraliza-
tion occurs have their tops at depths of a few kilome-
ters or less (Fig. 2). The batholithic chamber needed
to supply the bulk of the metal in super-giant depos-
its must have a roof at depths less than ~15 km
for H2O saturation to occur in the upper part of the
297
chamber while a large volume of magma is still
molten.
This stock/batholith geometry is probably quite
common. In some continental areas, crystalline
basement extends to the surface, but in most areas a
large density discontinuity exists at the contact
between crystalline basement rock and overlying
sedimentary cover (Glazner and Ussier, 1988). The
sediment cover/basement contact is more commonly
less than 10 km deep, but in many places is as deep
as 15 km. The inflation of disk-shaped batholithic-
sized chambers is probably a fairly common occur-
rence along this boundary. Dikes, sills, and stocks
can emanate outward as magma pressures and struc-
tural movements permit (Fig. 2).
M a g m a C h a m b e r Solidification
The dynamics of a stock/batholith magma cham-
ber (Fig. 2) will be primarily controlled by the vis-
cosity of magma, which depends strongly upon the
silica, H2O content, and the volume of suspended
crystals. Basic observations are that lavas commonly
contain 2 5 % phenocrysts, but rarely more than
about 5 5 % phenocrysts (Marsh, 1981). There is
experimental and theoretical justification that mag-
mas become effectively rigid and resistant to the
shearing of convective flow in a chamber when crys-
tal content is ~ 5 0 - 5 5 % (Marsh, 1988). The conclu-
sion is that magmas with crystal contents up to about
2 5 % are generally capable of full mobility, there is
limited mobility at crystal contents of about 25 to
50%, and essentially no mobility at higher crystal-
Unities.
The solidification of magma will occur from the
margins inward as heat is lost through the walls.
Marsh (1989, 1996) proposed a prominent role for
the inward migration of "solidification fronts" in
magmatic evolution (Fig. 6). His focus has been on
the behavior of the roof and floor of mafic magma
chambers as heat is mainly lost from the top of the
horizontally elongated chambers and crystals accu-
mulate on the floor. These principles also apply to
more silicic systems. The rest of this paper concerns
the nature of the volatile saturation process along
the steep sidewalls of tall stocks and how this
changes as a system cools.
Marsh proposed that a solidification front that
has three distinct layers, with dynamic boundaries
that propagate inward over time (Fig. 6). Outward
from the interior, there is a highly mobile "suspen-
sion zone" at near-liquidus temperature, a deform-
298 MARK CLOGS

FIG. 6. Magma solidification front along a vertical chamber boundary. Mobile magma is in the suspension zone, which
has less than about 2 5 % crystals. The crystals in the mush layer form a porous network, but mobilization is possible, and
the melt between the crystals exchanges components with the hotter, interior melt of the suspension zone. The crystals
in the rigid layer are intergrown, looked together, and the residual melt is trapped. These properties gradationally change
from the wall of the intrusion to the interior of the chamber. The 2 5 % and 50% crystallinities that define the boundaries
of the mush zone are approximate. Narrower solidification fronts are present where the wall rock is colder and lateral
temperature gradients are higher. Cooling and crystallization make the mobile magma in the outer part of the suspension
zone more dense and it moves downward. After Marsh (1989).

able "mush zone," and a "rigid layer" with its outer
boundary at the solidus temperature. The tempera-
tures at each boundary depend upon the chemistry of
the magma. After filling or recharge of the chamber
ceases, the boundaries move steadily inward at a rate
that depends upon the rate of heat loss to the walls.
The liquid interior of a chamber grades into the
suspension zone which contains up to about 25%
crystals. The settling or floating of crystals in the
suspension zone is a common phenomenon in hot,
mafic magma and this results in significant mag-
matic differentiation. The outer boundary of the sus-
pension zone, the "capture front," should be a fairly
well defined interface where suspended crystals
adhere, forming the network of crystals that consti-
tutes the mush zone.
For mafic and intermediate magmas, convective
movements occur in the suspension zone where vari-
ations in temperature or the amount of crystalliza-
tion cause substantial gradients in density. Once
magmas become intermediate in composition, the
viscosity increases and crystal sinking and floating
are greatly inhibited. For systems that have cooled
and differentiated to rhyolitic compositions, it
appears that the resulting viscosity increase greatly
curtails, if not entirely stops, convection (Hildreth,
1981). This effect was first clearly recognized in the
classic study of the Bishop Tuff by Hildreth (1979),
whose analysis of the 170+ km3 ash-flow deposit
indicated the existence of a large compositional
zonation from the roof downward in the parent
batholithic chamber.
In the mush zone, the crystals impinge with one
another and the bulk viscosity has increased by a
factor of 10 or more from the mobile magma, with
suspended crystals in the interior of the chamber.
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
The mush zone extends from the capture front where
the crystallinity is about 2 5 % to an outer boundary
where about 5 0 % crystals are present. There is a
large gradient in viscosity across this zone, but the
residual magma is interconnected between the net-
work of c r y s t a l s . Porous flow and diffusional
exchange with the magma in the suspension zone
are extensive near the capture front, but the effect
progressively decreases in the cooler, more crystal-
line outer part of the zone. The interior build-up of
silica, alkalies, iron, and H2O over time is probably
the primary cause of differentiation of magmas of
intermediate composition. The crystals in the mush
zone are locked together, but tectonic movements or
activity in the mobile center of the chamber can
mobilize the mush. When this occurs, strong flow
foliations, defined by elongate phenocrysts, can
develop.
The rigid layer is a crystal network with progres-
sively more isolated residual melt toward its outer
limit, where cooling has reached the solidus temper-
ature and the crystallinity is 100%. At crystallini-
ties in excess of about 5 0 % , the magma is a dilatent
material that can fracture and expand upon shear.
This differs greatly from the mush zone, which can
still deform viscously. Flow of the interstitial melt is
very restricted, but fracturing may allow the influx
of fluid from the wall rock or dikes of the magma in
the chamber. Deuteric alteration by the absorption
of magmatic volatiles results in near-solidus sericit-
ization of feldspar and chloritization of mafic
p h a s e s . T h i s o c c u r s as t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l melt
decreases in volume and the local H2O activities
increase.
Solidification F r o n t s a n d Volatile Saturation
The generation of a free volatile phase in a cool-
ing magma is governed by the initial H2O content,
local confining pressure, and the degree of crystalli-
zation. Magmas with H2O contents less than 4 wt%
will be undersaturated when they inflate chambers
deeper than ~4 km. The amount of anhydrous crys-
tallization required for H2O saturation to occur can
be calculated using the composition-pressure-H 2 O
solubility relationships of Figure 1. A unit volume of
intermediate magma with initial H2O contents of 2
wt% and 4 wt% will become H2O saturated at
depths of 15 km only after about 8 0 % or 6 0 % crys-
tallization has occurred (Fig. 3), provided H2O dif-
f u s i o n b a c k i n t o t h e c h a m b e r is 1 0 0 % .
Correspondingly, at depths of 4 km, H2O saturation
299
o c c u r s after 5 5 % or 1 5 % c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n h a s
occurred. When saturation occurs at crystallinities
less than about 2 5 % , bubbles are present within
the mobile magma of the suspension zone of the
chamber.
The H2O content of magmatic hornblende is typ-
ically 1.5-2 wt% and that of biotite 3 - 4 wt%. The
crystallization of 10 wt% biotite and 10 wt% horn-
blende along with anhydrous phases removes about
0.6 wt% H2O per unit volume of magma. The effect
of crystallizing hydrous minerals is significant, but
comparatively modest (Fig. 4).
Volatile saturation in a magma chamber with
large v e r t i c a l e x t e n t — a s t o c k r i s i n g from a
batholith—will first occur at different depths in dif-
ferent parts of the solidification front. At shallow
depths, exsolution can occur in all zones (Fig. 7). At
somewhat greater d e p t h s , initial exsolution is
restricted to the rigid and mush zones. At depths of
about 15 km or more, exsolution will only occur in
the rigid zone, if it occurs at all.
A stock/batholith magma chamber system is
schematically illustrated in Figure 8. A variety of
patterns of convection have been proposed (McBir-
ney, 1993, p. 57). Generally, when the magma is
unsaturated, cooling and crystal growth should
cause the bulk density to increase in the suspension
zone and thus mobile sidewall magma sinks. This, in
turn, will cause the rise of magma in the center of
the chamber.
The situation can be very different when H2O
saturation occurs. In silicate magmas, there are
many likely nucleation sites for bubbles and super-
saturation is probably not a major effect (Sparks,
1978). The viscosity of silicate magma is high, and
bubbles must grow to diameters of millimeters or
more before their buoyancy overcomes the yield
strength and causes them to rise on their own at sig-
nificant speeds. Small bubbles in static magma will
be rounded because of surface tension, but they
would be distorted in flowing magma.
The effect of volatile saturation on bulk density
is large. Wallace et al. (1995) showed that t h e
exsolved gas contents of the Bishop Tuff increased
as pressure decreased. The bulk density of the
magma at 1.5 kbar (~5.5 km depth), 2 kbar (~8 km),
and 2.5 kbar (~10 km) was calculated to be 1.82,
2.20, and 2.35 g/cm 3 , respectively. In the case of the
Bishop Tuff, a broad flat-roofed chamber was cool-
ing largely from the top down. They concluded that
volatile exsolution created a normal density stratifi-
300 MARK CLOOS

Solidification Front and Fluid Saturation

FIG. 7. Magma solidification front along a vertical chamber boundary in a system where fluid saturation is occurring
in the suspension zone. Fluid pressure equals confining pressure wherever saturation has occurred. The gradient in fluid
pressure drives H2O outward into the solidified pluton and wall rock at a rate limited by the local permeability and fluid
pressure gradient. Fluid trapped in the rigid layer causes deuteric alteration of feldspars and mafic phases. Bubbles in
the mush layer form an interconnected path for a slow tortuous rise or merge together forming large ones that buoyantly
break out and dislodge the outer part of the mush zone in the process. Bubbles in the suspension zone make the cooled,
crystal-rich mobile magma sufficiently buoyant to rise. Abbreviations: Pf = fluid pressure: Pc = confining pressure.

cation that was stable in the top of the batholithic
chamber.
The dynamic effects of H2O saturation can
become very different along the steep walls of a tall,
narrow stock of intermediate composition (Fig. 9).
The localized exsolution of volatiles in sidewall
magma will create a gravitational instability and the
pattern of convection can become reversed when the
density decrease from the generation of bubbles in
the mobile magma of the suspension zone exceeds
the density increase from cooling and crystal
growth.
Once bubble-bearing sidewall magma begins to
rise, the expansion and growth of the bubbles will
progressively decrease the bulk density of the rising
magma. The effect of decompressing a compressible
fluid is dramatic and well known from the extreme
vesiculation that characterizes many pumices. A sil-
icate magma with 5 wt% H2O and occupying a vol-
ume of ~1 m3 when unsaturated can expand to ~670
m3 as a mixture of gas and melt at surface pressure
(Sparks et al., 1997). In an analysis similar to this
paper, Shinohara et al. (1995) proposed that bub-
bling can cause sidewall magma in a tall stock to
rise. They calculated the bulk density of saturated
magma upwelling from depths of 15 km to 3 km will
decrease from 2.65 gm/cm3 to 1.75 gm/cm3.
The vertical dimensions involved in upwelling
depend primarily upon the depth to which the satu-
ration front extends (Fig. 9). Convective upwelling
will entrain deeper-seated, sidewall magma with
lesser bubble contents that is too dense to rise on its
own. As it is drawn upwards, fluid exsolution will
occur and this magma will gain buoyancy. Still
deeper, the magma is H2O-enriched from crystalli-
zation, but unsaturated. When this magma is
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 301

FIG. 8. Early stages of bubbling in a stock-batholith magma chamber. H2O saturation at pressures less than 1 kbar
(<3-4 km) makes fluids that have a relatively low copper content.

entrained in the upwelling, it will also saturate as it
decompresses. The cooling of the system and the
downward propagation of the saturation front will
cause magma that is initially undepleted in copper
and H2O to become involved in the upwelling move-
ments.
When the saturation front extends to depths of
about 6 km or more, the exsolved fluids will be rich
in copper and other metals. An important dynamic
occurs as magma upwells from progressively greater
depths. The added buoyancy from bubble expansion
becomes progressively greater and a vigorous con-
vective overturning can develop that involves and
strips metal and H2O from tens, and in some cases
many hundreds, of cubic kilometers of magma.
Solidification F r o n t s and
Fluid-Charged Cupolas
That a pocket of fluid can accumulate in a
magma chamber is most evident from study of the
1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo. This eruption dis-
charged 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide, a quantity
that was greatly in excess of the amount that could
have been dissolved in the e r u p t e d volume of
magma (Westrich and Gerlach, 1992). Gerlach et al.
(1996) calculated that the volume of vapor that
accumulated at a depth of 6 km prior to eruption was
~0.25 km 3 . This is equivalent to a bubble approxi-
mately 500 m across. Notably, the geochemical
character of the magma and fluids expelled in this
eruption were so similar to those required to form
ore systems that Pasteris (1996) referred to this
eruption as a "negative porphyry copper deposit."
Candela (1991) addressed the nature of the bub-
bling process in solidifying magma chambers. He
concluded that where H2O content was high and
confining pressures were low, bubble-laden, crystal-
bearing melt from the cooling boundary layer along
the steep sidewall of a chamber could gain enough
buoyancy to form "plumes" that episodically raft to
the apical tops of magma chambers and charge a
cupola with metal-rich fluid. He concluded that
where H2O contents and confining pressures are
moderate, fluid saturation occurs in the highly crys-
tallized, non-mobile mush of crystals along the side-
302 MARK CLOGS

FIG. 9. Late, stages of bubbling in a stock-batholith magma chamber. The H2O saturation front has propagated down
to the top of the batholithic portion of the chamber. H2O saturation at pressures of 2 kbar or more (>6 km) makes fluids
that are rich in copper and other metals. The entire stock/batholith system is cooling, but the upward advection of heat
can maintain the cupola region at roughly constant temperature and position for much of the life of convective upwelling
along the sidewalls. The outward infiltration through the roof of the cupola causes the intense concentric zonation of
alteration that characterizes porphyry copper deposits.

wall of the chamber. In this case, he envisioned a
condition of "critical percolation" that involves a
tortuous rise of magmatic fluid via migration through
interconnected clusters of bubbles within the mush
zone. The percolation front sweeps inward and
downward with time.
Shinohara et al. (1995) concluded bubble-laden
magma upwelling along the sidewalls of a tall stock
can charge a cupola with magmatic fluid. They illus-
trated a fluid pocket on the order of 300 m across, a
dimension quite comparable with the regions of
high-grade ore mineralization in many deposits. Shi-
nohara and Kazahaya (1995) evaluated the effect of
bubble size and ascent rate. They calculated that in
crystal-free granitic melts at 800°C, H2O bubbles
with a radius of 1 mm can ascend at a speed of about
1 m/year and those with a radius of 1 cm can ascend
at a speed of about 1 m/day. They also recognized
that bubble ascent must be greatly slowed as the
proportion of suspended crystals increase and con-
cluded that fluid migration by bubble movement in
the mush zone is probably negligible because capil-
lary forces trap bubbles between crystals. They
argued that surface tension effects will dominate
and trapped bubbles will enlarge by coalescence
rather than forming an interconnected tubular net-
work for fluid percolation as envisioned by Candela
(1991). Once the bubbles are large enough, buoy-
ancy can cause their episodic breakout from the
mush zone. Such action should disrupt the mush
and cause earlier grown crystals to become dis-
persed back into the suspension zone.
Giggenbach (1987) was one of the first to con-
clude that fluid bubbles can separate from magma
and accumulate at the highest part of the roof of a
shallow magma chamber, forming "subterranean
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
lava lakes." Giggenbach (1992) argued that mag-
matic degassing occurs in two end-member modes
with little evidence for transitional behavior. Hot-
mode degassing is the discharge of acidic, magmatic
volatiles at temperatures in excess of 800°C that are
rich in SO 2 , HCl, and metal cations. Interaction with
wall rock and groundwater is very limited. This
occurs when magmatic fluid vents directly from an
accumulation beneath a cupola roof of a cavern
underlain by vigorously boiling magma. Cold-mode
degassing is the escape of "geothermal waters" at
temperatures less than 400°C that are neutralized
and reduced because of extensive reaction with
cooler rock and mixing with groundwater. This
occurs when a near-surface magma body is largely to
entirely solidified.
As the bubbles grow in the upwelling sidewall
magma, they can eventually attain sizes sufficient
for their buoyant rise within the upwelling sidewall
magma. In the upper part of the chamber, the
magma turns to move horizontally before sinking. In
this region, bubbles that are large enough to rise
rapidly can separate from the convecting magma
and charge the cupola with fluid. Partially degassed
magma sinks to begin the cycle again (Fig. 10).
Fluid-charged cupolas must be transient fea-
tures. High-grade cores of porphyry copper deposits
commonly have dimensions of a few hundreds of
meters across, and ~300 m is taken as the best esti-
mate of the upper limit for the width of a stable fluid
pocket beneath an ore-forming cupola. When a suf-
ficiently large amount of magmatic fluid accumu-
lates beneath a cupola, a buoyant rise of fluid can
begin which first distorts the hot, ductile carapace
and then hydraulically fractures the colder wall
rock. It seems likely that this phenomenon is a com-
mon trigger for volcanic eruption or breccia pipe for-
mation. Porphyry copper ore deposits can only form
where the rate of fluid generation and the rate of
draining of the fluid pocket beneath a cupola is suf-
ficiently steady that a buoyant rise is not initiated
while a large volume of magma is cycled through the
system and stripped of its copper.
C o l d Country R o c k F a v o r s
T h i n Solidification F r o n t s a n d
Convective Upwelling
The temperature difference between fully solidi-
fied plutonic rock (solidus temperature) and mobile
magma (liquidus temperature) is typically ~300°C.
The width of the solidification front along the sides
303
of a steep-walled stock of magma will depend prima-
rily upon the magnitude of the lateral thermal gradi-
ents. Intrusion into cold country rock results in large
lateral thermal gradients and a narrower solidifica-
tion front. Where stock-batholith magmatic systems
are long-lived because they are resupplied and act
as feeders for volcanic activity, the wall rock will
warm, the lateral temperature gradients are less, and
the solidification fronts are thicker. This situation
must be common in active arc systems, and H2O sat-
uration in the suspension zone may be limited to
shallow, subvolcanic chambers. Hanson and Barton
(1989) modeled the thermal structure around long-
lived stock/batholith systems and showed how the
wall rock warms and becomes a terrane of high-tem-
perature/low-pressure metamorphism. This is not
the geologic setting favoring the generation of a nar-
row solidification front.
The t h i c k n e s s of a solidification front will
depend upon whether a magma chamber is inflating
and heating, in thermal steady state (magma/heat-in =
magma/heat-out), or cooling and solidifying because
the magma/heat supply has ended. Thermal gradi-
ents will be steepest and solidification fronts nar-
rowest along the sidewalls of a body of magma
intruded into cold wall rocks. Obviously the key fac-
tor in determining the rate of local fluid generation
is the local rate of heat loss to the wall rock.
Westra (1979) appears to be the first to empha-
size how the local temperature gradient will have a
profound effect on the width of the crystallizing zone
along the margins of a cooling chamber. Cold wall
rock leads to high temperature gradients and nar-
rower crystallization zones separating solidified plu-
ton from the remaining magma. Westra cited the
e x p e r i m e n t s of R o b e r t s o n a n d Wyllie ( 1 9 7 1 a ,
1971b), which were performed at 2 kbar confining
pressure for a variety of rock compositions and H2O
contents. The total crystallization interval from
100% melt to 100% crystals is about 300°C. The
experiments on a quartz diorite composition had
~ 2 5 % crystals after cooling 50°C below the liquidus
and ~ 5 0 % crystals after cooling 150°C. The grano-
diorite composition had ~ 2 5 % crystals after cooling
50°C, and ~ 5 0 % crystals after cooling 250°C.
Approximately 2 5 % crystals is the limit for the
suspension of crystals in mobile magma. The range
of 25 to 5 0 % is the crystallization interval for the
porous mush zone and this corresponds to a temper-
ature interval of 100 to 200°C. A 1000°C magma
emplaced as a 1 km wide stock into cold wall rock
(<200°C, depths <6 km) will initially have a large
304 MARK CLOGS

FIG. 10. Schematic pattern of bubbling along the sidewalks of the stock and convection along the sidewall of the stock.
Over time the solidification front and H2O saturation front propagate inward and downward. The formation of bubbles in
the outer part of the suspension zone makes this region of the chamber less dense and eventually buoyant enough to rise.
The bubbles expand as the rising magma decompresses and continue to grow as H2O solubility decreases. Bubbles in
magma that rise from great depth are copper-rich and become large enough near the surface to rise on their own and
separate from the magma. When this occurs, fluid can accumulate beneath the cupola at the top of the solidifying stock
and partially degassed magma then sinks. A vigorous eonvective overturn can develop that acts to sweep the magma of
H 2 O, copper, and other metals as the stook/batholith system cools and the flow boundary propagates downward.

lateral thermal gradient and rapid sidewall crystalli-
zation. After a 200 m thick rind of fully solidified
pluton and rigid magma forms along the margin of
the stock, the sidewall thermal gradient would be
r e d u c e d to ~ 2 0 0 ° C / 1 0 0 m and the width of the
porous mush zone would be approximately 100 m
thick. In a cooling system, the solidification front
migrates inward, the lateral thermal gradients
lessen, and the width of the mush zone progressively
i n c r e a s e s — u n l e s s s i d e w a l l m a g m a b e g i n s to
upwell.
The upwelling of bubble-rich magma advects
heat, which can stop the widening of the solidifica-
tion front in the upper part of the stock. Upwelling
may even abrade the inner part of the mush zone.
The breakout of coalesced bubbles in the mush zone
can also cause thinning of the solidification front.
Even though the entire stock/batholith system is
cooling, the upward advection of heat can maintain
the cupola region at roughly constant temperature
and position for much of the life of eonvective
upwelling along the sidewalls. Where substantial
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
upwelling does not occur, downward propagation of
the solidification front and widening of the mush
zone plugs the stock and a barren pluton results.
P o r p h y r i t i c T e x t u r e s i n Sidewall M a g m a
Certainly, the quenching of magma containing
phenocrysts by intrusion into cold country rock can
explain the origin of porphyritic textures, but why
are porphyritic intrusions seemingly an ubiquitous
phenomenon of copper ore-forming systems? As the
H2O content in sidewall magma increases, the vis-
cosity decreases and the sinking of crystals and the
rise of bubbles are enhanced. Experiments of Hess
and Dingwell (1996) and others show that melt vis-
cosity decreases exponentially many orders of mag-
nitude as H2O content increases up to about 2 wt%.
At higher H2O contents, the viscosity decreases
more modestly. A granitic magma with 2 wt% H2O
has a viscosity about 10 times greater than magma
with a H2O content of 4 wt%. This increase in vis-
cosity is approximately the same effect as cooling
the magma by ~100°C. The viscosity increase in
sidewall magma from cooling is effectively offset by
the H2O increase due to anhydrous mineral crystal-
lization.
A more important effect is probably the effect of
H2O on the crystallization process itself. Higher
H2O contents in magma substantially increase diffu-
sion and crystal growth rates (Watson, 1994). The
effect on nucleation is dramatic and somewhat sur-
prising (Kirkpatrick, 1981). Experiments on the
growth of alkali feldspars by Fenn (1977) show that
an increase in H2O content decreases the amount of
undercooling needed to attain peak nucleation den-
sities and that the peak nucleation density is much
less. The overall effect is to grow fewer, but larger,
crystals. This phenomenon must be operative in a
bubbling stock. Porphyritic dikes, sills, and plugs
are common because phenocryst-bearing sidewall
magma is the first magma that can be tapped by
structural movements. This is a simple explanation
for the porphyry-copper ore body association.
Oscillatory zoning is another characteristic of
feldspar phenocrysts in porphyritic rocks. The con-
vective upwelling along the sidewalls and the down-
going of degassed magma in the interior carries
phenocrysts on a journey that involves a H 2 O-satu-
rated adiabatic decompression, followed by a H 2 O-
u n d e r s a t u r a t e d c o m p r e s s i o n . Cooling d u r i n g
upwelling and heating during downwelling can be
significant, but are probably secondary effects. The
305
pressure changes can be several kilobars, and the
H 2 O-content changes from crystallization along the
sidewalls and degassing beneath the cupola can be
several wt%. Complex oscillatory zoning will form
during the growth of feldspar phenocrysts in a bub-
bling magma chamber (see Housh and Luhr, 1991).
Super-Giant P o r p h y r y C o p p e r D e p o s i t s
Cline and Bodnar (1991) came to the important
conclusion that the typical porphyry copper deposit
of the southwestern United States could be produced
by the exsolution of fluids from magmas with initial
copper contents of 60 ppm and volumes of 50 km 3 .
Such a volume of magma is on the order of that
expected for many intrusions that form stocks. The
processes described in this paper apply, without
modification, to magma chambers of stock size.
However, the generation of super-giant porphyry
copper deposits, which contain an order of magni-
tude more copper (e.g., El Teniente, Chuquicamata
in Chile, Bingham in Utah, and Grasberg in Indone-
sia) appears to require parent magma bodies of
many hundreds to a couple of thousand cubic kilo-
meters to supply the metal in the district. This
requires stocks connected to batholithic chambers.
Consideration of H2O solubility, copper parti-
tioning relationships, and t h e r m a l evolution of
stock/batholith systems leads to the following
model. A magma-bearing stock emanates to shallow
depths from a batholithic chamber that was inflated
at depths of 10 to 15 km (Fig. 8). The fluid satura-
tion front propagates from the top downward. The
first exsolved fluids separate at depths less than
about 3 km. They are relatively copper-poor because
copper is not strongly partitioned into the fluid.
Later, the fluid saturation front propagates down the
sidewalls to great depth (Fig. 9). Copper and other
metals are strongly partitioned into the magmatic
fluid at depths of 6 km or more. Because the bubbles
in the rising sidewall magma expand and grow as
they decompress, a vigorous convection develops
with the rise of saturated magma along the sidewalls
and the sinking of partially degassed magma down
the center (Fig. 10). Once the bubbling front extends
into the top of the batholithic chamber, convection
can cause a much larger volume of magma to be
swept of its copper. Giant and super-giant deposits
can form where the batholithic c h a m b e r h a s a
magma volume on the order of 1000 to 2000 km 3 .
The upward advection of heat can maintain a cupola
region at roughly constant position for much of the
306 MARK CLOGS
life of sidewall upwelling. This causes the intense
concentric zonation of alteration that characterizes
porphyry copper deposits.
Discussion
There is no evidence that the chemical attributes
of magma systems that form porphyry copper depos-
its are p a r t i c u l a r l y u n u s u a l . Via the p r o c e s s e s
described in this paper, porphyry copper ore bodies
can form from a wide range of intermediate magma
compositions, provided the chlorine and sulfur con-
tents are sufficient. Chlorine is essential for com-
plexing copper and other metals. Sulfur is essential
for precipitating sulfide minerals. Another factor is
that the magmas must be sufficiently oxidizing that
magmatic sulfur is partitioned into the fluid as SO 2
which is later reduced upon cooling to precipitate
copper sulfides.
Mafic magmas have too little H2O for the satura-
tion front to extend into the suspension zone. Rhy-
o l i t i c m a g m a s a r e too v i s c o u s for c o n v e c t i v e
movements to sweep the chamber of H2O and metal.
H2O saturation, sidewall upwelling, and cupola
charging should be commonplace for intermediate
magmas, especially for subvolcanic magma cham-
bers. In situations where the cupolas are very shal-
low and the wall rocks are strong enough to hold
open chimneys, hot-mode degassing can occur and
the bleeding of magmatic gases can be fairly steady.
Where cupolas are more deeply seated, the accumu-
lation of magmatic fluid can create a body large
enough (300+ m?) that buoyancy causes it to rise
diapirically into the ductile c a r a p a c e and then
hydraulically fracture its way toward the surface.
The rise of a large body of expanding fluid should
generally create a pathway that triggers eruption and
the escape of H 2 O-enriched magma from the stock.
The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines in
1991 is considered to be an example of a situation in
which a large accumulation of SO 2 and H2O escaped
along with underlying volatile-enriched magma. The
e r u p t i o n of Mt. P e l e e in t h e L e s s e r A n t i l l e s
destroyed the city of St. Pierre in 1902. This erup-
tion, involving an incredible gas-rich, melt-poor
nuée ardent, is considered an example of the burst-
ing of a fluid-charged cupola with only modest
magma ejection. Magmatic gas pockets can also
b u r s t , forming m i n e r a l i z e d b r e c c i a p i p e s (e.g.,
Skewes and Stern, 1994).
Explosive eruption is the normal behavior of
magmatic systems that have fluid accumulation
beneath cupolas. It appears that an additional factor
is required to modulate the accumulation of mag-
matic fluid. As is evident from the pervasive alter-
ation that characterizes porphyry copper deposits,
the overall pattern of fluid escape is localized vein-
ing and rather passive infiltration. It is concluded
that the masses of altered and veined rock that can
contain large amounts of copper and other metals
formed where structural factors periodically acted
as a safety valve that limited the accumulation of
magmatic fluids and thus prevented detonation of
bubbling magma chambers. This requirement is
probably rarely attained in steady-state subduction
settings. In addition, giant batholithic c h a m b e r s
appear to be required to supply the copper found in
super-giant deposits, but such c h a m b e r s do not
appear to be present beneath active volcanic arcs.
The relationship of subduction to porphyry copper
deposit formation should be re-evaluated—a com-
ment that echos an inference of Lowell (1974) and
Gustafson (1979). Indeed, super-giant deposits such
as Grasberg in Indonesia and Bingham in Utah,
while clearly tectonomagmatic manifestations of
plate convergence, are not located in sites of long-
term, steady-state subduction and arc volcanism.
Acknowledgments
Konrad Krauskopf has inspired legions of geo-
scientists since his first publication. His classic
geochemistry textbook revolutionized our science by
showing how the theoretical underpinnings of phys-
ical chemistry can be applied to unraveling the evo-
lution of rocks in general, and ore-forming magmatic
systems in particular. I thank J. R. Moffett and all of
the geologists and staff of Freeport-McMoRan, Inc.
and P. T. Freeport Indonesia, whose support and
work enabled students, faculty, and research scien-
tists at the University of Texas at Austin to study the
geology of the Ertsberg Mining District in Irian Jaya
(Papua), Indonesia. Steve Van Nort stated the Gras-
berg Cu-Au ore body must have formed from unusu-
ally intense "cupola action." This paper is one of the
results of attempting to envision the chemical and
physical processes of cupola action. Over the years,
the work of, and discussions with, Dave Potter, Steve
Van Nort, George MacDonald, Clark Arnold, Eddy
Suwardy, Art Ona, Jay Pennington, Sugeng Widodo,
Chuck Brannon, Wahyu Sunyoto, Al Edwards, Ian
Tasiran, Dave Mayes, Peter Doyle, Nurhamid, Kris
Hefton, Keith Parris, Gary O'Connor, Paul Warren,
and Widodo Martojojo contributed greatly to my
 PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
understanding of porphyry copper systems. Simi-
larly, I thank my UT colleagues, especially Ben-
yamin S a p i i e , Sarah P e n n i s t o n - D o r l a n d , Fred
McDowell, Todd Housh, Eric James, Roy Luck, Cori
Lambert, Dan Barker, and Bob Boyer for reviews
and comments over the years. Ertsberg Project Con-
tribution 19.
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